UPS (uninterruptible power supply) circuit diagram, in this article you will learn what

is UPS? What is the difference between online and offline UPS ? I have also added
practical circuit for UPS in this article. uninterruptible power supply have very core
importance for control of sensitive devices such as computers, induction machines,
medical equipment’s and many other things. uninterruptible power supply also used in
many countries where energy shortage is a main issue. In country like Pakistan, many
people use UPS in load shedding timings. In such cases, UPS is used to store energy
in batteries when main Power supply is available. Same UPS is used to convert DC
energy stored in batteries in AC supply to provide power to AC operating equipment’s
of homes during load shedding timings. Mainly devices which have severe effect of
change in following parameters above and specified limit connect with uninterruptible
power supply.

 Over voltage
 under voltage
 voltage out
 voltage spikes
 frequency fluctuation of 1%
 distortion in voltage wave form.
What is uninterruptible power supply?
UPS uninterruptible power supply is a device used for protection against over voltage,
under voltage; provide continuous supply in case of supply outage, protection against
voltage spikes, frequency fluctuation and against distortion in voltage wave form. In
many cases you must have listen, your home devices burnt out due to over voltage and
under voltage. UPS provide protection to these devices. There are many places where
outage in main power may damage data permanently. For example in banks or
companies where computer should remain on all the time during working hours and
outage in main power supply may damage their computers data and which in return
loss for a company.In such places UPS provide continuous power to computers. In
industries induction machines are used mostly. Induction machines are frequency
sensitive loads. Little bit change in frequency produce change in induction motors
output. To avoid change in frequency to reach to the input of induction machine UPS
is used. Similarly There are many devices which need pure sine wave to operate
properly. But in power system use of power converters inject harmonics and voltage
wave form distortion in main power supply. In such cases UPS is used to provide pure
sine wave to load. But many uninterruptible power supply available in market don’t
have a pure sine wave output which cause bad affect on performance of loads. Most
important factor is reduction in life time of a device/load. Two types of UPS are
mainly used
 Online uninterruptible power supply
 Offline uninterruptible power supply
. Difference and their block diagrams are given below :

Difference between online and offline uninterruptible

power supply?
Bock diagrams shown below shows the difference between online and offline
uninterruptible power supply.

Block diagram of online uninterruptible power supply :

Online UPS block diagram

Offline uninterruptible power supply block diagram :
 Offline UPS block diagram
Above block diagrams are self explanatory. Followings are the basics difference
between them.

 Online UPS provide protection against over voltage, under voltage , main supply
voltage wave form distortion and frequency fluctuation.
 Offline UPS only provide protection against supply outage.

System components:
 As shown in the above figure, the major elements of online UPS are (i)
Rectifier and Battery charger (ii) Inverter (iii) Static transfer switch (iv) Logic
and control system (v) Battery bank (vi) Diagnostics and communication
blocks.
 In medium & large capacity online UPS systems good amount of power
semiconductors like Power MOSFETs, GTOs, MCT, Darlington pairs are
used.
 As they are handling high voltage and current, they are mounted on specially
designed heat sinks. They play as a control elements in the rectifier blocks
and the inverter.
Operation:
 During normal or even abnormal line conditions, the inverter supplies energy
from the mains through the rectifier, which charges the batteries continuously.
In addition to that it can also provide power factor correction.
 When the line fails, the inverter still supplies energy to the loads from the
batteries.
 As a consequence, no transfer time exists during the transition from normal to
stored energy modes.
 In general, Online UPS system is the most reliable UPS configuration due to
its simplicity (only three elements), and the continuous charge of the batteries,
which means that they are always ready for the next power outage.
 This kind of UPS provides total independence between input and output
voltage amplitude and frequency. So high output voltage quality can be
obtained.
 When an overload occurs, the bypass switch connects the load directly to the
utility mains, in order to guarantee the continuous supply of the load, thereby
avoiding the damage to the UPS module (bypass operation).
 In this situation, the output voltage must be synchronized with the utility
phase, otherwise the bypass operation will not be allowed.
 Typical efficiency of the online ups systems are up to 94%, which is limited
due to the double conversion effect.
 Online UPS systems are typically used in environments with sensitive
equipment or environments.
 Almost all commercial UPS units of 5 kVA and above are Online UPS
Systems.
Features of on-line UPS
 A well designed online UPS protects against blackouts, surges, sags, spikes,
transients, noise and brownouts.
 Previously the price of on-line ups systems is more than other ups systems.
Nowadays the price reduces drastically.
 Since they continuously regenerate clean AC power, they provide the highest
level of protection available, regardless fo utility line condition.
 These kind of UPS have much more complex designs than off-line or hybrid
types, while the price, weight and volume are higher.
 The inverter of an online ups system supplies continuous power to the critical
load. Under conditions of overload or loads with high in rush currents which is
beyond the capacity of the inverter, the static bypass switch provides mains
power to the load.
Specifications of on-line UPS
Sr. Parameter Expected value
No.

1 Power Rating 1kVA, 2kVA, 5kVA etc

2 Output Voltage 230V ±0.5%

3 Output Frequency 50Hz ±2Hz

4 Input voltage 190 to 260 Volts

5 Nature of output Sinusoidal

voltage waveform

>> 0.8 lagging | | 7 | Back up time | 30 min to 4 hours | | 8 | Total

6 Power Factor distortion | \lt 5% | | 9 | Efficiency of the inverter | >> 85%

10 Protection of circuits (a) Over voltage & under voltage output, Over current protection
Advantages of On-line UPS System:
 No switching involved
 100 percent line conditioning and regulation
 Good sustained brownout protection
 Typically sinusoidal output
 Power factor correction and higher reliability
Critical Power Supplies has pleasure in bringing you this guide on
how UPS Systems work.
An uninterruptible power supply, also uninterruptible power
source, UPS or battery / flywheel backup, is an electrical apparatus that provides
emergency power to a load when the input power source, typically the utility mains,
fails.
A UPS differs from an auxiliary or emergency power system or standby generator in
that it will provide instantaneous or near-instantaneous protection from input power
interruptions by means of one or more attached batteries and associated electronic
circuitry for low power users, and or by means of diesel generators and flywheels for
high power users. The on-battery runtime of most uninterruptible power sources is
relatively short—5–15 minutes being typical for smaller units—but sufficient to allow
time to bring an auxiliary power source on line, or to properly shut down the
protected equipment.
While not limited to protecting any particular type of equipment, a UPS is typically
used to protect computers, data centers, telecommunication equipment or other
electrical equipment where an unexpected power disruption could cause injuries,
fatalities, serious business disruption and/or data loss. UPS units range in size from
units designed to protect a single computer without a video monitor (around 200 VA
rating) to large units powering entire data centers (>1MVA), buildings (>300kVA), or
manufacturing processes.
Different types of UPS design.
the general categories of modern UPS systems are on-line, line-interactive or
standby.
A standby (off-line) UPS system the load is powered directly by the input power and
the backup power circuitry is only invoked when the utility power fails.
Most UPS below 1 kVA are of the line-interactive or standby variety which are usually
less expensive.
A line-interactive UPS maintains the inverter in line and redirects the battery’s DC
current path from the normal charging mode to supplying current when power is lost.
A on-line UPS uses a “double conversion” method of accepting AC input, rectifying to
DC for passing through the rechargeable battery (or battery strings), then inverting
back to 120V/240V AC for powering the protected equipment.
For large power units, dynamic uninterruptible power supplies are sometimes used.
A synchronous motor/alternator is connected on the mains via a choke. Energy is
stored in a flywheel. When the mains power fails, an Eddy-current regulation
maintains the power on the load. DUPS are sometimes combined or integrated with a
diesel-generator[clarification needed], forming a diesel rotary uninterruptible power
supply, or DRUPS.
A fuel cell UPS has been developed in recent years using hydrogen and a fuel cell as
a power source, potentially providing long run times in a small space.
Off-line UPS design
The Offline / Standby UPS system (SPS) offers only the most basic features,
providing surge protection and battery backup. With this type of UPS, a user’s
equipment is normally connected directly to incoming utility power with the same
voltage transient clamping devices used in a common surge protected plug strip
connected across the power line. When the incoming utility voltage falls below a
predetermined level the SPS turns on its internal DC-AC inverter circuitry, which is
powered from an internal storage battery. The SPS then mechanically switches the
connected equipment on to its DC-AC inverter output. The switchover time can be as
long as 25 milliseconds depending on the amount of time it takes the Standby UPS to
detect the lost utility voltage. Generally speaking, dependent on the size
of UPS connected load and the sensitivity of the connected equipment to voltage
variation, the UPS will be designed and/or offered (specification wise) to cover certain
ranges of equipment, i.e. Personal Computer, without any obvious dip or brownout to
that device.
Line-interactive UPS design
This type of UPS is able to tolerate continuous undervoltage brownouts and
overvoltage surges without consuming the limited reserve battery power. It instead
compensates by auto-selecting different power taps on the autotransformer.
Changing the autotransformer tap can cause a very brief output power
disruption,[citation needed] so the UPS may chirp for a moment, as it briefly switches
to battery before changing the selected power tap.[dubious – discuss]
This has become popular even in the cheapest UPS because it takes advantage of
components already included. The main 50/60 Hz transformer used to convert
between line voltage and battery voltage needs to provide two slightly different turns
ratios: one to convert the battery output voltage (typically a multiple of 12 V) to line
voltage, and a second one to convert the line voltage to a slightly higher battery
charging voltage (such as a multiple of 14 V). Further, it is easier to do the switching
on the line-voltage side of the transformer because of the lower currents on that side.

To gain the buck/boost feature, all that is required is two separate switches so that
the AC input can be connected to one of the two primary taps, while the load is
connected to the other, thus using the main transformer’s primary windings as an
autotransformer. Note that the battery can still be charged while “bucking” an
overvoltage, but while “boosting” an undervoltage, the transformer output is too low
to charge the batteries.
Autotransformers can be engineered to cover a wide range of varying input voltages,
but this requires more taps and increases complexity, and expense of the UPS. It is
common for the autotransformer to only cover a range from about 90 V to 140 V for
120 V power, and then switch to battery if the voltage goes much higher or lower
than that range.
In low-voltage conditions the UPS will use more current than normal so it may need a
higher current circuit than a normal device. For example to power a 1000 watt device
at 120 volts, the UPS will draw 8.32 amps. If a brownout occurs and the voltage
drops to 100 volts, the UPS will draw 10 amps to compensate. This also works in
reverse, so that in an overvoltage condition, the UPS will need fewer amps of current.
On-Line UPS Design
The online UPS is ideal for environments where electrical isolation is necessary or for
equipment that is very sensitive to power fluctuations. Although once previously
reserved for very large installations of 10 kW or more, advances in technology have
permitted it to now be available as a common consumer device, supplying 500 watts
or less. The online UPS is generally more expensive but may be necessary when the
power environment is “noisy” such as in industrial settings, for larger equipment
loads like data centers, or when operation from an extended-run backup generator is
necessary.
The basic technology of the online UPS is the same as in a standby or Line-
Interactive UPS. However it typically costs much more, due to it having a much
 greater current AC-to-DC battery-charger/rectifier, and with the rectifier and inverter
designed to run continuously with improved cooling systems. It is called a Double-
Conversion UPS due to the rectifier directly driving the inverter, even when powered
from normal AC current.
In an online UPS the batteries are always connected to the inverter, so that no power
transfer switches are necessary. When power loss occurs, the rectifier simply drops
out of the circuit and the batteries keep the power steady and unchanged. When
power is restored, the rectifier resumes carrying most of the load and begins
charging the batteries, though the charging current may be limited to prevent the
high-power rectifier from overheating the batteries and boiling off the electrolyte.
The main advantage to the on-line UPS is its ability to provide an electrical firewall
between the incoming utility power and sensitive electronic equipment. While the
standby and Line-Interactive UPS merely filter the input utility power, the Double-
Conversion UPS provides a layer of insulation from power quality problems. It allows
control of output voltage and frequency regardless of input voltage and frequency.
A second major advantage is the inbuilt bypass circuit in on-line UPS which ensures
should any problems occur with the UPS or batteries as long as their is mains power
the load will be powered. The bypass is either automatic or a combination of manual
and automatic depending on the model / manufacturer.

An Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) is a device connected between the power source and a
computer to ensure that electrical flow is not interrupted. UPS devices use batteries to keep the
computer running for a period of time after a power failure. It is not to be confused with standby
generators which do not provide protection from a momentary power interruption, or which may
result in a momentary power interruption when it is switched into service, whether manually or
automatically. UPS devices usually provide protection against power surges, brownouts and line
noise as well. The UPS consists of three main components:
1. Rectifier: Stores line power in the battery after converting the AC power into DC power. Power
disruptions only affect the battery charging process because the battery is being charged by the rectifier.
2. Battery: Stores the power for use when the power source is interrupted, and determines the length of time
the UPS will support your equipment.
3. Inverter: Converts the battery DC power into AC power for the equipment. The inverter supplies
continuous power to the computer just as the battery provides uninterrupted power to the inverter.
The performance of an UPS is specified in terms of VA. Generally for PC’s with CRT monitors a
500vA provides battery backup for around 15 minutes. Uninterrupted Power Supply systems may
be classified into three categories – Offline, Line Interactive and Online:
1. Offline UPS: With an offline UPS, the AC line is the primary power source. If a drop in current or voltage
is detected by the UPS, it switches over to the backup battery automatically. When AC power is restored,
the UPS switches back. The switchover (transfer) time should be no more than about four milliseconds —
which is the tolerance limit of a typical computer power unit. If the power failure is longer, most electronic
equipment will shut down. These are the least expensive variety of uninterruptible power supplies and are
intended only for the home user.
2. Line Interactive UPS: In this type of UPS, the separate battery charger, inverter and source selection
switch of an offline UPS have been replaced by a combination inverter/converter. This inverter/converter
both charges the battery and converts its DC current to AC for the output to protected devices. AC line
power is still the primary power source, and the battery is secondary. When the line power is operating, the
inverter/converter charges the battery; when the power fails the transfer switch is opened and it operates in
reverse. With the inverter always on and connected to the output, this design provides additional filtering
and yields reduced switching transients when compared with the Offline UPS topology. These are
generally costlier compared to Offline UPS’ and hence are used mostly as backups for corporate
workstations. The Delta conversion UPS is a modification of the Line interactive UPS. In this
configuration the primary power source is blended with power from the inverter. As the primary power
varies away from its normal value the inverter comes to life to make up the difference.
3. Online UPS: This is also called True or Double conversion online uninterruptible power supplies convert
AC power to DC and then convert the DC back to AC to power the connected equipment. The batteries are
directly connected to the DC level. This effectively filters out line noise and all other anomalies from the
AC power. An additional benefit of this technology is that the system remains in the same operating mode.
Relative to other UPS topologies there are efficiency losses due to the double conversion of all of the
power the load requires. Being more complex, it generally costs more than an offline UPS. It is also less
efficient and tends to have higher running costs and higher operating temperature.

From basic principles in terms of application, UPS is a device that contains stored energy in order

to inverter as the main component, regulated stable frequency output power protection equipment.

Mainly by the rectifier, batteries, power inverters and static switch of several components.

1) rectifier: rectifier is a rectifier device, simply means that the exchange of (AC) into direct current (DC)

devices. It has two main functions: First, the alternating current (AC) into direct current (DC), through

the supply of filtered load, or the supply inverter; second, to provide battery charging voltage.

Therefore, it is also play a role in charger.

2) Battery: UPS battery is used as a storage energy device, which consists of several cells in series, with

a capacity to maintain its size determines the discharge (supply) time. Its main function is: When the

electricity is normal, the energy converted into chemical energy stored in the battery internal; when the

electricity fails, the chemical energy into electrical energy provided to the inverter or the load.

3) Inverter: popular speaking, the inverter is a DC (DC) into alternating current (AC) device. It consists

of inverter bridge control logic and filter circuit.

4) Static Switch: static switch also known as static switch, which is a non-contact switch, is to use two

SCR (SCR) reverse parallel composition of a communication switch, its closed and disconnected from the

logic controller control. Conversion and the model is divided into two kinds of type and. Conversion-type

switch is mainly used for two-way power supply system, its role is to achieve all the way to another road

from the automatic switching; and model switch is mainly used for parallel inverters with electricity or

more inverter.

UPS's matching

Generally based on facilities in the electricity environment, and want to achieve power conservation

purposes, select the appropriate UPS. For example: built-in switching power supply for low-power

devices typically can choose Off-line UPS; in the electrical environment to poor areas should use on-line

interactive type or on-line UPS; while the right does not allow the time or times required intermittent

sine wave AC equipment that can only use on-line UPS. But also based on your device to select the

general ordinary PC, or the IPC's power in the 200W or so; Apple machine is around 300W; server

between 300W and 600W, other equipment, the power values refer to the device's instructions.

Secondly, we should understand the UPS's rated power of representation: apparent power (in VA); the

actual output power (in W). Due to the presence of reactive power it had contributed to this difference,

the conversion relationship between the two: Apparent Power * Power Factor = actual output power.

Off-line, on-line interactive power factor between 0.5 and 0.7, on-line power factor is generally 0.8. With

UPS for equipment should pay attention to: The UPS output power to match the actual basis, and some

dealers intentionally or unintentionally, it will cause confusion (VA) and (W) the difference, which points

to draw the user's attention.

Use of UPS

UPS should be noted that the use of items:

1) UPS's use of the environment should pay attention to well-ventilated, which will help heat and keep
the environment clean.

2) Do not bring inductive load, such as the Counter, fluorescent lights, air-conditioning so as to avoid

damage.

3) UPS's output load control is about 60% of the best, most reliable.

4) UPS with load is too light (for example, 1000VA, UPS with 100VA load) may cause the battery depth

of discharge, will reduce the battery life, should be avoided.

5) Appropriate discharge, contribute to the activation of cells, such as the long-term non-stop electricity,

every three months to be artificially cut off electricity to use UPS with a load-discharge time, so you can

extend battery life.

6) For most small UPS, to work to open UPS, with load at boot time to avoid startup, work should be

shut down UPS; for network computer room UPS, because most of the network is 24 hours, so UPS must

also be running around the clock.

7) UPS charge promptly after discharge to prevent battery damage due to excessive self-discharge.

UPS maintenance and repair

The use of an uninterruptible power supply system in the process, people tend to one-sided view that is

maintenance-free battery and not take this seriously. However, there are data show that due to battery

failure caused by the host UPS failure or an abnormal proportion of the work of about 1 / 3. Thus, to

enhance the proper use of the UPS batteries and maintenance, to extend the battery life, lower failure

rate UPS systems, has become increasingly important. In addition to matching the regular brand

batteries other than the following aspects should be the proper use and maintenance of batteries:

1) Maintain the appropriate environmental temperature: an important factor affecting battery life is the

ambient temperature, the general requirements of the battery manufacturers the best ambient

temperature is between 20 ~ 25 ℃. Although the temperature of the battery discharge capacity has

increased, but the cost is the battery life significantly shortened. According to test the determination of
the ambient temperature whenever they exceed 25 ℃, is increased by 10 ℃, the battery life should be

cut by half. UPS is currently used batteries are generally maintenance-free sealed lead-acid battery,

universal design life is 5 years, which is required in battery manufacturers environment can be achieved.

Not reach specified environmental requirements, the length of their life there is a huge difference. In

addition, the ambient temperature increase will lead to increased chemical activity within the battery,

resulting in a lot of heat, in turn prompted ambient temperature, this vicious cycle will accelerate to

shorten battery life.

2) periodic charge-discharge: UPS power supply in the float voltage and discharge voltage, in the factory

have to debug into the rating, while the size of the discharge current increases as the load increases, the

use of reasonable adjustments should be load, , such as controlling the use of computer and other

electronic equipment, the number of units. Under normal circumstances, the load should not exceed

60% of rated load UPS. In this context, the battery discharge current will not over-discharge.

UPS due to long-term and electricity connected, in the supply of high quality, rare use of mains power

failure environment, the battery will be a long period of float charge state, the course of time will cause

the battery chemical energy and electrical energy conversion activity decreased with each other to
accelerate the shorten the life of aging. Therefore, generally every 2-3 months should be fully
discharged once, discharge time can be battery capacity and load size of the set. After a full load
discharge, according to the provisions of recharge for more than 8 hours.

The full form of the UPS is an uninterruptible power source or uninterruptible power
supply. It is an electrical device, gives emergency power to various loads when the
input power typically fails. A UPS fluctuates from an emergency power system in that
it will deliver near-instantaneous safety from i/p power interruptions by
providing energy stored in batteries, super capacitors. The run time of battery for most
UPS is relatively short but enough to start a standby power source. The main
purpose of a UPS is to provide a protection to the equipments like computers,
electrical equipment, computer and data centers when there is a power disruption.
This device keeps a computer running for a few minutes after a power disruption and
protects the data in the computer. In present days, there are various types of UPS
systems coming with software component that enables you to automobile backup in
case there is no power disruption when you are away from the computer.
Uninterruptible Power Supply Circuit Diagram
The circuit diagram of the UPS is shown below, which shows how the batteries in the
equipments controls during a power disruption. The input voltage of the
primary winding of the transformer (TR1) is 240V. The secondary winding of the
transformer (TR2) can be raised up to 15V if the value is at least 12V running 2
amps.The fuse is used to give the protection to the owl circuit from the short circuits.
The electricity presence will cause the led1 to glow. The LED glowswill set off upon
power disruption and the battery of the UPS will take over. This circuit is designed to
provide a more flexible pattern where it can be modified by using different batteries
and regulators to offer regulated & unregulated voltages. Using two 12V batteries in
series and a positive input of 7815 regulators, we can control a 15Volts supply.

Uninterrupted
Power Supply Circuit Diagram
Types of UPS
Electrical power supply intrusions can come in a different forms like surges, voltage
dips, voltage spikes and harmonics. These troubles can cause serious damage to
electrical gears, mostly during the production stages or critical processing of an
action. To decrease the risk of power supply distortion, UPS systems are frequently
integrated in electrical networks. Electronic power supply equipment makers can
offer consistent, high-quality power flow for various electrical load gear and these
devices are generally found in industrial processing applications, medical services,
emergency gear, telecommunications, & computerized data systems. A UPS system
can be a helpful device for ensuring accurate power supply performance.
Types of UPS
Uninterruptible Power Supply devices are classified into three types such as
The Standby UPS
The standby Uninterruptible Power Supply is also called as off line UPS, that is
generally used for PCs. The block diagram of this UPS is shown below. This UPS
includes a battery, an AC or DC & DC or AC inverter, a static switch and a LPF
which is used to decrease the switching frequency from the o/p voltage & a surge
suppressor.The standby UPS system works with the switch arrangement to select
the AC i/p as a primary power source, and interchanging to the battery & inverter as
backup sources in case of primary power gets disrupted. The inverter normally relies
on standby, only triggering when the power fails and the transfer switch routinely
switches the load to the backup units. This kind of UPS system offers a small size,
high degree of efficiency, & pretty low costs, making of this UPS is easy.

Standby UPS
The Line Interactive UPS
The block diagram of Line Interactive UPS is shown below, it is the most common
UPS used for small business. The designing of line interactive UPS is alike to a
standby UPS, in addition the design Line Interactive generally includes an
automatic voltage regulator(AVR) or a tap-changing transformer. This enhances the
regulation of voltage by regulating transformer taps as the i/p voltage differs. Voltage
regulation is a significant feature when the conditions of a low voltage exist,
otherwise the UPS would transfer to battery & then finally down the load. The usage
of more common battery can cause early battery failure. The features of this UPS
are small size, low cost, high efficiency can make the UPS in the range of 0.5-5kVA
power
 Line Interactive UPS
Online UPS
The online UPS is also called as double conversion online uninterruptible power
supply. This is the most commonly used UPS and the block diagram of this UPS is
shown below. The designing of this UPS is similar to the Standby UPS, excluding
that the primary power source is the inverter instead of the AC main. In this UPS
design, damage of the i/p AC does not cause triggering of the transfer switch,
because the i/p AC is charging the backup battery source which delivers power to
the o/p inverter. So, during failure of an i/p AC power, this UPS operation result in no
transfer time.

Online UPS
In this design, both the inverter and the battery charger change the total load power
flow, resulting in reduced efficiency with its associated increased heat generation.
This UPS affords nearly perfect electrical o/p performance. But the constant wear on
the power components decreases reliability over further designs and the energy spent
by the electrical power inefficiency is an important part of the life-cycle cost of the
UPS. Also, the i/p power drawn by the large battery charger has been frequently
non-linear and can interfere with the building power wiring with standby generators.
This is all about what is UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply), circuit diagram of UPS
with explanation, types of UPS. We hope that you have go a better understanding of
the concept of UPS. Furthermore, any queries regarding this topic or electronics
projects, please give your feedback by commenting in the comment section below.

UPS-UNINTERRUPTABLE POWER SUPPLIES Most of us take the mains ac supply for granted and
use it almost casually without giving the slightest thought to its inherent shortcomings and the
danger posed to sophisticated and sensitive electronic instruments/equipments. For ordinary
household appliances such as incandencent lamps, tubes, fans, TV and fridge, the mains ac supply
does not make much difference, but when used for computers, medical equipments and
telecommunica¬tion systems, a clean, stable interruption free power supply is of the utmost
importance. Of the myriad of devices, processes and systems which rely on ac power, computers are
probably the most sensitive to power disturbances and failures. Interruptions in power supply may
cause the contents of a memory to be lost or corrupted, the entire system to malfunction or fail, or
even variety of components failures to occur, all of which not only result in inconvenience but also
loss of money. As more and more PCs, word processors and data terminals find their way into small
business, UPS systems that meet the power requirements and price range needs of even the small
business organizations and offices are being manufactured. Uninterruptible Power Supply Systems.
There are three distinct types of uninterrupted power supplies, namely, (£) on-line UPS (ii) off-line
UPS, and (Hi) electronic generators. In the on-line UPS, whether the mains power is on or off, the
battery operated inverter is on all the time and supplies the ac output voltage. When the mains
power supply goes off, the UPS will be on only until the battery gets discharged. When the main
power resumes, the battery will get charged again. In off-line UPS and electronic generators, ther
inverter is off when the mains power is present and the output voltage derived directly from the
mains is the same as the mains supply voltage. The inverter turns on only when the mains supply
goes off. The block diagrams of on-line UPS, off-line UPS and electronic generators are given in figs
The ever increasing importance of computers in industry and commerce will increase the need for
quality, high stability and interruption free power supplies. A clean ac power source is the
fundamental to the operation of most sensitive electronic equipment, and many new and
sophisticated circuits are designed to overcome the effects of disturbances normally found in the
mains ac supply. In order to protect a sensitive system from power losses and blackouts, an
alternative power source is required that can switch into operation immediately when disruption
occurs. An interruptible power supply (UPS) is just such an alternative source. A UPS generally
consists of a rectifier, battery charger, a battery bank and inverter circuit which converts the
commercial ac input into dc suitable for input to the battery bank and the inverter. The rectifier
should have its input protected and should be capable of supplying power to the inverter when the
commercial supply is either slightly below the normal voltage or slightly above. Online UPS: Online
UPS Block Diagram In case of On-line UPS, the battery operated inverter works continuously
whether the mains supply is present or not. Triac T1 is on for all the times while Triac T2 has been
provided to bypass the UPS inverter, only when a fault develops in the UPS inverter. When the
mains supply fails, the UPS supplies power only until the batteries get discharged. However, once
the mains power resumes, the batteries will get charged again. The switching times of these supplies
is considered to be zero. Usually sealed maintenance free batteries are used and the running time of
the inverter is low (approximately 10 to 30 minutes). Off Line UPS: Offline UPS Block Diagram In
the case of Off-Line UPS, the inverter is off when the mains power is on and the output voltage is
derived directly from the mains. The inverter turns on only when the mains supply fails. Its
switching time is less than 5 ms. These UPS are generally used with PCs or computers or other
appliances where a small duration (5 ms or less) interruption in power supply can be tolerated.
Usually, sealed batteries or lead-acid batteries are used. The running time of these supplies is also
low (about 10 to 30 minutes).

By definition we can say that Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS)

is electrical equipment which can be used as immediate power
source to the connected load when there is any failure in main
input power source.
In UPS, the energy is stored in flywheels or batteries or
super capacitors. When compared to other immediate power
supply system, UPS have the advantage of immediate protection
against the input power interruptions. It has very short on-
battery run time; however this time is enough to safely shut
down the connected apparatus (computers, telecommunication
equipment etc) or to switch on a standby power source. UPS can
be used as a protective device for some hardware which can
cause serious damage or loss with a sudden power disruption.
Uninterruptible power source, Battery backup and Flywheel back
up are the other names often used for UPS. The available size of
UPS units ranges from 200 VA which is used for a solo computer
to several large units up to 46 MVA.
Major Roles of UPS
When there is any failure in main power source, the UPS will
supply the power for a short time. This is the prime role of UPS.
In addition to that, it can also able to correct some general power
problems related to utility services in varying degrees. The
problems that can be corrected are voltage spike (Sustained over
voltage), Noise, Quick reduction in input voltage, Harmonic
distortion and the instability of frequency in mains.
Types of UPS
Generally, the UPS system is categorised into On-line UPS, Off-
line UPS and Line interactive UPS. Other designs include Standby
on-line hybrid, Standby-Ferro, Delta conversion On-Line.
Off-line UPS
This UPS is also called as Standby UPS system which can give
only the most basic features. Here, the primary source is the
filtered AC mains (shown in solid path in figure 1). When the
power breakage occurs, the transfer switch will select the backup
source (shown in dashed path in figure 1). Thus we can clearly
see that the stand by system will start working only when there is
any failure in mains. In this system, the AC voltage is first
rectified and stored in the storage battery connected to the
rectifier.
When power breakage occurs, this DC voltage is converted to AC
voltage by means of inverter and given to the load connected to
it. This is the least expensive UPS system and it provides surge
protection in addition to back up. The transfer time can be about
25 milliseconds which can be related to the time taken by the
UPS system to detect the utility voltage that is lost. The block
diagram is shown below.

On-line UPS
In this type of UPS, double conversion method is used. Here,
first the AC input is converted into DC by rectifying process for
storing it in the rechargeable battery. This DC is converted into
AC by the process of inversion and given to the load or
equipment which it is connected (figure 2). This type of UPS is
used where electrical isolation is mandatory. This system is a bit
more costly due to the design of constantly running converters
and cooling systems. Here, the rectifier which is powered with the
normal AC current is directly driving the inverter. Hence it is also
known as Double conversion UPS. The block diagram is shown
below.

When there is any power failure, the rectifier have no role in the
circuit and the steady power stored in the batteries which is
connected to the inverter is given to the load by means of
transfer switch. Once the power is restored, the rectifier begins to
charge the batteries. To prevent the batteries from overheating
due to the high power rectifier, the charging current is limited.
During a main power breakdown, this UPS system operates with
zero transfer time. The reason is that the backup source acts as a
primary source and not the main AC input. But the presence of
inrush current and large load step current can result in a transfer
time of about 4-6 milliseconds in this system.
Line Interactive UPS
For small business and departmental servers and webs, line
interactive UPS is used. This is more or less same as that of off-
line UPS. The difference is the addition of tap
changing transformer. Voltage regulation is done by this tap-
changing transformer by changing the tap depending on input
voltage. Additional filtering is provided in this UPS result in lower
transient loss. The block diagram is shown below.

UPS Applications
Applications of UPS are showing below
 Data Centers.
 Industries.
 Telecommunications.
 Hospitals.
 Banks and insurance.
 Some special projects (events)

Temperature Sensors
The most commonly used type of all the sensors are those which detect Temperature or heat.
 These types of temperature sensor vary from simple ON/OFF thermostatic devices which
control a domestic hot water heating system to highly sensitive semiconductor types that can
control complex process control furnace plants.
We remember from our school science classes that the movement of molecules and atoms
produces heat (kinetic energy) and the greater the movement, the more heat that is
generated. Temperature Sensors measure the amount of heat energy or even coldness that is
generated by an object or system, allowing us to “sense” or detect any physical change to that
temperature producing either an analogue or digital output.
There are many different types of Temperature Sensor available and all have different
characteristics depending upon their actual application. A temperature sensor consists of two
basic physical types:
 Contact Temperature Sensor Types – These types of temperature sensor are required to
be in physical contact with the object being sensed and use conduction to monitor changes
in temperature. They can be used to detect solids, liquids or gases over a wide range of
temperatures.
 Non-contact Temperature Sensor Types – These types of temperature sensor use
convection and radiation to monitor changes in temperature. They can be used to detect
liquids and gases that emit radiant energy as heat rises and cold settles to the bottom in
convection currents or detect the radiant energy being transmitted from an object in the
form of infra-red radiation (the sun).
The two basic types of contact or even non-contact temperature sensors can also be sub-
divided into the following three groups of sensors, Electro-
mechanical, Resistiveand Electronic and all three types are discussed below.

The Thermostat
The Thermostat is a contact type electro-mechanical temperature sensor or switch, that
basically consists of two different metals such as nickel, copper, tungsten or aluminium etc,
that are bonded together to form a Bi-metallic strip. The different linear expansion rates of
the two dissimilar metals produces a mechanical bending movement when the strip is
subjected to heat.
The bi-metallic strip can be used itself as an electrical switch or as a mechanical way of
operating an electrical switch in thermostatic controls and are used extensively to control hot
water heating elements in boilers, furnaces, hot water storage tanks as well as in vehicle
radiator cooling systems.

The Bi-metallic Thermostat

The thermostat consists of two thermally different metals stuck together back to back. When
it is cold the contacts are closed and current passes through the thermostat. When it gets hot,
one metal expands more than the other and the bonded bi-metallic strip bends up (or down)
opening the contacts preventing the current from flowing.

On/Off Thermostat
There are two main types of bi-metallic strips based mainly upon their movement when
subjected to temperature changes. There are the “snap-action” types that produce an
instantaneous “ON/OFF” or “OFF/ON” type action on the electrical contacts at a set
temperature point, and the slower “creep-action” types that gradually change their position as
the temperature changes.
Snap-action type thermostats are commonly used in our homes for controlling the
temperature set point of ovens, irons, immersion hot water tanks and they can also be found
on walls to control the domestic heating system.
Creeper types generally consist of a bi-metallic coil or spiral that slowly unwinds or coils-up
as the temperature changes. Generally, creeper type bi-metallic strips are more sensitive to
temperature changes than the standard snap ON/OFF types as the strip is longer and thinner
making them ideal for use in temperature gauges and dials etc.
Although very cheap and are available over a wide operating range, one main disadvantage of
the standard snap-action type thermostats when used as a temperature sensor, is that they
have a large hysteresis range from when the electrical contacts open until when they close
again. For example, it may be set to 20oC but may not open until 22oC or close again until
18oC.
So the range of temperature swing can be quite high. Commercially available bi-metallic
thermostats for home use do have temperature adjustment screws that allow for a more
precise desired temperature set-point and hysteresis level to be pre-set.
The Thermistor
The Thermistor is another type of temperature sensor, whose name is a combination of the
words THERM-ally sensitive res-ISTOR. A thermistor is a special type of resistor which
changes its physical resistance when exposed to changes in temperature.

Thermistor
Thermistors are generally made from ceramic materials such as oxides of nickel, manganese
or cobalt coated in glass which makes them easily damaged. Their main advantage over snap-
action types is their speed of response to any changes in temperature, accuracy and
repeatability.
Most types of thermistor’s have a Negative Temperature Coefficient of resistance or (NTC),
that is their resistance value goes DOWN with an increase in the temperature, and of course
there are some which have a Positive Temperature Coefficient, (PTC), in that their resistance
value goes UP with an increase in temperature.
Thermistors are constructed from a ceramic type semiconductor material using metal oxide
technology such as manganese, cobalt and nickel, etc. The semiconductor material is
generally formed into small pressed discs or balls which are hermetically sealed to give a
relatively fast response to any changes in temperature.
Thermistors are rated by their resistive value at room temperature (usually at 25oC), their time
constant (the time to react to the temperature change) and their power rating with respect to
the current flowing through them. Like resistors, thermistors are available with resistance
values at room temperature from 10’s of MΩ down to just a few Ohms, but for sensing
purposes those types with values in the kilo-ohms are generally used.
Thermistors are passive resistive devices which means we need to pass a current through it to
produce a measurable voltage output. Then thermistors are generally connected in series with
a suitable biasing resistor to form a potential divider network and the choice of resistor gives
a voltage output at some pre-determined temperature point or value for example:

Temperature Sensors Example No1

The following thermistor has a resistance value of 10KΩ at 25oC and a resistance value of
100Ω at 100oC. Calculate the voltage drop across the thermistor and hence its output voltage
(Vout) for both temperatures when connected in series with a 1kΩ resistor across a 12v
power supply.
At 25oC

At 100oC

By changing the fixed resistor value of R2 (in our example 1kΩ) to a potentiometer or preset,
a voltage output can be obtained at a predetermined temperature set point for example, 5v
output at 60oC and by varying the potentiometer a particular output voltage level can be
obtained over a wider temperature range.
It needs to be noted however, that thermistor’s are non-linear devices and their standard
resistance values at room temperature is different between different thermistor’s, which is
due mainly to the semiconductor materials they are made from. The Thermistor, have an
exponential change with temperature and therefore have a Beta temperature constant ( β )
which can be used to calculate its resistance for any given temperature point.
However, when used with a series resistor such as in a voltage divider network or Whetstone
Bridge type arrangement, the current obtained in response to a voltage applied to the
divider/bridge network is linear with temperature. Then, the output voltage across the resistor
becomes linear with temperature.

Resistive Temperature Detectors (RTD).

Another type of electrical resistance temperature sensor is the Resistance Temperature
Detector or RTD. RTD’s are precision temperature sensors made from high-purity
conducting metals such as platinum, copper or nickel wound into a coil and whose electrical
resistance changes as a function of temperature, similar to that of the thermistor. Also
available are thin-film RTD’s. These devices have a thin film of platinum paste is deposited
onto a white ceramic substrate.

A Resistive RTD
Resistive temperature detectors have positive temperature coefficients (PTC) but unlike the
thermistor their output is extremely linear producing very accurate measurements of
temperature.
However, they have very poor thermal sensitivity, that is a change in temperature only
produces a very small output change for example, 1Ω/oC.
The more common types of RTD’s are made from platinum and are called Platinum
Resistance Thermometer or PRT‘s with the most commonly available of them all the Pt100
sensor, which has a standard resistance value of 100Ω at 0oC. The downside is that Platinum
is expensive and one of the main disadvantages of this type of device is its cost.
Like the thermistor, RTD’s are passive resistive devices and by passing a constant current
through the temperature sensor it is possible to obtain an output voltage that increases linearly
with temperature. A typical RTD has a base resistance of about 100Ω at 0oC, increasing to
about 140Ω at 100oC with an operating temperature range of between -200 to +600oC.
Because the RTD is a resistive device, we need to pass a current through them and monitor
the resulting voltage. However, any variation in resistance due to self heat of the resistive
wires as the current flows through it, I2R , (Ohms Law) causes an error in the readings. To
avoid this, the RTD is usually connected into a Whetstone Bridge network which has
additional connecting wires for lead-compensation and/or connection to a constant current
source.

The Thermocouple
The Thermocouple is by far the most commonly used type of all the temperature sensor
types. Thermocouples are popular due to its simplicity, ease of use and their speed of
response to changes in temperature, due mainly to their small size. Thermocouples also have
the widest temperature range of all the temperature sensors from below -200oC to well over
2000oC.
Thermocouples are thermoelectric sensors that basically consists of two junctions of
dissimilar metals, such as copper and constantan that are welded or crimped together. One
junction is kept at a constant temperature called the reference (Cold) junction, while the other
the measuring (Hot) junction. When the two junctions are at different temperatures, a voltage
is developed across the junction which is used to measure the temperature sensor as shown
below.

Thermocouple Construction
The operating principal of a thermocouple is very simple and basic. When fused together the
junction of the two dissimilar metals such as copper and constantan produces a “thermo-
electric” effect which gives a constant potential difference of only a few millivolts (mV)
between them. The voltage difference between the two junctions is called the “Seebeck
effect” as a temperature gradient is generated along the conducting wires producing an emf.
Then the output voltage from a thermocouple is a function of the temperature changes.
If both the junctions are at the same temperature the potential difference across the two
junctions is zero in other words, no voltage output as V1 = V2. However, when the junctions
are connected within a circuit and are both at different temperatures a voltage output will be
detected relative to the difference in temperature between the two junctions, V1 – V2. This
difference in voltage will increase with temperature until the junctions peak voltage level is
reached and this is determined by the characteristics of the two dissimilar metals used.
Thermocouples can be made from a variety of different materials enabling extreme
temperatures of
between -200oC to over +2000oC to be measured. With such a large choice of materials and
temperature range, internationally recognised standards have been developed complete with
thermocouple colour codes to allow the user to choose the correct thermocouple sensor for a
particular application. The British colour code for standard thermocouples is given below.

Thermocouple Colour Codes

Thermocouple Sensor Colour CodesExtension and Compensating Leads

Code
Conductors (+/-) Sensitivity British BS 1843:1952
Type

E Nickel Chromium / Constantan -200 to 900oC

J Iron / Constantan 0 to 750oC

 K Nickel Chromium / Nickel Aluminium -200 to 1250oC

N Nicrosil / Nisil 0 to 1250oC

T Copper / Constantan -200 to 350oC

Copper / Copper Nickel Compensating for “S” and

U 0 to 1450oC
“R”

The three most common thermocouple materials used above for general temperature
measurement are Iron-Constantan (Type J), Copper-Constantan (Type T), and Nickel-
Chromium (Type K). The output voltage from a thermocouple is very small, only a few
millivolts (mV) for a 10oC change in temperature difference and because of this small voltage
output some form of amplification is generally required.

Thermocouple Amplification

The type of amplifier, either discrete or in the form of an Operational Amplifier needs to be
carefully selected, because good drift stability is required to prevent recalibration of the
thermocouple at frequent intervals. This makes the chopper and instrumentation type of
amplifier preferable for most temperature sensing applications.
Other Temperature Sensor Types not mentioned here include, Semiconductor Junction
Sensors, Infra-red and Thermal Radiation Sensors, Medical type Thermometers, Indicators
and Colour Changing Inks or Dyes.
 In this tutorial about “Temperature Sensor Types”, we have looked at several examples of
sensors that can be used to measure changes in temperature. In the next tutorial we will look
at sensors that are used to measure light quantity, such as Photodiodes, Phototransistors,
Photovoltaic Cells and the Light Dependant Resistor.

In the broadest definition, a sensor is a device, module, or subsystem whose purpose is to

detect events or changes in its environment and send the information to other electronics,
frequently a computer processor. A sensor is always used with other electronics, whether as
simple as a light or as complex as a computer.
Sensors are used in everyday objects such as touch-sensitive elevator buttons (tactile sensor)
and lamps which dim or brighten by touching the base, besides innumerable applications of
which most people are never aware. With advances in micromachinery and easy-to-
use microcontroller platforms, the uses of sensors have expanded beyond the traditional fields of
temperature, pressure or flow measurement,[1] for example into MARG sensors. Moreover,
analog sensors such as potentiometers and force-sensing resistors are still widely used.
Applications include manufacturing and machinery, airplanes and aerospace, cars, medicine,
robotics and many other aspects of our day-to-day life.
A sensor's sensitivity indicates how much the sensor's output changes when the input quantity
being measured changes. For instance, if the mercury in a thermometer moves 1 cm when the
temperature changes by 1 °C, the sensitivity is 1 cm/°C (it is basically the slope Dy/Dx assuming
a linear characteristic). Some sensors can also affect what they measure; for instance, a room
temperature thermometer inserted into a hot cup of liquid cools the liquid while the liquid heats
the thermometer. Sensors are usually designed to have a small effect on what is measured;
making the sensor smaller often improves this and may introduce other
advantages.[2] Technological progress allows more and more sensors to be manufactured on
a microscopic scale as microsensors using MEMS technology. In most cases, a microsensor
reaches a significantly higher speed and sensitivity compared with macroscopic approaches.[3][4]

A test probe is a physical device used to connect electronic test equipment to a device under
test (DUT). Test probes range from very simple, robust devices to complex probes that are
sophisticated, expensive, and fragile. Specific types include test prods, oscilloscope
probes and current probes. A test probe is often supplied as a test lead, which includes the
probe, cable and terminating connector.

Contents
[hide]

 1Voltage probes
o 1.1Simple test leads
 1.1.1Tweezer probes
 1.1.2Pogo pins
o 1.2Oscilloscope probes
 1.2.1Passive probes
 1.2.2Lo Z probes
  1.2.3Active scope probes
 1.2.4Differential probes
 1.2.5Additional probe features
 1.2.6Interchangeability
o 1.3High-voltage probes
 2Current probes
o 2.1Sampling resistor
o 2.2Alternating current probes
o 2.3Direct-current probes
o 2.4Hybrid AC/DC current probes
 3Near-field probes
 4Temperature probes
 5Demodulator probes
 6See also
 7Logic probes
 8References

Voltage probes[edit]
Voltage probes are used to measure voltages present on the DUT. To achieve high accuracy,
the test instrument and its probe must not significantly affect the voltage being measured. This is
accomplished by ensuring that the combination of instrument and probe exhibit a sufficiently high
impedance that will not load the DUT. For AC measurements, the reactive component of
impedance may be more important than the resistive.

Simple test leads[edit]

A pair of simple test leads

A typical voltmeter probe consists of a single wire test lead that has on one end a connector that
fits the voltmeter and on the other end a rigid, tubular plastic section that comprises both a
handle and probe body. The handle allows a person to hold and guide the probe without
influencing the measurement (by becoming part of the electric circuit) or being exposed to
dangerous voltages that might cause electric shock. Within the probe body, the wire is connected
to a rigid, pointed metal tip that contacts the DUT. Some probes allow an alligator clip to be
attached to the tip, thus enabling the probe to be attached to the DUT so that it need not be held
in place.
Test leads are usually made with finely stranded wire to keep them flexible, of wire gauges
sufficient to conduct a few amperes of electric current. The insulation is chosen to be both
flexible and have a breakdown voltage higher than the voltmeter's maximum input voltage. The
many fine strands and the thick insulation make the wire thicker than ordinary hookup wire.
Two probes are used together to measure voltage, current, and two-terminal components such
as resistors and capacitors. When making DC measurements it is necessary to know which
probe is positive and which is negative, so by convention the probes are colored red for positive
and black for negative. Depending upon the accuracy required, they can be used with signal
frequencies ranging from DC to a few kilohertz.
When sensitive measurements must be made (e.g., very low voltages, or very low or very high
resistances) shields, guards, and techniques such as four-terminal Kelvin sensing (using
separate leads to carry the measuring current and to sense the voltage) are used.
Tweezer probes[edit]

A tweezer probe

Tweezer probes are a pair of simple probes fixed to a tweezer mechanism, operated with one
hand, for measuring voltages or other electronic circuit parameters between closely spaced pins.
Pogo pins[edit]
Spring probes (a.k.a. "pogo pins") are spring-loaded pins used in electrical test fixtures to contact
test points, component leads, and other conductive features of the DUT (Device Under Test).
These probes are usually press-fit into probe sockets, to allow their easy replacement on test
fixtures which may remain in service for decades, testing many thousands of DUTs in automatic
test equipment.

Oscilloscope probes[edit]
Oscilloscopes display the instantaneous waveform of varying electrical quantities, unlike other
instruments which give numerical values of relatively stable quantities.
Scope probes fall into two main categories: passive and active. Passive scope probes contain no
active electronic parts, such as transistors, so they require no external power.
Because of the high frequencies often involved, oscilloscopes do not normally use simple wires
("flying leads") to connect to the DUT. Flying leads are likely to pick up interference, so they are
not suitable for low-level signals. Furthermore, the inductance of flying leads make them
unsuitable for high frequency signals. Instead, a specific scope probe is used, which uses
a coaxial cable to transmit the signal from the tip of the probe to the oscilloscope. This cable has
two main benefits: it protects the signal from external electromagnetic interference, improving
accuracy for low-level signals; and it has a lower inductance than flying leads, making the probe
more accurate for high-frequency signals.
Although coaxial cable has lower inductance than flying leads, it has higher capacitance: a
typical 50 ohm cable has about 90 pF per meter. Consequently, a one-meter high-impedance
direct (1×) coaxial probe may load the circuit with a capacitance of about 110 pF and a
resistance of 1 megohm.
Passive probes[edit]
A passive oscilloscope probe with a switch in the probe handle that selects 1× or 10× attenuation

To minimize loading, attenuator probes (e.g., 10× probes) are used. A typical probe uses a
9 megohm series resistor shunted by a low-value capacitor to make an RC compensated divider
with the cable capacitance and scope input. The RC time constants are adjusted to match. For
example, the 9 megohm series resistor is shunted by a 12.2 pF capacitor for a time constant of
110 microseconds. The cable capacitance of 90 pF in parallel with the scope input of 20 pF (total
capacitance 110 pF) and 1 megohm also gives a time constant of 110 microseconds. In practice,
there will be an adjustment so the operator can precisely match the low frequency time constant
(called compensating the probe). Matching the time constants makes the attenuation
independent of frequency. At low frequencies (where the resistance of R is much less than the
reactance of C), the circuit looks like a resistive divider; at higher frequencies (resistance much
greater than reactance), the circuit looks like a capacitive divider.[1]
The result is a frequency compensated probe for modest frequencies that presents a load of
about 10 megohms shunted by 12 pF. Although such a probe is an improvement, it does not
work when the time scale shrinks to several cable transit times (transit time is typically 5 ns). In
that time frame, the cable looks like its characteristic impedance, and there will be reflections
from the transmission line mismatch at the scope input and the probe that causes ringing.[2] The
modern scope probe uses lossy low capacitance transmission lines and sophisticated frequency
shaping networks to make the 10× probe perform well at several hundred megahertz.
Consequently, there are other adjustments for completing the compensation.[3][4][5]
A directly connected test probe (so called 1× probe) puts the unwanted lead capacitance across
the circuit under test. For a typical coaxial cable, loading is of the order of 100pF per meter (the
length of a typical test lead).
Attenuator probes minimize capacitive loading with an attenuator, but reduce the magnitude of
the signal delivered to the instrument. A 10× attenuator will reduce the capacitive load by a factor
of about 10. The attenuator must have an accurate ratio over the whole range of frequencies of
interest; the input impedance of the instrument becomes part of the attenuator. A DC attenuator
with resistive divider is supplemented with capacitors, so that the frequency response is
predictable over the range of interest.[6]
The RC time constant matching method works as long as the transit time of the shielded cable is
much less than the time scale of interest. That means that the shielded cable can be viewed as a
lumped capacitor rather than an inductor. Transit time on a 1-meter cable is about 5 ns.
Consequently, these probes will work to a few megahertz, but after that transmission line effects
cause trouble.
At high frequencies, the probe impedance will be low.[7]
The most common design inserts a 9 megohm resistor in series with the probe tip. The signal is
then transmitted from the probe head to the oscilloscope over a special lossy coaxial cable that is
designed to minimize capacitance and ringing. The invention of this cable has been traced[8] to
John Kobbe, an engineer working for Tektronix. The resistor serves to minimize the loading that
the cable capacitance would impose on the DUT. In series with the normal 1 megohm input
impedance of the oscilloscope, the 9 megohm resistor creates a 10× voltage divider so such
probes are normally known as either low cap(acitance) probes or 10× probes, often printed with
the letter X or x instead of the multiplication sign, and usually spoken of as "a times-ten probe".
Because the oscilloscope input has some parasitic capacitance in parallel with the 1 megohm
resistance, the 9 megohm resistor must also be bypassed by a capacitor to prevent it from
forming a severe RC low-pass filter with the 'scope's parasitic capacitance. The amount of
bypass capacitance must be carefully matched with the input capacitance of the oscilloscope so
that the capacitors also form a 10× voltage divider. In this way, the probe provides a uniform 10×
attenuation from DC (with the attenuation provided by the resistors) to very high AC frequencies
(with the attenuation provided by the capacitors).
In the past, the bypass capacitor in the probe head was adjustable (to achieve this 10×
attenuation). More modern probe designs use a laser-trimmed thick-film electronic circuit in the
head that combines the 9 megohm resistor with a fixed-value bypass capacitor; they then place a
small adjustable capacitor in parallel with the oscilloscope's input capacitance. Either way, the
probe must be adjusted so that it provides uniform attenuation at all frequencies. This is referred
to as compensating the probe. Compensation is usually accomplished by probing a 1 kHz square
wave and adjusting the compensating capacitor until the oscilloscope displays the most square
waveshape. Most oscilloscopes have a 1 kHz calibration source on their front panels since probe
compensation must be done every time a 10:1 probe is attached to an oscilloscope input. Newer,
faster probes have more complex compensation arrangements and may occasionally require
further adjustments.
100× passive probes are also available, as are some designs specialized for use at very high
voltages (up to 25 kV).
Passive probes usually connect to the oscilloscope using a BNC connector. Most 10× probes are
equivalent to a load of about 10-15 pF and 10 megohms on the DUT, with 100× probes loading
the circuit less.
Lo Z probes[edit]
Z0 probes are a specialized type of low-capacitance passive probe used in low-impedance, very-
high-frequency circuits. They are similar in design to 10× passive probes but at much lower
impedance levels. The probe cables usually have a characteristic impedance of 50 ohms and
connect to oscilloscopes with a matched 50 ohm (rather than a 1 megohm) input impedance).
High-impedance scope probes are designed for the conventional 1 megohm oscilloscope, but the
1 megohm input impedance is only at low frequency; the input impedance is not a constant 1
megohm across the probe's bandwidth but rather decreases with frequency. For example, a
Tektronix P6139A input impedance starts falling above 10 kHz and is about 100 ohms at
100 MHz.[9] A different probe technique is needed for high frequency signals.
A high frequency oscilloscope presents a matched load (usually 50 ohms) at its input, which
minimizes reflections at the scope. Probing with a matching 50-ohm transmission line would offer
high frequency performance, but it would unduly load most circuits. An attenuator (resistive
divider) can be used to minimize loading. At the tip, these probes use a 450 ohm (for 10×
attenuation) or 950 ohm (for 20× attenuation) series resistor.[10][11]Tektronix sells a 10× divider
probe with a 9 GHz bandwidth with a 450 ohm series resistor.[12][not in citation given] These probes are
also called resistive divider probes, since a 50 ohm transmission line presents a purely resistive
load.
The Z0 name refers to the characteristic impedance of the oscilloscope and cable. The matched
impedances provide better high-frequency performance than an unmatched passive probe can
achieve, but at the expense of the low 500-ohm load offered by the probe tip to the DUT.
Parasitic capacitance at the probe tip is very low so, for very high-frequency signals, the Z0 probe
can offer lower loading than any hi-Z probe and even many active probes.[13]
In principle this type of probe can be used at any frequency, but at DC and lower frequencies
circuits often have high impedances that would be unacceptably loaded by the probe's low 500
or 1000 ohm probe impedance. Parasitic impedances limit very-high-frequency circuits to
operating at low impedance, so the probe impedance is less of a problem.
Active scope probes[edit]
Active scope probes use a high-impedance high-frequency amplifier mounted in the probe head,
and a screened lead. The purpose of the amplifier is not gain, but isolation (buffering) between
the circuit under test and the oscilloscope and cable, loading the circuit with only a low
capacitance and high DC resistance, and matching the oscilloscope input. Active probes are
commonly seen by the circuit under test as a capacitance of 1 picofarad or less in parallel with 1
megohm resistance. Probes are connected to the oscilloscope with a cable matching the
characteristic impedance of the oscilloscope input. Tube based active probes were used before
the advent of high-frequency solid-state electronics, using a small vacuum tube as cathode
follower amplifier.
Active probes have several disadvantages which have kept them from replacing passive probes
for all applications:

 They are several times more expensive than passive probes.

 They require power (but this is usually supplied by the oscilloscope).
 Their dynamic range is limited, sometimes as low as 3 to 5 volts, and they can be damaged
by overvoltage, either from the signal or electrostatic discharge.
Many active probes allow the user to introduce an offset voltage to allow measurement of
voltages with excessive DC level. The total dynamic range is still limited, but the user may be
able to adjust its centerpoint so that voltages in the range of, for example, zero to five volts may
be measured rather than -2.5 to +2.5.
Because of their inherent low voltage rating, there is little need to provide high-voltage insulation
for operator safety. This allows the heads of active probes to be extremely small, making them
very convenient for use with modern high-density electronic circuits.
Passive probes and a modest active probe design is discussed in an application note by
Williams.[14]
The Tektronix P6201 is an early DC to 900 MHz active FET probe.[15]
At extreme high frequencies a modern digital scope requires that the user solder a preamp to the
DUT to get 50GS/s, 20 GHz performance.[16]
Differential probes[edit]
Differential probes are optimized for acquiring differential signals. To maximize the common-
mode rejection ratio (CMRR), differential probes must provide two signal paths that are as nearly
identical as possible, matched in overall attenuation, frequency response, and time delay.
In the past, this was done by designing passive probes with two signal paths, requiring
a differential amplifier stage at or near the oscilloscope. (A very few early probes fitted the
differential amplifier into a rather-bulky probe head using vacuum tubes.) With advances in solid-
state electronics, it has become practical to put the differential amplifier directly within the probe
head, greatly easing the requirements on the rest of the signal path (since it now becomes
single-ended rather than differential and the need to match parameters on the signal path is
removed). A modern differential probe usually has two metal extensions which can be adjusted
by the operator to simultaneously touch the appropriate two points on the DUT. Very high
CMRRs are thereby made possible.
Additional probe features[edit]
All scope probes contain some facility for grounding (earthing) the probe to the circuit's reference
voltage. This is usually accomplished by connecting a very short pigtail wire from the probe head
to ground. Inductance in the ground wire can lead to distortion in the observed signal, so this wire
is kept as short as possible. Some probes use a small ground foot instead of any wire, allowing
the ground link to be as short as 10 mm.
Most probes allow a variety of "tips" to be installed. A pointed tip is the most common, but a
seizer probe or "test hook" with a hooked tip that can secure to the test point, is also commonly
used. Tips that have a small plastic insulating foot with indentations into it can make it easier to
probe very-fine-pitch integrated circuits; the indentations mate with the pitch of the IC leads,
stabilizing the probe against the shaking of the user's hand and thereby help to maintain contact
on the desired pin. Various styles of feet accommodate various pitches of the IC leads. Different
types of tips can also be used for probes for other instruments.
Some probes contain a push button. Pressing the button will either disconnect the signal (and
send a ground signal to the 'scope) or cause the 'scope to identify the trace in some other way.
This feature is very useful when simultaneously using more than one probe as it lets the user
correlate probes and traces on the 'scope screen.
Some probe designs have additional pins surrounding the BNC or use a more complex
connector than a BNC. These extra connections allow the probe to inform the oscilloscope of its
attenuation factor (10×, 100×, other). The oscilloscope can then adjust its user displays to
automatically take into account the attenuation and other factors caused by the probe. These
extra pins can also be used to supply power to active probes.
Some ×10 probes have a "×1/×10" switch. The "×1" position bypasses the attenuator and
compensating network, and can be used when working with very small signals that would be
below the scope's sensitivity limit if attenuated by ×10.
Interchangeability[edit]
Because of their standardized design, passive probes (including Z0 probes) from any
manufacturer can usually be used with any oscilloscope (although specialized features such as
the automatic readout adjustment may not work). Passive probes with voltage dividers may not
be compatible with a particular scope. The compensation adjustment capacitor only allows for
compensation over a small range of oscilloscope input capacitance values. The probe
compensation range must be compatible with the oscilloscope input capacitance.
On the other hand, active probes are almost always vendor-specific due to their power
requirements, offset voltage controls, etc. Probe manufacturers sometimes offer external
amplifiers or plug-in AC power adapters that allow their probes to be used with any oscilloscope.

High-voltage probes[edit]

High voltage resistor divider probe

A high voltage probe allows an ordinary voltmeter to measure voltages that would otherwise be
too high to measure or even destructive. It does this by reducing the input voltage to a safe,
measurable level with a precision voltage divider circuit within the probe body.
Probes intended for up to 100 kV typically employ a resistor voltage divider, with an input
resistance of hundreds or thousands of megohms to minimize circuit loading. High linearity and
accuracy is achieved by using resistors with extremely low voltage coefficients, in matched sets
that maintain a consistent, precise divider ratio across the probe's operating temperature.
Voltmeters have input resistance that effectively alters the probe's divider ratio, and parasitic
capacitance that combines with the probe's resistance to form an RC circuit; these can easily
reduce DC and AC accuracy, respectively, if left uncompensated. To mitigate these effects,
voltage divider probes usually include additional components that improve frequency response
and allow them to be calibrated for different meter loads.
Even higher voltages can be measured with capacitor divider probes, though the larger physical
size and other mechanical features (e.g., corona rings) of these devices often preclude their use
as handheld probes.

Current probes[edit]
A current probe generates a voltage proportional to a current in the circuit being measured; as
the proportionality constant is known, instruments that respond to voltage can be calibrated to
indicate current. Current probes can be used both by measuring instruments and oscilloscopes.

Sampling resistor[edit]
The classic current probe is a low valued resistor (a "sampling resistor" or "current shunt")
inserted in the current's path. The current is determined by measuring the voltage drop across
the resistor and using Ohm's law. (Wedlock & Roberge 1969, p. 152.) The sampling resistance
needs to be small enough not to affect circuit operation significantly, but large enough to provide
a good reading. The method is valid for both AC and DC measurements. A disadvantage of this
method is the need to break the circuit to introduce the shunt. Another problem is measuring the
voltage across the shunt when common-mode voltages are present; a differential voltage
measurement is needed.

Alternating current probes[edit]

Alternating currents are relatively easy to measure as transformers can be used. A current
transformer is commonly used to measure alternating currents. The current to be measured is
forced through the primary winding (often a single turn) and the current through the secondary
winding is found by measuring the voltage across a current-sense resistor (or "burden resistor").
The secondary winding has a burden resistor to set the current scale. The properties of a
transformer offer many advantages. The current transformer rejects common mode voltages, so
an accurate single-ended voltage measurement can be made on a grounded secondary. The

effective series resistance of the primary winding is set by the burden resistor on the

secondary winding and the transformer turns ratio , where: .

The core of some current transformers is split and hinged; it is opened and clipped around the
wire to be sensed, then closed, making it unnecessary to free one end of the conductor and
thread it through the core.
Another clip-on design is the Rogowski coil. It is a magnetically balanced coil that measures
current by electronically evaluating the line integral around a current.
High-frequency, small-signal, passive current probes typically have a frequency range of several
kilohertz to over 100 MHz. The Tektronix P6022 has a range from 935 Hz to 200 MHz. (Tektronix
1983, p. 435)

Direct-current probes[edit]
Transformers cannot be used to probe direct currents (DC).
Some DC probe designs use the nonlinear properties of a magnetic material to measure DC.
Other current probes use Hall effect sensors to measure the magnetic field around a wire
produced by an electric current through the wire without the need to interrupt the circuit to fit the
probe. They are available for both voltmeters and oscilloscopes. Most current probes are self-
contained, drawing power from a battery or the instrument, but a few require the use of an
external amplifier unit. (See also: Clamp meter)

Hybrid AC/DC current probes[edit]

More advanced current probes combine a Hall effect sensor with a current transformer. The Hall
effect sensor measures the DC and low frequency components of the signal and the current
transformer measures the high frequency components. These signals are combined in the
amplifier circuit to yield a wide band signal extending from DC to over 50 MHz. (Wedlock &
Roberge 1969, p. 154) The Tektronix A6302 current probe and AM503 amplifier combination is
an example of such a system. (Tektronix 1983, p. 375) (Tektronix 1998, p. 571)

Near-field probes[edit]
Near-field probes allow the measurement of an electromagnetic field. They are commonly used
to measure electrical noise and other undesirable electromagnetic radiation from the DUT,
although they can also be used to spy on the workings of the DUT without introducing
much loading into the circuitry.
They are commonly connected to spectrum analyzers.

Temperature probes[edit]

A thermocouple probe

Temperature probes are used to make contact measurements of surface temperatures. They
employ a temperature sensor such as a thermistor, thermocouple, or RTD, to produce a voltage
that varies with temperature. In the case of thermistor and RTD probes, the sensor must be
electrically stimulated to produce a voltage, whereas thermocouple probes do not require
stimulation because a thermocouple will independently produce an output voltage.
Voltmeters can sometimes be used to measure temperature probes, but this task is usually
delegated to specialized instruments that will stimulate the probe's sensor (if necessary),
measure the probe's output voltage, and convert the voltage to temperature units.

Demodulator probes[edit]
To measure or display the modulating waveform of a modulated high-frequency signal—for
example, an amplitude-modulated radio signal—a probe fitted with a
simple diodedemodulator can be used. The probe will output the modulating waveform without
the high-frequency carrier.
A/D Converter Applications

Digital Audio:
Digital audio workstations, sound recording, pulse-code modulation

Digital signal processing:

TV tuner cards, microcontrollers, digital storage oscilloscopes

Scientific instruments:
Digital imaging systems, radar systems, temperature sensors

D/A Converter Applications

Digital Audio：
CD, MD, 1-bit Audio

Digital Video：
DVD, Digital Still Camera

Communication Equipment：
Smartphones, FAX, ADSl equipment

PCs：
Audio, video cards

Measurement instruments：
Programmable power supplies, etc.

Basic Operation of a D/A Converter

A D/A converter takes a precise number (most commonly a fixed-point binary number) and converts it into a physical quantity (example:
voltage or pressure). D/A converters are often used to convert finite-precision time series data to a continually varying physical signal.

An ideal D/A converter takes abstract numbers from a sequence of impulses that are then processed by using a form of interpolation to
fill in data between impulses. A conventional D/A converter puts the numbers into a piecewise constant function made up of a sequence
of rectangular functions that is modeled with the zero-order hold.

A D/A converter reconstructs original signals so that its bandwidth meets certain requirements. With digital sampling comes quantization
errors that create low-level noise which gets added to the reconstructed signal. The minimum analog signal amplitude that can bring
about a change in the digital signal is called the Least Significant Bit (LSB), while the (rounding) error that occurs between the analog
and digital signals is referred to as quantization error.

Basic Operation of an A/D Converter

Now, let's take a look at the basic operation of an A/D converter.
The A/D converter breaks up (samples) the amplitude of the analog signal at discrete intervals, which are then converted into digital
values. The resolution of an analog to digital converter (indicating the number of discrete values it can produce over a range of analog
values) is typically expressed by the number of bits. In the above case of a 3bit A/D converter, the upper value (b2) is referred to as the
Most Significant Bit (MSB) and the lowest value (b0) the Least Significant Bit (LSB).

The graph below shows the relationship between the analog input and digital output.

In addition, the first digital change point (000→001) below 0.5LSB is the zero scale, while the last digital change point (110→111) is
termed full scale and the interval from zero to full scale referred to as the full scale range.

Analog Signal to Digital Signal Conversion Methods

Sampling:
 Sampling is the process of taking amplitude values of the continuous analog signal at
discrete time intervals (sampling period Ts).
[Sampling Period Ts = 1/Fs (Sampling Frequency)]
Sampling is performed using a Sample and Hold (S&H) circuit.

Quantization:
Quantization involves assigning a numerical value to each sampled amplitude value
from a range of possible values covering the entire amplitude range (based on the
number of bits).
[Quantization error: Sampled Value - Quantized Value]

Coding:
Once the amplitude values have been quantized they are encoded into binary using an
Encoder.

In electronics, a digital-to-analog converter (DAC, D/A, D2A, or D-to-A) is a system that

converts a digital signal into an analog signal. An analog-to-digital converter (ADC) performs the
reverse function.
There are several DAC architectures; the suitability of a DAC for a particular application is
determined by figures of merit including: resolution, maximum sampling frequency and others.
Digital-to-analog conversion can degrade a signal, so a DAC should be specified that has
insignificant errors in terms of the application. Due to the complexity and the need for precisely
matched components, all but the most specialized DACs are implemented as integrated
circuits (ICs).
DACs are commonly used in music players to convert digital data streams into analog audio
signals. They are also used in televisions and mobile phones to convert digital video data into
analog video signals which connect to the screen drivers to display monochrome or color
images. These two applications use DACs at opposite ends of the frequency/resolution trade-off.
 The audio DAC is a low-frequency, high-resolution type while the video DAC is a high-frequency
low- to medium-resolution type. Discrete DACs would typically be extremely high speed low
resolution power hungry types, as used in military radar systems. Very high speed test
equipment, especially sampling oscilloscopes, may also use discrete DACs.

Contents
[hide]

 1Overview
 2Applications
o 2.1Audio
o 2.2Video
o 2.3Mechanical
 3Types
 4Performance
 5Figures of merit
 6See also
 7References
 8Further reading
 9External links

Overview[edit]

Ideally sampled signal.

A DAC converts an abstract finite-precision number (usually a fixed-point binary number) into a
physical quantity (e.g., a voltage or a pressure). In particular, DACs are often used to convert
finite-precision time series data to a continually varying physical signal.
An ideal DAC converts the abstract numbers into a conceptual sequence of impulses that are
then processed by a reconstruction filter using some form of interpolation to fill in data between
the impulses. A conventional practical DAC converts the numbers into a piecewise constant
function made up of a sequence of rectangular functions that is modeled with the zero-order
hold. Other DAC methods (such as those based on delta-sigma modulation) produce a pulse-
density modulated output that can be similarly filtered to produce a smoothly varying signal.
As per the Nyquist–Shannon sampling theorem, a DAC can reconstruct the original signal from
the sampled data provided that its bandwidth meets certain requirements (e.g.,
a baseband signal with bandwidth less than the Nyquist frequency). Digital sampling
introduces quantization error that manifests as low-level noise added to the reconstructed signal.
Piecewise constant output of a conventional DAC lacking a reconstruction filter. In a practical DAC, a filter
or the finite bandwidth of the device smooths out the step response into a continuous curve.

Instead of impulses, a conventional practical DAC updates the analog voltage at

uniform sampling intervals, which is then interpolated via a reconstruction filter to continuously
varied levels.
These numbers are written to the DAC, typically with a clock signal that causes each number to
be latched in sequence, at which time the DAC output voltage changes rapidly from the previous
value to the value represented by the currently latched number. The effect of this is that the
output voltage is held in time at the current value until the next input number is latched, resulting
in a piecewise constant or staircase-shaped output. This is equivalent to a zero-order
hold operation and has an effect on the frequency response of the reconstructed signal.
The fact that DACs output a sequence of piecewise constant values (known as zero-order hold in
sample data textbooks) or rectangular pulses causes multiple harmonics above the Nyquist
frequency. Usually, these are removed with a low pass filter acting as a reconstruction filter in
applications that require it.
Other DAC methods (e.g., methods based on delta-sigma modulation) produce a pulse-density
modulated signal that can then be filtered in a similar way to produce a smoothly varying signal.

Applications[edit]

A simplified functional diagram of an 8-bit DAC

DACs and ADCs are part of an enabling technology that has contributed greatly to the digital
revolution. To illustrate, consider a typical long-distance telephone call. The caller's voice is
converted into an analog electrical signal by a microphone, then the analog signal is converted to
a digital stream by an ADC. The digital stream is then divided into network packets where it may
be sent along with other digital data, not necessarily audio. The packets are then received at the
destination, but each packet may take a completely different route and may not even arrive at the
destination in the correct time order. The digital voice data is then extracted from the packets and
assembled into a digital data stream. A DAC converts this back into an analog electrical signal,
which drives an audio amplifier, which in turn drives a loudspeaker, which finally produces sound.

In electronics, an analog-to-digital converter (ADC, A/D, or A-to-D) is a system that converts

an analog signal, such as a sound picked up by a microphone or light entering a digital camera,
into a digital signal. An ADC may also provide an isolated measurement such as an electronic
device that converts an input analog voltage or current to a digital number representing the
magnitude of the voltage or current. Typically the digital output is a two's complement binary
number that is proportional to the input, but there are other possibilities.
There are several ADC architectures. Due to the complexity and the need for precisely
matched components, all but the most specialized ADCs are implemented as integrated
circuits (ICs).
A digital-to-analog converter (DAC) performs the reverse function; it converts a digital signal into
an analog signal.

Contents
[hide]
 1Explanation
o 1.1Resolution
 1.1.1Quantization error
 1.1.2Dither
o 1.2Accuracy
 1.2.1Non-linearity
o 1.3Jitter
o 1.4Sampling rate
 1.4.1Aliasing
 1.4.2Oversampling
o 1.5Relative speed and precision
o 1.6Sliding scale principle
 2Types
o 2.1Direct-conversion
o 2.2Successive approximation
o 2.3Ramp-compare
o 2.4Wilkinson
o 2.5Integrating
o 2.6Delta-encoded
o 2.7Pipelined
o 2.8Sigma-delta
o 2.9Time-interleaved
o 2.10Intermediate FM stage
o 2.11Other types
 3Commercial
 4Applications
o 4.1Music recording
o 4.2Digital signal processing
o 4.3Scientific instruments
o 4.4Rotary encoder
 5Electrical symbol
 6Testing
 7See also
 8Notes
 9References
 10Further reading
 11External links

Explanation[edit]
The conversion involves quantization of the input, so it necessarily introduces a small amount of
error. Furthermore, instead of continuously performing the conversion, an ADC does the
conversion periodically, samplingthe input. The result is a sequence of digital values that have
been converted from a continuous-time and continuous-amplitude analog signal to a discrete-
time and discrete-amplitude digital signal.
An ADC is defined by its bandwidth and its signal-to-noise ratio. The bandwidth of an ADC is
characterized primarily by its sampling rate. The dynamic range of an ADC is influenced by many
factors, including the resolution, linearity and accuracy (how well the quantization levels match
the true analog signal), aliasing and jitter. The dynamic range of an ADC is often summarized in
terms of its effective number of bits (ENOB), the number of bits of each measure it returns that
are on average not noise. An ideal ADC has an ENOB equal to its resolution. ADCs are chosen
to match the bandwidth and required signal-to-noise ratio of the signal to be quantized. If an ADC
operates at a sampling rate greater than twice the bandwidth of the signal, then perfect
reconstruction is possible given an ideal ADC and neglecting quantization error. The presence of
quantization error limits the dynamic range of even an ideal ADC. However, if the dynamic range
of the ADC exceeds that of the input signal, its effects may be neglected resulting in an
essentially perfect digital representation of the input signal.

Resolution[edit]

Fig. 1. An 8-level ADC coding scheme.

The resolution of the converter indicates the number of discrete values it can produce over the
range of analog values. The resolution determines the magnitude of the quantization error and
therefore determines the maximum possible average signal to noise ratio for an ideal ADC
without the use of oversampling. The values are usually stored electronically in binary form, so
the resolution is usually expressed in bits. In consequence, the number of discrete values
available, or "levels", is assumed to be a power of two. For example, an ADC with a resolution of
8 bits can encode an analog input to one in 256 different levels, since 28 = 256. The values can
represent the ranges from 0 to 255 (i.e. unsigned integer) or from −128 to 127 (i.e. signed
integer), depending on the application.
Resolution can also be defined electrically, and expressed in volts. The minimum change in
voltage required to guarantee a change in the output code level is called the least significant
bit (LSB) voltage. The resolution Q of the ADC is equal to the LSB voltage. The voltage
resolution of an ADC is equal to its overall voltage measurement range divided by the number of
intervals:

where M is the ADC's resolution in bits and EFSR is the full scale voltage range (also called
'span'). EFSR is given by

where VRefHi and VRefLow are the upper and lower extremes, respectively, of the voltages
that can be coded.
Normally, the number of voltage intervals is given by

where M is the ADC's resolution in bits.[1]

That is, one voltage interval is assigned in between two consecutive code levels.
Example:

 Coding scheme as in figure 1 (assume input signal x(t) = Acos(t), A = 5V)

 Full scale measurement range = -5 to 5 volts
 ADC resolution is 8 bits: 28 = 256 quantization levels (codes)
 ADC voltage resolution, Q = (5 V − (-5) V) / 256 = 10 V / 256 ≈ 0.039 V ≈ 39 mV.
In practice, the useful resolution of a converter is limited by the best signal-to-noise
ratio (SNR) that can be achieved for a digitized signal. An ADC can resolve a signal
to only a certain number of bits of resolution, called the effective number of bits
(ENOB). One effective bit of resolution changes the signal-to-noise ratio of the
digitized signal by 6 dB, if the resolution is limited by the ADC. If a preamplifier has
been used prior to A/D conversion, the noise introduced by the amplifier can be an
important contributing factor towards the overall SNR.

Comparison of quantizing a sinusoid to 64 levels (6 bits) and 256 levels (8 bits). The
additive noise created by 6-bit quantization is 12 dB greater than the noise created by 8-
bit quantization. When the spectral distribution is flat, as in this example, the 12 dB
difference manifests as a measurable difference in the noise floors.

Quantization error[edit]
Main article: Quantization error
Quantization error is the noise introduced by quantization in an ideal ADC. It is a
rounding error between the analog input voltage to the ADC and the output digitized
value. The noise is non-linear and signal-dependent. In an ideal analog-to-digital
converter, where the quantization error is uniformly distributed between −1/2 LSB
and +1/2 LSB, and the signal has a uniform distribution covering all quantization
levels, the Signal-to-quantization-noise ratio (SQNR) can be calculated from

[2]

Where Q is the number of quantization bits. For example, a 16-bit ADC has a
maximum signal-to-noise ratio of 6.02 × 16 = 96.3 dB, and therefore the
quantization error is 96.3 dB below the maximum level. Quantization error is
distributed from DC to the Nyquist frequency, consequently if part of the ADC's
bandwidth is not used (as in oversampling), some of the quantization error will
fall out of band, effectively improving the SQNR. In
an oversampled system, noise shaping can be used to further increase SQNR
by forcing more quantization error out of the band.
Dither[edit]
Main article: dither
In ADCs, performance can usually be improved using dither. This is a very small
amount of random noise (white noise), which is added to the input before
conversion. Its effect is to cause the state of the LSB to randomly oscillate
between 0 and 1 in the presence of very low levels of input, rather than sticking
at a fixed value. Rather than the signal simply getting cut off altogether at this
low level (which is only being quantized to a resolution of 1 bit), it extends the
effective range of signals that the ADC can convert, at the expense of a slight
increase in noise – effectively the quantization error is diffused across a series
of noise values which is far less objectionable than a hard cutoff. The result is an
accurate representation of the signal over time. A suitable filter at the output of
the system can thus recover this small signal variation.
An audio signal of very low level (with respect to the bit depth of the ADC)
sampled without dither sounds extremely distorted and unpleasant. Without
dither the low level may cause the least significant bit to "stick" at 0 or 1. With
dithering, the true level of the audio may be calculated by averaging the actual
quantized sample with a series of other samples [the dither] that are recorded
over time. A virtually identical process, also called dither or dithering, is often
used when quantizing photographic images to a fewer number of bits per pixel—
the image becomes noisier but to the eye looks far more realistic than the
quantized image, which otherwise becomes banded. This analogous process
may help to visualize the effect of dither on an analogue audio signal that is
converted to digital. Dithering is also used in integrating systems such
as electricity meters. Since the values are added together, the dithering
produces results that are more exact than the LSB of the analog-to-digital
converter. Note that dither can only increase the resolution of a sampler, it
cannot improve the linearity, and thus accuracy does not necessarily improve.

Accuracy[edit]
An ADC has several sources of errors. Quantization error and (assuming the
ADC is intended to be linear) non-linearity are intrinsic to any analog-to-digital
conversion. These errors are measured in a unit called the least significant
bit (LSB). In the above example of an eight-bit ADC, an error of one LSB is
1/256 of the full signal range, or about 0.4%.
Non-linearity[edit]
All ADCs suffer from non-linearity errors caused by their physical imperfections,
causing their output to deviate from a linear function (or some other function, in
the case of a deliberately non-linear ADC) of their input. These errors can
sometimes be mitigated by calibration, or prevented by testing. Important
parameters for linearity are integral non-linearity (INL) and differential non-
linearity (DNL). These non-linearities reduce the dynamic range of the signals
that can be digitized by the ADC, also reducing the effective resolution of the
ADC.

Jitter[edit]

When digitizing a sine wave , the use of a non-ideal sampling clock will
result in some uncertainty in when samples are recorded. Provided that the

actual sampling time uncertainty due to the clock jitter is , the error caused

by this phenomenon can be estimated as . This will result in additional

recorded noise that will reduce the effective number of bits (ENOB) below that
predicted by quantization error alone. The error is zero for DC, small at low
frequencies, but significant when high frequencies have high amplitudes. This
effect can be ignored if it is drowned out by the quantizing error. Jitter

requirements can be calculated using the following formula: , where q is the

number of ADC bits.
 Signal Frequency
Output size
(bits)
1 Hz 1 kHz 10 kHz 1 MHz 10 MHz 100 MHz 1 GHz

8 1,243 µs 1.24 µs 124 ns 1.24 ns 124 ps 12.4 ps 1.24 ps

10 311 µs 311 ns 31.1 ns 311 ps 31.1 ps 3.11 ps 0.31 ps

12 77.7 µs 77.7 ns 7.77 ns 77.7 ps 7.77 ps 0.78 ps 0.08 ps

14 19.4 µs 19.4 ns 1.94 ns 19.4 ps 1.94 ps 0.19 ps 0.02 ps

16 4.86 µs 4.86 ns 486 ps 4.86 ps 0.49 ps 0.05 ps –

18 1.21 µs 1.21 ns 121 ps 1.21 ps 0.12 ps – –

20 304 ns 304 ps 30.4 ps 0.30 ps 0.03 ps – –

Clock jitter is caused by phase noise.[3][4] The resolution of ADCs with a

digitization bandwidth between 1 MHz and 1 GHz is limited by jitter.[5] When
sampling audio signals at 44.1 kHz, the anti-aliasing filter should have
eliminated all frequencies above 22 kHz. The input frequency (in this case, <
22 kHz), not the ADC clock frequency, is the determining factor with respect to
jitter performance.[6]

Sampling rate[edit]
Main article: Sampling rate
See also: Sampling (signal processing)
The analog signal is continuous in time and it is necessary to convert this to a
flow of digital values. It is therefore required to define the rate at which new
digital values are sampled from the analog signal. The rate of new values is
called the sampling rate or sampling frequency of the converter. A continuously
varying bandlimited signal can be sampled (that is, the signal values at intervals
of time T, the sampling time, are measured and stored) and then the original
signal can be exactly reproduced from the discrete-time values by
an interpolation formula. The accuracy is limited by quantization error. However,
this faithful reproduction is only possible if the sampling rate is higher than twice
the highest frequency of the signal. This is essentially what is embodied in
the Shannon-Nyquist sampling theorem. Since a practical ADC cannot make an
instantaneous conversion, the input value must necessarily be held constant
during the time that the converter performs a conversion (called the conversion
time). An input circuit called a sample and hold performs this task—in most
cases by using a capacitor to store the analog voltage at the input, and using an
electronic switch or gate to disconnect the capacitor from the input. Many
ADC integrated circuits include the sample and hold subsystem internally.
Aliasing[edit]
Main article: Aliasing
See also: Undersampling
An ADC works by sampling the value of the input at discrete intervals in time.
Provided that the input is sampled above the Nyquist rate, defined as twice the
highest frequency of interest, then all frequencies in the signal can be
reconstructed. If frequencies above half the Nyquist rate are sampled, they are
incorrectly detected as lower frequencies, a process referred to as aliasing.
Aliasing occurs because instantaneously sampling a function at two or fewer
times per cycle results in missed cycles, and therefore the appearance of an
incorrectly lower frequency. For example, a 2 kHz sine wave being sampled at
1.5 kHz would be reconstructed as a 500 Hz sine wave.
To avoid aliasing, the input to an ADC must be low-pass filtered to remove
frequencies above half the sampling rate. This filter is called an anti-aliasing
filter, and is essential for a practical ADC system that is applied to analog
signals with higher frequency content. In applications where protection against
aliasing is essential, oversampling may be used to greatly reduce or even
eliminate it. Although aliasing in most systems is unwanted, it should also be
noted that it can be exploited to provide simultaneous down-mixing of a band-
limited high frequency signal (see undersampling and frequency mixer). The
alias is effectively the lower heterodyne of the signal frequency and sampling
frequency.[7]
Oversampling[edit]
Main article: Oversampling
Signals are often sampled at the minimum rate required, for economy, with the
result that the quantization noise introduced as white noise spread over the
whole pass band of the converter. If a signal is sampled at a rate much higher
than the Nyquist rate and then digitally filtered to limit it to the signal bandwidth
there are the following advantages:

 digital filters can have better properties (sharper rolloff, phase) than
analogue filters, so a sharper anti-aliasing filter can be realised and then the
signal can be downsampled giving a better result
 a 20-bit ADC can be made to act as a 24-bit ADC with 256× oversampling
 the signal-to-noise ratio due to quantization noise will be higher than if the
whole available band had been used. With this technique, it is possible to
obtain an effective resolution larger than that provided by the converter
alone
 The improvement in SNR is 3 dB (equivalent to 0.5 bits) per octave of
oversampling which is not sufficient for many applications. Therefore,
oversampling is usually coupled with noise shaping (see sigma-delta
modulators). With noise shaping, the improvement is 6L+3 dB per octave
where L is the order of loop filter used for noise shaping. e.g. – a 2nd order
loop filter will provide an improvement of 15 dB/octave.
Oversampling is typically used in audio frequency ADCs where the required
sampling rate (typically 44.1 or 48 kHz) is very low compared to the clock speed
of typical transistor circuits (>1 MHz). In this case, by using the extra bandwidth
to distribute quantization error onto out of band frequencies, the accuracy of the
ADC can be greatly increased at no cost. Furthermore, as any aliased signals
are also typically out of band, aliasing can often be completely eliminated using
very low cost filters.
Relative speed and precision[edit]
The speed of an ADC varies by type. The Wilkinson ADC is limited by the clock
rate which is processable by current digital circuits. Currently,[when?] frequencies
up to 300 MHz are possible.[8] For a successive-approximation ADC, the
conversion time scales with the logarithm of the resolution, e.g. the number of
bits. Thus for high resolution, it is possible that the successive-approximation
ADC is faster than the Wilkinson. However, the time consuming steps in the
Wilkinson are digital, while those in the successive-approximation are analog.
Since analog is inherently slower than digital[why?], as the resolution increases, the
time required also increases. Thus there are competing processes at work.
Flash ADCs are certainly the fastest type of the three. The conversion is
basically performed in a single parallel step. For an 8-bit unit, conversion takes
place in a few tens of nanoseconds.
There is, as expected, somewhat of a tradeoff between speed and precision.
Flash ADCs have drifts and uncertainties associated with the comparator levels.
This results in poor linearity. For successive-approximation ADCs, poor linearity
is also present, but less so than for flash ADCs. Here, non-linearity arises from
accumulating errors from the subtraction processes. Wilkinson ADCs have the
highest linearity of the three. These have the best differential non-linearity. The
other types require channel smoothing to achieve the level of the Wilkinson.[9][10]

Sliding scale principle[edit]

The sliding scale or randomizing method can be employed to greatly improve
the linearity of any type of ADC, but especially flash and successive
approximation types. For any ADC the mapping from input voltage to digital
output value is not exactly a floor or ceiling function as it should be. Under
normal conditions, a pulse of a particular amplitude is always converted to a
digital value. The problem lies in that the ranges of analog values for the
digitized values are not all of the same width, and the differential
linearity decreases proportionally with the divergence from the average width.
The sliding scale principle uses an averaging effect to overcome this
phenomenon. A random, but known analog voltage is added to the sampled
input voltage. It is then converted to digital form, and the equivalent digital
amount is subtracted, thus restoring it to its original value. The advantage is that
the conversion has taken place at a random point. The statistical distribution of
the final levels is decided by a weighted average over a region of the range of
the ADC. This in turn desensitizes it to the width of any specific level.[11][12]

Types[edit]
These are the most common ways of implementing an electronic ADC:

Direct-conversion[edit]
A direct-conversion ADC or flash ADC has a bank of comparators sampling
the input signal in parallel, each firing for their decoded voltage range. The
comparator bank feeds a logic circuit that generates a code for each voltage
range. Direct conversion is very fast, capable of gigahertz sampling rates, but
usually has only 8 bits of resolution or fewer, since the number of comparators
needed, 2N – 1, doubles with each additional bit, requiring a large, expensive
circuit. ADCs of this type have a large die size, a high input capacitance, high
power dissipation, and are prone to produce glitches at the output (by outputting
an out-of-sequence code). Scaling to newer submicrometre technologies does
not help as the device mismatch is the dominant design limitation. They are
often used for video, wideband communications or other fast signals in optical
storage.There are four different types of direct ADC's.
 The Parallel Comparator ADC This is the simplest ADC. It is at the same
time the fastest and the most expensive technique. The circuit consists of a
resistive divider network, 8 op-amp comparators and a 8-line to 3-line
encoder (3-bit priority encoder). A small amount of hysteresis is built into the
comparator to resolve any problems that might occur if both inputs were of
equal voltage. At each node of the resistive divider, a comparison voltage is
available. The purpose of the circuit is to compare the analog input voltage
with each of the node voltages. The circuit has the advantage of high speed
as the conversion takes place simultaneously rather than sequentially.
Typical conversion time is 100 ns or less. Conversion time is limited only by
the speed of the comparator and of the priority encoder. This type of ADC
has the disadvantage that the number of comparators required almost
doubles for each added bit. Also, the larger the value of n, the more
complex is the priority encoder.
 The Counter Type ADC The D to A converter can be easily turned around
to provide the inverse function A to D conversion. The principle is to adjust
the DAC's input code until the DAC's output comes within +/-(1/2) LSB to the
analog input which is to be converted to binary digital form.
 Servo Tracking ADC It is an improved version of a counting ADC. The
circuit consists of an up-down counter with the comparator controlling the
direction of the count. The analog output of the DAC is compared with the
analog input. If the input is greater than the DAC output signal, the output of
the comparator goes high and the counter is caused to count up. The
tracking ADC has an advantage of being simple. The disadvantage,
however, is the time needed to stabilize as a new conversion value is
directly proportional to the rate at which the analog signal changes.
Successive approximation[edit]
A successive-approximation ADC uses a comparator to successively narrow
a range that contains the input voltage. At each successive step, the converter
compares the input voltage to the output of an internal digital to analog
converter which might represent the midpoint of a selected voltage range. At
each step in this process, the approximation is stored in a successive
approximation register (SAR). For example, consider an input voltage of 6.3 V
and the initial range is 0 to 16 V. For the first step, the input 6.3 V is compared to
8 V (the midpoint of the 0–16 V range). The comparator reports that the input
voltage is less than 8 V, so the SAR is updated to narrow the range to 0–8 V.
For the second step, the input voltage is compared to 4 V (midpoint of 0–8). The
comparator reports the input voltage is above 4 V, so the SAR is updated to
reflect the input voltage is in the range 4–8 V. For the third step, the input
voltage is compared with 6 V (halfway between 4 V and 8 V); the comparator
reports the input voltage is greater than 6 volts, and search range becomes 6–
8 V. The steps are continued until the desired resolution is reached.

Ramp-compare[edit]
A ramp-compare ADC produces a saw-tooth signal that ramps up or down then
quickly returns to zero. When the ramp starts, a timer starts counting. When the
ramp voltage matches the input, a comparator fires, and the timer's value is
recorded. Timed ramp converters require the least number of transistors. The
ramp time is sensitive to temperature because the circuit generating the ramp is
often a simple oscillator. There are two solutions: use a clocked counter driving
a DAC and then use the comparator to preserve the counter's value, or calibrate
the timed ramp. A special advantage of the ramp-compare system is that
comparing a second signal just requires another comparator, and another
register to store the voltage value. A very simple (non-linear) ramp-converter
can be implemented with a microcontroller and one resistor and
capacitor.[13] Vice versa, a filled capacitor can be taken from an integrator, time-
to-amplitude converter, phase detector, sample and hold circuit, or peak and
hold circuit and discharged. This has the advantage that a
slow comparator cannot be disturbed by fast input changes.

Wilkinson[edit]
The Wilkinson ADC was designed by D. H. Wilkinson in 1950. The Wilkinson
ADC is based on the comparison of an input voltage with that produced by a
charging capacitor. The capacitor is allowed to charge until its voltage is equal to
the amplitude of the input pulse (a comparator determines when this condition
has been reached). Then, the capacitor is allowed to discharge linearly, which
produces a ramp voltage. At the point when the capacitor begins to discharge, a
gate pulse is initiated. The gate pulse remains on until the capacitor is
completely discharged. Thus the duration of the gate pulse is directly
proportional to the amplitude of the input pulse. This gate pulse operates a linear
gate which receives pulses from a high-frequency oscillator clock. While the
gate is open, a discrete number of clock pulses pass through the linear gate and
are counted by the address register. The time the linear gate is open is
proportional to the amplitude of the input pulse, thus the number of clock pulses
recorded in the address register is proportional also. Alternatively, the charging
of the capacitor could be monitored, rather than the discharge.[14][15]

Integrating[edit]
An integrating ADC (also dual-slope or multi-slope ADC) applies the
unknown input voltage to the input of an integrator and allows the voltage to
ramp for a fixed time period (the run-up period). Then a known reference voltage
of opposite polarity is applied to the integrator and is allowed to ramp until the
integrator output returns to zero (the run-down period). The input voltage is
computed as a function of the reference voltage, the constant run-up time
period, and the measured run-down time period. The run-down time
measurement is usually made in units of the converter's clock, so longer
integration times allow for higher resolutions. Likewise, the speed of the
converter can be improved by sacrificing resolution. Converters of this type (or
variations on the concept) are used in most digital voltmeters for their linearity
and flexibility.

 Charge Balancing ADC The principle of charge balancing ADC is to first

convert the input signal to a frequency using a voltage to frequency
converter.This frequency is then measured by a counter and converted to
an output code proportional to the analog input.The main advantage of
these converters is that it is possible to transmit frequency even in noisy
environment or in isolated form.However, the limitaion of this circuit is that
the output of V/F converter depends upon an RC product whose value
cannot be easily maintained with temperature and time.
 Dual-Slope ADC The analog part of the circuit consists of a high imput
impedance buffer,precision integrator and a voltage comparator.The
converter first integrates the analog input signal for a fixed duration and then
it integrates an internal reference voltage of opposite polarity until the
integrator output is zero.The main disadvantage of this circuit is the long
duration time.They are particularly suitable for accurate measurement of
slowly varying signals such as thermocouples and weighing scales.
Delta-encoded[edit]
A delta-encoded ADC or counter-ramp has an up-down counter that feeds
a digital to analog converter (DAC). The input signal and the DAC both go to a
comparator. The comparator controls the counter. The circuit uses
negative feedback from the comparator to adjust the counter until the DAC's
output is close enough to the input signal. The number is read from the counter.
Delta converters have very wide ranges and high resolution, but the conversion
time is dependent on the input signal level, though it will always have a
guaranteed worst-case. Delta converters are often very good choices to read
real-world signals. Most signals from physical systems do not change abruptly.
Some converters combine the delta and successive approximation approaches;
this works especially well when high frequencies are known to be small in
magnitude.

Pipelined[edit]
A pipelined ADC (also called subranging quantizer) uses two or more steps of
subranging. First, a coarse conversion is done. In a second step, the difference
to the input signal is determined with a digital to analog converter (DAC). This
difference is then converted finer, and the results are combined in a last step.
This can be considered a refinement of the successive-approximation ADC
wherein the feedback reference signal consists of the interim conversion of a
whole range of bits (for example, four bits) rather than just the next-most-
significant bit. By combining the merits of the successive approximation and
flash ADCs this type is fast, has a high resolution, and only requires a small die
size.

Sigma-delta[edit]
A sigma-delta ADC (also known as a delta-sigma ADC) oversamples the
desired signal by a large factor and filters the desired signal band. Generally, a
smaller number of bits than required are converted using a Flash ADC after the
filter. The resulting signal, along with the error generated by the discrete levels
of the Flash, is fed back and subtracted from the input to the filter. This negative
feedback has the effect of noise shaping the error due to the Flash so that it
does not appear in the desired signal frequencies. A digital filter (decimation
filter) follows the ADC which reduces the sampling rate, filters off unwanted
noise signal and increases the resolution of the output (sigma-delta modulation,
also called delta-sigma modulation).

Time-interleaved[edit]
A time-interleaved ADC uses M parallel ADCs where each ADC samples data
every M:th cycle of the effective sample clock. The result is that the sample rate
is increased M times compared to what each individual ADC can manage. In
practice, the individual differences between the M ADCs degrade the overall
performance reducing the SFDR.[16] However, technologies exist to correct for
these time-interleaving mismatch errors.

Intermediate FM stage[edit]
An ADC with intermediate FM stage first uses a voltage-to-frequency
converter to convert the desired signal into an oscillating signal with a frequency
proportional to the voltage of the desired signal, and then uses a frequency
counter to convert that frequency into a digital count proportional to the desired
signal voltage. Longer integration times allow for higher resolutions. Likewise,
the speed of the converter can be improved by sacrificing resolution. The two
parts of the ADC may be widely separated, with the frequency signal passed
through an opto-isolator or transmitted wirelessly. Some such ADCs use sine
wave or square wave frequency modulation; others use pulse-frequency
modulation. Such ADCs were once the most popular way to show a digital
display of the status of a remote analog sensor.[17][18][19][20][21]

Other types[edit]
There can be other ADCs that use a combination of electronics and
other technologies. A time-stretch analog-to-digital converter (TS-
ADC) digitizes a very wide bandwidth analog signal, that cannot be digitized by
a conventional electronic ADC, by time-stretching the signal prior to digitization.
It commonly uses a photonic preprocessor frontend to time-stretch the signal,
which effectively slows the signal down in time and compresses its bandwidth.
As a result, an electronic backend ADC, that would have been too slow to
capture the original signal, can now capture this slowed down signal. For
continuous capture of the signal, the frontend also divides the signal into
multiple segments in addition to time-stretching. Each segment is individually
digitized by a separate electronic ADC. Finally, a digital signal
processor rearranges the samples and removes any distortions added by the
frontend to yield the binary data that is the digital representation of the original
analog signal.

Commercial[edit]
Commercial ADCs are usually implemented as integrated circuits. Most
converters sample with 6 to 24 bits of resolution, and produce fewer than 1
megasample per second. Thermal noise generated by passive components
such as resistors masks the measurement when higher resolution is desired.
For audio applications and in room temperatures, such noise is usually a little
less than 1 μV (microvolt) of white noise. If the MSB corresponds to a standard 2
V of output signal, this translates to a noise-limited performance that is less than
20~21 bits, and obviates the need for any dithering. As of February 2002, Mega-
and giga-sample per second converters are available. Mega-sample converters
are required in digital video cameras, video capture cards, and TV tuner cards to
convert full-speed analog video to digital video files. Commercial converters
usually have ±0.5 to ±1.5 LSB error in their output.
In many cases, the most expensive part of an integrated circuit is the pins,
because they make the package larger, and each pin has to be connected to the
integrated circuit's silicon. To save pins, it is common for slow ADCs to send
their data one bit at a time over a serial interface to the computer, with the next
bit coming out when a clock signal changes state, say from 0 to 5 V. This saves
quite a few pins on the ADC package, and in many cases, does not make the
overall design any more complex (even microprocessors which use memory-
mapped I/O only need a few bits of a port to implement a serial bus to an ADC).
Commercial ADCs often have several inputs that feed the same converter,
usually through an analog multiplexer. Different models of ADC may
include sample and hold circuits, instrumentation amplifiers or differential inputs,
where the quantity measured is the difference between two voltages.

Applications[edit]
Music recording[edit]
Analog-to-digital converters are integral to 2000s era music reproduction
technology and digital audio workstation-based sound recording. People often
produce music on computers using an analog recording and therefore need
analog-to-digital converters to create the pulse-code modulation (PCM) data
streams that go onto compact discs and digital music files. The current crop of
analog-to-digital converters utilized in music can sample at rates up to
192 kilohertz. Considerable literature exists on these matters, but commercial
considerations often play a significant role. Many recording studios record in 24-
bit/96 kHz (or higher) pulse-code modulation (PCM) or Direct Stream
Digital (DSD) formats, and then downsample or decimate the signal for Red-
Book CD production (44.1 kHz) or to 48 kHz for commonly used radio and
television broadcast applications.

Digital signal processing[edit]

People must use ADCs to process, store, or transport virtually any analog signal
in digital form. TV tuner cards, for example, use fast video analog-to-digital
converters. Slow on-chip 8, 10, 12, or 16 bit analog-to-digital converters are
common in microcontrollers. Digital storage oscilloscopes need very fast analog-
to-digital converters, also crucial for software defined radio and their new
applications.

Scientific instruments[edit]
Digital imaging systems commonly use analog-to-digital converters
in digitizing pixels. Some radar systems commonly use analog-to-digital
converters to convert signal strength to digital values for subsequent signal
processing. Many other in situ and remote sensing systems commonly use
analogous technology. The number of binary bits in the resulting digitized
numeric values reflects the resolution, the number of unique discrete levels
of quantization (signal processing). The correspondence between the analog
signal and the digital signal depends on the quantization error. The quantization
process must occur at an adequate speed, a constraint that may limit the
resolution of the digital signal. Many sensors in scientific instruments produce an
analog signal; temperature, pressure, pH, light intensity etc. All these signals
can be amplified and fed to an ADC to produce a digital number proportional to
the input signal.

Rotary encoder[edit]
Some non-electronic or only partially electronic devices, such as rotary
encoders, can also be considered ADCs. Typically the digital output of an ADC
will be a two's complement binary number that is proportional to the input. An
encoder might output a Gray code.

Electrical symbol[edit]