Total Quality Management
Total Quality Management
Total Quality Management
Prepared by
S. Uthanu Mallayan, Lecturer
M. Pugazh, Lecturer (SS)
Unit - I : Introduction
UNIT - I – INTRODUCTION
1.1 DEFINITION:
Quality is sometimes defined as "meeting the
requirements of the customer."
The term quality assurance describes any systematic
process for ensuring quality during the successive steps in
developing a product or service.ISO 9000 is a standard for
ensuring that a company's quality assurance system follows
best industry practices.
Quality in business, engineering and manufacturing
has a pragmatic interpretation as the non-inferiority or superiority of something; it is also
defined as “fitness for purpose”. Consumers may focus on the specification quality of a
product/service, or how it compares to competitors in the marketplace.
There are five aspects of quality in a business context:
Producing - providing something.
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Reduce variability
Increase efficiency
Ensure safety
What is Total Productive Maintenance (TPM)?
Total productive maintenance (TPM) is the systematic execution of maintenance by
all employees through small group activities.
Analyzing the three words of T, P, M we have
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Systematic activities –
Planned, strong leadership, Mid and long term vision, strategies and policies
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Plan
o Establish your objectives
o Make plans
a) Analyze your organization’s situation
b) Establish your overall objectives
c) Set your targets
d) Develop plans to achieve them
DO
o Implement your plans
Check
o Measure your results
Act
o Correct and improve you plans and how put them into practice
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Workers can only be highly productive when they receive appropriate training.
Training can focus on areas such as interpersonal skills, working in a team, problem solving
or performance analysis. Training should be on-going and given as the need arises.
5. Teamwork
The Total in TQM refers to the total involvement of an organisation’s staff. People
working in a team are more likely to make creative suggestions than those working in
isolation.
6. Leadership
Leadership does not only refer to top management. In the case of TQM leadership is
found at all levels. Workers need to be guided by leaders with a clear vision of the
company’s goals.
7. Communication
Communication is the vital link between all of the organisation’s elements.
Information needs to be shared regularly and constantly. Communication takes place in
three directions: downwards from top management to employees; upwards where workers
provide management; and sideways where communication crosses over between different
departments and to external suppliers and customers.
8. Recognition
Individuals and teams should have their efforts, ideas and achievements recognised.
Recognition increases self-esteem and this, in turn, increases productivity. Recognition
should come as soon as possible after the act that is being recognised.
Key role of process management:
1. Establishment of the quality standards which are acceptable to the customer
and economical for the manufacturing operations to maintain.
2. Location of flaws in the raw materials or in the processing of that material
which will cause trouble at subsequent operations.
3. To analyze the trend and extent of quality deviation in a part or product during
manufacturing process.
4. Determination of the cause of such deviation where it is not due to chance
variables.
5. Taking the necessary corrective steps to keep the quality of the product from
dropping below the tolerance limits.
6. To segregate defective goods and ensure that customers will receive only
products of acceptable quality.
Process management, in turn, must be:
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Identify the blockages and barriers preventing you from immediately realizing
your goal.
Develop solutions.
Prioritize solutions.
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the work force to take responsibility for making decisions relating to quality, productivity, and
service to the customer.
5. Mind set for Process improvement
Process improvement requires a mind-set for change. Process improvement requires
that you understand each step in the total operation of your organization and how these
steps are interconnected. Processes involving more than one person should be done by the
entire group involved in that particular process. It is necessary to first determine what is
being done presently before working on process improvement steps.
6.Benchmark for Process Improvement
Benchmarking is the process of measuring your company's performance in each
function and comparing that level of performance with the level of performance achieved by
successful leaders. There are three types of benchmarking:
Internal benchmarking,
Competitive benchmarking
Generic (world-class) benchmarking
Benchmarking can and should be in all areas of your organization including, but not
limited to, the primary areas of manufacture as well as the areas of marketing, sales, billing,
training, maintenance, and inventory control.
7. Partnering with Suppliers and Customers
Partnering means working together for the common good. When companies
purchase their printing materials and supplies by price alone, the ultimate cost may far and
away exceed choosing suppliers for their service, quality, and price. These are the suppliers
that will suggest new and different materials and procedures and will offer an overall more
intimate working relationship. What is true of supplier partnerships is also true of customer
partnerships. To maintain customer partnerships requires that you have an intimate
knowledge of the business needs of your customer.
8. Re-engineering the Printing Organization
Re-engineering is radical change, while process improvement is incremental in
nature. Finding faster or more user friendly prepress films is process improvement. The
moves from dark room compositing to a daylight environment or from lith chemistry to rapid-
access chemistry for film development were process improvements. However, when we
bypass the entire darkroom process and go from design concept, generated in digital form
on a computer and scanner, directly to press with this digital information, that is re-
engineering.
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The fishbone chart organizes and displays the relationships between different causes
for the effect that is being examined. This chart helps organize the brainstorming
process. The major categories of causes are put on major branches connecting to the
backbone, and various sub-causes are attached to the branches. A tree-like structure
results, showing the many facets of the problem.
The method for using this chart is to put the problem to be solved at the head, then
fill in the major branches. People, procedures, equipment and materials are commonly
identified causes.
2) Check Sheet
A check sheet is a sheet or form used to record data. It
is one of the simplest method for collecting data and
determining trends. The recording can be used to determine
the occurrence of events such as non-conformity.
It is a way of collecting and classifying data so that it
can be easily presented or analyzed. It is particularly useful at
the start of a problem-solving process for data gathering. It can
also be used for monitoring performance once change has
been implemented.
Types of check sheet:
1. Production process distribution check sheet
2. Defective item check sheet
3. Defect location check sheet
4. Defect cause check sheet
5. Confirmation/inspection checklist
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3) Flow diagram
Flow diagrams or charts
(also known as Process map)
are used to assist in systemically
breaking down the organizational
process into a step by step
picture of each component.
Symbols are used to indicate
activities, decisions, beginning
and ending points and the flow
that the process takes.
After a process has been
identified for improvement and
given high priority, it should then be broken down into specific steps and put on paper in a
flowchart. This procedure alone can uncover some of the reasons a process is not working
correctly. Other problems and hidden traps are often uncovered when working through this
process.
4) Pareto Analysis
Pareto analysis is developed around the basic concept that 80% of a specific effect is
due to 20% of the cause (80-20 rule). The Pareto chart can be used to display categories of
problems graphically so they can be properly prioritized.
Weekl
% Cum.
Defect y
Total %
Total
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Pareto Diagram
100
80
60 57 53
40
20 21
6
0
Paper Machine Plate Power
Waiting Breakdown Waiting Problem
There are often many aspects of a process or system that can be improved, such as
the number of defective products, time allocation, or cost savings. A Pareto chart or diagram
indicates which problem to tackle first by showing the proportion of the total problem that
each of the smaller problems comprise. This is based on the Pareto principle: 20% of
the sources cause 80% of the problem.
A Pareto chart is a vertical bar graph displaying rank in descending order of
importance for the categories of problems, defects or opportunities. Generally, you gain
more by working on the problem identified by the tallest bar than trying to deal with the
smaller bars.
5) Histogram
Histogram is used for illustrating the
frequency and the extent in the context of
two variables. Histogram is a chart with
columns. This represents the distribution by
mean. If the histogram is normal, the graph
takes the shape of a bell curve.
Now you can put the data from the
check sheets into a histogram. A histogram
is a snapshot of the variation of a product or
the results of a process. It often forms the
bell-shaped curve which is characteristic of a
normal process.
The histogram helps you analyze what is going on in the process and helps show the
capability of a process, whether the data is falling inside the bell-shaped curve and within
specifications.
6) Run Chart
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mean "good change." The philosophy behind kaizen is often credited to Dr. W. Edwards
Deming. Dr. Demming was invited by Japanese industrial leaders and engineers to help
rebuild Japan after World War II.
The five main elements of kaizen
Teamwork
Personal discipline
Improved morale
Quality circles
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1) Seiri
The first step of the "5S" process, seiri, refers to the act of throwing away all
unwanted, unnecessary, and unrelated materials in the workplace. Even the number of
necessary items in the workplace must be kept to its absolute minimum. Because of seiri,
simplification of tasks, effective use of space, and careful purchase of items follow.
2) Seiton
Seiton, or orderliness, is all about efficiency. This step consists of putting everything
in an assigned place so that it can be accessed or retrieved quickly, as well as returned in
that same place quickly. The correct place, position, or holder for every tool, item, or material
must be chosen carefully in relation to how the work will be performed and who will use
them. Every single item must be allocated its own place for safekeeping, and each location
must be labeled for easy identification of what it's for.
3) Seiso
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Seiso, the third step in "5S", says that 'everyone is a janitor.' Seiso consists of
cleaning up the workplace and giving it a 'shine'. Cleaning must be done by everyone in the
organization, from operators to managers. No area should be left uncleaned. Everyone
should see the 'workplace' through the eyes of a visitor - always thinking if it is clean enough
to make a good impression.
4) Seiketsu
The fourth step of "5S", or seiketsu, more or less translates to 'standardized clean-
up'. It consists of defining the standards by which personnel must measure and maintain
'cleanliness'. Personnel must therefore practice 'seiketsu' starting with their personal
tidiness. Visual management is an important ingredient of seiketsu. Personnel are trained to
detect abnormalities using their five senses and to correct such abnormalities
immediately.
5) Shitsuke
The last step of "5S", Shitsuke, means 'Discipline.' It denotes commitment to
maintain orderliness and to practice the first 4 S as a way of life. The emphasis of shitsuke
is elimination of bad habits and constant practice of good ones. Once true shitsuke is
achieved, personnel voluntarily observe cleanliness and orderliness at all times, without
having to be reminded by management.
Six Sigma
Six Sigma seeks to improve the
quality of process outputs by identifying
and removing the defects (errors) and
minimizing variability in
manufacturing and business processes.
It uses a set of quality
management methods,
including statistical methods, and creates
a special infrastructure of people within the organization ("Champions", "Black Belts", "Green
Belts", "Yellow Belts", etc.) who are experts in the methods. Each Six Sigma project carried
out within an organization follows a defined sequence of steps and has quantified value
targets, for example: reduce process cycle time, reduce pollution, reduce costs, increase
customer satisfaction, and increase profits.
Six Sigma is a set of strategies, techniques, and tools for process improvement. Six
Sigma is a management philosophy developed by Motorola in 1981 that emphasizes setting
extremely high objectives, collecting data, and analyzing results to a fine degree as a way to
reduce defects in products and services. The Greek letter sigma is sometimes used to
denote variation from a standard. The philosophy behind Six Sigma is that if you measure
how many defects are in a process, you can figure out how to systematically eliminate them
and get as close to perfection as possible.
Methods
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Six Sigma projects follow two project methodologies inspired by Deming's Plan-Do-
Check-Act Cycle. These methodologies, composed of five phases each, bear the acronyms
DMAIC and DMADV.
1. DMAIC is used for projects aimed at improving an existing business process.
2. DMADV is used for projects aimed at creating new product or process
designs.
DMAIC
The Six Sigma process is called Sigma DMAIC, which stands for "define, measure,
analyze, improve, control." This set of steps scrutinizes existing processes that are known to
fall short of Six Sigma requirements.
DMAIC is a tool for improving an existing process. The steps can be summarized
as follows.
Define: State the problem, specify the customer set, identify the goals, and
outline the target process.
Measure: Decide what parameters need to be quantified, work out the best
way to measure them, collect the necessary data, and carry out the
measurements by experiment.
Define: State the problem, specify the customer set, identify the goals, and
outline the target process.
Measure: Decide what parameters need to be quantified, work out the best
way to measure them, collect the necessary data, and carry out the
measurements by experiment.
Analyze: Identify performance goals and determine how process inputs are
likely to affect process outputs.
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Design: Work out details, optimize the methods, run simulations if necessary,
and plan for design verification.
Verify: Check the design to be sure it was set up according to plan, conduct
trials of the processes to make sure that they work, and begin production or
sales.
Six Sigma key roles for implementation
Six Sigma identifies several key roles for its successful implementation.
Black Belts operate under Master Black Belts to apply Six Sigma
methodology to specific projects. They devote 100% of their valued time to
Six Sigma. They primarily focus on Six Sigma project execution and special
leadership with special tasks, whereas Champions and Master Black Belts
focus on identifying projects/functions for Six Sigma.
Green Belts are the employees who take up Six Sigma implementation along
with their other job responsibilities, operating under the guidance of Black
Belts.
Yellow Belts, for employees that have basic training in Six Sigma tools and
generally participate in projects and "White belts" for those locally trained in
the concepts but do not participate in the project team. "Orange belts" are
also mentioned to be used for special cases.
TPM (Total Productive Maintenance)
TPM is referred to as total productive maintenance but Toyota increasingly replace
"productive" with professional. The aim is to have zero breakdowns with the use of
systematic maintenance techniques. The maintenance team progressively strive to
guarantee that equipment will be available for 100% of the required time.
The six basic principles upon which TPM is founded are -
1. Minor defects must be eliminated from all equipment
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1. What is TQM?
TQM is a set of systematic activities carried out by the entire organization to
effectively and efficiently achieve company objectives.
2. Define Quality.
Meeting the requirements of the customer
3. What is JIT?
Just-in-time (JIT) is an inventory strategy that strives to improve a business’s
return on investment by reducing in-process inventory and associated carrying costs.
4. What is Quality Assurance?
Quality assurance refers to the processes and procedures that systematically
monitor different aspects of a service or process.
5. What is process control?
Process control refers to the methods that are used to control process
variables when manufacturing a product.
6. Define Quality Control
Quality control may be defined as group of techniques of the industrial
management by means of which products of uniform acceptable quality are
manufactured.
7. What is 5M?
Men, Machine, Money, Method & Materials
8. What is Kaizen?
‘Continuous Improvement’ is a policy of constantly introducing small
incremental changes in a business in order to improve quality and/or efficiency.
9. What is TPM?
Total productive maintenance (TPM) is the systematic execution of
maintenance by all employees through small group activities.
10. What is 5s?
Seiri, Seiton, Seiso, Seiketsu & Shitsuke
11. What is benchmarking?
Benchmarking is the process of measuring your company's performance in
each function and comparing that level of performance with the level of performance
achieved by successful leaders.
12. What is Pareto analysis?
Pareto analysis is developed around the basic concept that 80% of a specific
effect is due to 20% of the cause (80-20 rule).
13. Write other name for cause and effect diagram.
Fishbone diagram or Ishikawa diagram
14. Define SPC.
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6 Mark Question
12 Mark Question
1. Explain in detail about Quality control process system for graphics arts industry.
2. What are the basic elements of TQM and explain each of them in detail?
3. Explain about steps for process management.
4. Explain all the seven statistical control tools with diagram.
5. Explain pareto charts and histogram with neat diagram.
6. Explain in detail about Kaizen and explain 5s in detail.
7. Explain the quality concepts adopted in printing industry.
8. Explain in detail six sigma concepts adopted in printing industry
9. Explain in detail about Six Sigma key roles for implementation.
10. Write short notes on 1) JIT 2) TPM 3) ISO
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addition, paper should never be stored next to cold walls, radiators or other heated objects,
or areas subject to sudden drastic changes in temperature.
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supplier an opportunity to provide input before waste and lost press time is incurred. If a
decision must be made to continue the job with the paper that is causing a problem, it should
be made in cooperation with the paper supplier. Continuing to use problem paper without
informing the paper supplier or allowing for input may lead to disagreements that frustrate
later attempts at a financial settlement.
Complaint handling process
It is in the printer's best interest to have a complaint handling process that makes it
easy to collect the appropriate samples, data, and information needed to support a claim.
Following is a brief outline of a complaint handling system, including some general
procedures that should be followed in collecting evidence at the time of printing.
For a problem involving press sheets, collect and staple together twelve
consecutive sheets from the feeder; for roll problems, strip three to four wraps
from the roll when the problem occurred. Immediately label the samples.
Collect twelve consecutive sheets or signatures (showing the problem) from
the delivery and immediately staple and label these samples.
Collect ink and fountain solution samples from the trays and immediately label
the containers. Use plastic bottles with watertight lids for the fountain solution
and plastic or metal cans with lids for the ink. Don't use paper cups for
samples! Paper cup containers will absorb water and solvents and may tear
and leak.
If the problem stems from blanket contamination, pull samples of the debris
from the blanket using tape. Don't fold the tape back onto itself or attach it to
paper. Instead, attach the tape to a piece of clear plastic.
Because the debris may be carried in with the paper, it is important to collect
twelve consecutive sheets from the feeder, Again, staple and label the
sheets.
Set aside any unused problem paper, cover the paper with a moisture-barrier
material, and label it as complaint paper, with job name and paper mill
identification numbers.
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The grain of the paper refers to the direction of the fibers in a sheet of paper. Long
grain paper refers to paper in which the fibers run in the same direction as the longest
measurement of the paper. On rolls of paper for web presses, the grain runs along the
length of the web. Short grain paper refers to paper in which the fibers run in the same
direction as the shortest measurement of the paper.
When paper is torn, it will tear easier and straighter when torn parallel with the grain.
It will also fold easier parallel to the grain and produce a cleaner fold than if folded across the
grain. Laser printers require long grain paper for the best results. Short grain paper may not
feed properly into a laser printer and the heat produced by a laser printer may result in the
sheets curling as they come out of the printer.
GSM
GSM stands for grams per square meter. It gives an idea as to thickness of a paper
and it is a common term used in paper industry. GSM Tester / Substance Indicator
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Stiffness
Paper stiffness is the ability for a sheet of paper to resist bending. Stiffness is
influenced by the thickness and basis
weight of the sheet.
Stiffness can vary from machine
direction (MD) to cross machine direction
(CMD). Paper stiffness is typically stiffer
across the grain due to the resistance of
the paper fibers to bend across
themselves.
Measuring Paper Stiffness
Stiffness can be measured using number of
different testing devices. A common device is the
Gurly stiffness tester. The Gurly testeer uses its
own units and is governed by the TAPPI T 543
paper standard.
A property of paper to resist bending and its
ability to support its own weight when handled. The
stiffness of the paper affects its feeding ability and
its ability to avoid distortion due to the pull of the ink
during the printing process. The stiffness is important to the converting operations for forms
and envelopes.
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Tearing resistance is dependent upon fiber length and strength. Longer fibers give
greater tearing resistance. Some fibers produce greater resistance to tearing than do others.
Greater fiber to fiber bonding from added reining increases tearing resistance. However,
added refining resulting in fiber cutting and a reduction of-i fiber length will reduce tearing
resistance even- though fiber to fiber bond strength increases. The addition of fillers reduces
tearing resistance.
Folding Endurance
The ability of the paper to hold up to multiple foldings before breaking.
Folding endurance is the paper's capability of withstanding multiple folds before it
breaks. It is defined as the number of double folds that a strip of 15 mm wide and 100 mm
length can withstand under a specified load before it breaks. It is important for printing
grades where the paper is subjected to multiple folds like in books, maps, or pamphlets. Fold
test is also important for carton, box boards, ammonia print paper, and cover paper etc.
Folding endurance is a requirement in Bond, Ledger, Currency, Map, Blue Print and Record
Papers.
A paper property that refers to the ability of a paper to be folded repeatedly without
tearing. The number of folds it can withstand before it breaks is its folding endurance.
Folding endurance varies according to grain direction, and is greater against the grain. In the
Schopper method, a metal blade repeatedly folds a strip of paper back and forth between
several rollers until it breaks.
In the schopper method (TAPPI
Standard T 423), a strip of paper is held
under tension while a slotted
reciprocating blade catches the strip in
its middle and folds it back and forth
between four rollers, folding it first
toward one side, then toward the other
side. The number of double folds the
paper withstands before breaking is its
folding endurance.
In the MIT method, an oscillating
folding head repeatedly folds a paper sample back and forth until it breaks. The MIT method
allows greater variability in the paper samples, and the tension can be adjusted based on the
thickness of the sample.
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A hygrometer is used to measure the level of humidity. The usual type that you can
buy is typically made from a fibre (originally horse hair) that changes length with changes in
humidity. Because the fibre hygrometer can be affected by many different conditions, it
should be calibrated quite regularly. They are especially quite inaccurate at very high and
low humidities.
A simple way to get a value for the relative humidity is to use a wet-and-dry bulb
hygrometer (psychrometer). The value can then be used to calibrate a "hair" hygrometer. To
make one is relatively simple. First you need a thermometer (two would be better) shaped
such that you can wrap a small piece of tissue or cloth around the bulb. First measure the air
temperature. Next wrap a small piece of tissue around the bulb and wet it. Wait about ten
minutes until the temperature stabilizes - it
will be lower due to evaporation.
A more permanent setup would use
two thermometers and a small water
reservoir. The thermometers would be fixed
on a card. One thermometer would have a
piece of cloth wrapped on the bulb with the
end dipping into a small reservoir of water
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H2O H+ + OH-
In this reaction, water breaks apart to form a hydrogen ion (H+) and a hydroxyl ion
(OH-).
1. [H+] is the molar concentration of hydrogen
2. [OH- is the molar concentration of hydroxide
Water actually behaves both like an acid and a base. The acidity or basicity of a
substance is defined most typically by the pH value, defined as below:
pH = -log[H+]
pH measurement:
Acidic and basic are two extremes that describe chemicals, just like hot and cold are
two extremes that
describe temperature.
Mixing acids and bases
can cancel out their
extreme effects. The pH
scale measures how
acidic or basic a
substance is. It ranges from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral. A pH less than 7 is acidic, and a pH
greater than 7 is basic. Each whole pH value below 7 is ten times more acidic than the next
higher value.
Pure water is neutral, with a pH of 7.0. When chemicals are mixed with water, the
mixture can become either acidic or basic. Vinegar and lemon juice are acidic substances,
while laundry detergents and ammonia are basic.
pH Meter
The most accurate common means of measuring pH is through a lab device called a
a pH meter. The meter consists of a glass electrode through which a small voltage is
passed. The meter, a voltmeter, measures the electronic impedance in the glass electrode
and displays pH units instead of volts. A pH meter typically has to be calibrated before each
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use with two standard liquid solutions of known pH. Measurement is made by submerging
the meter in the liquid until a reading is registered by the meter.
Litmus Paper
Litmus paper is a small strip of paper that has been dipped in a combination of
dyes that change color according to the pH of the medium in which they are contained.
Acidic liquids (pH below 7) turn the paper red while alkaline liquids (pH above 7) change
it to blue or purple. Litmus paper is good for roughly estimating the relative pH of liquids,
but not for precise readings. Measurement is made by briefly dipping the end of an unused
strip in the liquid and allowing it to dry.
Field Kit
A field kit consists of a clean, empty vial into which a sample liquid can be placed,
and a bottle of indicator solution. A few drops of the solution are placed in the sample, and
the pH is determined by the change in color of the liquid. Because different indicator
solutions perform better at certain pH levels, a variety of kits is available for different ranges.
The accuracy of the field kit depends on the narrowness of the indicator solution's range.
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efflux cups
Shell cups are more accurate than Zahn cups and can detect smaller changes in
viscosity.
Shell cups are also slightly easier to use, as the moment at which ink flow stops is
usually clearly apparent.
Both Shell and Zahn cups are manufactured in a number of sizes. Cups should be
selected that will empty within 20-40 seconds.
Viscosity Test Procedure
1. Use a clean efflux cup of appropriate
size and an accurate stopwatch.
2. Be sure ink is warmed to working
temperature.
3. Stir ink well, or circulate ink through
the delivery system.
4. Lower the cup into the ink at an angle,
allowing the cup to fill without trapping
ink.
5. Hold the submerged cup in one hand
and the timer in the other.
Simultaneously, lift the cup vertically out of the ink and start the timer.
6. Watch the ink flow out of the bottom of the cup. When a break occurs in the
stream of ink, stop the timer.
7. Read and record the elapsed time in seconds.
8. Clean the cup.
9. If the ink viscosity needs adjustment, add fresh ink to raise viscosity or dilutent to
lower viscosity. Add slowly and in small amounts. Allow sufficient mixing time
before testing viscosity again to confirm that it is correct.
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A property of printing inks that describes the cohesion that exists between particles of
the ink film, the force required to split an ink film or, in other words, its stickiness. An ink with
a high degree of tack (or a tacky ink) requires more force to split than does a less tacky film.
Offset lithographic inks require tackier inks than do other printing processes so as to avoid
excessive emulsification of the ink by the fountain solution, and to print sharp halftone
images. Tacky inks, however, do not print solids very well.
The tack of the ink should not exceed the surface strength of the paper, or picking,
splitting, and tearing of the paper will occur. In multi-color printing, the first ink printed must
have greater tack than the ink that will be printed on top of it, or the latter will not trap on the
first ink. The tack of an ink can be measured with an Inkometer or a Tackoscope.
Working Principle of Inkometer
A device used to measure the tack, or
stickiness, of a printing ink by means of determining
the torque produced by a series of rotating inked
rollers. Inkometers are frequently used to compare
and contrast the tack of various inks to be used in
wet multi-color printing processes, where the tack
of the first ink printed must exceed that of the ink
printed on top of it. An Inkometer is also called a
Tackoscope.
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back, and are used to print solid colors. Transparent pigments allow varying amounts of light
to pass through them, revealing the background printing or substrate. Transparent pigments
are used to reduce color strength of more opaque inks, aid dispersion of color pigments, and
"extend" a quantity of more expensive pigments. Ink opacity is also referred to as its
covering power.
Working Principle of Opacimeter
A device used to determine the opacity of the paper or the level of "show through".
A device used to measure the
opacity of a paper by gauging how much
light is being reflected back through paper,
using either the diffuse opacity method or
the contrast ratio method.
Opacimeter is a convenient, self-
contained instrument for measuring the
percentage opacity and whiteness of
printing ink paper and plastics in a research
and production environment. A
microprocessor inside the unit compares the diffuse reflectance of the sample against black
and white references to display opacity
Diffuse Opacity Method
A means of measuring a paper's
opacity by backing a paper sample with a
black sheet of paper, measuring how much
light is reflected back through the sample,
then backing the sample with a thick pile of
the paper to be tested and measuring how
much light is reflected off the top of the
backing pile and back through the sample.
The ratio of these two figures is the paper sample's diffuse opacity. It is believed that the
diffuse opacity method is more effective than the contrast ratio method in estimating
potential show through.
Contrast Ratio Method
A means of measuring a paper's opacity by backing a paper sample with a black
sheet of paper, measuring how much light is reflected back through the sample, then
backing the sample with a white reflecting surface, and measuring how much light is
reflected off the top of the white backing and back through the sample. The ratio of these two
figures is the paper sample's contrast opacity. It is believed, however, that the diffuse opacity
method is more effective than the contrast ratio method in estimating potential show through.
Gloss Ink
An ink that contains extra varnish, which makes the ink appear glossy when printed.
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The term gloss also refers to the degree of shine of a printed ink. Certain inks, such
as high-gloss inks, dry to a high degree of gloss. The key to glossy inks is the maximization
of ink holdout, as it is premature absorption of the ink vehicle into the paper before it can dry
by oxidation that decreases gloss.
Working Principle of Glossmeter
A device used to measure the amount
of gloss possessed by a paper, expressed as
the ratio of the amount of the paper sample's
reflected light to the light falling on it as
compared to a gloss standard (polished black
glass) of 100 "gloss units." Gloss is measured
at a determined angle from the paper's
surface; for coated papers, it tends to be 15º
from the paper's surface (for extremely glossy
papers, best results can be obtained at 20º from the paper's surface).
The glossmeter shines a light of known intensity on the paper and calculates the
amount reflected back at the chosen angle of reflectance. Gloss can differ with grain
direction, so readings in both the grain and cross-grain direction are typically taken.
Gloss is determined using a gloss meter, which directs a beam light (which has a
similar wavelength range as the human eye) at a specific angle to the test surface and
measuring the amount of reflection.
Easy to use, place the gloss meter on the surface to be measured, press the read
button and the gloss reading will appear on the display, releasing the button will hold the
reading the instrument will automatically switch off when not in use.
Long life tungsten halogen lamp closely conforming to CIE illuminant C for
International standard compliance is fitted in the star gloss meter.
2.5 Working Principle of Moisture meter
The ability of a material to resist taking on moisture and breaking down when
exposed to it.
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A paper property that refers to the ability of a paper to be folded repeatedly without
tearing. The number of folds it can
withstand before it breaks is its folding
endurance. Folding endurance varies
according to grain direction, and is greater
against the grain. In the Schopper
method, a metal blade repeatedly folds a
strip of paper back and forth between
several rollers until it breaks.
In the schopper method (TAPPI
Standard T 423), a strip of paper is held
under tension while a slotted reciprocating
blade catches the strip in its middle and folds it back and forth between four rollers, folding it
first toward one side, then toward the other side.
The number of double folds the paper withstands
before breaking is its folding endurance.
In the MIT method, an oscillating folding
head repeatedly folds a paper sample back and
forth until it breaks. The MIT method allows
greater variability in the paper samples, and the
tension can be adjusted based on the thickness of
the sample.
In the MIT method (TAPPI Standard T
511), a strip is clamped under tension between a
spring-loaded jaw and an oscillating folding head.
As the folding head oscillates an exact number of
degrees on each side of its starting position, the paper is alternately folded toward each of its
two sides. The average result for a number of double folds endured is reported for both the
machine and cross-machine directions.
Working Principle of Weather-O-meter
A device utilized to evaluate a paper or ink's ability to retain its properties when
exposed to inclement weather, basically consisting of a Fade-Ometer's lightfastness-
measuring equipment supplemented with a water jet that intermittently sprays the test
sample with water, to simulate the effects of weather.
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Unit - II
1 Mark Question
1. What is pH?
The degree of acidity or alkalinity of the paper or solution
2. What is GSM?
GSM stands for grams per square meter. It gives an idea as to thickness of a
paper.
3. What is RH?
The level of moisture in the air
4. What is viscosity?
The degree to which ink resists flow when it is under force, such as in the
roller train of a printing press.
5. What is tack?
The stickiness of ink required to adhere properly to the type of substrate
being printed on.
6. What are the two directions of paper?
Long grain direction & Short grain direction
7. Name instrument measure the humidity.
Hygrometers or psychrometers
8. What is TEA?
TEA is the Tensile Energy Absorption, i.e. the amount of work required to
break the sheet under tension.
9. Mention name of the instrument measure tear strength.
Elmendorf Tear Strength Tester
10. Define stiffness
Paper stiffness is the ability for a sheet of paper to resist bending.
11. Name two paper testing instruments.
Mullen tester, GSM tester, stiffness tester, tensile strength tester.
12. Define Folding endurance.
The ability of the paper to hold up to multiple foldings before breaking.
13. What is the optimum value of pH to be maintained in fountain solution?
4.5 to 5.5
14. Mention the uses of mullen tester?
A test used to measure the bursting strength of paper.
15. What is conductivity?
Conductivity describes how electricity is conducted through a liquid; impurities
in the dampening solution allow conductivity to increase
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6 Mark Question
1. What is purpose of inspection?
2. Why do we need to maintain the incoming paper records in ware house?
3. What do you mean by proper handling of paper?
4. Write short notes on stiffness.
5. What is tensile strength of paper?
6. Why do we test folding endurance for packaging materials?
7. What is smoothness of paper and how it is tested?
8. Explain the relation between pH and Conductivity.
9. Explain the use of inkometer.
10. What is viscosity and tack?
12 Mark Question
1. Explain the importance of proper material handling and maintenance of data sheet of
materials in printing industry.
2. Discuss the testing property of inspection of incoming materials in the printing
industry.
3. Explain in detail about the pH and conductivity of dampening solution with neat
sketch.
4. Explain the procedure for testing of ink viscosity by using viscometer with neat
sketch.
5. Discuss about importance of tensile strength for incoming materials in packaging
industry?
6. What is tack? and explain in detail how to measure it with neat sketch.
7. Explain about tearing resistance tester and folding endurance tester in detail.
8. State the various paper and board property and explain any one in detail with neat
diagram?
9. Explain about glossmeter and opacimeter in detail.
10. State various ink tests and explain any one in detail with neat diagram?
11. Write short notes on:
a) Stiffness b) RH c) Smoothness d) Grain direction e) Tearing resistance
12. Explain about Moisture meter and weather o meter in detail.
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Color Control Bars include single and dual-tiered color bars in multiple
lengths that contain neutral-gray patches, solids, tints, total area coverage
patches, RGB overprint patches and Star Targets.
Test Forms include measurement forms for sheetfed, web, and digital
printing as well as diagnostic forms in sizes from 8.5”x11” to large format.
Custom Products include special “made to order” color bars, test forms,
targets, or film-based products with your company’s logo.
Registration mark
Registration marks in printing are alignment
marks made at the surface of a paper before printing.
This lines help in ensuring that the paper to be printed is
properly aligned.
You may have the most accurate CtP, the best
and newest offset press, however, you are still covering
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absorbent paper with ink and water and squeezing under pressure in the press. The result is
that there will always be a chance of misregistration in the presswork.
The little circle with a cross through it is printed
using every colour of the four-colour printing process. If
they’re being printed accurately, they should overlap
precisely so the mark looks entirely black. Therefore if any
of the colours are slightly offset (out of register) then
they’ll be displayed, showing the job isn’t being printed
correctly.
In multicolor printing, when all the layers of inks are in perfect register, one is not
aware of the individual ink layers, only the image created by their combination. However, if
one or more of the individual ink layers begins to move out of register, the image begins to
appear softer, with lower detail definition. Color and tone may subtly shift. And if the ink
layers continue to move further out of register, color fringes begin to appear at the edges of
detail, and finally the color image breaks up.
Star target
The star target appears along with the color bar and
helps the pressman detect any irregularity in the ink spread.
The star target consists of a circle formed of alternating
positive and negative pie-shaped wedges tapering toward the
center at a known angle. Having many stars across the field of view
allows the best focus across the field of view to be determined
while simultaneously analyzing horizontal and vertical information at
a variety of resolutions.
Slurring and doubling are print defects that occur when
halftone dots and type blur as a result of a slight second contact or
movement between press cylinders or the paper and blanket. There
are many different styles of slur and doubling detection targets.
Every halftone dot or letter character on the printed sheet will reveal
slur and doubling, however the targets in the color bar signal the
defect easier and quicker.
The Star Target amplifies the effect of gain, slur, doubling, paper movement, so that
small distortions in print can be easily seen by the operator. The indicator is visual; there is
no way to quantify the result.
Ink coverage target
The amount of ink printed on a sheet. Generally indicated by percentage.
In printing, any non-uniformity in the density of a printed image, resulting from fading,
discoloration, incomplete ink coverage, or other causes.
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Two other considerations of ink coverage are drying time (the speed at which a print
press can run as each printed sheet is laid on top of the other) and the volume of ink used.
Both have cost implications, usually for larger print runs, but could also impinge on the
speed of turn-around from the printers.
Line resolution target
A transparent screen which has
been etched with fine lines. It is used
to convert a picture or photograph into
a halftone dot pattern so that it can be
printed.
A measurement of the number
of lines of type in an inch, determined
by measuring from baseline to baseline. Example: 6 LPI indicates that 6 lines of type would
fit in one inch. 2. The number of lines of dots per inch in a halftone screen or linescreen. A
screen with a higher lpi, such as 200 lpi has many smaller dots which provide finer detail and
a sharper image clarity. The LPI of a halftone screen is also called frequency.
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The usual densitometric targets in a color bar are: Solid Ink Density, Dot Area/Gain of
the quarter, half and three-quarter tints, Contrast and the Trapping of ink overprints.
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1) Solid patches
Solid patches enable the uniformity of
the inking to be checked. It is advisable to use
one solid field per printing ink spaced at the
distance of the ink fountain zone width (32. 5
mm for Heidelberg). This makes it
possible to use solid fields for the
automatic calorimetric control of solids.
2) Halftone patches
Depending on the manufacturer,
halftone fields may contain different type
on halftone values.
From the measured data of the halftone and solid
patches the dot gain and print contrast are calculated.
3) Slur/doubling patches
Line gratings of different screen angling allow the
pressman to visually and densitometer check for slur or
doubling faults.
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D
t
D
s
The relative print contrast is also calculated from the readings of the solid ink density
Ds and the screen (or tint) ink density
Dt. The Dt value here is best
measured in the three-quarter tone (
ie.e 75% of tint). The print contrast is
calculated according to the formula:
Ds – Dt x 100
K(%) =
Ds
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Ink Trapping
It indicates how well an ink is
accepted when printed onto another
ink as compared to when it is printed
onto the printing stock.
A distinction has to be made
between wet-on-dry and wet-on-wet
printing.
The term “wet-on-dry”
printing is used when an ink is
printed directly onto the printing stock
or another, dry ink. If, on the other
hand, an ink is superimposed on a
wet colour, one uses the term “wet-
on-wet”. For multicolour presses, the
term “wet-on-wet” printing is generally
used.
The term trapping refers to the
action of printing an ink film on top of
another ink film, as in process color
printing. Proper trapping results in well-
printed materials, while poor trapping
results in successive inks that do not
adhere properly and bead or rub off
readily.
Wet trapping refers to trapping
performed in wet multi-color printing, where one ink is laid down on top of a previously
printed, still-wet ink. If the second ink has greater tack than the first ink, poor trapping will
occur.
Dry trapping is a multi-color printing process in which one ink is laid down on top of
a dry ink.
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TIC is the sum of the cyan, magenta, yellow, and black (CMYK) values for any
part of an image. For example,
C40 M30 Y20 K15 is 40+30+20+15 = 105%
TIC.
C50 M50 Y50 K100 would be 250% TIC.
Even if most of your page uses just 100%
black text, if there is an area that contains more
layers of ink, such as a color photograph, it
determines the total ink coverage for that page. If
you have overprint areas, that also adds another
layering of inks that would increase the amount of
ink used for that portion of your layout.
If the maximum TIC for a specific printing
method and type of paper is exceeded the layers of
ink added last in the print run may not adhere
properly to the underlying layers of ink resulting in
inaccurate colors, slow ink-drying with possible rub-
off of ink, wrinkling of the paper, and ink bleeding through the paper. Too much ink can result
in photos with muddy colors or dirty brown instead of a nice neutral black or a loss of detail
in the shadows from the excessive ink.
ICC profiles contain a great deal of color management information including total ink
coverage settings for specific printing conditions. Some desktop publishing software will
allow you to set a certain total ink limit and alert you to those areas of a design that exceed
that limit. In the illustration on this page, areas of a design that exceed a specified limit (in
this case, 300%) are shown in red in an InDesign document.
The acceptable amount of ink coverage depends on several factors. Coated paper
can usually accept a higher ink coverage than uncoated paper, for instance. However, the
following list provides some generalities. This list refers to offset lithography printing:
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CIE Lab
CIE - International Commission of Illumination. This is the organization
responsible for setting the world-wide color measurement standards.
An organization called CIE (Commission Internationale de l'Eclairage) determined
standard values that are used worldwide to measure color.
The values used by CIE are called L*, a*
and b* and the color measurement method is
called CIELAB.
L* represents the difference
between light (where L*=100)
and dark (where L*=0).
a* represents the difference
between green (-a*) and red
(+a*), and
b* represents the difference
between yellow (+b*) and blue (-
b*).
Using this system any color corresponds to a place on the graph shown in Figure 3.
CIE Chromaticity Diagram & Colour Gamut
Since the human eye has three types of color sensors that respond to different
ranges of wavelengths, a full plot of all visible
colors is a three-dimensional figure. However, the
concept of color can be divided into two parts:
brightness and chromaticity. For example, the
color white is a bright color, while the color grey is
considered to be a less bright version of that
same white. In other words, the chromaticity of
white and grey are the same while their brightness
differs.
The CIE XYZ color space was deliberately
designed so that the Y parameter was a measure
of the brightness or luminance of a color. The
chromaticity of a color was then specified by the
two derived parameters x and y, two of the three
normalized values which are functions of all three tristimulus values X, Y, and Z.
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This can be used in quality control to show whether a printed sample, such as a
colour swatch or proof, is in tolerance with a reference sample or industry standard. The
difference between the L*, a* and b* values of the reference and sample will be shown as
Delta E (ΔE). The resulting Delta E number will show how far apart visually the two samples
are in the colour 'sphere'.
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1. Overproduction:
Producing more than is needed. Any resources expended unnecessarily are
considered waste, and producing product when it is not needed is a common waste in
manufacturing. This can occur due to poor production planning and control, or it may result
from improper incentive systems that reward overproduction.
2. Inventory:
All idle resources are wasteful, and inventory is one of the most common. Raw
materials, WIP and Finished Goods inventories require significant capital investments, but
add no value to the product. Some may argue that having product on hand so it can ship
immediately adds value to the customer. Short lead times add value, but holding inventory
does not. The goal of lean is to achieve the value desired, such as short lead times, without
any waste, such as high inventory levels.
3. Wait Time:
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Whenever materials, people or machines are sitting idle. Waiting occurs when
queues are built within processes, or when the time required for workers or machines to
conduct a value added process is out of sync with each other. In these situations, one of the
resources is waiting, and waste is occurring. Ideally, every resource would be put to
productive use 100% of the time it is required. Any time a resource spends idle represents
lost capacity and productivity, and increases lead time to the customer.
4. Transportation:
Material movement that does not move the product to the customer. The
definitions of waste and value vary within the lean community. There are some who
consider all transportation costs as waste. Others consider some transportation as value
added since a product is more valuable to a customer once it is delivered to the customer.
Regardless of the view on transportation, minimizing transport costs is a goal of lean.
5. Processing:
Excessive processing includes any activity that provides no additional value to
a product or service. Often, excessive processing occurs when an individual processing
operation can be combined with other processes or can be eliminated all together. For
example, packaging processes do not add any value to a product.
6. Motion:
Any movement, of people, machines or materials that does not add value to a
product. The elimination of motion was one the major drivers that led to the development of
cellular manufacturing techniques. With these techniques, production is completed in a
small work cell combining multiple operations with little to no movement between each
operation, and without excess motion expended by the worker.
7. Defects:
Poor quality drives up costs both in wasted materials and labor. Lean
manufacturing draws heavily on total quality techniques and seeks to ensure every activity
delivers value. Defects disrupt this process, causing materials and labor to be lost. More
recently, reducing waste and eliminating defects have taken a major step forward with the
development of six sigma techniques. Six sigma tools compliment the lean framework, and
many practitioners describe the combination as Lean Six Sigma.
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Unit - III
1 Mark Question
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6 Mark Question
1. List down the quality control products for prepress operations.
2. Explain briefly about SID.
3. Explain briefly about Dot gain.
4. What is print contrast?
5. Write short notes on ink trapping.
6. Explain Ink coverage target.
7. Explain Delta E.
8. List down the patches in color control bar.
12 Mark Question
1. Explain in detail quality control target with neat diagram.
2. Explain about print control strip in four color printing with neat diagram
3. Explain in detail about various analysis of print attributes applied to maintain quality
in printing.
4. Explain in detail about CIE Lab with neat diagram.
5. Explain in detail about wastage minimization in printing industry.
6. Write short notes on 1) Registration mark 2) Star target 3) SID 4) Dot gain.
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4.1 DENSITOMETERS
Densitometer are used for measuring color saturation by print professionals, and
calibrating printing equipment. They are also used for making adjustments so outputs are
consistent with the colors desired in the finished products.
Types of Densitometers
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During the drying process, the ink adapts to the irregular structure of the paper
surface, and the reflection effect decreases. If a given ink is measured first in wet and then in
dry condition, different readings will result.
In order to eliminate this effect, two crossed linear polarisation filters are inserted in
the path of the rays. Polarisation filters allow the light of only one particular vibration
direction to pass, while blocking all light waves which are vibrating in other directions.
Colour filters are inserted for measurements of colours. The colour filters in a
densitometer are tuned to the absorption performance of cyan, magenta and yellow.
cyan red
magenta green
yellow blue
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4.2 SPECTROPHOTOMETERS
A spectrophotometer is a device for measuring light intensity by measuring the
wavelength of light. The most common application of spectrophotometers in the printing
industry is the measurement of light absorption.
A spectrophotometer will illuminate the sample for measurement with white light. The
sample will absorb some of that light and reflect a portion back. The reflected light passes
through a detector which splits the light into separate wavelength intervals, and outputs
those values to the device itself or an attached computer. The reflectance of a sample is
expressed as a fraction or as a percentage.
Ink & paper manufacturers, printing companies, and others, need the data provided
by a spectrophotometer. Spectrophotometers commonly take readings every 10 nanometers
along the visible wavelengths(400-700nm), and produce a spectral reflectance curve. These
curves can be used to make sure a color conforms to a given specification.
How a Spectrophotometer Works
To properly understand how a spectrophotometer works, we first need to understand
how color works. Color is made up of wavelengths of light and can be broken into six
categories:
1. X-rays
2. Ultraviolet
3. Visible light
4. Infrared
5. Microwaves
6. Radiowaves
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As you can see, visible light is somewhere in the middle, and this is what the
spectrophotometer analyzes to match paint. The visible light spectrum is composed of good
ol' ROY G. BIV, which is an acronym for red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet.
These seven colors make up all the different colors we can see with the naked eye. Black is
the absence of color, and white is made up of all of these colors. This will come into play in a
minute.
Measuring principle of a reflection Spectrophotometers
Colours are measured with tristimulus colorimeters or spectrophotometers. In
principle, the construction of colour measuring devices follows the visual and sensoric model
of the human eye.
During the measuring process, a measuring head scans the print control strip or the
image, making a spectral measurement of all control elements. Alternatively, the standard
illuminants A, C, D50 or D65 and the standard observers 2° and 10° can be used. The
measuring principle of a spectrophotometer is illustrated in the diagram below.
First, the illuminant is directed to the printed probe via ring catoptrics at an incidence
angle of 45°. The reflected light at an angle of 0° is directed via a deflection mirror and a
fiberoptical light guide from the measuring head to the spectrophotometer. There it is split
into its spectral colours by means of a diffraction grating which has an effect similar to that of
a prism.
Photodiodes measure the radiation distribution in the entire visible spectrum
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(between 380 and 730 nm) and send the results to a computer. There the measured colour
values are evaluated colorimetrically; the result is given in the tristimulus values X, Y and Z
and the chromaticity coordinates x, y and Y.
Apparatus:
1. light source
2. filter (the device that selects the desired wavelength)
3. cuvette chamber (the transmitted light passes through compartment wherein
the solution containing the colored solution are kept in cuvette, made of glass
or disposable plastic)
4. detector (this is a photosensitive element that converts light into electrical
signals)
5. Galvanometer (measures electrical signal quantitatively)
Light source
Two kinds of lamps, a Deuterium for measurement in the ultraviolet range and a
tungsten lamp for measurement in the visible and near-infrared ranges, are used as the
light sources of a spectrophotometer.
Spectroscope
A spectroscope plays a role in selecting a monochromatic light from a light source
(white light). Spectroscopes include Filter type, Prism type, and Grating (diffraction grating)
type.
Optics
A container that contains a sample is usually called "cell"; two types are available,
glass and quartz cells. Since light in the ultraviolet range with a wavelength of 340 nm or
less hardly passes through a glass cell, it is used for measurement in the visible range of
340 nm or more.
On the other hand, although a quartz cell allows passage of light in the entire
wavelength in the ultraviolet and visible ranges, it is mainly used for the measurement in the
ultraviolet range due to its high price.
Detector
A detector plays a role in changing the light transmitted from a sample into an electric
signal. Optical semiconductor, Types of photomultiplier, etc. are available.
Viewing Geometry
When light from a single direction illuminates objects such as a mirror or metal
objects, almost all the light is reflected specularly (as if from a mirror), but for most objects
such as solids, when the surface is illuminated from a single direction, the light is reflected
as shown in Figure 2, with the surface (gloss surface) reflecting some light specularly like a
mirror and reflecting the rest of the light diffusely in all directions.
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reflecting) only the color observed. This interaction accounts for all the colors visible.
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R G B L a b
0 0 20 1 2 -9
0 0 0 .58 0 0
ICC Profiles can be thought of as paired lookup tables with columns of numbers for
each colour in the colour space.
Any colours not explicitly listed in the table above are obtained from interpolation by
the Colour Management Module.
There are a number of profiles that may be required, each made for the
transformation of colour to or from the PCS.
Type Use
Input Profile Scanner, Camera etc
Output Profile Printer, Film Recorder
Display Profile Monitor (CRT, LCD), Projectors
Device to Device Profile Custom Transform from Device to Device
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Input profiles are used to characterise image capture tools such as digital cameras,
scanners and monitors. Input profiles are often, but not always, defined in an RGB space.
Output profiles are those of
digital printing engines and
presses.
A colour
management system can
convert say, an RGB digital
photo's device dependent
colour data into device
independent CIELa*b*
data, and then into device
dependent data, for instance CMYK for printing engine output, according to the constraints
of the output profile.
So an input profile is the profile created to describe the characteristics of a data input
device, such as a monitor, digital camera or scanner. An output device profile is one that
characterises a desktop printer, digital press or offset press. Of course a monitor could also
have input profile as when creating an image on screen and an output profile, as when it's
used for softproofing.
Color Gamut
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1. Human Eye
2. Photographic Film
3. Television or Computer Monitor
4. Digital Printing Equipment
5. Offset Printing
Input profiles
An input or 'capture' profile is made for all devices that are making an original digital
image from some other analogue
source, such as a digital camera or
scanner.
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imperative with all targets that they are looked after and kept away from light or unnecessary
handling. However careful you are with your targets, they will in time fade and it is then best
practice to either replace them or to at least re-measure them and create another data-set
that matches the 'faded' target.
Profiling a Scanner
Many scanners both flatbed
and film come with a calibration target
and software that will let you calibrate
(bring to a known value) your
scanner. Often times the industry
refers to this as linearizing the device,
which really is the same as calibrating
it.
The targets used to calibrate
and profile scanners are often times
similar or the same. Some devices
and or profiling software applications come with custom targets while others use popular
targets made by Kodak, Agfa, Fuji and others.
The Kodak "IT8" target is a well known and often used target. The manufacturers of
these targets also provide reference files (usually simple text files) that include the LAB
values for each color patch. These values serve as a reference point for the color values
attained when the target is scanned. A point of
comparison if you will, that is used to create a
calibrated state or generate a custom profile.
Profiling a Digital camera
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more consistent starting point, and profiling becomes not only possible, but often quite
beneficial.
The process, at least conceptually, is very simple. Take a shot of a color target in
raw mode, develop the raw image with color management turned off in the developing
software, and use a profiling tool to create a profile from the image of the target. The profile
can then be activated in the raw developing tool. That said, the actual process itself can get
a bit complex if we want to ensure a quality profile. You need to get a good shot of the
target under good lighting, and you need to use a profiling tool like Profile Prism that was
designed with camera profiling in mind as camera profiling requires specialized options like
the ability to normalize tone curves and let the device dictate white balance. There are other
high-end (read expensive) tools that allow you to develop camera profiles.
With printer profiles it is important to realise that 'any' change to how the print is
made will make the profile less or even totally ineffective. The profile will be as dependent
upon the type of paper and of course the ink as it is on the printer itself. It is therefore
important to standardise on the ink and paper used by your printer and if you need to use
more than one type of paper, then of course it will also be necessary to make and use a
different profile for each paper.
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produce high quality colour or to provide a relatively high throughput, the costs might well be
considered very low.
Monitor profiles
It is easy to understand that an input profile is comparing the colours created by that
device with the Profile Connection Space (PCS) and that an output profile is again
comparing the colour created by that device with the PCS, but what exactly does a monitor
profile do?
A monitor profile is made to compare or 'characterise' the colours created and shown
by the monitor against those in the PCS. Calibrating the monitor is a relatively easy task and
yet it is perhaps the key part of any colour management system. Unless you are quite sure
that you are looking at an honest and high quality representation of your digital images, it is
quite impossible to make any colour quality judgement or undertake any editing.
Until recently most users calibrated their monitors using 'subjectively' based software
programs such as the Adobe Gamma program that came with Photoshop or slightly more
advanced programs of the same nature such as Sonnetech Colorific (now ColorWizzard).
These programs created a monitor profile by asking the user to make a series of subjective
choices where they would alter the gamma and colour settings to match a known standard
output on the screen:
This system might well be considered better than nothing but it is hardly an accurate
or objective method of characterising a monitor. A quick test will easily show that different
users will calibrate the monitor to different values, highlighting the vagaries of this kind of
subjective and user based system.
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It is therefore not surprising that the importance of this part of the colour workflow has
lead to much re-consideration on what is the best way of undertaking this critical
characterisation.
To fulfil this demand we are now seeing a range of more objective and automated
systems becoming available.
Like many other areas of technology, you get what you pay for and, even though the
cheapest are likely to provide better results than the Adobe Gamma system, it will be worth
paying for the best if you are trying to provide the highest quality and most reliable colour.
It is important to remember that the phosphors of a monitor will change over time and
therefore it is important to regularly calibrate your monitor, certainly at least once a month is
recommended.
Profiling a Monitor
In profiling, the second portion of the monitor calibration process, a series of colored
patches displayed on screen. The monitor calibration software then compares the measured
colors against the actual color values stored in the software and builds a look-up table to
compensate for the differences.
Together, the two-part process improves the accuracy of photos displayed on your
monitor. The calibration process brings the monitor’s hardware controls to a known state,
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Profiling a Printer
To achieve the best results a Raster Image Processor (RIP) is recommended. A RIP
allows you to communicate to the printer in CMYK rather than RGB as is the case with
manufacturer print drivers. Profiling your printer allows a color management system to
correctly translate colors to your paper.
Color Management systems provide a profile of the color characteristics for each
device used in the print workflow, such as a scanner or a digital press. Color characteristics
profiles are incorporated into the print workflow in order to provide consistent color
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reproduction throughout the process. Popular color management systems include Apple
ColorSync and Microsoft ICM.
Cielab models are used for verifying whether the colors of an image fall within the
color range of the print process and the piece of equipment that will be used to output the
image. Cielab is also used to check the color-carrying capabilities of various papers, which is
beneficial for clients in determining the types of papers that are best suited for their
application. As most printers are aware, coated stock is capable of displaying a wider color
gamut than uncoated paper, so using Cielab to illustrate the color gamut of various papers
can justify the use of a more costly stock to achieve better results.
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Unit - IV
1 Mark Question
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6 Mark Question
1. What are the basic components of densitometer?
2. State the advantages of spectrophotometer.
3. Name the types of Densitometer.
4. What are the difference between reflection and transmission densitometry
5. Explain purpose of color filter.
6. Explain the categories of light
7. Explain reflectance curve.
8. Explain color managements system.
9. Explain input profile.
10. Explain output profile.
12 Mark Question
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ISO Philosophy
Say what you do
Do what you say
Document what you do
Check the results
Correct the difference
ISO 9001 standard is a very simple approach to developing a quality system. It is
based on the principle of the standardized operating procedure and auditing to that
procedure. In essence, in order to become ISO 9001 certified, a company must do the
following three things:
1. Document what you do, especially if there is an effect on product quality-this
means that you must write down exactly how you take an order, make a plate,
or run a press as it relates to the quality aspect of the process.
2. Do what you document-you must do your work the way you have said you
will do it in the documentation.
3. Give the customer what you promised you must have procedures for testing,
inspecting, and controlling your printing processes.
ISO 9001 series of standards
ISO 9000 series is comprised of the following international standards:
1. ISO 8402 - Quality management and quality assurance vocabulary
2. ISO 9000 - Guidelines for selection and use
3. ISO 9001 - Model for quality assurance: design, development, production,
installation and servicing
4. ISO 9002 - Model for quality assurance: production, installation and servicing
5. ISO 9003 - Model for quality assurance: final inspection and test
6. ISO 9004 - Quality management and quality system elements
7. ISO 10011 - Guidelines for auditing quality systems
8. ISO 10012 - Requirements for measuring equipment
9. ISO 10013 - Guidelines for quality manuals.
ISO standards for Printing Industry (ISO 12647 series)
The 12647 International Organization for Standardization (ISO) standard provides
standard process control aim points and tolerances for various printing methods and
processes.
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ISO 12647 consists of the following parts, under the general title Graphic technology
– Process control for the production of half-tone colour separations, proof and production
prints:
ISO 12647 is broken down as follows
1. ISO 12647-1 Parameters & Measurement methods
2. ISO 12647-2 Offset Lithographic processes
3. ISO 12647-3 Coldset Offset Lithography on Newsprint
4. ISO 12647-4 Publication Gravure
5. ISO 12647-5 Screen Printing
6. ISO 12647-6 Flexo Printing
7. ISO 12647-7 Proofing process from digital data
8. ISO 12647-8 Digital Printing
Current standards for the printing and media industry
• ISO 2846-1 which describes ink color and transparency.
• ISO 3664 defines lighting conditions for viewing color copies and their
reproduction with either incident or transmitted light.
• ISO 15930-X (PDF/X) for data exchange in print production.
• ISO 15076 for the ICC color profile format.
• ISO 12640 for the data format from which ICC profiles are calculated.
5.2 TYPES AND PURPOSES OF AUDITS
ISO 9001 mandates that the company audit its own processes internally as well as
being audited regularly by an outside firm. There are generally three different types of audits
as it pertains to who is doing the audit and two different types of audits as it pertains to what
is being audited. These are:
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What is Audit?
An audit is an evidence gathering process. Audit evidence is used to evaluate how
well audit criteria are being met. Audits must be objective, impartial, and independent, and
the audit process must be both systematic and documented.
There are three types of audits:
first-party, second-party, and third-
party. First-party audits are internal audits.
Second and third party audits are external
audits.
Organizations use first party
audits to audit themselves. First party
audits are used to confirm or improve the
effectiveness of management systems.
They're also used to declare that an
organization complies with an ISO
standard (this is called a self-declaration).
Second party audits are external
audits. They’re usually done by customers or by others on their behalf. However, they can
also be done by regulators or any other external
party that has a formal interest in an organization.
Third party audits are external audits as well. However, they’re performed by
independent organizations such as registrars (certification bodies) or regulators.
Purpose of Audit
Typically, there are two types of International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
audits: internal and external. Some professionals add another audit, the supplier audit, to
the list.
The basic purpose of audits and ISO certification is to improve the business
through standardization and controlled processes. A business may conduct each type of
audit in a different manner, but the resulting purpose is to improve the business. There are
several types of ISO certifications, and administrators often customize the audits to help a
business obtain a specific certification.
The main purpose of the internal ISO audit is to prepare for the external audit. On-
site ISO auditors generally conduct the internal ISO audits, whereas an independent
company conducts the external audit. Either vendors or customers of the company perform
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the supplier audits. Many companies prefer to do business with companies that are ISO
certified, and by auditing their vendors or customers, they are assured that the other
company is upholding the proper standards.
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Benefits of audits
1. A Customer Focus
As stated before, the customer is the primary focus of a business. By understanding
and responding to the needs of customers, an organization can correctly targeting key
demographics and therefore increase revenue by delivering the products and services that
the customer is looking for.
2. Good Leadership
A team of good leaders will establish unity and direction quickly in a business
environment. Their goal is to motivate everyone working on the project, and successful
leaders will minimize miscommunication within and between departments.
3. Involvement of people
The inclusion of everyone on a business team is critical to its success. Involvement
of substance will lead to a personal investment in a project and in turn create motivated,
committed workers. These people will tend towards innovation and creativity, and utilize their
full abilities to complete a project.
4. Process approach to quality management
The best results are achieved when activities and resources are managed together.
This process approach to quality management can lower costs through the effective use of
resources, personnel, and time.
5. Management system approach
Combining management groups may seem like a dangerous clash of titans, but if
done correctly can result in an efficient and effective management system. If leaders are
dedicated to the goals of an organization, they will aid each other to achieve improved
productivity.
6. Continual Improvement
The importance of this principle is paramount, and should a permanent objective of
every organization. Through increased performance, a company can increase profits and
gain an advantage over competitors.
7. Factual approach to decision making
Effective decisions are based on the analysis and interpretation of information and
data. By making informed decisions, an organization will be more likely to make the right
decision.
8. Supplier relationships
It is important to establish a mutually beneficial supplier relationship; such a
relationship creates value for both parties. A supplier that recognizes a mutually beneficial
relationship will be quick to react when a business needs to respond to customer needs or
market changes.
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• Management commitment
• Training and organization
• Documentation
• Third-party audit
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Phase IV. The final stage is phase IV, in which an outside auditor (registrar) is
brought in for an ISO 9001 quality audit. It is beneficial to have a pre-audit done by the third-
party auditor. The auditor will evaluate your ISO system pointing out its weaknesses and
strengths. They will not assist you with suggestions on how to fix deficient areas. During the
official audit, the auditor will look at your documentation developed in the previous phases
and then go out into the plant and observe what the people are actually doing. If the
procedure says that each plate will have a UGRA scale burned on it and be checked for
proper exposure, the auditor will simply check if the platemaker is doing this and if the
records are there to support that it is being done on the prescribed basis. If all procedures
are found to be followed, the printer will be issued a certificate that the company is in
conformance with ISO 9001. This assumes that the system itself meets all of the required
elements of the standard.
5.3 COST OF IMPLEMENTATION OF ISO STANDARDS IN PRINTING ORGANIZATION
Although the costs of implementation can be offset with increased sales, reduced
defects and improved productivity throughout the organization, the investment of
implementing and maintaining an ISO quality system needs to be considered.
Many factors should be considered when calculating your company’s ISO
implementation costs. The time, effort and money your organization puts into ISO
registration depends on the number of employees, locations, the ISO standard selected for
registration and the current state of your quality system and processes. Typical costs
include:
Management and employee time and effort
Upgrading and creating documentation
Training employees
Registration fees
Maintenance
As with implementation of any new tool, the key to minimizing costs is to arm yourself
with knowledge about the process, and then to design a sensible plan that has realistic
objectives, adequate resources and a practical time schedule. Having a leader or consultant
to guide you through the process and manage deadlines can also help you to control costs
and achieve your goals more quickly. In addition, if you have multiple locations or
departments, costs can be minimized by leveraging the information you learn and the
resources you use as you move through the implementation and maintenance process.
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The cost of ISO 9001 will vary depending on the size and complexity of your
organization and on whether you already have some elements of a quality management
system in place.
First, there are typically three options for an organization seeking registration:
Create everything (Documentation, training, etc.) on your own by reading and
interpreting the standard.
Use documentation templates and training programs (like ours) to train your
organization.
Hire an ISO consultant to complete the entire process with you.
ISO 9001 Certification Cost in 3 parts:
1. Hiring a Registrar - The registration audit is performed by a Registrar and
the cost will depend on how large and how intricate your organization is. They
will charge you depending on how much time they spend auditing your
organization by days.
2. Internal Cost - the time your employees will need to spend building and
implementing the system.
3. Outside help - This is either consultant fees or the purchasing of tools to help
you with the project.
An average size printing company should allocate 1% of its sales dollar in
preparation for an 18-month to 24-month plan to become ISO-certified. However,
approximately only 27% of this 1% allocation will be directly out-of-pocket expenses; 73%
will be the cost of employee involvement in time.
The costs of implementing ISO 9001 have been estimated to run as low as $10,000
to $15,000 actual out-of-pocket expenses, although a more accurate figure that takes into
account man-hours to document and training time would be in the $200,000 range. ISO
9001 can be a costly process when you
start adding up the internal work that must
be done to build and maintain the system
(SOP development, administration, record
keeping, training, internal auditing).
However, if you look at the costs and the
benefits, it is likely that you will conclude
that ISO 9001 is a good chance to start your
quality improvement process and is well
worth the money.
Registrar 9
Outside consultant 18
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Internal 73
The total cost of ISO 9001 certification come from 3 basic elements:
Indirect cost of maintaining a quality focused organization. (This can be done
with or without ISO)
Indirect cost of doing additional operations only for purpose of maintaining an
ISO certification
Direct cost of registration
Indirect costs with a quality focus
Many elements of the ISO 9001 standard are a no-brainer for a quality-focused
company. Processes like engineering change order system, revision control of documents,
receiving inspection, and some form of management review should be in place at any
company with a history of more than 3 years. Therefore, these are not additional cost of ISO,
they are the minimum requirements for growing a long-term successful business and should
not be including in the analysis of whether to implement ISO or not.
Indirect costs with an ISO 9001 focus
There is a significant ISO 9001 requirements that is simply record keeping for the
main purpose of maintaining the certification. This cost is dependent on the size of the
business but for the sake of discussion, it is at least one half-man year per year. The ISO
9001 requirement is typically for some high level tasks that require an understanding of
quality systems and the ISO 9001 standard and some low-level tasks that are basic filing,
data entry, and maintenance function. Based on this my ballpark for justification purposes is
$40K per year (minimum). This could be split between a clerk and a consultant or you could
get luck and hire a clerk that want to learn ISO 9001 without being paid extra for
responsibility. You can easily double that number if the company has poorly designed
system that put a drag on all the employees.
Direct Costs of Registration.
An ISO 9001 certification audit can run from $10-25K for small and mid-size
companies. This is based an a 3 to 5 man-day audit with an average cost of $3000 per man-
day plus travel expenses. ISO 9001 maintenance audit is usually much shorter, averaging
about $5-$10K for a 2 man-day audit.
Benefits of ISO Implementation
ISO standards are a guide that can help transform your company’s quality system
into an effective system that meets and exceeds customer expectations. Your company will
start to realize these benefits as you implement and adhere to the quality standards, and you
will see the internal and external benefits accrue over time.
Internally, processes will be aligned with customer expectations and company goals,
therefore forming a more organized operating environment for your management and
employees. Product and service quality will improve which decreases defects and waste.
Process improvements will help to motivate employees and increase staff involvement.
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Products and services will be continually improved. All of these internal benefits will
continually drive better financial results, hence creating more value for your business.
As for the external benefits, ISO certification shows your customers and suppliers
worldwide that your company desires their confidence, satisfaction and continued business.
Your company also has the opportunity to increase its competitive advantage, retain and
build its customer list, and more easily respond to market opportunities around the world.
Some of the benefits to your organisation:
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Casey's first reaction to this information was typical: disbelief, having believed that
Casey Press was price, schedule, and quality competitive. Apparently she had been
mistaken, but how could she improve costs, on-time delivery, and quality at the same time.
This seemed an impossible task until she came across something called the Deming Chain
Reaction, which said that by improving and focusing on quality you would be able to reduce
waste and in turn reduce costs, improve pricing
flexibility, improve turnaround time, and -
therefore improve customer satisfaction.
Casey became convinced that this was
the answer to her dilemma, so she sat down
with the employees at the plant and began
working on improving quality. Our tools will give
you a picture of some of the things that were
found, and done, to improve quality.
Flow charting at Casey Press. At
Casey Press, a crossfunctional team of
employees came up with a flow chart for the
rough overall flow of the process as a job flows
through from start to finish. This exercise
proved beneficial, because for the first time all
of the employees had to agree on the actual
way in which they did things (not how they
would have liked to do things). They also
discovered many things that could be improved. Interestingly enough, the group noticed that
not everyone did the same things the same way, even though they all had the same goal in
mind. A rough version of the flow chart they came up with follows on page 95.
Brainstorming at Casey Press. You will recall that the employees at Casey Press
were going to brainstorm about the many possible causes of job problems. This is exactly
what they did. First, they stated the problem clearly and wrote the problem in a statement on
the flip chart for all to read and see:
Lack of attention to detail
Equipment in poor condition
Lack of understanding of what the customer wants
Press operators not trained
Equipment not capable
No measuring equipment for QC
Use of poor materials (ink and paper)
Hickeys
Excessive makeready times on press
Static electricity in prepress department
These were then organized into a fishbone diagram according to the six M's:
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Unit - V
1 Mark Question
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6 Mark Question
1. What is ISO standard for Printing printing?
2. What are the benefits of a good documentation?
3. What is the purpose of auditing?
4. Explain the advantages of external auditing.
5. What are the benefits of ISO implementation in print industry?
6. State few customer satisfaction of implementation of ISO for print quality.
7. Discuss the cost of ISO implementation.
12 Mark Question
1. Explain in detail about ISO 9001 standards for printing industry
2. Explain in detail about the implementing of ISO for print quality.
3. Explain in detail the benefits of audit in improving printing quality.
4. Explain in detail the various types of audits and their purposes.
5. Explain the cost of implementation of ISO for print quality and state the benefits out
of implementation.
6. Discuss in detail the customer satisfaction in implementing ISO for print Quality.
7. Discuss any one of the case studies of ISO implemented print media industry.
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