Models of Urban Growth :

Concentric Zones, Sectors, Multiple

Nuclei, Explaitative, Syrnbolic

6.1 lntroduction
6.2 Structure of Cities
6.3 Concentric Zone Model
. 6.4 Sectors Model
6.5 Multiple Nuclei Model
6.6 Exploitative Model
6.7 Symbolic Approach
6.8 Conclusion
6.9 Further Reading
Learning Objectives
After studying this unit you should be able to:
discuss the structure of cities;
describe the concentric zone model of studying the structure of cities;
explain the sectors model;
, describe the multiple nuclei model;
discuss the exploitative model; and
explain the symbolic approach to the study of city.
6.1 lntroduction
Under the rubric of urban ecological process and theories, you have already
learnt about the processes of invasion, succession, concentration,
centralisation and segregation which characterise different kinds and
dimensions of cities. Here i n this unit you will learn further about the
different aspects of cities and their formations.

As you already know, urban society i s defined as a relatively larger, dense,

permanent, heterogeneous settlements whose majority of inhabitants are
engaged i n non-agricultural occupation. The development of such urban
society is very much determined by socio - cultural organisation, climate,
topography and economic development. The earliest cities of the world
originated near river valleys such as early civilization of lndus (Mohenjodaro,
Harrappa), Tigris - Eupharates (Lagas Ur, Uruk), Nile (Memphis, Thebes)
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 and Hwang Ho (Chen-Chan An Yang). These early development of urban
settlements evolved with changing technology and human needs. Trade
and commercial activities and settled agriculture were major facilitators;
even today these,factors are very much relevant in the growth of a city.
As cities are viewed as the places where markets, governments, religious
and cultural centres exists.

6.2 Structure of Cities -

The distinct features and characteristics of cities have evolved over time
and vary significantly i n time and space. The concept of city i n ancient
society was different from medieval and modern city. The growth was
irregular in form, sensitive to changes i n the habits of people, and dynamic
i n character. They began as free cities, which were settled voluntarily. .
Geometrical form often emerged. I t was introduced according to the
structure of the land and nature of society. Early development of city
'
structure i s discernible in two basic urban forms: the walled town and
open city. Within these basic forms a wide variety of patterns can be
observed in different shapes and designs. Different cities are shaped by
the different character of their society. More than the structures, it is the
dwellings of the people that mark the different cultures of cities.

For Max Weber the city is a market place as mentioned i n the previous
unit. Market has always been the focal point of the city, a centre for the
exchange of goods i n pre-industrial cities about which you will learn more
i n the next Block. The development of transportation and money systems
transformed this barter system to a form of retail enterprise. Thereafter, ^

cities were known as modern business centres. Weber also observed changes
i n demographic features that the more dense sections are, in general,
losing population and the areas on the outer zones of cities are gaining
population. In between the area i s predominantly either static or shows
moderate growth.
Each city has certain degree of internal organisation and regularities i n i t s .
growth. This internal organisation of cities includes both physical as well
as human aspects-the land use pattern and residential settlements. The
city constitutes all the people who inhabit it, the entire collection of houses *

the people live in, the shops i n which they work, the streets they traverse
and the places in which they trade. The industrial revolution was a significant
turning point where urban development i s concerned. Industries have
attracted labour force and also created a market for their produce. Charles
Colby 'analysed' these forces and explained the movements of people i n
the form of centripetal and centrifugal forces. Centripetal forces are
the results of a number of attractive qualities of the central portion of the
city. Centrifugal forces on the other hand are not only opposite forces,
but are made of merging influences - a desk6 to live in one part of the
city or an urge to move to another part of the city, such as, suburbs.

The 'internal structure of city' refers to the location, arrangement and

interactions between these distributions. The spatial distribution of a

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particular city also depicts social organisations and cultural relationship Models of Growth:
Concelitric Zones,
with structure of that period. The form and structure of the modern city Secton, Multiple Nuclei,
i s the result of numerous economic, social and cultural factors operating Exploitative, Symbolic
through many decades since their evolution. Some of the most significant
factors of modern urbanization are rapid and massive growth, a
heterogeneous population, changing forms of urban transportation, growing
spatial and social mobility. The classical studies of modern American cities
are some examples.
The major theories of the internal structure of urban settlements has
been given after the study of western urban society, as the proposition is
based on empirical studies of North America and Europe. Hence, the
growth pattern of cities i s part and parcel of American society that accounts
for the increasing importance and dominance of American culture, society,
and economy. '
6.3 Concentric Zone Model
Ernest Burgess propounded the concentric zone theory i n order to explain
the structure and growth of city. The hypothesis of this theory is that
cities grow and develop outwardly i n concentric zones. In other words, the
essence of the model is that as a city grows, it expands radically from its
centre to different concentric circles or zones. Burgess offers a descriptive
framework i n which both aspects of human ecology - physical land use
pattern and human relationships are implicit. Using Chicago as an example,
Burgess viewed that as cities expand outwards, the interaction among
people and their economic, social and political organisations also create
radical expansion outward and form a series of concentric zones.
The concentric model is based upon a process of invasion and succession
about which you learnt i n the previous unit. Invasion is a process which
necessitates continual expansion of inner zones into outer zones, due to
the natural 'aggression' of the migrant into the city. While succession
occurs when an area becomes dominated by the activity invading that
zone. There is competition i n city among people for limited space. Only
those can succeed who can afford best to pay and get the desirable location
for their business and homes. Therefore, concentric zone theory reflects
on going conflict between city dwellers and periphery villages. It also
describes the process of concentration and segregation of social groups
with the growth of city structure.
According to this theoretical model there are five major concentric zones.
These are as following:

1 . Commercial centre
2. Zone of transition

3. Working class residence

4. Middle1 higher class residence

5. Commuter zone

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Urban Sociology Concentric Zone Model

1. Commercial Center
2. Zone of transition

3. Low Class Residence

4. Mediummigher Class Residence .
5. Comarnter's Zone

Figure 6.1

First, the inner most ring zone or nucleous of the city is a commercial
centre also called Central Business District (CBD) i n North America and
western countries. =This zone i s characterized by high intensity of
commercial, socialland civic amenities. It i s the heart of the city which
includes department stores, office buildings, shops, banks, clubs, hotels,
theatres and many other civic buildings. Being the centre of commercial
activities and location, it i s accessible from all directions and attracts a
large number of people. Therefore, it i s a zone of the highest intensity
land use and social interaction. High intensity of land use further indicates
the high value ,of land and rents. As a result, the residential population in
this zone i s very small. People are always in search of cheaper, spacious
and pollution free accom~odationaway from the core of the city. This i s
one of the reasons that the congested city area i s deserted at weekends
or on non-working days.

Burgess further describes that the morphological structure of CBD i s .

changing rapidly with our changing needs. Morphological structure of city
includes buil,dings, roads and infrastructure. These rearrangements occur,
i n part, through demolition and new building construction. This is a
continuous process of rebuilding since city began. Hence, it i s obvious that
older parts of the city are rebuilt and old land uses replaced. Study reveals
that these changes i n rebuilding are from Lower to higher density, higher
uses and higher rents.

Zone of transition: Light Industries and slums mainly occupy this zone,
may be seen i n as many American cities. This zone was the home of
numerous first generation immigrants. It has low income households,
retrogressing neighbourhoods, one room houses and homeless men. It i s a
breeding place of crime, gambling, sexual vice and other social deviances.
The physical deterioration and social disorganisation leads to concentration
of poor housing, pove&y, juvenile delinquency, family disintegration, physical
and mental diseases. Burgess studied Chicago city and the found second
concentric zone to be transitory i n nature, comprising an area of residential
deterioration due to congestion and encroachment. The zone surrounds
60
the CBD area and fulfils their needs, like light industrial production and Modelsof Urban Growth:
Concentric Zones,
business extension houses. He also predicts that CBD will expand i n this Sectors, Multiple Nuclei,
zone, i l S it will grow. Exploitative, Symbolic

Working class residence : Basically it i s planned residential area, close to

places of economic activity which often shift and moved to the outward
rings. Being close to transition zone it i s influenced by that zone, in terms
of quality of life. It reflects the negative impact of industrial pollution and
the cultural impact of slums. The working class residences subsequent
outward ring1 rings are occupied by middle or higher-class residences.
These may be separated i n different rings i n terms of class character and
corresponding facilities. This i s a residential area with all modern amenities
of civic society. People who reside i n these areas are native born Americans
i n single-family houses or apartments. The houses are spacious i n a pollution-
free zone. Sanitation, health facilities and all other requirements of a
good quality life are found here. Proper transportation, communication
and parking facilities are an added feature of this residential zone. The
above features of this concentric zone clearly indicate a particular class
character.

Commi~terzone: it i s located i n the outermost concentric zone, beyond

the area of higher class residence. This i s a ring of encircling small cities,
towns, and hamlets which taken together constitute the commuter zone.
People from these areas commute on a daily basis towards the CBD or
commercial centre for employment and business purposes but live in their
small cities, towns and hamlets. Commuter zone i s characterized by low
density. It i s relatively isolated and located i n suburbs and satellite towns.
Later on Burgess writes that there was no circle of towns or cities in the
outer concentric zone of Chicago but a pattern of settlement existed
along the railroads radiating out from CBD like - spokes of a wheel.

Burgess made a first brilliant and comprehensive analysis of pattern of

city structure. In the 1920s, there was a tremendous growth of urban
population throughout the world, particularly i n the United States and
European Countries. This growth has changed the form and social structure
of urban communities. At this time, Burgess' Concentric Zone model i s
the earliest effort to explain the internal structure of city within the
framework of the ecological theory. The application of this theory t o
American cities was widely accepted and considered a significant
contribution and a guide to understand other subsequent studies of city

The theory has also limitations as it i s based on Chicago city or North

American cities. It i s unable to explain the structural pattern and growth
of cities i n developing countries. It i s not applicable to all developing
countries. Homer Hoyt 'refutes' this concentric model and argues that
the growth of city didn't always form a circle completely. It i s often rather
distorted by major transport and topc,:ki&p?~ical features. In this theory,
Burgess assumed that succcssior: and mvasion are determinant processes
in structural growth of city. bde l ~ r n r e dthe significant role of endogenous

61
Urban Sociology
Reflection and Action 6.1
You have just read about the Concentric Zone model given by Burgess
i n his study of the city of Chicago, U.S.A. As you know lndia belongs
to the developing countries, do you think any city structure i n lndia
can be explained using this model?Try to apply it to your own city/
town/village and write a report of two pages on "The structure of
My City and the Concentric Zone model".
Discuss your report with your Academic Counsellor and other students
at your Study Centre.

6.4 Sectors Model

Following Burgess, Homer Hoyt, an economist, propounded an alternative ,

proposition of urban structure and its growth pattern i n 1939. Through

sectors model, Hoyt tried to overcome the weaknesses of the earlier
theory. It was mainly based on residential rent pattern and impacts of
transportation development. This theory is the result of an empirical study
of 34 American cities, i n which he observed that high rent areas are
'
located i n one or more sectors of the city. He prepared a map showing
how rent changed by sectors irrespective of concentric circle. Generating
from the maps of housing features and land uses pattern of cities, he
analysed the impact of transportation the recreational areas and other
changes.

Hoyt further provided factual evidence through his survey of Washington

DC metropolitan area i n 1954. Apart from North American cites the evidence
from Latin American cities showed that the finest single family homes and
apartments were located on one side of the city only, such as Guatemala
city, Bogota, Lima La Paz, Quito, Santiago, Buenos Aires, Montevideo, Rio
de Janerio, Sau Paulo, and Caracas. Further the main concentration of
high-income group families was found i n the form of scattered clusters.
He also illustrated similar observations from New York metropolitan area
and Latin American cities as well.
Sectors Model

1. Central Business District

5. High Class Residence

Figure 6.2
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 Both propositions, sectors model and concentric zone, have the common Models of llrbiin Growth:
Concentric Zones,
concept of CBD i.e., the Central Business District and outward expansion. Sectors, Multiple Nuclei,
Where former differs in terms of differential radial growth from CBD or Exploitative', Symbolic
centre. He explained that sectors develop because of the difference i n
accessibrlity from outlying portions to the core region. Thus, it also includes
the development of concentric patterns within the zone (see Figure-6.2).

Contrary to Burgess' Concentric Zone theory, the sectors theory assumes

that land rents changes from Sector to Sector not i n the form of successive
concentric ring area. The development of a Sector i s determined by various
factors, such as, planning, transportation, class character of residents
and other facilities available to that particular Sector. Within the residential
sector it has been observed through study that the inner portions are
found to be having older houses and newer constructions are found on the
. outer fringes.

6.5 Multiple Nuclei Model

The third classical theory of internal structure of city i s multiple nuclei
model developed by Chauncy Harris and Edward L. Ullaman i n 1954. The
basic assumption of this theory i s that "cities are not homocentric" but
they rather have many minicentres which play a significant role i n the
developnent of a city. These minicentres originally developed independently
with the specialised advantages that they offered or similar activities
clusteriiig in these areas.

Multiple nuclei theory differs from the earlier theories, like sectors and
cbncentric zone theories. It believes that city has not developed around a
single centre or CBD but it has a group of many minicentres. However, the
phases of development may be simultaneous or i n different periods. The
mc~ltiplctnuclei type i s further divided into ten major areas-central business,
wholesale or light manufacturing, low income residential, medium income
- residential, high income residential, heavy industry, outlying business,
residential suburb, industrial suburb, commuters area. While these various
parts of city are fairly clear when analyses of the social organisation of the
city i s made. I t has developed through a natural process rather than a
planned process.
Multiple Nuclei Model
r..1..1..1..1..1..1..1..1..1..1..1..1..1..1..-..1..-..-.~
I

1. Central Business District

2. Wholesale light Manufacturing
3. Low class Residence
.
4. Medium class Residence
5. High class Residence

9. Industrial Suburb

Figure 6.3 63
Urban Sociology 6.6 Exploitative Model
The exploitative model divides the city into three semi-circular concentric
zones on the basis of ownership of resources and ability to pay. It clearly
shows how money flows from inner-city t o outward zones towards affluent
urban sections. He formulated three semi-circular concentric zcnes as
follows:
1) The city of death
2) The city of need
3 ) 'The city of superfluity.
Exploitative Model

B. Machine Tax

Figure 6.4
The city of death i s the inner-city characterized by a centre of exploitation
by the rest of the two areas. People living i n this zone are poor who are
exploited through paying two different taxes-Machine tax and Death tax
(Figure-6.4). Machine tax is paid through wage payments below t'he
workers worth. Hence, if workers are paid less than their work 3utput
surplus exaction i s viewed as machine tax. The poor residents i n this area
also pay a death tax in terms of paying higher price of food, housing,
other consumer items and services. Not only this, this area suffers
additionally from a Lack of city services and civic amenities due t o .
congestion and encroachment and has status of a slum.
The city ,of need occupies an intermediate location between the city of
death and the city of superfluity. Like working class zone i n Burgess'
concentric model, the blue-collar working class inhabits 'the city of need'.
William Bungee characterised these inhabitants as the hard hats, the solid
union members of middle class America. This area is also exploitated by
the suburban based business interests and politicians. Like inner city
residents, they also pay the 'machine tax' but are relieved from the
'death tax'.
The third and the outermost ring i s called 'the city of superfluity'. This
area i s a home of the elite entrepreneurs, managers and higher-class
people, who live a leisured life and indulge i n mass consumption at the
cost of the other two cities. According to this model, the population of
this outer zone city i s small i n number but the very affluent group which
reside here controls the allocation of resources and this play a decisive role
in governance.
Therefore, the exploitative moael provides the picture of exploitation and
64 problems of inner-city dynamics. The poor people of inner-city have less
 opportunity of jobs, enhancement through skill development and training Models of Urban Growth:
Concc!ntric Zones,
due to perpetual system of exploitation. They pay more tax in various sears, Nuclei,
forms that reduces their chances of growth or development. Exploitative, Symbolic

Other Models
The above described models of city's spatial structure of economic activities
and residential areas are some of the major studies of internal structure
of city. One such study made by Mann (1965), who tried to apply Burgess'
concentric zone and Hoyt's sector modet to three industrial towns in England-
Huddersfield, Nottingham and Sheffield. He assumed that because the
prevailing wind direction from the southwest, the higher-class housing
- would be i n the southwestern part of the city, while industries would be
located in the north east of the CBD. Some significant conclusion of his
study are a as follows:
The higher-classresidences are not concentric of CBD but are located
on one side of a few pockets of the city.
Like Sector model, he observed that industries are found in sectors
along main lines of communication.
Further he called the lower class housings area 'the zone of older
housing' whereas area of higher-class housings are relatively modern
houses and situated away from industries and smoke.
Unlike Burgess and Hoyt, he also describes the role of local governance
in slum clearance and gentrification. As a result of this the emergence
of large council estates protect the interest of working class1 Low
income group i n the city. I

Manns' study i s different from the existing models, as his observation is

based on European city which has i t s own historicity and social structure
which i s different from American cities. Secondly, he suggests that even -
through a small sample we can generalize the fact. His model shows that
a van'ety of approaches are possible to the study of urban structures.
6.7 Symbolic Approach
Another model to study urban structures is the symbolic approach. It
developed as a corrective to the ecological and functional approach to the
study of the internal structure of cities. Walter Firey (1945) first contributed
to this approach and analysed the land uses i n Central Boston. He has
highlighted the importance of symbolism as an ecological variable which
emphasized the independent role of social symbolism as a major force in
shaprng the internal structure of cities, particularly with respect to
historically meaningful public buildings and open spaces. Later on, major
developments in this approach occurred with Wheatley's two studies of
Chinese Cities (1971) and the Japanese Cities (1978).
According to him,ancient cities developed in t ~ m 0s
cosmological meanings. The site of the city or particl~lar~tructurehas its
own symbolic meanings and i s regarded as the centre of the world- The

65
 --
Urban Sociolog~ power. similarly, modern skyscrapers have become as much a symbol of
corporate activities as a place of work in modern cities.

6.8 Conclusion
All the above four theories of city structure and growth pattern developed
during the early twentieth century and is based on the study of the American
urban society. The major factor of changes i n city structure and organisation
due to population growth, changing technology, growing economic activities,
transportation etc. All these models assume that as cities grow, the
residential areas move outwardly and the concentration of population i n
suburbs increases invariably. Both Concentric and Sectors model are similar
in this assumption. However, vary i n spatial distribution. Harris and Ullaman .
i n Multile Nuclei theory also explain this proposition through the concept
of 'minicentre', which also changes with time. They reject the over emphasis
on one commercial centre.
They also agreed on differential residential patterns based on their class.
The first three theories explicitly locate lower, middle and higher classes
residential areas. Similarly, exploitative model describes three different
cities i n semicircular pattern representing three different classes and levels
of exploitation. The residential pattern is based on land value or rent but
depicts the kind of social hierarchy and mutual relationship of city. Hence,
all these cities structure and growth explains the rigid social segregation
found i n different cities.

Recent changes and transformations in urban structure in the above theories

have altered the basic assumptions and expected outcomes of these classical
models. These changes include the impact of the automobile, population
growth after the Second World War, housing construction, shopping facilities,
social and industrial mobility. Hoyt i n his review also observed that the
apparent rigidity of older patterns in the city has been substantially reduced
by increases i n city size, personal income, and mobility. Brian Berry .
synthesizes the transformation i n three aspects of research t o understand
the internal structure of the city. These are urban population densities,
the socio-economic pattern of neighbourhood, and the changing pattern
of retail and service business.
6.9 Further Reading
Max Weber, (1905). "The City", Translated and edited by Don Martindale
and Gertrud Neuwirth, new York, Free Press.

Burgess, Ernest W., (1925). "The Growth Of The City: An introduction t o

a Research Project", In Robert E. Park and Ernest W. Burgess (eds).
The City, pp. 47-62 Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

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