SHEEP PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT

DISSERTATION
SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR
THE DEGREE OF
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE

(AGRICULTURE SCIENCES)

SUBMITTED TO :- SUBMITTED BY:-

PROF. RAJENDRA KUMAR PANDAY AKANCHHA KUMARI

DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL ID 15008

HUSBANDRY AND DAIRY EN. ROLL- 374551

DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND DAIRY

INSTITUTE OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES

BANARAS HINDU UNIVERSITY

VARANASI 221005

UP INDIA

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 CERTIFICATE

This is to certified that Ms. Akanchha Kumari B.Sc.

(Agriculture 7th Semester , Institute of Agricultural
Sciences, Banaras Hindu university, carried out the
Dissertation entitled “Bulk Milk and Cow Milk
Processing and Product ” for the partial fulfillment of
Bachelor Degree in Agricultural. The Dissertation has
not formed the basis for the award of any degree,
diploma, associate-ship or fellowship. The Dissertation
represents independent worked carried out by the
candidate.
Supervisor
Dr. Rajendra Kr. Pandey
Department of Animal Husbandry and Dairying
Institute of Agricultural Sciences
BHU, Varanasi- 221005

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UNDERTAKING OF THE CANDIDATE

I, Akanchha Kumari have presented this assignment to

enlighten the topic with whatever little I know. This thesis
mainly deals with the topic “Bulk Milk and Cow Milk
Processing and Product”. The literature and figure
described in this assignment has been prepared on the
basis of available literature, research paper and
documents presented in various relevant books. All
these referred literature has been referenced at a proper
place in the assignment. However, as such no originality
is claimed. Proper care has been taken on my behalf to
ensure that no mistake has been committed in this
assignment.

CERTIFICATE FROM THE SUPERVISORS

This is to certify that the above statement made by the

candidate is correct to the best of our knowledge.

(R. K. Pandey)

Professor

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TABLE OF CONTENT

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1.INTRODUCTION
Milk is as ancient as humankind itself, as it is the substance created to
feed the mammalian infant. All species of mammals, from humans to
whales, produce milk for this purpose. Many centuries ago, perhaps as
early as 6000-8000 BC, ancient peoples learned to domesticate species
of animals for the provision of milk to be consumed by them. These
included cows (genus Bos), buffaloes, sheep, goats, and camels, all of
which are still used in various parts of the world for the production of milk
for human consumption.
Fermented products such as cheeses were discovered by accident, but
their history has also been documented for many centuries, as has the
production of concentrated milks, butter, and even ice cream.
Technological advances have only come about very recently in the
history of milk consumption, and our generations will be the ones
credited for having turned milk processing from an art to a science. The
availability and distribution of milk and milk products today in the modern
world is a blend of the centuries old knowledge of traditional milk
products with the application of modern science and technology.
The role of milk in the traditional diet has varied greatly in different
regions of the world. The tropical countries have not been traditional milk
consumers, whereas the more northern regions of the world, Europe
(especially Scandinavia) and North America, have traditionally
consumed far more milk and milk products in their diet. In tropical
countries where high temperatures and lack of refrigeration has led to
the inability to produce and store fresh milk, milk has traditionally been
preserved through means other than refrigeration, including immediate
consumption of warm milk after milking, by boiling milk, or by conversion
into more stable products such as fermented milks. Most farmers keep
only a few dairy animals. Therefore milk production is not stable
throughout the year, but fluctuates with the season. These farmers
would like to obtain more milk and dairy products for family consumption.
They would also like to sell milk and dairy products on the market, to
earn more income. To do this, they need to learn simple processing

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methods to improve the quality of milk and milk products such as butter,
cheese and yogurt. India now has indisputably the world's biggest dairy
industry—in terms of milk production; last year India produced close to
146.31 million tonnes of milk, 50% more than the US and three times as
much as the much-heralded new growth champ, China. Appropriately,
India also produces the biggest directory or encyclopedia of any world
dairy industry. The dairy sector in the India has shown remarkable
development in the past decade and India has now become one of the
largest producers of milk and value-added milk products in the world.

2.INDIAN CATTLE BREED FOR HUGE MILK PRODUCTION

At present, although the majority of India's cattle is non-descript, there

are 26 well defined breeds of cattle and 6 breeds of buffaloes found all
over the country. These can be broadly classified into milch, draught and
dual purpose breeds. The cows of milch breeds are high milk yielders
and, therefore, they are also called dairy breeds. But, their bullocks are
of moderate type or of poor quality. The animals of this group are
generally ponderous in built, with pendulous dewlap and sheath. They
have lateral and often curled horns. Outstanding examples of such
breeds are Gir, Sindhi, Sahiwal and Deoni. In the United States of
America, these breeds have become good beef breeds.

In case of dual purpose breeds, the cows are fairly good milkers, and
bullocks are good for draught purpose. Hariana, Ongole, Tharparkar,
Kankrej etc. are dual purpose breeds of cattle.

Similarly, the cows of draught breeds are poor milkers but the bullocks
are excellent draught animals. Examples are Nagori, Malvi, Kllerigarh,
Amritmahal, Khillari, Pan war, Siri, Kenwaria, etc. The important Indian
Milch breeds are described here.

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Milch breeds

1. Sahiwal
Originating from Montgomery district, now in Pakistan, this breed is
found in various parts of Punjab, Haryana, Delhi and Uttar Pradesh. This
is considered to be the best -Zebu milch breed. The animal is generally
dull in colour. Some may be pale red. dark brown or even blackish and
others may have spots or large white areas. They have a symmetrical
body, broad head, long deep lethargic and heavy constitution. The skin
is fine and horns stumpy. Because of the heavy dewlap, the animal is
also known as 'Lola'. The average weight of its males is about 522 kg
and that of females is 340 kg.

2. Sindhi
Even though the natural habitat of this breed is around Karachi and Sind
in Pakistan, they can be seen in many parts of India. They are compact
animals with a dark red colour. Bull is darker, with well proportioned
head. short thick horns and a broad face.
They have moderate drooping ears, heavy hump and pendulous dewlap
and sheath. The udder is big and often pendulous. Teats are generally
large. The average lactation yield of this breed is about 2000 kg. Bulls
are lethargic and slow workers. The average weight of males is 450 kg
and female 295 kg.

3. Gir
Gir forest in Kathiawar district of Gujarat is the place of origin of this
breed. Massive forehead and long pendulous curled leaf-like ears are its
peculiarity. Colour is seldom entire. All stages of mottling in various
shades of red to black can be seen. They have well shaped udder with
large teats. They produce on an average 2000 kg milk per lactation.
Males are slow but heavy worker. The average weight of males is 544 kg
and female 386 kg.

4. Tharparkar
The home of this breed is Tharparkar district of Hydeiabad, India, and
cattle are now distributed up to south-east in Sind, Amarkot, Naukot,

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Dhoro Naro, and Chor. The area extends up to Cutch deserts of West
India, Marwar in east and Palampur area of North Bombay. The animals
are medium sized, deep built, short with. straight and strong limbs.
strong well-proportioned frame, broad poll and forehead is slightly
convex with medium sized horns. Moderately developed dewlaps with
straight and moderately long back.
The bull is fine with black switch, white or light grey line long the spine in
young animals. Males show virility. are is moderately developed with 3-4
inches teats. Cows are good yielders. Bulls are good for carting and
ploughing. Average milk yield under village condition is 1474 kg.

3.BREIF SCENARIO OF MILK PRODUCTION IN INDIA

Milk production, which was around 17-22 million tonnes in the 1960s,
has increased to 163.7 million tonnes in 2016-17. Particularly, it has
increased by 19% during 2016-17 in comparison to the year 2013-14.
Similarly, per capita availability of milk has increased from 307 grams in
2013-14 to 351 grams in the year 2016-17. Similarly, the income of dairy
farmers increased by 23.77% in 2014-17 compared to 2011-14. India’s
milk production is estimated to have increased by 6.6 per cent to 176.35
million tonnes during the last financial year. “Milk production in the
country is 165.4 million tonnes during 2016-17 and 176.35 million tonnes
(provisional) during 2017-18.Government has planned that the

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projected milk production by 2021-22 is 254.5 million tonnes as per the
vision 2022 document. India is the largest milk producer in the world. To
achieve this target, the minister said that the department has been
implementing many dairy development schemes to supplement the
efforts of the state governments to create necessary infrastructure
across the country.
These schemes are - Rashtriya Gokul Mission, National Programme for
Dairy Development (NPDD), National Dairy Plan Phase I, Dairy
Entrepreneurship Development Scheme, Dairy Processing Infrastructure
Development Fund (DIDF) and Supporting State Co-operative Dairy
Federation.
To ensure supply of good quality and nutritious milk to consumers, she
said the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) has
asked state food authorities to keep a strict vigil by regularly drawing
food samples and take strict action against offenders.
Uttar Pradesh, the state of the highest population, is the top most and
highest milk producing state of the India. It holds a share of 17.22% in
the total milk production of the country. It has the second largest
population of cattle and the buffaloes are the primary source of milk in
Uttar Pradesh. It produces 23.33 million tons of milk each year. The milk
producing districts of U.P area are Meerut, Agra, Muzaffarnagar, Bijnore,
Aligarh and Mathura
Rajasthan has gained the 2nd in the list of top thirteen highest milk
producing states in India in 2018. The deserted land has a huge number
of cattle and produces a net of 13.94 Million tons of milk a year. The
buffaloes and cows are the primary sources of milk here. It has more
than fifteen dairy cooperatives. The Bikaner Zila Dugdh Utpadak
Sahakari Sangh Ltd (BZDS) is the highest milk suppliers of more than
90,000 liters of milk per day. Rajasthan has a share of 11.57% of total
milk production of the total.

4.MILK AND ITS COMPOSITION

The free dictionary simply defines milk as a whitish liquid containing milk
proteins, fats, lactose, and various vitamins and minerals, produced by
the mammary glands of all adult female mammals after childbirth and

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serves as food for their young. It should be noted that milk culture is
infused with the sanctity of the cow in ancient Egypt, Iran and India. In
Europe, the monks, including the Benedictines in the middle ages were
the main producers of cheese for example
Bishop, Munster. Thus, before the scientific revolution and industrial
development in Europe during the nineteenth century, were fabrications
and techniques of fermented milk, butter and cheese already had a
considerable importance in human life (Konte, 1999).

4.1DEFINITION OF MILK

 In France, human milk consumption was defined in 1909 by the

International Congress of Food by the following formula: "milk is
the product of the total, full and uninterrupted milking of a dairy
female in good health, also nourished and not overworked. It must
be collected properly and not contain colostrum (Adib and
Bertrand, 2009; Leseur and melik, 1991). Milk is a whitish food
generally produced by the mammary secretory cells of females in
a process called lactation; it is one of the defining characteristics of
mammals. The milk produced by the glands is contained in the
udder. Milk secreted in the first days after parturition is called
colostrum (Kebchaoui, 2012). The quality of milk is paramount;
therefore, it must be properly stored and transported in optimal
conditions (Roux et al., 1995). This vital product consists of four
physical phases:
 A gas phase which essentially comprises co2 at milking time.
 A fatty phase composed of cells, fat (2 to 5 m of diameter) which
contain lipids and fat-soluble elements,the fatty globules are
surrounded by phospholipids and protein membrane.
 A colloid phase comprising casein micelles associated with
phosphates and citrates of calcium and magnesium (Michel,
2005).
 An aqueous phase consisting of the soluble proteins (whey
protein), lactose and minerals (electrolytes). There is an inverse
relationship betwen the content of lactose and minerals, in order to
keep the milk in relation with the isotonic blood plasma.
4.2COMPOSITION OF MILK
The basic composition of milk is as follows:
• Water: 87.3% (85.5 - 88.7%)

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• Milk fat: 3.9 % (2.4 - 5.5%)
• Proteins: 3.25% (2.3-4.4%)
• Casein: 2.6% (1.7-3.5%)
• Serum proteins
• Minor proteins
• Carbohydrates (Lactose): 4.6% (3.8-5.3%)
• Minerals: 0.65% (0.53-0.80%)
• Cationic: K, Ca, Mg, K, …
• Anionic: chloride, phosphate, citrate, carbonate
• Organic acids: 0.18% (0.13-0.22%)
• Citric, lactic, formic, acetic, oxalic
• Enzymes - peroxidase, catalase, phosphatase, lipase
• Vitamins - A, C, D, thiamine, riboflavin
• Gases – CO2,N2,O2(CO2 lost after drawing)

4.2.1Milkfat: 4.5%
 Fats are made from individual fatty acid molecules attached to
glycerol, a 3-carbon backbone. The most common type of fat is
called a triglyceride, or triacylglycerol, which contains 3 fatty acids
attached to the backbone and resembles a fork without the handle

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.  Because there are many different fatty acids that can be
attached to the backbone, there are many different types of
triglycerides or fats. Fat compounds can also be diglycerides that
have 2 fatty acids or monoglycerides that have 1 fatty acid on the
glycerol backbone.
 Mono- and diglycerides are used as emulsifiers, compounds that
keep the fat and water from separating in foods such as ice cream.
 Milk fat has the most complex fatty acid composition of the edible
fats. Over 400 individual fatty acids have been identified in milk fat.
However, approximately 15 to 20 fatty acids make up 90% of the
milk fat. The major fatty acids in milk fat are straight chain fatty
acids that are saturated and have 4 to 18 carbons (4:0, 6:0, 8:0,
10:0, 12:0, 14:0, 16:0, 18:0), monounsaturated fatty acids (16:1,
18:1), and polyunsaturated fatty acids (18:2, 18:3). Some of the
fatty acids are found in very small amounts but contribute to the
unique and desirable flavor of milk fat and butter. For example, the
C14:0 and C16:0 ß-hydroxy fatty acids spontaneously form
lactones upon heating which enhance the flavor of butter.
 Milk fat melts over a wide temperature range, from
approximately -40°F (-40°C) to 104°F (40°C). This is best
illustrated by the firmness of butter at refrigerator temperature
versus room temperature. At refrigerator temperature butter is
approximately 50% solid, but is only about 20% solid at room
temperature, which is why it spreads more easily as the
temperature increases. The melting properties of milk are a result
of the melting points of the individual fatty acids that make up milk
fat and their arrangement on the triglyceride molecule.
4.2.2 Protein: 3.9%
Proteins are chains of amino acid molecules connected by peptide
bonds.
 Milk contains 3.9% total protein. Milk proteins contain all 9
essential amino acids required by humans. Milk proteins are
synthesized in the mammary gland, but 60% of the amino acids
used to build the proteins are obtained from the cow's diet. Total
milk protein content and amino acid composition varies with cow
breed and individual animal genetics

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.  There are 2 major categories of milk protein that are broadly
defined by their chemical composition and physical properties. The
casein family contains phosphorus and will coagulate or precipitate
at pH 4.6. The serum (whey) proteins do not contain phosphorus,
and these proteins remain in solution in milk at pH 4.6. The
principle of coagulation, or curd formation, at reduced pH is the
basis for cheese curd formation. In cow's milk, approximately 82%
of milk protein is casein and the remaining 18% is serum, or whey
protein.
 The caseins in milk form complexes called micelles that are
dispersed in the water phase of milk. The casein micelles consist
of subunits of the different caseins (α-s1, α-s2 and ß) held together
by calcium phosphate bridges on the inside, surrounded by a layer
of 6-casein which helps to stabilize the micelle in solution.
 Casein micelles are spherical and are 0.04 to 0.3 µm in
diameter, much smaller than fat globules which are approximately
1 µm in homogenized milk. The casein micelles are porous
structures that allow the water phase to move freely in and out of
the micelle. Casein micelles are stable but dynamic structures that
do not settle out of solution. They can be heated to boiling or
cooled, and they can be dried and reconstituted without adverse
effects. ß-casein, along with some calcium phosphate, will migrate
in and out of the micelle with changes in temperature, but this does
not affect the nutritional properties of the protein and minerals
The whey proteins exist as individual units dissolved in the water
phase of milk.
What is denaturing and why does it matter?
 Denaturation is the alteration of a protein shape through some
form of external stress (for example, by applying heat, acid or
alkali), in such a way that it will no longer be able to carry out its
cellular function. Denatured proteins can exhibit a wide range of
characteristics, from loss of solubility to communal aggregation.
Once this post-translational modification process has been
completed, the protein begins to fold (spontaneously, and
sometimes with enzymatic assistance), curling up on itself so that
hydrophobic elements of the protein are buried deep inside the

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 structure and hydrophilic elements end up on the outside. The final
shape of a protein determines how it interacts with its environment.
 Denaturation of proteins results in change of function and ability
to interact with other compounds, including proteins.
 Denaturation of protein enzymes results in inactivation of
activity.

4.2.3Lactose:  Milk contains approximately 4.9% carbohydrate that is

predominately lactose with trace amounts of monosaccharides and
oligosaccharides.

Lactose is a disaccharide of glucose and galactose. The structure

of lactose is:
 Lactose is dissolved in the serum (whey) phase of fluid milk.
Lactose dissolved in solution is found in 2 forms, called the α-
anomer and ß-anomer, that can convert back and forth between
each other. The solubility of the 2 anomers is temperature
dependent and therefore the equilibrium concentration of the 2
forms will be different at different temperatures. At room
temperature (70°F, 20°C) the equilibrium ratio is approximately
37% α- and 63% ß-lactose. At temperatures above 200°F (93.5°C)
the ß-anomer is less soluble so there is a higher ratio of α- to ß-
lactose. The type of anomer present does not affect the nutritional
properties of lactose.

4.2.4 Vitamins/Minerals:
 Milk contains the water soluble vitamins thiamin (vitamin B1),
riboflavin (vitamin B2), niacin (vitamin B3), pantothenic acid
(vitamin B5), vitamin B6 (pyridoxine), vitamin B12 (cobalamin),
vitamin C, and folate. Milk is a good source of thiamin, riboflavin
and vitamin B12 . Milk contains small amounts of niacin,
pantothenic acid, vitamin B6, vitamin C, and folate and is not
considered a major source of these vitamins in the diet.
 Milk contains the fat soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K. The
content level of fat soluble vitamins in dairy products depends on
the fat content of the product. Reduced fat (2% fat), low-fat (1%
fat), and skim milk must be fortified with vitamin A to be
nutritionally equivalent to whole milk. Fortification of all milk with

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vitamin D is voluntary. Milk contains small amounts of vitamins E
and K and is not considered a major source of these vitamins in
the diet.
Effects of Heat Treatments & Light Exposure on the Vitamin &
Mineral Content in Milk
The mild heat treatment used in the typical high temperature short
time (HTST) pasteurization of fluid milk does not appreciably affect
the vitamin content. However, the higher heat treatment used in
ultra high temperature (UHT) pasteurization for extended shelf
combined with the increased storage life of these products does
cause losses of some water-soluble vitamins. Thiamin is reduced
from 0.45 to 0.42 mg/L, vitamin B 12 is reduced from 3.0 to 2.7
µg/L, and vitamin C is reduced from 2.0 to 1.8 mg/L (Potter et al.,
1984).
Riboflavin is a heat stable vitamin and is not affected by severe
heat treatments. Calcium phosphate will migrate in and out of the
casein micelle with changes in temperature. This process is
reversible at moderate temperatures. This does not affect the
nutritional properties of milk minerals.
At very high temperatures the calcium phosphate may precipitate
out of solution which causes irreversible changes in the casein
micelle structure. Exposure to light will decrease the riboflavin and
vitamin A content in milk. Milk should be stored in containers that
provide barriers to light (opaque plastic or paperboard) to
maximize vitamin retention.
4.2.5 Enzymes:
Enzymes are proteins that have biological functions. Milk enzymes
come from several sources: the native milk, airborne bacterial
contamination, bacteria that are added intentionally for
fermentation, or in somatic cells present in milk
 There are a large number of enzymes in milk and the functions of
many are not well-defined. It should be noted that the enzymes in
milk do not make a major contribution to the digestion of milk in
humans, which is accomplished by enzymes in the human
stomach and small intestine.
 Lipases are enzymes that degrade fats. The major lipase in milk
is lipoprotein lipase. It is associated with the casein micelle.

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 Agitation during processing may bring the lipase into contact with
the milk fat resulting in fat degradation and off-flavors.
Pasteurization will inactivate the lipase in milk and increase shelf
life.
 Proteases are enzymes that degrade proteins. The major
protease in milk is plasmin. Some proteases are inactivated by
heat and some are not. Protein degradation can be undesirable
and result in bitter off-flavors, or it may provide a desirable texture
to cheese during ripening. Proteases are important in cheese
manufacture, and a considerable amount of information is
available in the cheese literature.
 Alkaline phosphatase is a heat sensitive enzyme in milk that is
used as indicator of pasteurization. If milk is properly pasteurized,
alkaline phosphatase is inactivated.
 Lactoperoxidase is one of the most heat-stable enzymes found in
milk. Lactoperoxidase, when combined with hydrogen peroxide
and thiocyanate, has antibacterial properties.

It is suggested that the presence of lactoperoxidase in raw milk inhibits

the disease causing microorganisms (pathogens) present in milk.
However, since there is no hydrogen peroxide or thiocyanate present in
fresh milk, these compounds would have to be added to milk in order to
achieve the antibacterial benefits. Lysozyme is another enzyme that has
some antibacterial activities, although the amount of lysozyme present in
milk is very small.
MODE OF SECRETION
Although the blood contains albumins, fats, etc., very similar to those
which form the solid parts of the milk, we have good reason for thinking
that the constituents of milk are not merely extracted from the blood, but
that the manufacture of this valuable secretion is due to the activity of
the protoplasm of the gland cells, which construct the various ingredients
out of their substance.
But these colostrum corpuscles soon cease to be thrown off in the
secretion, and the saccules of the glands during active lactation do not
contain any signs of the debris of cast-off cells, or any gradations in
degeneration. Only one row of finely-granular cells is found lining the
saccules, and the cavities are filled with globules of various sizes. From
this it would appear that in the earlier stages of the production of the
secretion, the mammary cells, after a long period of inactivity, are so
unaccustomed to the duty they are called upon to perform, that they

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succumb in the effort, and, being unable to produce the rich secretion
and retain their vitality, they are cast off. Their offspring, however, after a
generation or two, acquire the necessary faculty of making within their
protoplasm all the necessary ingredients of the milk, and discharge them
into the lumen of the saccules without themselves undergoing any
destructive change.
The composition of the milk teaches us that the cells of this gland can
manufacture from their own protoplasm casein, fat, milk sugar, etc.,
which fact shows beyond doubt that these complex materials may be
made in the body.

The influence of the nervous system on the secretion of the mammary

glands is distinctly shown by the wonderful sympathy between the'
action of these glands and the conditions of the generative apparatus.
Further, different emotions have an effect, not only on the quantity, but
also on the quality of the secretion. Local stimulation also promotes the
secretion, for the application of the child to the breast at once produces
this effect, partly, it may be, through mental influences, but chiefly, no
doubt, by reflex excitation of the gland following the local stimulation.

4.3PHYSICO-CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF MILK

Milk is a complex colloidal dispersion containing fat globules, casein

micelles and whey proteins in an aqueous solution of lactose, minerals
and a few other minor compounds. Its physical and chemical properties
depend on intrinsic compositional and structural factors, extrinsic factors
such as temperature and post-milking treatments. An understanding of
these properties is important in the technological and engineering
design and operation of milk processes and processing equipment, the
design of modern methods of milk analysis, the determination of milk
microstructures and the elucidation of complex chemical reactions that
occur in milk. Measurement of some of the physico-chemical properties
is used to assess milk quality.

Acid–Base Equilibria

The buffering of milk influences many of its physico-chemical properties

(by controlling pH) during processing, e.g., heat and ethanol stability,
rennet coagulation time, firmness and syneresis of renneted milk gels,
rate of pH change in cheese, the pH of cheese at the end of
manufacture and the subsequent pH changes during ripening.

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4.3.1 The pH and Buffering Properties of Milk

The pH of bovine milk at 25°C is between 6.5 and 6.7, with 6.6 being
the most common value. Differences in pH and buffering between
individual lots of fresh milk reflect compositional variations. The pH of
colostrum is lower, e.g., pH 6.0 (McIntyre et al., 1952), and that of
mastitic milk or end-of-lactation milk is higher, up to pH 7.5
(Prouty, 1940), than the pH of normal mid-lactation milk. This increase
in pH is presumably due to increased permeability of the mammary
cells, with an increase in [Na+] and [Cl−] and possibly other ions and a
reduction in the lactose content, as well as a reduction in the
concentration of soluble inorganic P (White and Davies, 1958).

The pH and buffering properties of milk are influenced by a number of

compositional and processing factors, including temperature, pH, heat
treatments, concentration, presence of CO2and concentrations of
proteins and salts.

4.3.2 Titratable Acidity

Titratable acidity is determined in the dairy industry mainly for two

reasons: (a) to check the freshness of milk and milk products and (b) to
control the manufacture of cultured (fermented) dairy products. The
main advantage of using titratable acidity as a quality index is its
simplicity and speed of measurement. Titratable acidity is a measure of
the buffering of milk between pH 6.6 and 8.3 (phenolphthalein end-
point) and is due mainly to phosphates, proteins, citrate and CO 2 (van
der Have et al., 1979).

The titratable acidity of milk is affected by the speed of titration, mainly

due to the precipitation of calcium phosphate which causes the release
of H+ and therefore a decrease in pH. This phenomenon is described as
‘fading of the phenolphthalein end-point’.

4.3.3 Oxidation–Reduction Equilibria

The major components of milk other than water, i.e., fat, lactose and
protein, have no effect on its redox potential. The redox systems in milk
involve lactate-pyruvate, ascorbate and riboflavin. The ascorbic acid
content of fresh milk is about 11.2–17.2 mg L−1. The ratio of ascorbate
to dehydroascorbate remains high until the system disappears from the
milk, and this system stabilizes the E h of oxygen-free milk at ˜0.0 V.
Ascorbate is preserved in milk by preventing contamination with Cu and
by deaeration. The riboflavin system in milk is active, but its

19
concentration in milk is too low to influence the E h value of milk
significantly.

The E h of milk is strongly influenced by heat treatment, bacterial

activity, contamination with metal ions such as Cu2+, concentration of
O2 and exposure to light.

4.3.4 Surface and Interfacial Tension

The surface tension of milk is a fundamental physical property that

relates to the stability of foams, emulsions and films; it affects
fractionation, concentration and drying processes. Milk contains several
surface-active components (casein micelles, phospholipids, whey
proteins and fatty acids) that can readily adsorb at an air–water
interface and reduce surface tension; salts and lactose do not contribute
to surface tension (Walstra and Jenness, 1984). Jenness and Patton
(1959) reported surface tension values for several fractions from milk,
with rennet whey, skim milk, whole milk, 25% fat cream and sweet-
cream buttermilk having values of 51–52, 52–52.5, 46–47.5, 42–45 and
39–40 mN m−1, respectively.

4.3.5 Freezing Point

The vast majority of individual milks have a freezing point in the range
−0.512 to −0.550°C and few milks fall outside the range −0.520 to
−0.530°C (Davis and MacDonald, 1953; Shipe, 1959;
Henningson, 1963; Eisses and Zee, 1980). Although the concentration
of individual solute constituents in milk may vary, the total molality of the
soluble constituents remains fairly constant; since the milk secretion
process dictates that the osmotic pressure of milk is kept in equilibrium
with that of blood, a constant osmolality is maintained in milk by the
passage of blood constituents into the mammary gland. Any decrease
or increase in the concentration of lactose is compensated for by a
proportional change in the concentrations of sodium and chloride. The
constant osmolality of milk is reflected in the relative constancy of the
freezing point depression.

Environmental and nutritional factors, such as season, climate, feed,

stage of lactation.

4.3.6 Density

20
The principal methods of determining the density of milk involve
weighing a known volume (by pycnometer or hydrostatic balance) or
measuring the volume of a known weight (by hydrometer or dilatometer)
(Jenness and Patton, 1959; Sherbon, 1988). Other methods include
measurement of the distance a drop of product falls in a density
gradient column (Sherbon, 1988). Hydrometry is the most common
method, employing beads of graded densities, or, more usually,
hydrometers – called lactometers when applied to milk (Sherbon, 1988).
A lactometer scale may be graduated directly in terms of specific
gravity. Detailed specifications for lactometers have been published
(International Organization for Standardization, 1974). The choice of
density measurement method depends on consideration of the
requirements for precision .

5.BULK MILK COOLER

In dairy farming a bulk milk cooling tank is a large storage tank for
cooling and holding milk at a cold temperature until it can be picked up
by a milk hauler. The bulk milk cooling tank is an important piece of dairy
farm equipment. It is usually made of stainless steel and used every day
to store the raw milk on the farm in good condition. It must be cleaned
after each milk collection. The milk cooling tank can be the property of
the farmer or be rented from a dairy plant.

Bulk Milk Cooling Units were introduced by the Milk Cooperative Unions
of Kaira, Baroda and Mehsana districts in Cooperative Sector and in
private sector by Dynamix Dairy in Maharashtra and Nestle in Punjab.
The scheme has potential to finance in almost all the operation flood
programme(OFP) districts and also to some extent in non- OFP districts.

5.1Cooling Systems]
There are two primary methods of cooling milk entering the bulk tank,
each with its own advantages and disadvantages. The tank capacity and
type will depend on herd size, calving pattern, frequency of milk
collection, required milk quality, energy and water availability and future
plans for development.
Direct Expansion
A bulk tank with direct expansion cooling has pipes or pillow
plates carrying refrigerant which are welded directly to the exterior of the
milk chamber. A layer of insulation covers the exterior of the milk tank
and the cooling lines, with an exterior metal shell over the insulation.

21
Direct expansion cooling cannot run when the tank is empty or the inside
walls of the tank would freeze. Instead, the tank is rapidly cooled as
warm milk first enters the tank, and then the tank is cooled slowly just to
maintain a low storage temperature. The rapid cooling during milking
requires very large refrigeration compressors and condenser radiators to
quickly expel heat from the milk, and is better suited for very large
farming operations where three-phase electric power is available to
operate the high-power cooling system.
Ice Bank
A bulk tank using an Ice Builder or Ice Bank immerses the bottom of the
inner milk chamber in an open pool of water with copper tubes
containing refrigerant suspended in the water. Between milkings, a small
low-power cooling system slowly builds up a coating of ice around the
copper tubes, and prevents icing of the pool over by continuously
circulating the water in the pool. After the ice has achieved a thickness
of 2-3 inches, the cooling system stops running.
During milking, the milk entering the tank is primarily cooled by
circulating the water in the pool around the walls of the inner milk
chamber, and the melting of the ice. After the ice has melted sufficiently
the cooling system restarts to assist the ice bank and restart the ice
building.
Ice bank bulk tanks are better suited for small family farm operations
where only single-phase electric power is available, and high-power
cooling systems would be either too expensive or difficult to install.
Milk pre-cooling
For energy savings and quality reasons it is advisable to pre-cool the
milk before it enters the tank using a plate or a tube cooler (shell and
tube heat exchanger) supplied with chilled water from the well water, the
ice builder or the condensing unit. The quicker milk is cooled after
leaving the cow the better. This system achieves most of the cooling
before the milk enters the tank, so that chilled milk, rather than warm
milk, is being added to the already cooled milk in the tank.
Cooling temperature
Generic temperature for milk storage is 3 to 4°C. For raw milk cheese
manufacturing, it would be advisable to keep the milk at 12°C, as milk
characteristics will be kept in a better state.
The milk cooling tank is usually not completely filled at once. A 2 milking
tank is designed to cool 50% of its capacity at once. A 4 milking tank is

22
designed to cool 25% of its capacity at once, and a 6 milking tank is
designed to cool 16.7% of its capacity at once.
The cooling performance depends on the number of milking it takes to
completely fill the tank, the ambient temperature and the cooling time.

5.2BULK MILK WORKING PRINCIPLE

Constructional Features

 5.2.1 Bulk M ilk Cooling Tank

 1.1.1 Material of construction

 Tank inner, outer, intermediate dimpled jacket & top openable cover
shall be fabricated from Stainless Steel AISI 304 material. All piping,
fittings, filter body, lockable cover, agitator shaft & blade adjustable ball
feet, dip stick, outlet & inlet valves & blank flanges shall also be made
out of AISI 304. The filter screen shall be from AISI 304 fine wire mesh.
All the gaskets shall be of food grade nitrile or neoprene rubber material.
The skid on which tank & refrigeration unit is mounted shall be of
galvanised steel. The bottom evaporation surface in contact with milk
shall be passivated by standard treatment to impart corrosion resistance.

23
 5.1.2 Shape & Orientation

 The preferred shape of the tank shall be closed type elliptical with top
man hole in case of BMCs higher than 2000 lit capacity.

 1.1.3 Tank Fitting

 A bubble type level indicator shall be fitted on the top surface of the
bulk milk cooler tank so that at any point of time the tank can be checked
for its proper levelling. The indicator shall be fitted in such a way that
they are easily accessible and does not get damaged due to the top
cover movement.

 1.1.4 Milk Filter

 Each system shall be provided with two AISI-304 filters with SS fine
wire mesh suitable to filter extraneous matter such as dust particles, hay,
flies, cow dung pieces / particles etc. One filter shall be on balance tank
and the other at the inlet of the bulk milk cooler. The filter shall be
designed and installed in such a way that it can frequently and easily be
cleaned and sell be provided extra SS Strainer on 200 Ltr balance tank.

 1.1.5 Stainless Steel Process Pipe and Fittings

 Stainless Steel AISI 304 process pipe shall be used for milk transfer
from balance tank to Bulk Milk Tank either gravity flow or through SS
sanitary milk pump and CIP line. The pipe shall be welded type having
minimum 2.0 mm thickness. Inside of the tube shall be acid pickled and
outer surface mirror polished. All bends and Tees required to complete
milk and CIP lines shall also be manufactured from the prime quality
process tube as described above. All the valve and fittings required shall
be AISI 304 SMS standard made out of entire investment casting or
forging. The milk contact surface shall be ground smooth or lapped,
having minimum surface roughness 150 grit. The outer surface shall be
mirror polished. Material of gasket for milk application shall be neoprene
/ nitrile rubber. The required number of two way / three way valves
should be provided. There should be adequate pipe up to the Tanker
loading of the milk collection center for easy unloading into tankers. At
every three meter pipe a union shall be provided so as to facilitate
manual cleaning. 1 feet S.S. plate should be supply for BMCU leg
foundation and the plate thickness should be 6mm in each leg. S.S. pipe
should be fitting with hinge type clamps.

24
 1.1.6 Stainless Steel Sanitary Milk Pump

 A suitable capacity milk pump shall be supplied for pumping of milk

from balance tank to BMC and unloading of milk from BMC to milk
tanker. Pump impeller & casing shall be made out of SS AISI 304
material. All milk contact surface shall be finished to min.150 grit. The
pump should be of sanitary design. Inlet & outlet of the pump shall ends
with SMS union. The pump shall be provided with approved make motor
having E/F class insulation and IP 55 protection. The flanged end motor
shall have stainless steel shaft having hygienic mechanical sealing
arrangement to prevent leakage from pump casing to rotor side of the
motor. Pump shall be covered with SS shroud having air ventilation grill.
The pump shall have SS adjustable ball feet. Make of the pump shall be
approved by the DAIRY. The pumps should work on the three phase
RPM 15000 LPH/ 10MWC supply in case of 10000L.

2. Refrigeration System

 The refrigeration system shall be designed to comply with ISO/R1662

and to meet the requirements of milk tank (ISO 5708, Class 2A IILatest
Version). The refrigeration system shall be of direct expansion type, with
Freon-22 (R-22) or CFC free environmental friendly refrigerant to cool
the raw milk from reception temperature to 4 Deg. C in the prescribed
time frame mentioned at 3.2.1. The evaporator(s) of the refrigeration
system shall form a part of the milk tank body as dimpled jacket in the
bottom plate in case of rectangular open tank or at least up to 1/3rd
height of the elliptical (closed) tank. Preference shall be given to systems
which would be compatible for the Futuristic Refrigerant(R 407 C).

 2.1 Compressor

 The refrigeration compressor (s) shall be scroll type suitable for Indian
climatic conditions. The motor of the compressor should have a
thermistor temperature sensor embedded in windings for protection from
excessive heating due to overloading or shortcircuiting. Similarly, a
protection against off cycle migration of refrigerant to the compressor be
necessary in the refrigeration unit, preferably a self-regulating PTC crank
case heater.

 Clienlt shall approve Emerson Climate Technologies Make(s) of the

compressor & condensing unit. The compressors selected should be
energy efficient and consume least power to meet the cooling load
requirements.

25
 For three phase compressor motors, star /delta starters will be
preferable to reduce the starting current. Separate price must be quoted
for star -delta starters.

 2.1.1 Condenser

 The condenser shall be air cooled finned tube type having sufficient
heat transfer area when the unit is operating at extremely high ambient
temperature. The air circulation fan shall be induced draft type throwing
hot air out of the place of installation. There should be a provision for
safety cover for the unit and Copper piping.

 2.1.2 Insulation

 The insulation of the tank shall be done by injection, in situ, of high

density (minimum 40 kg/m3, CFC free and environmental friendly)
polyurethane foam without having any imperfection and hygroscopicity.
The efficiency of insulation should be such that at max 50 degree C.
ambient temperature, the rate of rise of the mean temperature of the
milk, initially at about 4 Deg. C shall not exceed by one Deg. C in four
hours when the rated volume is allowed to stand undisturbed as per the
requirement of ISO 5708 2A II ( latest version) when the refrigeration unit
is not working.

 2.1.3 Cleaning In Place (CIP)

 For closed type configuration, facilities for Cleaning- In- Place shall be
provided which shall include CIP spray ball (s) and piping from milk
reception/balance tank through milk transfer pump to bulk milk cooler.

 For top openable configuration, facilities for manual cleaning shall be

provided with AISI-304 tank of 50-lit capacity for preparation of CIP
solution.

 As mentioned at clause 4.2 above, solar water heater must be

provided for supply of hot water for manual cleaning as well as CIP and
auto CIP system should be given for 3000L, 5000L and 10,000L.

 2.1.4 Welding & Finishing

 Inner, outer, intermediate dimpled jacket and nozzle connections shall

be welded with TIG process only. The inner shell and all other product

26
contact surface shall be polished up to minimum 150 grit finish. The
outer surface to be polished with 150 grit dull finish or a circle finish.

 2.2 Receiver

 For refrigeration circuit a minimum 6 Litre liquid receiver to assist

system during pump down cycle as well as to store refrigerant in case of
maintenance should be provided duly mounted on the skid near
compressor(s).

 2.2.1 Thermostatic Expansion Valve

 Suitable size and capacity Thermostatic valve should be provided in

the refrigeration circuit of the bulk milk cooler. The TX valve should be
Maximum Operating Pressure type of reputed make and of adequate
capacity to feed optimum quantity of refrigerant to the evaporator.

 2.2.2 Evaporator

 In case of rectangular type bulk milk cooler, the evaporator shall be

dimpled jacket fixed as the bottom plate of the inner tank. Whereas in
cylindrical/ elliptical tank the jacket shall be at least up to 1/3 height of
the tank. The gap between inner shell and jacket plate shall be such that
maximum heat transfer takes place in direct expansion of the refrigerant
in the jacket. The zigzag path for refrigerant travel shall be designed in
such a way so that it reaches upto the extreme corner of the bottom
plate. In case of double compressor, total evaporator area shall be
divided and separated into two sections. Each section shall have
separate suction & discharge connecting to each compressor. The
evaporator surface in contact with the milk should be passivated by
standard treatment to impart corrosion resistance. The Evaporator plate
should be laser welded.

 2.2.3 Refrigerant pipe, fittings & controls

 All pipes, valves, fittings & controls shall comply with the latest relevant
code applicable. Isolation valves at suction & discharge sides of the
compressors should be provided for compressor isolation, during
maintenance of the system. The make of each item shall be approved by
the client. Copper/ SS tubing shall be routed in such a way that if any
leakage occurred during operation can easily be detected and the
defective portion can be repaired/ replaced without dismantling the
whole system. All the pipes shall be clamped properly with fixed support.

27
In case of double compressor system, pipe, fitting & control should be
designed in such a way that both the compressors can run
independently. The tubing shall be insulated wherever necessary.

3. Electrical Control Panel

 3.1 Control Panel

 Three control panels shall be provided, one for the main power supply
tapping, second for the refrigeration unit and the third for the milk tank.
Each panel shall be provided with ELCB+ MCB's of suitable ratings for
switching and protection as per the system requirement. The incoming
and outgoing power supply terminals shall be covered and ‘secured with
a lead seal to prevent tampering. The door of the panels should be
provided with lockable handles. The MOC of all control panels shall be
SS 304.

 3.1.1 Main Control Panel

 This panel should be suitable to tap the incoming State Electricity

Board supply and feed the refrigeration unit, agitator motor and milk
unloading pump (from balance tank) and dispatch pump. The DG set
should be hooked up with this panel through a 'change-overswitch' in
order to operate the DG set in place of State Electricity Board supply as
& when required. It should be provided with necessary phase indication
lamps (LED type), contactors, MCBs, ammeter, voltmeter, energy-meter,
frequency-meter, push buttons, DG set running hour meter etc. A battery
charger to

 Trickle charge the battery when the DG set is in operation (charge

indications shall be displayed on the panel) should be provided. Voltage
stabiliser (servo type) and single-phase preventer, wherever applicable,
of suitable ratings should be supplied. The supplier should find out the
voltage variation in the State Electricity supply in the region before
supplying the equipment. The voltage variation from the State Electricity
supply may be assumed between 150 & 310 volts in case of single
phase and between 350 & 500 volts in case of three phase mains
supply.

 3.1.2 Refrigeration Control Panel

 The refrigeration unit shall be provided with a control panel made out
of Stainless Steel suitable for wall mounting near the unit. The panel

28
shall be provided with motor starters, ON/OFF push buttons & necessary
MCBs, control wiring, line voltage controller to guard the compressor
against the supply voltage fluctuations. In case more than one
compressor is provided in the refrigeration system, the control panel
shall be provided with a sequence controller & timer to start one
compressor at a time to avoid surge on power supply. The panel shall
also have facility to operate refrigeration unit on auto/ manual mode. In
the auto mode, as soon as the milk temperature reaches to pre-set
value, the compressor should be switched off to avoid freezing of milk.

 3.1.3 Milk Tank Control Panel

 The milk tank shall be provided with a wall mounted control panel with
timer to control the intermittent operation of the agitator & a digital
temperature indicator (with a battery back-up) to indicate the milk
temperature to one decimal place with least count of 0.1 0 C on
continuous basis. In case of power failure alternate arrangement should
be available to know the temperature (stem thermometer). It shall
include MCBs etc as required for switching & protection. The agitator(s)
shall have interlocking arrangement with top cover opening limit switch.
The limit switch shall put off the agitator as soon as the top cover opens
up.

 3.1.4 Cables & Electrical Switch gears

 All electrical switchgears and controls required for the complete system
shall be of reputed make and of suitable rating & use for copper wire.

4. W ater

 4.1 W ater for cleaning

 A 1000 litre capacity overhead tank - closed type with manhole for
maintenance only Sintex Brand Name make(doubled walled) -
mocHDPE with necessary GI B class pipe of ½” along with single phase
monoblock pump for filling of the overhead tank from the main supply is
in the scope, The scope also includes GI B Class piping from overhead
tank to a convenient point near the BMC. 5. Installation, Commissioning
& Training

5.1 Installation

29
 Installation of all equipment, including minor civil works such as
providing galvanised steel supports, clamps etc. required to secure the
equipment to walls and floors, necessary conduit to lay & connect all
electrical and control circuits is included in the scope. Major civil works
will be undertaken by the owner. All tools & tackles required to execute
the job shall be made available by the supplier.

5.2 Commissioning

 Supplier shall arrange commissioning & performance trial runs of the

bulk milk cooling system to the satisfaction of the client. All the
consumables required during commissioning of the plant shall be
supplied by the supplier.

5.3 Training

 Supplier shall arrange for training of the team of DCS staff for efficient
operation and maintenance of the complete system.

6. Spares

 Along with the bulk milk cooler & DG Sets etc, the bidder shall supply
spares for two years trouble free operation of the complete system.

 The list of spares to be supplied with the system shall be finalized by

client along with prices. Separate price shall be given in the bid for this.

7. Tool Box

 A GI sheet toolbox containing one set of all necessary tools required

for regular maintenance of the unit shall be supplied along with the BMC.
(1.Set of Spanners (All Required for maintenance), 2.Hamer, 3.Plier,
4.Screw Drive, 5.Union Spanners)

8. Manual

 Two sets of operation & maintenance manual, one in English &

another in local language containing complete details of starting up ,
putting off , critical checks and day to day maintenance of the complete
system shall be supplied. The manual should also have the required
electrical circuit diagrams.

9. General Requirement

30
9.1 Technical Details

 The bidder shall provide all the technical details, as per the format
enclosed as appendix over and above the general description in each
section.

9.2 M akes of Items

 The bidder shall provide a comprehensive list of makes of all the

bought out items fitted in the bulk milk cooling system. It is to be ensured
that all the makes considered shall be of internationally / nationally
repute and of proven quality. Manufacturing of all these items shall be in
accordance to the relevant international /national code. The bidder
should mention at least one alternative make with complete details.
Bidder shall obtain necessary approval from client for makes of all
bought out items.

9.3 Drawing

 Bidder shall submit a detailed general arrangement drawing for

complete system giving complete details with bill of materials, size,
capacity, quantity, material of construction, thickness etc.

9.4 Equipment Selection criteria

 Bidder shall submit along with the offer detailed calculations with
proper justification for selection of compressor (s), evaporator (s),
condenser (s), fan (s), thickness of tank, milk pump, insulation material
and thickness, DG Set etc.

10 Other optional items:

10.1 Level transmitter / indicator

 A diaphragm type level transmitter shall be fitted in the bulk cooler

tank which shall send a signal in the form of 4-20 mA to the
computing/indicating unit and shall indicate/display the total quantity of
milk in liters in the bulk cooler tank. The system shall be calibrated
during the commissioning of the bulk milk unit. 10.2 Design Requirement
 The system should be complete sealed and temper proof and should
ensure that the balance of the unit is not disturbed after installation.
There should be provision of checking the balance of the Tank at the
time of taking Weighment.

31
 The systems should be designed to take care of at least 150%
Overload of the rated Gross Capacities of the respective Bulk Milk
Cooler.

 The system should have one suitably placed 25 mm Letter height 7

segment LED indicator. The length of the cable may vary from one DCS
to another and the same will be in the scope of the supplier.

 The system should be provided with a suitable battery backup for at

least 24 hours.

 The system should enable auto calibration of the unit.

 The system should be designed to ensure complete overload and

shock protection.

6.FACTORS AFFECTING MILK PRODUCTION IN INDIA

A driving factor in the volatility of the dairy industry is that the quantity
and quality of milk produced over time cannot be guaranteed. It depends
too much on factors farmers can’t control—though they do try.
Industry and government agencies both try their best to accurately
predict milk production, and everyone hopes that the milk will be of
superb quality. But neither is assured, and that uncertainty has shaped
how the industry has evolved. The amount of milk a cow produces
depends largely on the environment it’s in. It’s all about comfort: The
more comfortable the cow, the more milk it will produce. The less
comfortable the cow, the less productive it is. Environmental factors
include:
 Weather, climate and geography – Temperate climates with milder
seasons put less stress on cows than climates with more extreme
weather. Geography is closely tied to weather and climate. For

32
 example, cows in Wisconsin and Michigan tend to be more
productive than cows in New Mexico due to heat in the latter region.
Heat and humidity are the factors with largest impact. If nighttime
temperatures cool, cows get a chance for cover even in hot seasons.
However, if they don’t have a chance to cool down, they will eat less
feed and produce less milk.
 Feed – Weather and climate can also affect the abundance and
quality of feed, which translates to quantity and quality of milk
produced. Feed prices and availability can have a large impact on
what farmers can use.
 Accommodations – When cows have comfortable places to rest,
space to graze and farmers who work to keep everything clean,
they’re more productive.
Biology and the way farmers interact with it also affects milk production.
Factors include:
 Species – Different cow breeds naturally produce different quantities
(and qualities) of milk.
 Age – Younger cows generally produce more milk than older ones.
Farmers constantly face the decision of letting a cow give milk versus
when it’s economically better to slaughter for beef and let a younger
cow replace it.
 Milking frequency – Farmers are very precise about how frequently
cows are milked. The amount of milkings per day adds to labor and
equipment costs. But waiting too long between milkings means
quantity and quality will suffer.
 Health – Sick cows produce less milk —and poorer quality milk
(which is discussed below)— than healthy ones.
 Dry period – How long a cow is allowed to be “dry” in between
calvings impacts how much milk it will give during lactation.

33
Factors affecting milk quality

The quality of milk a cow gives directly affects how much a farmer is paid
for it. That’s why farmers go to such great lengths to assure quality of
milk. Factors impacting the quality of milk a cow gives include:
 Cow health – A cow’s health has the biggest impact on the quality of
the milk it produces. Just like humans, cows can catch illnesses such
as a cold or flu. They’re also susceptible to irritation or
inflammation of their udders if stall conditions are poor. Exposure to
mud, manure and runoff can expose the herd to more pathogens,
increasing incidents of infection. Rainy seasons can predictably lead
to higher somatic cell counts.
 Somatic cell counts – These are the best markers of cow health.
High somatic cell counts in milk indicate an increased presence of
white blood cells—a signal that the cow is fighting an illness. Other
types of somatic cells can degrade the fat and protein content in milk.
This hurts the quality of the milk and can lead to deduction in pay.
 Diet – Just as a cow’s diet impacts the quantity of the milk it
produces, it also affects the quality composition. In times of food
scarcity, both will suffer. When feed is plentiful, farmers have more
room to adjust feed to enhance the components of milk. Better
composition means a better paycheck.
 Milk handling – Another factor affecting milk quality is how it’s
treated once it leaves the cow. Because milk is a naturally good place
for bacteria to thrive, bacteria counts taken during processing can
show whether milk was taken with clean equipment and cooled
quickly. The cleaner the equipment and the faster the milk is cooled,
the lower the bacteria count will be.
Use of RBST

34
A touchy subject in the dairy and food industries is the use of synthetic
hormones to boost milk production. Specifically, the use of recombinant
bovine somatotropin (RBST) has been controversial. This manmade
version of a hormone naturally occurring in cows allows them to produce
more milk, but some believe it is linked to an increased instance of
bacterial infection in cows that results in an increased presence of
antibiotics or antibiotic-resistant bacteria in milk. Note that all milk is
tested before it enters the food supply. Milk that tests positive for
antibiotics is always discarded.
Studies on the matter have shown mixed results and remain ongoing,
but the industry has largely moved away from RBST use due to
consumer demand. More and more plants refuse to buy milk from cows
they know received RBST supplements.
7.MILK PROCESSING IN INDIA
7.1. INTRODUCTION

Good quality milk is essential for production of good quality dairy

products, taste and flavour, free from pathogens and long keeping
quality.

GOOD QUALITY DAIRY PRODUCTS CANNOT AND CAN NEVER BE

MADE FROM POOR QUALITY RAW MILK

Good quality raw milk must be:

a. Free from debris and sediment.

b. Free from off-flavours.
c. Low in bacterial numbers.
d. Normal composition and acidity.
e. Free of antibiotics and chemical residues.

In order for milk to reach the processor and ultimately the consumer still
in good condition, a number of things must be observed right from the
farm level to the processing factory, and thereafter to the retailers and
consumer. This booklet will highlight the essential steps that must be
taken at each level in order to preserve natures best food- MILK.

35
7.2. HYGIENIC MILK PRODUCTION AT THE FARM

Whether milking by hand or machine, good hygiene is essential.

This requires that:

a. The milkers hands and clothes are clean and he or she is in good
health.
b. The milking machine and milk storage equipment such as milk
churns are kept clean and are in good condition (i.e. without cracks
or dents which are difficult to clean and can easily harbour
bacteria.
c. Immediately after milking, the milk must be cooled preferably to
4° C. This requires mechanical refrigeration or milk cooling tanks.
These are expensive and can usually be afforded by large scale
commercial farms.

For small scale dairy farmers, setting up a milk cooling centre centrally
may be the ideal solution.

Where farmers bring their milk to a cooling centre through a co-

operative, they should do so as soon as milking is completed.

A Milk cooling centre with a capacity of 1000 - 3000 litres will serve up to
300 small holder farmers ensuring that the quality of their milk when
produced under hygienic conditions is well preserved and accepted at
the processing plant.

Fig. 1: A bulk (direct expansion) milk cooling tank (1000 - 3000

litres)

It is important to remember that under a hot environment milk will spoil

within 3-4 hours. So any means of cooling that will lower the temperature

36
of milk from 38° C at milking will help to prevent multiplication of
bacteria. There are several options available.

In highland areas such as Kinangop, Limuru , Tiniboroa where the water

temperature can be as low as 10° C, the milk may be cooled down to
2° C using water temperature by one of the following techniques.

a. Immersing milk cans in a water trough connected to a water tap or

water spring.
b. Using an in-can rotary cooler.

Fig. 2. Milk cooling by immersion in a trough with cool water.

Fig. 3. In-can Rotary milk cooling.

c. Using a surface milk cooler

Fig. 4 Surface milk cooler

37
In hot areas like in the coast, Western Province, North Eastern, Nyanza,
cooling of milk blow 3-5° C below ambient temperature may be achieved
through use of charcoal lined evaporative cooling cabinet.

Fig. 5 evaporative charcoal lined cooler

7.3. MILK TRANSPORT TO PROCESSING FACTORY

3.1 Bulk milk transport.

Milk cooled on the farm or cooling centre may be transported in milk

cans or in bulk tankers. Bulk tankers are insulated, so the milk will
remain cold until it reaches the plant (provided the transport is fast, i.e.
short distance or good roads enabling milk to be delivered before the
temperature of milk rises above 10° C).

Fig. 5. Milk collection by bulk tanker.

3.2 In-can milk transportation.

Alternatively, such milk may be filled in cans and transported in milk

cans. This has, the advantage that a farmer’s can of POOR quality milk
will not be mixed with other farmers’ GOOD quality milk and spoil the
lot!.

Since the cans are not insulated, the transport to the factory must be
efficient enough to enable milk reach the factory in acceptable condition.

Fig. 6. Milk transport in individual cans.

In the case of farmers delivering milk via pick-up (collection) points it is

advisable that the milk cans are placed in a shaded area while awaiting
pick-up by a milk transport vehicle.

38
 Fig. 7. Provision of shade at pick up-points is important.

Bad milk will be rejected at the dairy plant. The farmer will lose money,
the milk transporter may lose money if the fault is his. The nation will
suffer because its people will not have the high quality food. To avoid all
these bad things happening, hygienic milk handling is essential at each
stage; at the FARM, COOLING CENTRE AND DURING TRANSPORT.

7.4. DAIRY SANITATION AT THE FARM

It is in the interest of every farmer and milk processor that the following
are observed at the dairy farm

4.1 Proper sanitation of milk cans.

Immediately cans are emptied of milk they should be cleaned as follows:

 Cold water rinse.

 Scrubbing with brush and warm detergent (any unperfumed liquid
soap will do).
 Cold water rinse.
 Sterilization (sanitisation) with boiling water or steam if available or
use dairy sanitising solution such hypochlorite or commercial
brand preparations in accordance with manufacturer’s instructions.
 Dry cans on a drying rack. Exposure to sunlight will enhance killing
off bacteria during drip drying of cans.

4.2 Milking machines

Milking machines should be cleaned according to recommended

practice:

 Cold water rinse.

 CIP detergent circulation cleaning with dairy detergent in hot
water.

39
  Hot water rinse.

Timely replacement of worn out rubber parts should be undertaken

regularly.

4.3 The cows

Follow proper milking hygiene; mastitis cows should be milked last and
their milk discarded. Milk from cows treated with antibiotics should not be
mixed with milk from healthy cows. Observe the required 4 day
withdrawal period. Milk with antibiotics will affect consumers’ health as
well as spoiling activity of lactic starter cultures used in cheese, yoghurt
and Mala manufacture.

4.4 Milk transport vessels (cans and tanks)

All milk transport vessels should be cleaned in the same way as outlined
for milk cans above. There should be provision for water at milk cooling
centres to enable ALL milk suppliers’ vessels or cans to be rinsed with
cold water.

7.5. HYGIENIC MILK HANDLING AT DAIRY FACTORIES

5.1 General guidelines

i. Floors of dairy buildings must be made of bard washable surface.

Walls should be smooth and washable to about 2 meters from floor
level and painted with light colour.
ii. Doors should be self shutting while windows should be rendered
insect proof by mosquito netting to keep flies out.
iii. Rooms should be kept clean and in good repair.
iv. All product-contact surfaces should be kept cleaned immediately
before use or as often as necessary, by cleaning techniques
appropriate to the equipment and process.
v. Equipment and utensils should be disinfected immediately. before
use, and whenever there has been possibility of accidental
contamination.
vi. Equipment repairs and maintenance should preferably be carried
out after processing. Whenever machines have to be fixed during
production runs, adequate precautions should be taken to prevent
contamination of dairy products.

5.2 Cleaning and disinfections of plant and equipment.

40
 i. Equipment used for handling liquid milk products should preferably
be cleaned and disinfected after each period of use and at least
daily.
ii. Equipment used in handling fat rich products such as butter and
cheese should be cleaned as required, but in any case not less
than once a week.
iii. The basic steps of cleaning plant and equipment are:

 Rinsing with water to remove excess soil Cold or tepid water (40-
50° C)may be used, but hot water of up to 85C maybe used for
buffer nuking equipment.
 Washing with a detergent should then follow until the surface of
the equipment is clean. This may be used in conjunction with
manual scrubbing or ClP cleaning depending on the type of
equipment.
 A final rinse with cold potable water should be done until the
surface is five of detergent.

iv) Disinfection

Disinfection of dairy equipment may be carried out by means of:

 Steam - Steaming should be done for 10- l5 minutes after the

condensate has attained 85° C.
 Hot water - Hot water at8O C(use soft water only to prevent
deposition of salts) for at least 20 minutes in circulation cleaning
for 15 minutes at 85° C
 Detergents/disinfectants - used as part of the cleaning process at
temperatures between 45-60° C in manual cleaning and for cold
milk lines, storage tanks and tankers.

5.3 Packaging.

i) Packaging materials should be:

 Stored in a dry place away from manufacturing areas;

 Used in a clean and sanitary manner;
 Non-toxic.

ii) Packaging should be carried out in away that:

 Avoids contamination of processed products.

 Protects the product against contamination until the product
reaches the consumer.

41
5.4 Hygienic Storage of finished products.

Products should be stored in clean conditions at appropriate

temperature and humidity to prevent deterioration or permit maturation (
e.g. cheese).

5.5 Hygienic Transport

Products should be transported in clean vehicles under appropriate

condition and be kept away from other goods.

5.6 Personnel Hygiene and Health.

 It is recommended that persons engaged in handling foods should

be subjected to health checks in accordance with provisions of the
Public Health laws of Kenya.
 Factory premises should be provided with clean running water and
good washrooms.
 Workers should wear clean protective clothing and working gear
(e.g. gum boots, coats, overalls and caps).

5.7 Laboratory Quality Control

Milk and other raw materials should be subjected as required to regular

testing in order to ensure wholesomeness and freedom from pathogens.

7.6.What are the advantages of milk processing?

Most farmers keep only a few dairy animals. Therefore milk production is
not stable throughout the year, but fluctuates with the season. These
farmers would like to obtain more milk and dairy products for family
consumption. They would also like to sell milk and dairy products on the
market, to earn more income.

To do this, they need to learn simple processing methods to improve the

quality of milk and milk products such as butter, cheese and yogurt.

• Provides regular income

• Improves nutrition

• Selling processed milk products is more profitable than selling fresh

milk

• Generates employment

42
• Improves quality and safety

7.7 Pasteurization

Pasteurization is the first step in milk processing. Pasteurization means

heating every particle of the milk or milk product to a specific
temperature for a specified period of time (63°C for 30 minutes). This
destroys bacteria and other micro-organisms that may affect consumers'
health. It makes the milk safe and healthy, and also improves the
keeping quality, * so that milk and milk products can be stored for longer
periods without being spoilt. Simple method of pasteurization Many
farmers pasteurize their milk by direct boiling. However, direct boiling is
unhygienic, because it can lead to contamination from outside particles
or bacteria. Direct boiling is also inefficient, i.e. it requires more energy
(more fuel or firewood). Indirect heating is a better way to pasteurize
milk. Place the milk can inside a larger metal vessel containing water, so
that the water forms a jacket around the milk can. Heat the larger outside
vessel using an open flame, or gas stove, or electrical hot plate. *
Keeping quality or keeping power is a term to describe how long the milk
remains sweet, palatable and suitable for direct consumption. Milk with
good keeping quality fetches good market prices. Milk that is sour or
otherwise unpalatable cannot be sold for direct use, however rich it may
be in fat and other solids.

Other methods of pasteurization

• Batch pasteurization:

63°C for at least 30 minutes. This is suitable for small-scale producers

and farmer cooperatives.

• High temperature short time (HTST) pasteurization:

72°C for at least 15 minutes. This is suitable for processing large

quantities of milk, e.g. more than 250 liters at a time.

• Ultra high temperature (UHT):

43
135°C. This is used by big factories. It requires special machinery. UHT
milk can be stored for 6 months even without refrigeration

ANAND PATTERN

The system of production, procurement, processing and marketing of

milk adopted by the Kaira Union is popularly known as Anand pattern or
the Amul pattern. Anand is the place of headquarters of the Kaira Union
and Amul is the brand name of dairy products produced by the Kaira
union. Anand pattern was regarded as a model for dairy development in
rural areas in and outside the country.

This system was approved by the Rural Credit Review Committee 95 as

well as by the National Commission on agricultural for implementation
throughout the country. Under the Anand Pattern, a primary co-operative
society of milk producers is formed at the village level. These societies
are federated in a milk union at the district level. Milk unions are further
federated at the state level in a Federation

44
There has been a many- fold increase in the number, membership and
turnover of milk co-operatives in the country, during the post-
independence period. In pursuance of a government directive (1964) to
set up milk co-operatives on Anand Pattern throughout the country, the
National Dairy Development Board (NDDB) was set up at Anand in
1965. The NDDB drew up a program known as “Operation flood” to
replicate the Anand pattern in 18 areas of milk production in the milk
sheds of Bombay, Delhi, Calcutta and Madras.

The world’s largest dairy development program the “Operation Flood”

undertook the gigantic task of upgrading and modernizing milk
production, procurement and marketing with the assistance provided by
the world Food Program, European Economic Community (EEC), the
World Bank and 95 (Venkatappaiah Committee 1969) 143 other
international agencies. The Indian Dairy Corporation (IDC) was specially
set up in 1970 by the Government of India for receiving the gift of the
skim milk powder and butter oil under the World Food Program and
generating funds by their sale for the implementation of the project.

TYPES OF PROCESSED MILK PRODUCTS

45
8.SPECIAL MILKS

There are many different varieties of milk available for consumption. The
different milks tend to vary according to the way they are produced, and
their fat content. Such milks are broadly classified as special
milks.Special milk may be flavoured milk, sterilized milk, vitaminized
milk, frozen concentrated milk, standardized milk, homogenized milk,
recombined milk, toned milk, double toned milk, humanized milk, filled
milk, imitation milk and vegetable milk.

The flavoured milk market is one of the fastest growing dairy sectors.
Most flavoured milk products are produced using low fat milk. The most
popular flavours are chocolate, strawberry, mango and banana. Heat
treated milk are manufactured to improve the shelf life of milk by killing
the harmful bacteria. Sterilized milk is heat treated milk is available in
whole, semi skimmed and skimmed varieties. It goes through a more
severe form of heat treatment, which destroys nearly all the bacteria in it.
Special milk improves the palatability and enhances the shelf life of milk.
Learning Outcomes.

TYPES OF MILK (A1 AND A2 MILKS)

46
Milk is the complete food for the infant. It contains the essential micro-
nutrients needed for growth and development of human health as well
as for the neonate animal. In USA, Australia, New Zealand and other
developed countries, people use to consume milk according to their
needs and use milk like A2 milk, since A2 milk is harmless whereas A1
milk is harmful for health. So, our future breeding policies for dairy
animals should be done in a systematic manner, keeping an eye on
producing clean and healthy milk which is none other than A2 Milk.

What actually is A1 and A2 milk?

Milk contains about 85% water. The remaining 15% is the milk sugar
lactose, protein, fat and minerals. Beta-casein is about 30% of the total
protein content in milk. A2 milk is the milk that contains only the A2 type
of beta-casein protein whereas A1 milk contains only A1 beta casein or
A1A2 type variant. A1 protein variant is commonly found in milk from
crossbred and European breeds of cattle. A2 milk is found basically in
indigenous cows and buffaloes of India (Asia as a whole). A2 milk is
branded by the A2 Milk Company like A2 Corporation and sold mostly in
Australia, New Zealand, United Kingdom and other developed countries

8.1Sterlized Milk

According to FSSAI Sterilized milk may be defined as milk which has

been heated in sealed container continuously to a temperature of either
115 0 C for 15 minutes or at least 1300 C-1500 C for few seconds in a
continuous flow and then packed under aseptic condition in hermetically
sealed containers to ensure preservation at room temperature for a long
period from the date of manufacture.

1. In – bottle sterilization.

2. UHT sterilization

Details of manufacture:

In-bottle sterilization

The raw milk, on receipt, should be cooled to 5°C for bulk

storage in order to check any bacterial growth. Next, it should
be pre heated to 35-40°C for efficient filtration/ clarification, so
as to remove visible dirt, etc. The milk should again be cooled

47
to 5°C so as to preserve its quality. It should then be
standardized to the prescribed percentage of fat and solids-not-
fat content in order to confirm to legal standards. The milk
should be pre heated to 60°C for efficient homogenization to
prevent any subsequent formation of a cream layer.

Usually single-stage homogenization is carried out at 2500 psi

pressure. The hot milk from the homogenizer should be filled
into the cleaned and sanitized bottle coming from the bottle
washing machine and then sealed with special caps. The filled
and capped bottles should then be placed in metal crates for
sterilization by the batch process, or fed into conveyors for the
continuous process. Usually the milk is sterilized at 115-120°C
for 15-20 minutes. The sterilized milk bottles should be
gradually cooled to room temperature. Any sudden cooling may
led to bottle breakage. Finally the milk-inbottles should be
stored in a cool place. Flow diagram of manufacture.

Receiving milk

Cooling for 50 c and bulk storage

Pre-heating(35-400 c)

Filtration/Clarification

Cooling to 50 c

Standardizing and storage(50 c)

Pre-heating (600 c)

48
 ↓

Homogenization (2500psi, 600 c)

Clarification (600 c)

Filling and capping ( in cleaned and sanitized

bottles)

Sterilizing (115-1200 c/15-20 minutes)

Cooling (room temperature)

Storage (room temperature)

Ultra high temperature (UHT) processing

In these processes, the milk is heated to 135-1500 C for a few

seconds, generally in a plate or tubular heat-exchanger. The
milk, which is then almost sterile, has to be filled into containers
for distributions; the filling has to be done aseptically. Ideally,
heating and cooling should be as quick as possible.This applies
only as long as the product remains under aseptic conditions,
so it is necessary to prevent re-infection by packaging the
product in previously sterilized packaging materials under
aseptic conditions after heat treatment. Any intermediate
storage between treatment and packaging must take place
under aseptic conditions. This is why UHT processing is also
called aseptic processing.

8.2.Flavoured Milk
Flavoured milk is milk to which some flavour has been added.
When the ‘milk’ is used, the product should contain a milk fat

49
percentage at least equal to the minimum legal requirement for
market milk. But when the fat level is lower (1-2 per cent),the
term ‘drink’ is used. Types:

The main types of flavoured milk are as follows:

1. chocolate milk/drink

2. fruit flavoured milk/drink

3. sterilized flavoured milk/drink

According to Food Safety and Standard Regulations

2011,”Flavoured Milk” by whatever name called may contain
nuts(whole fragmented or ground) chocolate, coffee or any
other edible flavor, edible food colours and cane
sugar.Flavoured milk shall be pasteurized, sterilized or boiled.
The type of milk shall be mentioned on the label.

Details of manufacture:

i. Preparation of Chocolate Milk/Drink

The milk on receipt is standardized to 2% fat level for

preparation of drink. Standardized milk is then pre-heated
to 35-40°C and filtered; alternatively, after standardization
it is pre-heated to 60°C, homogenized at 2500 psi and
then clarified. To the warm milk, cocoa powder (1 to
1.5%), sugar (5 to 7%) and stabilizer(sodium alginate –
0.2%) are slowly added and stirred to dissolve them
properly.The mixture is then pasteurized at 71°C/30 min.,
cooled rapidly to 5°C, bottled and kept under refrigeration
(5°C) until used. The detailed flow diagram for the
manufacture of chocolate milk/ drink is given below.

ii. Preparation of Fruit Flavoured Milk

The method of preparation of fruit flavoured milk is similar to

that used for chocolate milk/drink. Instead of cocoa powder,
permitted fruit flavours/essence, together with permitted
(matching) colours and sugar are used. The common flavours
used are strawberry, orange, lemon, pineapple, banana,
vanilla, etc.

50
iii. Preparation of Sterilized Flavoured Milk

These combine the advantages of both sterilized and flavoured

milk/drinks. The method of preparation is given below

Receiving milk

Pre-heating (35-400 C)

Filtration/ Clarification

Standardization

Homogenization (2500 psi)

Filling and capping

Sterilization (108-1110 C/ 25-30 min)

Cooling to room temperature

Storage (room temperature).

51
 The incoming milk should be pre-heated to 35-40°C for
filtration, so as to remove visible dirt, etc. Flavour/ essence,
permitted (matching) colour and sugar (syrup) are added to
clarified milk and mixed well. The fruit flavoured milk is now
filled in cleaned and sterilized bottles and then capped properly.
The filled bottles are then sterilized at 108-111o C for 25-30
minutes. Sterilized milk bottles should be gradually cooled to
room temperature. Finally, the sterilized milk is stored in a cool
place.

Flavoured Milk

TONED MILK

According to Food Safety and Standards Regulations 2011,

TONED MILK means the product prepared by admixture of cow
or buffalo milk or both with fresh skimmedmilk; or by admixture
of cow or buffalo milk or both that has been standardized to fat
minimum 3% and solids-not-fat minimum 8.5 % by adjustment
of milk solids. It shall be pasteurized and shall show a negative
Phosphatase Test. When fat or dry non-fat-milk solids are
used, it shall be ensured that the product remains
homogeneous and no deposition of solids takes place on
standing.

DOUBLE TONED MILK

According to Food Safety and Standard Regulations

2011,DOUBLE TONED MILK means the product prepared by
admixture of cow or buffalo milk or both with fresh skimmed
milk, or by admixture of cow or buffalo milk or both that has
been standardized to fat minimum1.5% and solids-not-fat
minimum 9% by adjustment of milk solids. It shall be
pasteurized and shall show a negative Phosphatase Test.
When fat or dry non-fat milk solids are used, it shall be ensured
that the product remains homogeneous and no deposition of
solids takes place on standing.

RECOMBINED MILK

According to Food Safety and Standard Regulations 2011,

RECOMBINED MILK means the homogenized product
prepared from milk fat, non-fat-milk solids andwater.
Recombined milk shall be pasteurized and shall show a

52
negative Phosphatase test. As per FSSAI recombined milk
should contain a minimum of 3.0 per cent fat and 8.5 per cent
solids-not-fat throughout the country.

STANDARDISED MILK

According to Food Safety and Standard Regulations 2011,

STANDARDISED MILK means cow milk or buffalo milk or
sheep milk or goat milk or a combination of anyof these milk
that has been standardized to fat minimum 4.5% and solids-
notfat minimum 8.5% by the adjustment of milk solids.
Standardized milk shall be pasteurized and shall show a
negative Phosphatase Test. The standardization can be done
either by partially skimming the fat in the milk with a cream
separator, or by admixture with fresh or reconstituted skim milk
in proper proportions.

SKIMMED MILK

According to Food Safety and Standard Regulations 2011,

SKIMMED MILK means the product prepared from milk from
which almost all the milk fat has been removed mechanically.

Reconstituted Milk

Reconstituted milk refers to milk prepared by dispersing whole

milk powder in water (approximately in the proportion of 1 part
powder to 7-8 parts water). During the lean season,
reconstituted milk is the main source of milk supply in cities.

Soft-curd milk:

Soft-curd milk is milk that forms a soft curd when coagulated

with rennet or pepsin under standardized procedure. Soft-curd
milk has a curd tension of less than 25g.

Characteristics

53
1. Low casein content

2. Low calcium content

Vitaminized/ irradiated milk:

Vitaminized milk is milk to which one or more vitamins are

added. Irradiated milk is milk in which the vitamin D content has
been increased by exposure to ultra-violet rays.

Fortified milk

Addition of vitamins ( and minerals) to milk is called

fortification, and such milk is called fortified milk.

Frozen concentrated milk

This refers to milk which has been partially concentrated and

then solidified by freezing.

Humanized milk

When whole cow or buffalo milk is so modified in its chemical

composition that it resembles human milk, it is called
humanized Milk.

Filled milk

This refers to the product obtained when vegetable fat, skim

milk powder and water are combined in the correct proportion
to yield fluid milk.

Imitation milk

A product resembling milk but of non-dairy origin .

Vegetable toned milk

The milk protein of skim milk powder is substituted by

vegetable protein isolated from groundnut.

8.3FERMENTED MILK

54
Fermented milk refers to those milks which have been made
by employing selected micro-organisms to develop the
characteristic flavour and/or body and texture. Health benefit:

i. Much more palatable than milk

ii. Nutritive value usually increased

iii. More easily assimilated by the human system than milk

iv. May contain beneficial antibiotics

v. May posses therapeutic properties.

Classification

The compositional and organoleptic qualities of fermented milks

depend on initial quality of milk, manufacturing conditions,
types and levels of starter cultures and age of the products.
Natural Butter Milk, Cultured Butter Milk, Acidophilus Milk,
Bulgarian Butter Milk, Kumiss, Kefir, Yoghurt and Dahi.

Definition and propagation of starter culture

Definition:

Starter cultures are carefully selected organisms which are

intentionally added to initiate the fermentation process. Lactic
starter is culture is usually considered to indicate a culture
containing lactic streptococci. Microorganisms commonly found
in fermented milk belongs to the genus Streptococcus.They
may or may not contain associative organisms of the genus
Leuconostoc.Stater species most commonly used in dairy
industry are Streptococcus lactis, Streptococcus cremoris,
Streptococcus diacetilactis, Leuconostoc citrovorum and
Leuconostoc dextranicum. A starter may contain a single lactic
strain ora mixture of lactic streptococci with or without
Leuconostoc species.

Propagation/maintenance of starter culture:

Mother starter/culture It refers to the stock lactic cultures

prepared routinely in the laboratory or dairy plant from day to
day for bulk propagation.

55
Propagation/maintenance of starter culture:

i. Preparation of Mother Culture:

The milk is pasteurized in cleaned and sterilized bottles at 72-

73°C for 45 minutes and the bottles then submerged in the
cooling water, and thereafter, these milk bottles are stored in a
refrigerator for future use. The milk containing bottle is
inoculated by injecting few drops of the desired culture.
Thereafter, the content is incubated at desired temperature.

ii. Preparation of Bulk Starters

It is made in large amounts to be actually added to the

milk,whenever required for the manufacture of fermented milks
or milk products. The vessels of different sizes are used for
preparation of bulk starters. These vessels are closed
completely air tight after the initial stage of filling with milk.
These cans are filled with milk and heat treated by steam at 72-
73°C for 45 min and cooled to incubation temperatures. The
bulk culture is inoculated and incubated in the same manner as
the mother cultures.

8.4BUTTERMILK

Buttermilk is a by-product obtained during the churning of

cream for butter making.In Indigenous method country butter
milk is obtained as a by-product of churning whole milk curd for
production of desibutter.It can be used as a refreshing drink.

Cultured Buttermilk

This is obtained by inoculation and incubation of pasteurized

skim milk with lactic starter. Preparation Skim milk is
pasteurized, cooled and added with starter culture. After
incubation, the curd is broken and cooled to 5 to 10ºC.

ACIDOPHILUS MILK

Preparation Acidophilus milk is produced by adding culture

named Lactobacillus acidophilus. It has therapeutic and health
promoting properties. Flow diagram of manufacture of
acidophilus milk

56
Receiving milk(skim/whole/defatted)

Filtration/Clarification(35-400 C)

Homogenization

Sterilization (1150 C/15min.)

Cooling (38-400 C)

Inoculation(3-5%)

↓ Incubation (38-400 C/12-16hrs)

↓ Coagulation

Break up of coagulum

↓ Reference Book 28 Cooling(100 C) ↓

Packaging and storage(50 C)

9.FERRMENTED MILK PRODUCTS

9.1 YOGHURT

57
 According to FSSAI, Yoghurt means a coagulated product
obtained from pasteurized or boiled milk or concentrated milk,
pasteurized skimmed milk and/or pasteurized cream or a
mixture of two or more of the seproducts by lactic acid
fermentation through the action of Lactobacillus delbrueckii
subsp. bulgaricus and Streptococcusthermophilussu ssp.
Thermophilus It may also contain cultures of Bifidobacterium
bifidus and Lactobacillus acidophilus and other cultures of
suitable lactic acid producing harmless bacteria and if added
declaration to this effect shall be made on the label.

The microorganisms in the final product must be viable and

abundant. It may contain milk powder, skimmed milk powder,
unfermented buttermilk, concentrated whey, whey powder,
whey protein, whey protein concentrate, water soluble milk
proteins, edible casein , and caseinates manufactured from
pasteurized products. It may also contain sugar, corn syrup or
glucose syrup in sweetened, flavoured and fruit yoghurt or fruits
in fruits yoghurt . It shall have smooth surface and thick
consistency without separation of whey. The product is
incubated at 40-45o C/5 hours.

Yoghurt is characterized by a pungent, fruity small and acid

taste. It has a firm body like dahi.

58
Commercial yoghurts are divided into three main categories,
i.e..plain/natural, fruit and flavoured. Flow diagram of
manufacture of Yoghurt:

Receiving whole/defatted milk

Addition of skim milk powder concentrate

Filtration/clarification (35-400 C)

Pre-heating the mix (600 C)

Homogenization (2500 psi)

Pasteurization (850 C/30min)

Cooling (43-440 C)

Inoculation (2%)

Packaging

Incubation (41-420 C/3hrs) (0.75%T.A)

Cooling and storage (5-70 C)

59
Details of manufacture:

Skim milk powder is added to whole/ defatted milk, pre-heated

and homogenized. Stabilizers may or may not be added. The
mix is heated in a vat to 85o C/ 30 minutes and then cooled to
43-44o C. It is then added with 2% starter culture Lactobacillus
delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus
ssp. thermophiles (1:1) and stirred briefly to ensure proper
mixing. The mix is then packaged and stored at 41-42o C / 3-4
hours till a titratable acidity of 0.75% is reached. The finished
product is then stored at 5-7o C.

Flavoured yoghurt:

Yoghurt Flavoured yoghurt is a product obtained by adding

different flavours to yoghurt. Flavours are of three types, viz.,
synthetic or artificial, natural with synthetics added and natural
fruits. These flavours are added to yoghurt in one of the
following ways:

(1) By mix blending: The flavouring material, sugar and colour

are added to the mix prior to fermentation.

(2) Fruit on bottom: Preserved fruits or fresh fruits are added to

the package prior to filling or setting.

(3) Bulk mixing: Yoghurt is prepared, bulk chilled and mixed

with a fruit dressing and packaged.

Fresh fruit, preserves, flavours, sugar and colour are blended in

after fermentation.

9.2DAHI

60
According to Food Safety and Standard Regulations 2011,
“Dahi or curd” means the product obtained from pasteurized or
boiled milk by souring, natural or otherwise, by a harmless
lactic acid culture or other harmless bacterial culture may also
be used in conjunction with lactic acid bacteria cultures for
sourcing.

Dahi may contain added cane sugar. Dahi shall have the same
minimum percentage of milk fat and milk solids not fat as the
milk from which it is prepared.In household, the milk is boiled,
cooled to room temperature, inoculated with 0.5 to 1.0 percent
starter (previous day’s dahi or butter milk) and then incubated
undisturbed for setting for about overnight.

In cold weather, the dahi setting vessel is usually wrapped up

with woolen cloth to maintain appropriate temperature. In the
confectionary shops, the method employed for preparation of
dahi is more or less same except that the milk is concentrated
in an open pan before inoculation and usually dahi is set in an
earthenware. In a dairy plant, it is prepared as follows: Flow
diagram of manufacture of Dahi:

Receiving milk

Pre-heating

61
↓

Filtration/clarification (35-400 C)

Standardization

Pre-heating 600 C

Homogenization(2500 psi)

Pasteurization (80-900 C/15-30min)

↓ DAIRY TECHNOLOGY 31 Cooling (22-250 C)

Inoculation (0.5% starter culture)

Packaging

Incubation (22-250 C /16-18hrs)

Dahi

Cooling and storage (50 C)

Details of Manufacture:

62
 Fresh, sweet, good quality milk is received, pre-heated to 35-
400 C and subjected to filtration/ clarification. It is then
standardized to 2.5-3.0% fat and 10% SNF, preheated to 600 C
and homogenized single stage at a pressure of 176kg/sq.cm.
The milk is pasteurized at 80-900 C /15-30 minutes., cooled to
22-250 C and inoculated with 1-3% of lactic starter culture. Itv
is then filled in suitable containers (glass bottles/ plastic cups/
pouches) of required capacity and incubated at 22-250 C / 16-
18 hours, during which period the acidity reaches 0.6-0.7%
lactic acid and a firm curd is formed. The set curd is stored at
about 50 C in a cold room.

9.3LASSI

Standardized milk (4% fat) is heated to 90o C for 10 min and

cooled to 25o C before addition of starter culture (1%). Cultured
milk is incubated for 12-16 hr at 25- 28o C, the set curd is
broken by stirring and sugar syrup is mixed. The mixture is
homogenized and packaged after the addition of flavour. On an
average the product contains 3 per cent fat., 6-7 per cent SNF
and 10-11 per cent sugar. The acidity ranges from 0.6 to 0.7% .

10.FAT RICH PRODUCTS

Being largest entity in milk, fat globules can relatively be easily
separated from the rest of the milk, thereby yielding products of
varying fat concentrations. Also processes leading to change in
status of fat globules with respect to type of emulsion can result in
different products. Thus, milk fraction concentrated in fat gives
cream, which in turn can be converted in products such as butter,
ghee, butteroil etc.
10.1CREAM

Definition

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 According to Food Safety and Standards Authority of India
(FSSAI) 2011, Cream including sterilized cream means the
product of cow or buffalo milk or a combination thereof. It shall be
free from starch and other ingredients foreign to milk. It may be of
following three categories, namely:
1. Low fat cream: containing milk fat not less than 25.0 percent by
weight.
2. Medium fat cream: containing milk fat not less than 40.0 percent
by weight
3. High fat cream: containing milk fat not less than 60.0 percent by
weight.
Types of cream –
Table cream, light cream, coffee cream, whipping cream, heavy
cream and plastic cream
Production:

Basic principle of cream separation

The basic principle of cream separation, whether by gravity or
centrifugal methods, is based on the fact that milk fat is lighter than
the skim milk portion. At 16o C the density of milk fat is 0.93 and
that of skim milk is 1.036. Hence when milk is subjected to gravity
or centrifugal force, the two components, viz. cream and skim milk,

64
by virtue of their differing densities, stratify or separate from one
another.
Methods of separation
Gravitational
When milk is kept undisturbed for some time, a creamy layer
appears on the top. The velocity or rate at which the fat globules
rise, is given by the following equation Stock’s Law 2
2G (ds df )r V 9 n
V = velocity or rate at which a single fat globule rises
G = acceleration due to
ds = density of skim milk
DISC TOP DISCS BOWL BASE df = density of fat globule
r = radius of fat globule
n = viscosity of skim
Centrifugal method
When milk enters the rapidly revolving bowl of the cream
separator, it is immediately subjected to centrifugal force, which is
3000 to 6000 times greater than gravitational force. While both the
fat and skim milk are subjected to the centrifugal force, the
difference in density affects the heavier portion (skim milk) more
intensely than the lighter portion(cream).Thereby the skim milk is
forced to the periphery while the fat portion moves towards the
centres and led through separate outlet. The important parts of the
centrifugal cream separator are as follows: Supply can, Faucet,
Float, Cream screw, skim milk screw, Bowl shell, Milk distributor,
Cream spout, skim milk spout, Top disc, Disc, Bowl nut, rubber
ring, spindle etc.
1O.2BUTTER
Butter means the fatty product derived exclusively from milk of
Cow and/or Buffalo or its products principally in the form of an
emulsion of the type water-in-oil. The product may be with hout
added common salt and starter cultures of harmless lactic acid
and/ or flavour producing bacteria.
Table butter shall be obtained from pasteurised milk and/ or other
milk products which have undergone adequate heat treatment to
ensure microbial safety. It shall be free from animal, body fat,
vegetable oil and fat, mineral oil and added flavour. It shall have

65
pleasant taste and flavour free from off flavour and rancidity.
Provided that where butter is sold or offered for sale without any
indication as to whether it is table or desi butter, the standards of
table butter shall apply.
Classification of Butter:
Butter may be classified based on treatment given to cream, salt
content, method of manufacturing and end use.
a) Pasteurized cream butter: Made usually from pasteurized
sweet cream. Such butter usually has a milder flavour than that
made from similar cream not pasteurized.
b) Ripened cream butter: Made from cream in which a pleasant
delicate aroma has been developed before churning by ripening
(i.e inoculating the cream with a butter culture and holding it at a
desired temperature)-properly made ,ripened cream butter has a
delicate flavour which is sometimes referred to as “real butter
flavour”.
c) Unripened cream butter: Made from unripened cream. The
flavours of such butter is usually mild.
d) Salted butter: Butter to which salt has been added.
e) Unsalted Butter: Contains no added salt.
f) Sweet cream butter: In this case, the acidity of the churned
cream does not exceed 0.20%.
g) Sour cream butter: Made from cream which has more than
0.20% acidity.
h) Fresh butter: Such butter has not undergone cold
storage.(usually ,fresh butter is not kept for more than 3 weeks.
i)Table butter Desi/Cooking butter Moisture Not more than 16%
- Milk fat Not less than 80% Not less than 76% Milk solids not fat
Not less than 1.5% - Common salt Not more than 3% - Reference
Book 38
j) Cold storage butter: Here, it has been stored at a temperature
of about-18 degree Celsius for some time. (Generally cold storage
butter is from 1 to 6 months old when offered for retail trade.
k) Dairy butter(USA): Made on a farm.It is usually made from un
pasteurized sour cream which has not been standardized for
acidity.This butter generally has a sour flavour due to the high acid
content of the cream.

66
l) Cremary butter: Made in a cremary or dairy factory.It is more
uniform in quality than ‘dairy
10.3 CREAM

Details of manufacture
Receiving milk/cream:
This consists of unloading,grading,sampling ,weighing and testing.
Pre-heating of milk:
To increase efficiency of cream separation
Separation of milk
:By centrifugal methods.
Neutralization of cream:
Neutrlisation of sour cream for butter making refers to partial
reduction in its acidity
objectives
1. To avoid excess loss of fat which result from the churning highly
acid pasteurized cream sour. (In pasteurization of sour cream, the
casein curdles, by entrapping fat globules, as the bulk of curd goes
in butter milk, causing high fat loss.)
2. To guard against undesirable off-flavours in cream.(which may
result when high acid cream is pasteurized)..
3. To improve the keeping quality of butter from high acid cream.
Saltedacid-butter develops a fish flavor during commercial storage
at -23 to - 290 C.
Method of neutralization of cream
There are five essential steps to follow for cream neutralization.
These are:
1. Adoption of definite standard of churning acidity.: Butter for long
storge:-Cream acidity should be reduced to 0.06-0.08% before
churning. Butter for short storge:-Cream acidity should be reduced
to 0.25-0..30 % before churning.
2. Correct estimation of acidity.
3. Calculating the amount of neutralizer to be added.
4. Adding neutralizer in the correct manner.
5. Checking results by re-testing acidity.
Type of Neutralizers

67
The neutralizers used for reducing acidity in cream belong to either
one or the other of two groups namely.
• Lime Neutralizers: Calcium Hydroxide and Magnesium Hudroxide
• Soda Neutralizers: Caustic Soda,sodium carbonate,sodium
bicarbonate
Standardization of cream
It refers to adjustment of fat to desired percentage, confirming to
standard requirements. It is done by adding calculated quantity of
skim milk Desired level of fat in cream for butter making is 33 to 40
per cent. Standardization to both higher and lower level leads to
higher fat loss in butter milk.
Pasteurization of cream
It refers to adjustment every particle of cream to a temperature not
less that 710 C and holding it at that temperature for at least 20
min or any suitable temperaturetime combination using properly
operated equipments. The main objectives of pasteurization are:
i. To destroy pathogenic microorganisms in cream so as to make
it, and the resultant butter, safe for human consumption.
ii To destroy undesirable micr-organisms and inactivate enzymes
present so as to prlong keeping quality of the cream and butter.
iii To eliminates some of the gaseous and tainting substances.
iv. To complete the neutralization process
v . To remove some of volatile off-flavours during vacreation.(eg;-
feed,weed)
Methods:
a) Holder pasteurization:710 c for 20 minutes, and then promptly
cooled.`
b) HTST:95-1000 c for 15-16seconds.
c) Vacuum pasteurization or vacreation.
Cooling and ageing
Cream is cooled by lowering its temperature and aged by holdin it
at this (low) temperature for few hours. After pasteurization cream
as to be cooled and then aged to make churning possible. When
cream leaves the pasteurizer, the fat in the globule is in liquid form.
When cream is cooled, fat crystallization starts, cream will not
churn unless the butter fat is at least partially crystallized.

68
If solidification of fat is not sufficient, the fat losses in buttermilk will
be high,and butter obtained will have an unsatisfactory, week
body. High cooling and ageing temperature of cream ,shorten the
churning period,yield large fatt losses in butter milk and produce
butter which has a relatively soft body.Low cooling and ageing
temperature prolong the churning period,decrease fat losses and
produce a firm body.The optimum temperature for cooling and
ageing is 5-100 C.

Ripening of cream
Ripening refers to the process of fermentation of cream with the
help of suitable starter culture. This step can be eliminated if
sweet-cream butter is desired.
Objectives:
1. To produce butter with a pleasing, pronounced characteristic
flavor and aroma (higher diacetyl content.)
2. To obtain exhaustive churning.i.e. low fat loss in butter milk..
Starter culture consisting of a mixture of both acid producing
(Streptococcus lactis, S.cremories) and flavour producing
(S.diacetylactis, Leuconostoc citrovorum and/or Leuc.
dextranicum) organisms is added is added to pasteurized and
cooled(20-220 c) cream.
Amount of starter added depends on several factors and usually
ranges between 0.5-2.0 percent of the weight of the cream. After
being thoroughly mixed, the cream is incubated at about 21o C till
desired an acidity is reached. Cream is subsequently cooled to 5-
100 C to arrest further acid development.
Churning of cream Definition:
Churning of cream consists of agitation at suitable temperature
until the fat globules adhere forming larger and larger masses, and
until a relatively complex separation of fat and serum occurs.
Churning operation

Filling cream into the churn.

The cream should be strained so as to remove lumps and chance
objects. The amount then filled should preferably below rated
capacity. Addition of butter colour The amount of color varies from

69
0-250 ml per 100Kg of butter fat. The butter colour preferably
added to the cream in the churn.
Colour permitted in butter: Annato or Carotene. Annatto is
obtained from the seeds of the Annatto plant.(Bixa orellana).
Carotene is extracted from carrots and other carotene-rich
vegetable matter. This colour is slightly on the greenish side.
Operating the churn
After initially rotating the churn for 5 to 10 minutes, the liberated
gas is removed once or twice by opening the churn vent. Then the
cream sample is drawn for the fat Reference Book 42 test. During
the churning process there is invariably a rise in temperature from
1o to 30o c.
Churning is accompanied by foaming. Then comes the ‘breaking’
stage cream breaks away from the spy glass which becomes
clear. At this stage the fat in the skim-milk emulsion breaks and
very small butter granules of the size of pinheads make their
appearance. It is sometimes necessary, especially in the tropics, to
add ‘break water’ at this stage, to reduce the temperature of the
churn contents, and thereby control the body of the butter(addition
of break water can be avoided by providing an air-conditioned
butter-making room and/or chill-water spray over the butter churn).
The amount and temperature of break-water depends on the
temperature reduction required. After the breaking stage, the
churning is continued until the butter grains are of the desired
size(viz., ‘pea-size’ in large churns).
Draining the buttermilk and washing
When the cream has been churned, the churn is stopped in the
proper position, and butter milk is drained. After draining, chilled
water is added to the butter in the churn. The temperature of the
water is usually 1-2OC lower than the churning temperature of
cream, and an amount equal to the quantity of buttermilk removed.
After a few revolutions, the wash water is drained out. Normally
one wash is enough.

Salting of butter

70
 In conventional process, butter may be salted by adding salt to
butter churn after initial working of butter. Salt to be added must be
high quality. It should be 99.5 to 99.8% sodium chloride and
microbial count should be less than 10/g. Salt sets up osmotic
gradient which draws water from the butter grains. This can lead
butter to be leaky. Salted butter should therefore, must be
thoroughly worked. Salt may be added either in dry form or as
saturated brine solution.
Final working of butter
The objective of working butter is to incorporate moisture and
uniformly distribute added moisture and salt in butter. During this
process remaining fat globules also break up and form a
continuous phase, and moisture is finally distributed to retard
bacterial growth in butter. It is safer to slightly over-work butter
than to underwork. Under-worked butter may be leaky in body with
large visible water droplets and may develop mottles on standing.
Moisture droplet size normally ranges from 1 to 15 micron and
there are approximately 10 billion droplets per gram of butter.
Working affects the colour of butter (making is slightly light).
Working also increase air content (this favors growth of
microorganisms, oxidative effects and therefore poor keeping
quality). Vacuum working of butter may be carried out with
advantage to reduce the air content of butter. Vacuum range from
15-40 cm of Hg may be used. Air content of conventional butter
range from 3-7% by volume with an average of 4 ml/100 while that
of vacuum worked butter it is about 1 ml/100g. Storage of butter
The commercial storage of butter is at-23 to-29°C.

71
 Overrun in butter
It may be defined as the increase in the amount of butter made
from a given amount of fat. It is usually expressed as percentage
overrun. The presence of moisture, curd, salt, air, etc., in butter
increases the amount of butter. The formula used for the
calculation of Theoretical over-run is given below:
Per cent Over-run (% OR) = (B - F)/F Where, B = Quantity of
butter made (kg) F = Fat in churn (kg)
Factors Influencing Over-run:
1. Inaccuracy in weighing of milk, cream or butter
2. Inaccuracy in fat testing of the samples of milk, cream or butter
3. Fat losses in skim milk and butter milk

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4. Fluctuation in fat content of butter
5. Weight allowance in butter packages
6. Handling losses
Desi butter
Definition
The butter obtained by traditional process of churning dahi or
malai as practiced at domestic levels.
Preparation:
• Milk will be cultured and kept for overnight for fermentation.
Resultant curd was churned using hand driven wooden beaters to
separate the milk fat in the form of desi butter

• Some follow slightly different method wherein milk is heated

continuously to about 80°C, the malai (creamy layer) that forms
over the surface was collected manually. This malai is then
churned to get the desi butter.
10.4GHEE
According to FSSAI, Ghee means the pure clarified fat derived
solely from milk occurred or from desi (cooking) butter or from
cream to which no colouring matter or preservative has been
added.
Methods of Preparation:
The principle involved in ghee preparation include;
1. Concentration of milk fat in the form of cream or butter.
2. Heat clarification of fat rich milk portion and thus reducing the
amount of water to less than 0.5%.
3. Removal of the curd content in the form of ghee residue.
There are five methods of ghee making:
i. Desi or Indigenous Method
ii. Direct Cream Method
iii. Creamery Butter Method
iv. Prestratification Method
v. Continuous Method

73
1. Desi Method
This was the practice from age-old days in rural areas where
excessive milk will be cultured and kept for overnight for
fermentation. Resultant curd was churned using hand driven
wooden beaters to separate the milk fat in the form of desi butter.
Some follow slightly different method wherein milk is heated
continuously to about 80°C, the malai (creamy layer) that forms
over the surface was collected manually. This malai is then
churned to get the desi butter. After collection of desi butter over a
period of time, this butter is melted in a metal pan or earthenware
vessel on an open fire. Extent of frothing is an index to judge when
to terminate heating. Heating should Parameters Reading Butyro
Refracto meter reading at 40o C 40.0 to 43.0 Minimum Reichert
Value 26.0 FFA as % oleic acid (maximum) 3.0 Moisture %

74
(maximum) 0.5 be stop when sudden foaming appears and leave
the contents undisturbed after heating. Curd particles starts
settling down over a period of time and decant the clear fat
carefully. In this method it is possible to achieve only 75 – 85% fat
recovery.
2. Direct Cream Method
This method involves separation of cream of 60 to 70% fat from
milk by centrifugation process, fresh cream or cultured cream is
heated to 114±2°C in a stainless steel, jacketed ghee kettle. This
kettle is fitted with an agitator, steam control valve, pressure and
temperature gauges.
A movable hollow stainless tube centrally bored for emptying out
the contents or alternatively provision can be made for tilting
device on the ghee kettle to decant the product. Heating is
discontinued as soon as the colour of the ghee residue turns to
golden yellow or light brown. Usually, first plenty of effervescence
accompanied by a crackling sound in the preliminary stages of
boiling but both gradually subsides when the moisture content
decreases.
When almost all the moisture is evaporated, the temperature of
the liquid medium suddenly shoots up and care has to be
exercised at this stage to control the heating. The end point is
indicated by the appearance of second effervescence, which is
smallerr than the first one accompanied by the browning of curd
particles. At this stage the typical ghee flavour emanates and this
indicates that the final stage in the preparation of ghee.
3. Creamery Butter Method
This is the standard method adopted in most of the organized
dairies. Unsalted or white butter is used as raw material. Butter
mass or butter blocks are melted at 60°C to 80°C in butter melter.
Molten butter is pumped into the ghee boiler where final heating
will be done using steam as heating medium. Increase the steam
pressure to raise the temperature.
Scum which is forming on the top of the surface of the product is
removed from time to time with the help of perforated ladle.
Moment of disappearance of effervescence, appearance of finer
air bubbles on the surface of the fat and browning of the curd

75
particles indicates to stop heating. At this stage typical ghee aroma
is produced. Final heating temperature is adjusted to about
114±2°C.
To get the cooked flavour, heating beyond this temperature is also
being in practice. Ghee is filtered via oil filter into the settling tank.
4. Pre-Stratification Method
Butter is produced from aged cream of 38 to 40% fat using
continuous butter making machine or batch churn. Butter is then
transferred to butter melter, and melt at 80°C.
This molten butter is kept undisturbed in a ghee kettle or boiler at
a temperature of 80-85°C for 30 min. Here, in ghee kettle,
stratification of mass takes place, stratifies into 3 distinct layers.
Denatured protein particles (curd particles) and impurities are
collected on top layer and floats on surface. Middle layer consists
of clear fat and bottom layer consists of buttermilk serum carrying
80% of moisture and 70% of solods-not-fat contained in butter.
The bottom layer is then carefully removed without disturbing the
both top and middle layers.
Middle layer, largely consists of fat is heated to 114±2°C along
with top layer of floating curd particles and denatured protein. This
step is necessary to develop characteristic ghee aroma.
Milder flavour ghee can be produced, since most of the curd
content is removed before final clarification temperature of ghee.
Grading of Ghee
The quality of ghee can be judged by physical and chemical
analysis. Customer can only perceive appearance, taste and
aroma of ghee. Therefore grading i.e. classification according to its
quality and purity is necessary to assure the customer. The
Agricultural Produce (Grading & Marking) Act, 1936 empowers the
Central Government to fix quality standards, known as ‘AGMARK’
standards and to prescribe terms and conditions for using the seal
of ‘AGMARK’.

76
ADULTERANTS IN GHEE:
Adulteration of ghee in India is more prevalent especially in
unorganized sector. Being the most expensive fat people started to
adulterate the product to make profits. Major adulterants of ghee
are as follows:
i). Vanaspati (Hydrogenated vegetable oil). Because of close
resemblance in its texture most commonly used this as adultrant to
ghee.
ii). Refined (de-odourized) vegetable oil- E.g. Ground nut,
coconut, cottonseed oils, etc
iii). Animal body fat.
Government has made it compulsory that all Vanaspati must
contain a maximum of 5% of Sesame oil which can be identified in
ghee by a simple colour test (known as Baudouin test). By means
of this Adultration of ghee with Vanaspatiti to an extent of 3% can
be detected.
Packaging and storage of ghee

77
 Ghee should be filled upto the brim in a rust free tin
cans/container for bulk packing. Regular pack sizes available in
the market are 15 lit, 5 lit, 1 lit and 500 ml. Self standing laminates
are used for 14 lit and 500 ml packs which have barrier to
moisture, air and light. Exposure of ghee to sunlight for a long time
also causes oxidation and produce off flavors in the ghee.
Ghee has a long keeping quality; it can be stored for 6 to 12
months under ambient temperature provided proper packaging
and filling.At higher temperature of storage, development of
oxidized flavor especially with ghee which has appreciable initial
acidity is more pronounced.
At Lower (refrigerated) temperature storage, although it delays
acid development there by prolongs shelf life but it imparts greasy
and pasty texture to ghee. So, storage temperature of 21°C is
recommended. Ghee can be stored up to 12months at 21°C.
10.5BUTTER OIL
Butter oil and Anhydrous Milk fat/An hydrous Butter oil means the
fatty products derived exclusively from milk and/or products
obtained from milk by means of process which result in almost
total removal of water and milk solids not fat. It shall have pleasant
taste and flavor free from off odour and rancidity. It shall be free
from vegetable oil/fat, animal body fat, mineral oil, added flavor
and any other substance foreign to milk.

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11.CONDENSED AND DRIED MILK

Milk, skim milk, whey, and other milk products can be concentrated, i.e.,
part of the water can be removed. Its main purpose is to diminish the
volume and to enhance the shelf life quality. Water can be removed from
milk by evaporation and in addition to water, volatile substances,
especially dissolved gases are also removed. Evaporation is usually
done under reduced pressure — hence, decreased temperature — to
prevent damage caused by heating. Dry milk production has become an
increasingly important segment of the dairy industry which is expected to
grow further because of its features such as better keeping quality, less
storage space, and lower transportation costs which result in attractive
economics. Non fat dry milk serves the same purpose for milk solids-not-
fat that traditionally butter has done for milk fat. The ultimate aim of the
industry is to obtain dry products which if recombined with water give
little or no evidence of detrimental change compared to the original liquid
Product.

SWEETENED CONDENSED MILK

79
Sweetened Condensed Milk means the product obtained by partial
removal of water from milk of Cow and/or Buffalo with the addition of
sugar or a combination of sucrose with other sugars or by any other
process which leads to a product of the same composition and
characteristics. The fat and/or protein content of the milk may be
adjusted by addition and/or withdrawal of milk constituents in such away
as not to alter the whey protein to case in ratio of the milk being
adjusted. It shall have pleasant taste and flavor free from off flavor and
rancidity. It shall be free from any substance foreign to milk .It shall
conform to the following requirements:

Parameters Sweetened Sweetened condensed

condensed milk skimmed milk
Milk fat Not less than 9% Not more than 1%
Milk solids Not less than 31% Not less than 26%
Milk protein in milk Not less than 34% Not less than 34%
solids not fat

11.1Preparation of sweetened condensed milk:

The basic principle in the production of condensed and evaporated milk

is that high quality milk is filtered, standardized, fore warmed and
condensed/evaporated to the desired level. The concentrated product is
preserved by the addition of sugar for condensed milk and by heat
sterilization for evaporated milk.

Flow Diagram

Receiving milk Filtration/clarification (38-40°C)

80
 Standardization

Fore warming/pre-heating (115-118°C/no hold)

Addition of sugar

Condensing (2.5:1)

Homogenization

Cooling and crystallization

Packaging

Storage (10°C)

Details of manufacture

(a) Receiving milk: when milk is received at the plant, its temperature
should be at 10C or below. The milk should be clean, sweet, free from
off-flavours and odours. No abnormal milk should be accepted. The main
platform and laboratory tests are clot-on-boiling and Alcohol tests to
determine its acceptance for condensing.

81
Parameters

Product

• Alcohol test: 5ml of milk is placed in a test tube and an equal amount of
solution with 68% alcohol is added. The mixture is shaken and any
formation of clot/ flakes denotes a positive test, i.e. the milk is
susceptable for heat coagulation. This test detects: abnormal milk which
is high in mineral salts, developed acidity in milk, mastitis milk likely to
sweet curdling etc.

• Clot-On-Boiling test: 5ml of milk is placed in a test tube and kept in a

boiling water bath for 5 minutes. If curd is observed, the milk is said to
fail the COB test and should be rejected. After the milk has been
accepted on the basic of Alcohol and COB tests, it is weighed, sampled
and tested for fat, SNF etc.

(b) Filtration/ clarification: This is done in order to remove visible

foreign matter. The milk is generally pre-heated to 35-40C to increase
the efficiency of the operation.

(c) Standardization: This is done so as to conform to legal standards in

the finished product.

(d) Fore warming/ preheating: This refers to heating of milk before it is

condensed. The temperature-time of fore warming/ pre-heating extends
over a wide range, such as 82 to 93C for 5 to 15 minutes. The
temperature-time for HTST is 115 to 118C for No-Hold/ Flash.

(e) Addition of sugar: sugar is added for the purpose of preserving the
condensed milk without resorting to sterilization by heat. The amount of
sugar in the finished product ranges from 40 to 45%. Sugar is added at
the end of the condensing process.

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(f) Condensing: The basic principle consists in the removal of water
from the standardized milk by boiling it under partial vacuum at a low
temperature till the desired concentration is reached. The chief
advantage of condensing milk in vacuum are: economy of operation,
rapidity of evaporation and protection of milk against heat damage.

(g) Homogenization: The object is to obtain a uniform fat emulsion and

reduce fat separation to a minimum during storage. A special type of
homogenizer suitable for handling a highly viscous product is used at a
total pressure is used at a total pressure of 2500 psi.

(h) Cooling and crystallization: A considerable portion of lactose

content in the condensed milk held at ordinary temperature is present in
crystal form. The relative smoothness of condensed milk is controlled by
the number and size of the lactose crystals it contain. The size of lactose
crystals is controlled by the procedure used for cooling the condensed
milk. Rapid crystallization leads to the formation of a large number of
small crystals, giving a smooth texture to the

condensed milk; on the other hand, slow crystallization creates a small

number of crystals which produce a sandy or gritty texture. Cooling of
the product may be continued slowly to 24C. This should take
approxiately an hour. Then the cooling is completed to 13-18C with
continued agitation. The rate of crystal formation is controlled by the
amount of agitation, number of nuclei, total solids in the product,
temperature and viscosity.

(i) Packaging and storage: Bulk packaging may be done in barrels of

various sizes, drums with polythene liners or tin containers. For
the retail market, fillers are used to package milk in cans. After
filling, the cans are sealed, labelled and packed in cases for

83
storage and distribution. During storage, a wide temperature
variation may increase the tendency to sandiness. Cool storage is
important to prevent changes in viscosity. Temperature of 10°C is
recommended for the storage of sweetened condensed milk.

11.2 EVAPORATED MILK

Evaporated Milk means the product obtained by partial removal of
water from milk of cow and/or buffalo by heat or any other process
which leads to a product of the same composition and
characteristics. The fat and protein content of the milk may be
adjusted by addition and/or withdrawal of milk constituents in such
away as not toalter the whey protein to case in ratio of the milk
being adjusted. It shall have pleasant taste and flavor free from of
flavour and rancidity. It shall be free from any substance foreign to
milk. It shall conform to the following requirements:—
Parameters Evaporated milk Evaporated
skimmed milk
Milk fat Not less than 8% Not more than
1%
Total milk solids Not less than Not less than
26% 26%
Milk protein in milk solids Not less than Not less than
not fat 34% 34%

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 11.3 DRIED MILK/ MILK POWDER:

Milk Powder-means the product obtained by partial removal of water

from milk of Cow 7pand/or Buffalo. The fat and/or protein content of the
milk may bead justed addition and or withdrawal of milk constituents in
such a way as not toalter the whey protein to case in ratio of the milk
being adjusted. It shall be of uniform colour and shall have pleasant
taste and flavor free from off flavor and rancidity. It shall also be free
from vegetable oil/fat, mineral oil, thickening agents, added flavor and
sweetening agent. It shall conform to the following requirements:—

Parameters Whole milk Skimmed

powder milk
powder
Moisture Not more than 4% Not more
than 5%
Milk fat Not less than 26% Not more
than
1.5%
Milk protein in milk solids not fat Not less than 34% Not less
than

85
 34%
Titratable acidity (ml D.N Not more than Not more
NaOH/10gm solids not fat 18% than
18%
Insolubility Index Not more than 2 Not more
ml water than
2mm
Total ash on dry weight basis Not more Not more
than7.3% than 8.2
%

FLOW CHART OF DRIED MILK POWDER

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 BABY FOOD / INFANT MILK FOOD

Infant Milk Food means the product prepared by spray drying of the milk
of cow or buffalo or a mixture there of. The milk may be modified by the
partial removal/ substitution of different milk solids; carbohydrates, such
as sucrose, dextrose and dextrins/ maltodextrin, maltose and lactose;
salts like phosphates and citrates; vitamins A, D, E, B Group, Vitamin C
and other vitamins; and minerals like iron, copper, zinc and iodine. The
product shall be free of lumps and shall be uniform in appearance. It
shall be free from starch and added antioxidants. It shall also be free
from dirt, extraneous matter, preservatives and added colour and flavor
and from any material which is harmful to human health. It shall not have
rancid taste or must odour. It shall not contain food additives. It shall be
packed in hermetically sealed, clean and sound containers or in flexible
pack made from film or combination or any of the substrate made of
Board paper, polyethylene, polyester metallised film or in such away to
protect from deterioration. It may be packed in nitrogen or a mixture of
nitrogen and carbon dioxide. As per FSSAI, it shall conform to the
following requirements, namely

1. Moisture, percent by weight (not more than) 4.5

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2. Total milk protein, percent by weight (not less than) 12.0
3. Milkfat, percent by weight (not less than) 18.0
4. Total ash, percent by weight(not more than) 8.5
5. Ash insoluble in dilute Hydrochloric acid,
percent by weight (not more than) 0.1
6. Solubility: Solubility Index maximum 2.0ml 98.5
Solubility percent by weight (not less than
)
7. Vitamin A (as retinol) ìg.per100g.(not less than) 350ì g
8. Added Vitamin D (expressed as Cholecalciferol or Ergo
calciferol) ìgper100g. (Not less than) 4.5ì g
9. Vitamin C, mgper100g (not less than) 35ì g
10. Thiamine, ìgper100g (not less than) 185ì g
11. Riboflavin, ìgper100g (not less than) 275ì g
12. Niacin, ì gper100g (not less than) 1160ì g
13. Pyridoxine ì gper100g (not less than) 160ì g
14. Folic acid, ì gper100g (not less than) 20ì g
15. Pantothenic acid, mg per 100g (not less than) 1.4mg
16 Vitamin B12, ìgper100g (not less than) 0.7ì g
17 Choline, mg per100 (not less than) 32mg
18 Vitamin K ì gper100g (not less than) 18ì g
19 Biotin, ì gper100g (not less than) 7.0ì g
20 Sodiummgper100g (not less than) 90mg
21 Potassium, mgper100g (not less than) 370mg
22 Chloride, mgper100g (not less than) 250mg
23 Calcium, mgper100g (not less than) 230mg
24 Phosphorous, mgper100g. (Not less than) 115mg
25 Magnesium, mgper100g.(not less than) 22mg
26 Iron, mgper100g. (not less than) 5.0mg

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27 Iodine, ì gper100g. (not less than) 20ì g
28 Copper,ì gper100g. (not less than) 280ì g
29 Zinc, mg per100g (not less than) 2.5mg 5mg
and not more than
30 Manganese, ìgper100g (not less than) 202.5mgg
31 Selenium, ì gper100g (not less than) 14ì g
32. Bacterial count, per g (not more than) 10,000
33 Coliform count absent in 0.1gram
34 Yeast and mould count absent in 0.1gram
35 Salmonella and Shigella absent in 25gram
36 E. coliabsentin 0.1gram
37 Staphylococcusaureasabsentin 0.1gm

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11.4MALTED MILK POWDER/ FOOD:

Milk cereal based complementary food are obtained from milk,

variety of cereals, pulses, soya bean, millets, nuts and edible oil
seeds after processing. It may contain edible vegetable oils,
milk solid, various carbohydrates such as sucrose, dextrose,
dextrins/ maltodextrin, maltose and lactose, calcium salts;
phosphates and citrates and other nutritionally significant
minerals and vitamins. It shall contain a minimum of 10 per cent
milk protein by weight of the product. It shall also contain
minimum 5 per cent milk fat by weight. It shall be in the form of
powder, small granules or flakes, free from lumps and shall be
uniform in appearance. It shall be free from dirt and extraneous
matter and free from preservatives and added colour and
flavour. It shall be free from any material, which is harmful to
human health.

12.CHEESE

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Cheese is one of the oldest foods of mankind. It is commonly believed
that cheese evolved in the Fertile Crescent between the rivers Tigris and
Euphrates in Iraq some 8000 years ago. The so-called Agricultural
Revolution occurred here with the domestication of plants and animals. It
seems that cheese originated accidentally as a result of the activities of
nomadic tribes. Since animal skin bags were a convenient way of storing
liquids for nomadic people, these were used for storing surplus milk
.Fermentation of the milk sugars in the warm climate prevailing would
cause the milk to curdle in the bags. The swaying animals would have

broken up the acid curd during journeys to produce curds and whey. The
whey provided a refreshing drink on hot journeys, while the curds,
preserved by the acid of fermentation and a handful of salt, became a
source of high protein food supplementing the meager meat supply.

12.1Definition
According to Food Safety and Standard Regulations 2011, Cheese
means the ripened or un ripened soft or semi hard, hard and extra hard
product, which may be coated with food grade waxes or poly film, and in
which the whey protein / casein ratio does not exceed that of milk.

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Cheese is obtained by coagulating wholly or partly milk and/ or products
obtained from milk through the action of non animal rennet or other
suitable coagulating agents and by partially draining the whey resulting
from such coagulation and/ or processing techniques involving
coagulation of milk and/ or products obtained from milk which give a final
product with similar physical, chemical and organoleptic characteristics.
The product may contain starter cultures of harmless lactic acid and / or
flavour producing bacteria and cultures of other harmless
microorganisms, safe and suitable enzymes and sodium chloride. It may
be in the form of blocks, slices, cut, shredded or grated.
i. Ripened Cheese is cheese which is not ready for consumption shortly
after manufacture but which must be held for some time at such
temperature and under such other conditions as will result in necessary
biochemical and physical changes characterizing the cheese in
question.
ii. Mould Ripened cheese is a ripened cheese in which the ripening has
been accomplished primarily by the development of characteristic mould
growth through the interior and/ or on the surface of the cheese.
iii. Un ripened cheese including fresh cheese is cheese which is ready
for consumption shortly after manufacture.
Cheese or varieties of cheeses shall have pleasant taste and flavour
free from off flavour and rancidity.
It may contain food additives permitted in these regulation. It
shall conform to the microbiological requirements provided that cheese
or varieties of cheeses coated with food grade waxes/ or polyfilm / or
wrapping of cloth shall bear proper label declaration as provided in
regulation.
12.2CHEDDAR CHEESE
Definition

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According to Food Safety and Standard Regulations 2011, Cheddar
Cheese means ripened hard cheese obtained by coagulating
heated/pasteurised milk of Cow and/ or Buffalo or mixtures thereof with
cultures of harmless lactic acid producing bacteria, non-animal rennet or
other suitable coagulating enzymes. It shall be in the form of hard
pressed block with a coating of food grade waxes orwrapping of cloth or
polyfilm. It shall have firm, smooth and waxy texture with a pale straw to
orange colour without any gas holes. It may contain permitted food
additives. It shall conform to the following requirements:—
(i) Moisture - Not more than 39.0 percent
(ii) Milk Fat on Dry Basis - Not less than 48.0 percent
Preparation of cheddar cheese
Flow diagram.

Receiving milk
↓
Pre-heating (35-40ºC)
↓
Filtration/clarification
↓
Standardization
↓
Pasteurization (63ºC/30 min)
↓
Addition of starter/ripening (31ºC @ 0.5-1%)
↓
Addition of colour (30-200 ml/1000 Kg milk)
↓

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Renneting (31ºC 15-25 ml/100 L milk)
↓
Coagulation/setting
↓
Cutting
↓
Cooking(37-39ºC)
↓
Drainage of whey
↓
Cheddaring
↓
Milling
↓
Salting
↓
Hooping
↓
Dressing
↓
Pressing
↓
Drying
↓
Paraffinig
↓
Curing

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Details of Manufacture:
Receiving and Filtration of milk:
Good quality milk is taken and filtered (35-40ºC) to remove dirt and other
suspended particles.
Standardization:
Standardization refers to adjustment of the casein/fat ratio in cheese milk
to 0.68- 0.70. The objective is to regulate the fat in the finished product
and to produce maximum amount of cheese per Kg of fat in cheese milk
Pasteurization:
LTLT/HTST pasteurization of cheese milk can be done. The objectives
are
1. To destroy all the pathogens.
2. To destroy all spoilage causing microorganisms.
Addition of starter culture:
The starter culture is the “heart” of cheese. Good quality lactic starter
culture is added @0.5-1.0% at 31ºC. After addition of starter, it is mixed
well and kept at the same temperature till the pH is reduced to the
renneting pH.
Addition of colour:
When colour is used, it should be added just before renneting. The usual
amount is 30 to 200 ml for 1000 Kg of milk. The colour is diluted with
approximately 20 times its volume of potable water.
Renneting:
Adding rennet enzyme to cheese is called Renneting.
Rennet:
Rennet is a crude preparation containing two enzymes- rennin and
pepsin. It is obtained from the fourth or true stomach (abomasum) of the
young calf known as “vell”. The new name of Rennet is “Chymosin”.
Rennin is a powerful clotting enzyme, which causes rapid clotting.

95
Rennet is available in powder/ liquid form.15-25 ml is added to about
100 L milk. Rennet is diluted with 20-40 times its volume of potable
water before addition and mixed thoroughly for uniform distribution.
There are also other rennet preparations, other than calf rennet like plant
rennet, bacterial rennet etc.
Coagulation:
After thorough addition of rennet, the cheese milk is kept undisturbed for
clot formation. When a sanitized glass rod is inserted at a 45o angle,
and lifted straight up, there should be a clean break in the curd. It is the
right time for cutting the curd.
Cutting the curd:
Horizontal and vertical knives are used for cutting the cheese curd. They
are metal wires/plates arranged horizontally or vertically at equal
distance apart on a rectangular frame. They cut the coagulum into
uniform cubes .The curd is usually first cut with the horizontal knife
lengthwise and then with the vertical knife lengthwise and widthwise.
Cooking and drainage of whey:
The cheese curd is slowly cooked to 37-39ºC at the rate of 1ºC every 4
minutes. Cooking is done for expulsion of further whey from within the
curd cubes. After cooking, the whey is drained out.
Cheddaring
It is a step which involves a series of operations consisting of packing,
turning, piling and re-piling the slabs of matted curd. This process of
piling and re-piling is repeated every 15 min. This process squashes the
individual curd particles as well as releases more whey. In this process,
the curd granules fuse under gravity into solid blocks. Rapid matting of
the curd particles occurs under the combined effect of heat and acid.
The original rubber-like texture gradually changes into a close-knit
texture (‘chicken breast’ structure, typical of Cheddar cheese) with the

96
matted curd particles becoming fibrous. When the acidity of whey
reaches 0.45-0.50% lactic acid, cheddaring is complete.

Milling:
The cheddar cheese curd is cut into small pieces with the help of cheese
mill. This is to facilitate uniform distribution of salt in the next step.
Salting:
Common salt is added to give good flavor, body and texture and to
improve the keeping quality of the finished product. Salt is added @1-
2% of the curd in the cheese vat.
Hooping:
The curd is placed in hoops/moulds in which the cheese curd is pressed
into final shape.
Dressing:
This refers to the arrangement of the cheese cloth before and after
pressing, removing all wrinkles and giving final perfect shape.
Pressing:
The cheese curd is pressed in a cheese press. The average pressure is
around 70psi for round and 25 psi for square hoops for 30-60 minutes.
The whey is further expelled and whey pockets are filled with curd.
Drying:
The cheese blocks are dried at 12 -16ºC at 50% Relative Humidity. This
is for the rind formation in cheese.
Paraffining:
This involves dipping the cheese for a few seconds in a bath of melted
paraffin (104-121ºC), whereby a thin coating of paraffin is applied to the
surface of the cheese. Paraffining is done to protect cheese from
insects, to prevent mould growth and to reduce loss of moisture during
curing/ ripening.

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Ripening/ Curing / Maturing:
This refers to storage of cheese for at least 2 to 3 months at a low
temperature (0-16ºC) at 75-85 % RH, during which its physical, chemical
and bacteriological properties are changed, resulting in the characteristic
flavor, body and texture of cheese.
12.3COTTAGE CHEESE
Definition.
According to Food Safety and Standard Regulations 2011, Cottage
Cheese means soft un ripened cheese obtained by coagulation of
pasteurised skimmed milk of Cow and/ or Buffalo or mixtures thereof
with cultures of harmless lactic acid bacteria with or without the addition
of other suitable coagulating enzymes. Creamed Cottage Cheese is
cottage cheese to which a pasteurised creaming mixture of cream,
skimmed milk, condensed milk, non fat dry milk, dry milk protein
Sodium/ Potassium/ Calcium/ Ammonium caseinate is added. It shall
have a soft texture with a natural white colour. It may contain spices

98
, condiments, seasonings and fruits pulp. It shall conform to the following
requirements:—
(i) Moisture - Not more than 80.0 percent
(ii) Milk Fat (in Creamed Cottage Cheese) - Not less than 4.0 percent
Method of manufacture
Flow diagram of manufacture of cottage cheese
Receiving pasteurized skim milk
↓
Adding calcium chloride
↓
Adding starter
↓
Adding rennet
↓
Setting
↓
Cutting
↓
Cooking
↓
draining of whey
↓
Washing and draining the curd
↓
Salting
↓
Creaming
↓

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 Packaging and storage.
Preparation of processed cheese
Processed cheese refers to a product obtained by heating cheese with
permitted emulsifiers and / or stabilizers, viz. citric acid, sodium citrate,
sodium salts of orthophosphoric and polyphosphoric acid, with or without
added condiments and acidifying agents, viz. lactic acid, vinegar,
phosphoric acid and citric acid.
Definition
According to Food Safety and Standard Regulations 2011,Processed
Cheese means the product obtained by grinding, mixing, melting and
emulsifying one or more varieties of cheeses with the aid of heat and
emulsifying agents. It may contain cream, butter, butter oil and other milk
products subject to maximum 5.0 percent lactose content in the final
product and edible common salt, vinegar/acetic acid, spices and other
vegetable seasoning and foods other than sugars properly cooked or
prepared for flavouring and characterization of the product provided
these additions do not exceed one sixth of the weight of the total solids
of the final product on dry matter basis and cultures of harmless bacteria
and enzymes. It shall have pleasant taste and smell free from off flavour
and rancidity. It shall conform to the following
requirements:—
(i) Moisture - Not more than 47.0 percent
(ii) Milk fat on dry basis - Not less than 40.0 percent.
Provided that processed cheese chiplets (packed sliced cheese) when
sold in a package other than tin, shall not contain more than 50.0
percent moisture.
Preparation
Flow diagram for manufacture of processed cheese
Receiving raw cheese

100
 ↓
Analyzing
↓
Selecting for blending
↓
Tempering and cleaning
↓
Quartering and grinding
↓
Processing
↓
Packaging
↓
Cooling and storage

PROCESSED CHEESE SPREAD

According to Food Safety and Standard Regulations 2011, Processed
Cheese Spread means the product obtained by grinding, mixing,
melting and emulsifying one or more varieties of cheese with emulsifying
agents with the aid of heat. It may contain Cream, Butter oil and other
dairy products, subject to a maximum limit of 5.0 percent lactose in the
final product, salt, vinegar, spices, condiments and seasonings, natural
carbohydrate sweetening agents namely sucrose, dextrose, corn syrup,
corn syrup solids, honey, maltose, malt syrup and hydrolysed lactose
and food properly cooked or otherwise prepared for flavouring and
characterization of the product provided these additions do not exceed
one sixth of the weight of total solids of the final product on dry weight
basis and cultures of harmless bacteria and enzymes. It shall have
pleasant taste andflavour free from off flavour and rancidity. It

101
shall conform to the following requirements:—
(i) Moisture - Not more than 60.0 percent
(ii) Milk fat on dry basis - Not less than 40.0 percent.
USES OF CHEESE
i. Direct consumption as such or in sandwiches
ii. In the preparation of special dishes like pizza
iii. In the preparation of sauce.
13.FROZEN DAIRY PRODUCTS
The production and consumption of frozen dairy products has increasing
day by day. Frozen dairy products include ice cream, kulfi, sipup, ices,
milk shake etc. Among these ice cream is the most popular frozen dairy
product which can be mass produced and thus is widely available in
developed parts of the world. Ice cream is a sweet frozen dessert, made
from milk fat and solids, sugar, flavoring, a stabilizer (usually gelatin),
and sometimes eggs, fruits, or nuts. Its coldness makes it especially
desirable during hot weather. Digestibility is generally high.The main
function of sweeteners is to increase the acceptance of the product by
making it sweet and by enhancing the pleasing creamy flavor. Because
of these reasons the production and consumption of ice cream has
increasing day by day. Plain, Chocolate, fruit , nut , milk ices , ices,
sherbets, fancy moulded , novelties , softy etc. are the different varieties
of ice cream.

13.1ICE CREAM
FSSAI definition and standards of ice cream:
According to Food Safety and Standard Regulations 2011, Ice Cream,
Kulfi, Chocolate Ice Cream or Softy Ice Cream (hereafter referred to as
the said product) means the product obtained by freezing a pasteurized
mix prepared from milk and / or other products derived from milk withor

102
without the addition of nutritive sweetening agents, fruit and fruit
products, eggs and egg products, coffee, cocoa, chocolate, condiments,
spices, ginger and nuts and it may also contain bakery products such as
cake or cookies as a separate layer and/or coating. The said product
may be frozen hard or frozen to a soft consistency; the said product shall
have pleasant taste and smell free from off flavour and the said product
shall conform to the following requirements, namely:
Requirement Ice cream Medium fat ice cream Low fat ice
cream
Total solid Not Not less than 30.0 % Not less than
lessthan36.0 % 26.0
Wt/ Vol (gms Not less than Not less than 475 Not less than
/l) 525 475
Milk Fat Not less than More than 2.5 % but Not more
10.0 % less than10.0% than 2.5 %
Total Protein Not less than Not less than 3.5 % Not less than
3.5% 3.0 %

Note: In case where Chocolate, Cake or similar food coating, base or

layer forms a separate part of the product, only the Ice Cream portion
shall conform to the requirements given above.
According to Food Safety and Standard Regulations 2011, Milk Ice or
Milk Lolly (hereafter referred to as the said product) means the product
obtained by freezing a pasteurized mix prepared from milk and/or other
products derived from milk with or without the addition of nutritive
sweetening agents, fruit and fruit products, eggs and egg products,
coffee, cocoa, chocolate, condiments, spices, ginger and nuts;
the said product may also contain bakery products such as cake or
cookies as a separate layer and/or coating; the said product shall have

103
pleasant taste and smell free from off flavour and rancidity. The said
product shall also conform to the following requirements, namely :—
(1) Total solids (m/m) Not less than 20.0 percent
(2) Milk Fat(m/m) Not more than 2.0 percent
(3) Milk Protein (Nx6.38) Not less than 3.5 percent
Different varieties of ice creams:
Different varieties of ice creams include Plain ,Chocolate, fruit , nut , milk
ices , ices, sherbets, fancy , moulded , novelties , softy etc

Plain ice cream:

An ice cream in which the total amount of the colour and flavouring
ingredients is less than 5%of the volume of the unfrozen ice cream.
Examples are vanilla, coffee, maple and caramel ice cream.

104
Chocolate Ice cream:
Ice cream flavoured with cocoa or chocolate. It usually contains higher
sugar content viz.,16 to 17%, about 2.5 to 3.5% of cocoa and stabilizer
and emulsifier. Other variants of chocolate frozen product includes
choco bar (where chocolate Requirement Ice Cream Medium Fat Ice
acts as a couverture), chocolate frosties (chocolate layer containing
crispies), choco chips
Fruit Ice cream:
Fruit Ice cream is made by adding various fruits at the time of freezing
with or without additional fruit flavouring or colour. The fruits may be
fresh, frozen, canned or preserved.
Nut Ice cream:
Ice cream containing nut meats, such as almonds, pistachio or walnut,
with or without additional flavouring or colour.
Ice Milk / Milk Ice:
A product similar to ice cream containing 2 -7% fat and 12-15% MSNF,
sweetened, flavoured and frozen like ice cream.
Ices:
Made of fruit juices, sugar and stabilizer with or without additional fruits,
color, flavouring or water and frozen to the consistency of ice cream.
Usually contains 28 – 30% sugar, 15-20% overrun, and no dairy
products.
Sherbets:
Sherbet is a product made of fruit juices, sugar, stabilizer, and milk
products. It is similar to a nice, except milk, either whole, skim,
condensed, or powdered, or ice cream mix, is used in place of all or part
of the water used in ices, sherbet contains 1-2% milk fat.
Novelties:

105
Novelty is defined as a unique single-serve portion – controlled product.
Novelties include special combinations of ice cream with flavour and
confections, cup items, and fancy moulded items.
Puddings:
Ice cream containing a generous amount of mixed fruits,nut meats, and
raisins, with or without liquor, spices or eggs.
Fancy moulded ice cream:
It is moulded in fancy shapes and composed either of one colour and
flavour of Ice Cream or a combination of colours and flavours or
especially decorated.
Soft serve ice cream:
Soft serve ice cream is a type of frozen dessert that is similar to, but
softer than the ice cream. These products are sold as drawn from the
freezer without hardening. It is generally lower in milk fat (3.6%) than ice
cream (10-18%) and produced at a temperature of about -4°C compared
to ice cream, which is stored at-15°C. A warmer temperature of soft
serve ice cream allows the taste buds to detect more flavour. The air
introduced into soft serve ice cream may vary from 0-60% of the
volume of the finished product. The ideal acceptable air content is
between 33 and 45% of volume.
Kulfi:

106
This is an indigenous ice cream frozen in small containers. Milk is
concentrated to double fold and added with sugar, malai, crushed nuts
and flavor.
Manufacture of icecream
Flowdiagram
Selection of ingredients
↓
Figuring the mix
↓
Blending the mix
↓
Pasteurization of mix
↓
Homogenizing the mix
↓
Cooling the mix
↓
Ageing of mix
↓

107
 Freezing of mix
↓
Packaging of ice cream
↓
Hardening of ice cream
↓
Storage of ice cream
Selection of ingredients:
Ice ingredients may be grouped into dairy and non dairy products. Dairy
products supplies source of fat and milk solids-not-fat. Non dairy
products include sweetening agents, stabilizer, emulsifier, flavour,
colour, fruits, nuts etc.
1. Dairy products
• Source of fat: Sweet cream, frozen cream, unsalted butter and butteroil
• Source of milk-solids-not-fat: skim milk, skim milk powder, condensed
skim milk and sweet cream butter milk
• Source of both fat and milk-solids-not-fat: whole milk, whole milk
powder, condensed whole milk and evaporated milk
2. Non-Dairy products
• Sweetening agents: (i) Cane sugar (sucrose) (ii) corn sugar (iii)corn
syrup solids (iv)corn syrup (v) invert sugar (vi)saccharin
Sugar depress the freezing point of the mix, produce a thinner mix with a
slower wipping rate and an ice cream with a smoother body and texture
with faster melting qualities.
• Stabilizers: (I ) Gelatin – animal source (ii)sodium alginate – vegetable
origin (iii) guar gum – Indian origin
These may be defined as substances which help to preserve emulsion.
Stabilizers are added in the ice cream to produce smoothness in body
and texture, retard or reduce ice crystal growth during storage and

108
provide uniformity in the product and resistance to melting. Stabilizers
function through their ability to form gel structures in water.
• Stabilizers which are permitted and used in ice cream making are:
Gelatin, sodium alginate, carageenan, agar agar, carboxy methyl
cellulose, pectin, guar gum and other gums.
• Emulsifiers: (i) Mono- or di-glycerides of fat forming fatty acids.
These may be defined as substances which help to form emulsions.it
improves the wipping quality of the mix, provide a drier ice cream with a
smoother body and texture.
• Flavours: (i) Vanilla – most popular flavour all over the world (ii)
Chocolate (iii)Strawberry (iv)pineapple (v)Banana (vi) Mango etc.
• Colours: (i) Yellow (ii) Green (iii) Pink etc.
• Egg solids: Yolk solids – improve wipping ability
• Fruits and nuts: (i)Apple (ii) Banana (iii) Mango (iv) Pineapple (v) Grape
(vi) Almond (vii) Pistachio (viii) Cashewnut (ix) Groundnut

Figuring of ice cream mix:

Knowledge of calculation of ice cream mix is helpful in properly
balancing a mix, in establishing and maintaining uniform quality and in
producing ice cream that confirms to legal standards.
Procedure
The weight of the ingredients needed to make 100kg of the desired mix
is found out by algebraic methods. Symbols such as X, Y, Z are used to
represent the weights of dairy ingredients required for a 100kg batch of
mix. These symbols are then used in writing the three equations that
express the weight of fat, snf and total weights of dairy ingredients
needed for 100kg of mix. The weights so determined are obtained by

109
means of spring balance, and the components are mixed to form an ice
Calculation
If an ice cream mix contains F %fat, SNF% serum solids,S% sugar and
St% stabilizer is to be prepared, and we given whole milk testing a1%
fat, b1% SNF, cream testing a2% fat, b2%SNF and skim milk testing
a3% fat, b3% SNF, then by forming 3 simultaneous equations of fat,
serum solids and weight , we get.
X(a1) + Y(a2) + Z(a3) = F ……. Fat equation
X(b1) + Y(b2) + Z(b3) = SNF….Serum solids equation
X + Y + Z + S + St = W…….Weight equation
Here X= whole milk, Y= cream, Z= skim milk and W= total weight of ice
cream mix. Now the simultaneous equations are solved to get the
relative measure of components.
Blending the mix:
First the ingredients are selected based on the desired formulation, then
the ingredients are weighed and blended together to produce ice cream
mix. Blending requires rapid agitation to incorporate powders, and often
high speed blenders are used. In order to make a good ice cream,the
ingredients are added is as follows:
All the liquid ingredients are mixed together and placed in the steam
jacketed vat. The dry ingredients, including skim milk powder, sugar and
stabilizer are mixed together and are added while the liquid material is
agitated and before the temperature reaches 49°C.
Pasteurization of the mix:
Proper pasteurization of the all ice cream mixes should be compulsory
because this process destroys all pathogenic or disease producing
bacteria, there by safeguarding the health of the consumer.
The advantages of pasteurization are (1) it renders the mix completely
free of pathogenic bacteria. (2) It dissolves and helps to blend the

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ingredients of the mix. (3) It improves flavor. (4) It improves keeping
quality and (5) it produces more uniform product. Pasteurization of ice
cream mix consist of heating the mix to 68.5°C /30 minutes or 80°C /25
seconds and then rapidly cooling to below 5°C.
Homogenization of ice cream mix:
Homogenization is essential because it prevents fat separation during
ageing, produces more uniform ice cream with a smooth texture,
improves whipping ability, shortens ageing period, decreases the risk of
churning occurring in freezer and leads to the use of slightly less
stabilizer. The ice cream mix is usually homogenized at temperatures
from 63 to 77°C. A pressure of 2500 to 3000 psi with one valve or 2500
to 3000 psi at the first stage and 500 psi at the second will usually give
good results for an average mix with 3 to 12 % fat.
Cooling of mix:
After homogenization the mix is immediately cooled to 0-5°C and after it
should be held for ageing.
Ageing of mix:
Ageing refers to holding the mix at low temperature for a definite period
of time before freezing. The ageing temperature should not exceed 5°C.
The ageing time may be 3 to 4 hours. Ageing helps to improves the body
& texture of ice cream, improves whipping capacity of the mix, increases
maximum overrun and increases the melting resistance.
Freezing of mix:
Freezing is the most important operation in the making of ice cream. The
ice cream mix with proper amount of colour and flavouring materials
added to the freezer is quickly frozen while being agitated to incorporate
air in such a way as to produce and control the formation of small ice
crystals- so necessary to give smoothness in body & texture, palatability
and satisfactory overrun in the finished ice cream.

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Packaging of ice cream:
When ice cream is drawn from the freezer, it is usually collected in
containers which give it the desired shape or size for convenient
handling during the hardening and marketing process. The chief
requirements for packages of ice cream are protection
against contamination, an attractive appearance, ease of opening and
reclosure and ease of disposal.
Hardening and storage:
When ice cream is drawn from the freezer and put into the container to
be placed in the hardening room, it has a semi-fluid consistency. So the
freezing process should be continued without agitation during the
hardening until the temperature of ice cream reaches -18°C or below.
Mostly the hardening time is about 12 hours .After the ice cream is
hardened, it may be immediately marketed or it may be stored for a
week or two at the most. The temperature inside the storage room
should be maintained uniformly at a point between -23 to -18°C and the
packages should be piled very close, to delay changes in ice cream
temperature.
Role of constituents in ice cream:
Role of Stabilizers in Ice Cream
• To increase the viscosity of the mix.
• To stabilize the mix i.e. to prevent wheying off
• To help in suspension of flavouring particles.
• To produce a stable foam with desired stiffness at the time of
packaging
• To reduce or slow down the growth of lactose crystals during storage
mainly during temperature fluctuations. cream mix with desired body and
a delicately blended flavour.

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Additional information
Stabilizers are also used:
To reduce moisture migration from the product to the package or the
air.
• To help prevent shrinkage of the product volume during storage.
• To provide uniformity to the product and resistance to melting.
• To produce smoothness in texture during consumption.
• Mask the detection of ice crystals in the mouth during eating

Role of emulsifiers in ice cream

• Promote nucleation of fat during aging thus reducing aging time
• Improve the whipping ability of the mix.
• Produce a dry and stiff ice cream
• Increase resistance to shrinkage
• Increase resistance to the development of coarse/icy texture
• Provide smooth texture in the finished product

Role of milk fat in ice cream

Imparts characteristics richness and mellows the flavour of ice cream. It
tends to retard the rate of whipping. Lecithin contained in milk fat has
important contribution to the flavour and tactual qualities of ice cream. It
contributes to smoothness of texture and contributes to body and
melting resistance of the product. It does not lower the Freezing point
(FP) of mix.
Role of milk SNF in ice cream
MSNF increases viscosity and resistance to melting, but also lowers the
F.P. Lactose adds slightly to the sweet taste and minerals tend to have a

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slightly salty taste. Proteins help to make ice cream more compact and
smooth.
Additional information
The amount of MSNF generally varies inversely with the fat content of
the mix and ranges from 7.5-8.0% in an 18% fat ice cream to 14.0% in
a 4% fat ice milk mix. Indian PFA regulation does not permit less than
10.7% SNF by specifying a minimum of 3.5% protein content. The
limiting factor for MSNF is occurrence of ‘sandiness’ defect in ice
cream. As a thumb rule, the MSNF should not be more than 15.6-
18.5% of the TS in the mix; based on the turnover (slow or rapid).

Role of sweeteners in Ice cream

• To increase the acceptance of the product, not only by making it
sweeter but also by enhancing the pleasing creamy flavour and the
delicate fruit flavour.
• It increases the viscosity and TS content of mix; this improves the body
and texture.
• It depresses the Freezing point of mix, resulting in slower freezing and
thus requiring a lower temperature for proper hardening.
• It is usually the cheapest source of TS in the mix.
Overrun in ice cream:
Overrun is usually defined as the volume of ice cream obtained in
excess of the volume of the mix. It is usually expressed as percentage.
This increased volume is composed mainly of the air incorporated during
the freezing process.
% Overrun = (volume of ice cream) - (volume of mix)
----------------------------------------------------x 100
Volume of mix

114
14.INDIGENOUS MILK PRODUCTS/ SWEETS
Milk plays a significant role as a source of animal protein in the average
Indian diet which is predominantly vegetarian. Because of higher
ambient temperatures prevailing in Indian sub-continent, ancient Indians
developed more stable products from milk for conservation of its
nutritional goodness. So the ethnic dairy foods, commonly
termed as traditional or Indian indigenous milk products, were developed
over ages utilizing locally available equipment, utensils and
manufacturing procedures. The term Indian dairy products refers to
those milk products which originated in undivided
India. The importance of milk and milk products in this country has been
recognized since Vedic times.
Indigenous Milk Products/ Sweets
Traditional Indian dairy products or Indian Indigenous milk products can
be defined as all milk products which are native of India and which were
evolved over ages utilizing locally available fuels and cooking ware.
The term Indian dairy products refers to those milk products which
originated in undivided India.
CLASSIFICATION OF INDIGENEOUS DAIRY PRODUCTS
Indian indigenous milk products have different nomenclature in various
regions because of the variation in the ingredients added and method of
manufacture involved.
For better understanding of the nature of the products, indigenous milk
products can be conveniently classified into nine major categories.
14.1. Concentrated / partially desiccated products:
In this class of products, milk is concentrated using heat energy.
Moisture percent in milk gets reduced due to evaporation of vapours of

115
the product. Based on extent of heat treatment product characteristics
such as smell, colour, aroma and texture imparted to the products.
i) Khoa and Khoa based sweets such as Gulabjamun, Burfi, Kalakand ,
Milkcake etc.
ii) Rabri
iii) Basundi

14.2. Heat and acid coagulated products:

These are the coagulated products obtained upon addition of
acidulant(s) to heated milk. Extent of removal of moisture controls the
texture.
i) Chhana and Chhana based sweets such as Rasagolla, Rasamalai,
Sandesh etc.

116
ii) Paneer.
14.3. Fermented products:
Lactic cultures are used to ferment the milk at specific temperature and
for specific duration. Dahi is the well known product since from ancient
time and misti dahi is popular in eastern region.
i) Dahi
ii) Mistidahi
iii) Chakka
iv) Shrikhand
v) Shrikhand wadi
14.4 Fat rich products:
i) Ghee
ii) Makkhan (desi butter)
iii) Malai
14.5. Frozen products:
i) Kulfi
ii) Malai – ka – baraf
iii) Milk-ice
14.6. Cereal based puddings:
i) Kheer
ii) Payasam
14.7. Chhana and khoa based sweets
i) Kala-Jamun
ii) Pantooa
CONCEPT: Khoa and khoa based sweets – peda, Gulabjamun,
kalakand, burfi method of preparation.
14.8KHOA

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Khoa is the product obtained by drying of cow or buffalo or goat or
sheep milk or milk solids or a combination thereof. The milk fat content
should not be less than 20% of the finished product.
Khoa is a semi solid mass having more intence shade colour with a tinge
brown colour. It is obtained by continuous heating in a karahi over a
direct fire kettle or in a steam. Depending on the method of preparation,
three varieties of khoa are available-Pindi, dhap and danedar. These
varieties differ in composition and texture and are made use of preparing
different sweets. Khoa is a concentrated whole milk product obtained by
open pan condensing of milk under atmospheric pressure.
According to Food Safety and Standard Regulations 2011, Khoya, by
whatever variety of names it is sold such as Pindi, Danedar, Dhap,
Mawa or Kava, means the product obtained from cow or buffalo or goat
or sheep milk or milk solids or a combination thereof by rapid drying. The
milk fat content shall not be less than 30 percent on dry weight basis of
finished product. It may contain citric acid not more than 0.1 percent by
weight. It shall be free from added starch, added sugar and added
colouring matter. Good quality khoa should be a compact mass of very
small uniformly-sized granules , which shows no signs of fat and/orwater
leakage. Even if kept for over 24 hours , it should not taste gritty.

METHOD OF PREPARATION:
Traditional method:
Generally buffalo milk is preferred for manufacture of khoa as it results in
higher yield, smooth texture and soft body with sweet taste. Where
buffalo milk is not available, cow milk is used for khoa making but it
results in pasty body and slightly saltish taste due to higher chlorides in
the product.4 litres of buffalo milk or 5 litres of cow milk which
approximately yields 1 kg khoa is used per batch. Filtered milk is taken

118
in a heavy bottomed wide mouth iron pan (karahi) and boiled on a brisk
non – smoky fire. An iron scraper (khunti) is used for stirring the milk
during boiling and also to scrap the milk film forming on the surface
during boiling. A rapid stirring and scrapping is carried out through out
boiling to facilitate quick and rapid evaporation of water from milk and
also to prevent scorching of milk film on surface. Due to continuous
evaporation of water, the milk progressively thickens. The researchers
have observed that at 2.8 fold concentration of cow milk
and 2.5 fold concentration of buffalo milk, heat denaturation of milk
proteins takes place and the proteins will not go into solution again. The
heating is continued till the milk thickens considerably and at this stage
heating is reduced and speed of stirring and scraping is increased to
obtain good quality product. If the milk is subjected to high heat
treatment with less stirring and scraping at this stage it results in dark
coloured khoa that does not fetch a good price in the market as white/
cream colored khoa is preferred for sweets making.
As the concentration is progressing, the product slowly tends to leave
the sides of the pan and starts’ accumulating at the bottom and at this
stage; the pan has to be removed from the fire. The contents are worked
up and the residual heat of the vessel helps in further evaporation of
moisture. The contents are transferred to the non corrosive metal
moulds and allowed to cool.
Flow chart
Milk
↓
Pastuerisation
↓
Boiling in stainless steel vat with continuous stirring
↓

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 Semi solid consistency
↓
Cooling
↓
Moulded to desired shape
↓
Packing and storage
14.8KHOA BASED SWEETS :
PEDA
Peda is popular khoa sweet which contains mainly khoa, sugar, dry
fruits, and cardamom.
METHOD OF PREPARATION:
Break freshly made khoa (mawa) into bits. Mix sugar into it. Put into a
karahi and cook over a very slow non-smoky fire, stirring all the while
with a khunti. When mixture is ready pour into a greased tray and leave
to cool and set. Cut into desired size and shape and serve.
Quality and quantity of peda depends on:
• Type and quality of milk
• Quality of khoa used
• Amount of sugar added
• Method of production
• Optional ingredients and flavors added
BURFI
Burfi is a unique adaptability of khoa in terms of its flavour , body and
texture to blend with a wide range of food adjuncts has permitted
development of an impressive array of burfi varieties.

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Burfi is one of the most popular khoa based indigenous sweets. It is
white to light cream in colour with firm body and smooth texture with very
fine grains. Sugar is added in different proportions and other ingredients
incorporated according to the demand of consumers.
Method of Production
Buffalo milk is preferred for making burfi. Milk used for burfi should not
have objectionable flavours and titratable acidity should not be more
than 0.16 percent. Milk is filtered before use to remove visible
objectionable foreign matter. Standardized buffalo milk with 6% fat and
9% SNF in quantities of 4-5 lit per batch is taken in a double jacketed
stainless steel kettle and heated. Milk is boiled continuously with
constant stirring and scraping so as to avoid burning of solids on the
surface of the kettle. When a semisolid consistency is attained, heating
is discontinued. Powdered sugar @ 30% on the basis of khoa (7% on
milk basis) is added and blended thoroughly into khoa with the help of a
flattened wooden ladle. When a homogeneous mass with desirable flow
characteristics is achieved, the blend is transferred to greased trays. The
product is allowed to set for minimum of 4 hours. Then burfiis cut into
desirable shapes and sizes with a knife and packed burfi is stored at
room temperature.
KALAKAND

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Kalakand is a milk sweet basically prepared from Danedar variety of
khoa. Kalakand is characterized by large sized hard grains with less
cohesive body. The chemical composition of Kalakand is more or less
similar to burfi, but there are large differences in the sensory and
rheological properties of the two sweets. Contrary to burfi, kalakand has
more distinct cooked flavour and brown colour. The body of kalakand is
greasier with grainy texture. The grains are hard and of large size. Good
quality kalakand is normally prepared in one step from buffalo milk.
However, it can also be prepared from khoa. The firmly set product is cut
to required shape and size. When making kalakand from khoa, danedar
variety is used.
Preparation of kalakand
Buffalo milk is preferred for kalakand manufacture. Slightly sour milk
(upto 0.18% lactic acid) can be used for its preparation. Buffalo milk
standardized to 6% fat and 9% SNF is taken in a pan and boiled. At the
appearance of first boiling, 0.05% citric acid (on weight of milk) dissolved
in small quantity of water is added to milk. There is no need to add citric
acid in case of slightly acidic milk. The milk is boiled with continuous
stirring and scraping. At pat formation stage, sugar @ 30% on expected
yield of khoa or alternatively 7.5% on the basis of milk is added and
stirring is continued. When desirable textural and body characteristics
are achieved, mixture is removed from fire and poured in a tray,

122
smeared with a thin layer of ghee for setting. The kalakand is cut into
desirable shapes or alternatively served as such without any definite
shape.
GULABJAMUN
Gulabjamun is a khoa based sweet popular all over India. Dhap variety
of khoa having 40-45% moisture is preferred for Gulabjamun
preparation. There are large variations in the sensory quality of
Gulabjamun. The most liked product should have brown colour, smooth
and spherical shape, soft and slightly spongy body, free from both lumps
and hard central core, uniform granular texture, with cooked flavour and
free from doughy feel and the sweet should be fully succulent with sugar
syrup with optimum sweetness
Requirements for sugar syrup

The sugar syrup shall be clear and light to golden yellow in colour, and
shall conform to the requirements given in the table as follows. The
proportion of free syrup in a gulabjamun pack shall not exceed 60% of
the declared net mass. There should not be excessive free fat floating in
the syrup or adhering to gulabjamun pieces. The package should not
also contain broken pieces of gulab Jamuns in the syrup.
Method of Preparation

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Dhap variety of khoa, maida and baking powder (750 g khoa, 250 g
maida and 5 g baking powder) are blended to form homogenous and
smooth dough. Small amountof water can be added in case of hard
dough and if it does not roll into smooth balls. The mix should be
prepared fresh every time. The balls are then deep fat fried at
140° C to golden brown colour and transferred into 60% sugar syrup
maintained at 60 ° C. It takes about 2 hours for the balls to completely
absorb sugar syrup.

14.9CHHANA
According to FSSAI, Chhana or paneer means the product obtained
from the cow milk or a combination thereof by precipitation with sour
milk, lactic acid or citric acid. It shall not contain more than 70.0 per cent
moisture and the milk fat content shall not be less than 50.0 per cent of
the dry matter. Milk solids may also be used in preparation of this
product. Provided that paneer or chhana when sold as low fat paneer or
chhana, it shall conform to the following requirements
(i) Moisture - Not more than 70.0 percent
(ii) Milk fat - Not more than 15.0 percent of dry matter:
Chhana is an acid coagulated product obtained from milk. The curd
mass obtained when milk is coagulated with the organic acids such as
citric acid, lactic acid at higher temperature and after subsequent
drainage of whey, mass of curd obtained is called chhana. It looks off-
white, tastes mildly acidic, and has characteristic spongy
texture. Chhana is mainly prepared from cow milk and used for
preparation of varieties of Bengali sweets. About 4 to 4.5% of the total
milk produced in India is used for chhana making. Chhana is used as a
base for the preparation of a variety of sweets like sandesh, rasogolla,
chamcham, rasomalai, pantoa, chhanamurki, etc.

124
Method of Manufacture:
Chhana has been prepared by boiling about 15-40 lit of cow milk in a
steel pan. Acidic whey (previous day whey) added to boiling hot milk
serve as coagulant with continuous stirring till the completion of
coagulation. Contents poured over a muslin cloth held over another
vessel. Whey is collected in a vessel. Muslin cloth containing curd mass
washed with potable water by immersion process and allowed to drain
for 30min to expel free whey.

CHHANA BASED SWEETS

RASOGOLLA
Rasogolla popularly known as king of Bengal sweets. Product was
developed by Nobin Chandra Das in 1868. Production is largely confined
to cottage and small scale industry. K. C. Das used to be a brand name
for rasogolla in past.
Rasogolla resembles ping-pong ball in shape, snow-white in colour and
possesses a spongy, slightly chewy body and juicy and smooth texture.
Rasogolla balls are stored and served in sugar syrup. The product is
flavoured with kewara, pista and rose and sometimes centered with
cardamom or pista.
Preparation Rasogolla

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Rasogolla is prepared from soft, fresh cow milk chhana. Kneading of
chhana to smooth paste by manually or using planetary mixer is first
step in Rasogolla making.
The smooth paste is portioned and rolled between palms to form balls of
about 15mm diameter each weighing about 8 - 10g in weight. Each ball
should have smooth surface without visible cracks on surface. On an
average, one kg chhana yields 90 - 100 rasogolla balls. These rasogolla
balls are cooked in sugar syrup of approximately
50⁰ Brix. Heating is regulated to maintain stability of the balls. Balls are
cooked for 14- 15 min. During cooking small amount of water is
continuously added to maintain syrup concentration. This makes up for
the loss of water due to evaporation. About 10% of sugar syrup should
be replaced with fresh one each time to cook another batch. After
cooking rasogolla balls are transferred to dilute sugar syrup at 60OC for
texture and colour improvement. After 30min stabilized balls are
transferred to 60⁰Brix syrup for 1-2 hours, followed by final dipping in
50⁰brix syrup.
Preparation of cooking medium
Sugar syrup preparation includes dissolution of sugar in water and
boiling till it is concentrated to desired brix level. While boiling, scum
appearing on top of the surface is scooped off before cooking the
rasogolla balls. Pinch of milk can be added during boiling to remove the
scum.
RASOMALAI
Rasomalai is chhana based product, prepared in a similar way as
rasogolla upto ball formation stage, followed by flattening the balls and
cooking. These flattened balls are soaked in thick concentrated
sweetened milk or rabri

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Rasomalaiis marketed as flattened chhana patties floating in thickened
sweet milk. It is very delicate, chewy
and spongy sweet. It tastes better when served chilled.
Method of preparation
Chhana is kneaded into smooth dough along with 1 to 4 % wheat flour.
Dough is portioned and rolled into balls having a smooth texture without
cracks. These balls are flattened to differentiate from rasogolla balls,
Flattened balls are processed like rasogolla and subsequently stored in
sweetened (5-6% sugar) milk thickened to one third of its volume. Rabri
without the creamy layer can also be used instead of thickened milk to
soak the cooked flattened balls. Rasmalai has limited shelf life of
3-5 days at refrigerated temperature.
CHHANA - MURKI
Chhana- murki is a sugar-coated sweet in the shape of small cubes.
Chhana is kneaded and formed into 10mm thick flat slab. Same slab can
also be prepared from paneer as well. It is then cut into small cubes of
about 10mm cubes. Cubes are cooked in boiling sugar syrup in karahi

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for five min with gentle stirring. Slightly higher concentration sugar syrup
is used to promote coating over the surface. Then karahi is removed
from the fire and stirring is continued till the sugar is crystallized and
coated uniformly over the cubes. Cubes are then cooled and sprinkled
with flavour and colour and decorated with dry nuts flakes
PANTOOA
This is a chhana and khoa based product similar to gulabjamun. Equal
quantity of khoa and chhana are broken into small bits. Maida and
baking powder are also used in this product for obtaining smooth texture
and soft body. After mixing maida and baking powder, broken bits of
chhana and khoa are added into it. Small quantity of water is added to
knead the above mixture and to form dough. From here onwards
proceed similar to gulabjamun processing, i.e making balls and frying
them in ghee or in oil, followed by dipping in sugar syrup. It has shelf life
of 7 days at room temperature and 14 days at refrigerated temperature
where as canned product can keep upto 6 months.
14.10PANEER
Paneer is a heat-acid coagulated milk product obtained by coagulating
standardized milk with the permitted acids at specified temperature. The
resultant coagulum is filtered and pressed to get the sliceable curd mass

..

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Paneer has a firm, close, cohesive and spongy body and smooth
texture. It is mainly prepared from buffalo milk and used for large number
of culinary dishes. Though originally it was localized in Northern part of
India but now it is preferred almost all parts of the country. Paneer is
generally sold as blocks or slices, it is also referred as Indian fresh
cheese. It is reported that about 5% of the milk produced in India is
converted into paner and paneer production is growing annually
at the rate of 13%.
Method of Manufacture
Cow milk is boiled in a bigger iron vessel and a small portion of this is
transferred to a smaller vessel. The coagulant (usually sour whey) is
added to hot milk and stirred with a ladle till coagulation is completed.
The contents of the vessel are emptied over a piece of coarse cloth to
drain off whey. The whole process is repeated till all the milk is
coagulated. The curd is collected after draining the whey and pressed to
remove more whey. Finally, product is then dipped in chilled water.

15CHAKKA AND SRIKHAND

15.1CHAKKA
Chakka-means a white to pale yellow semi-solid product of good texture
and uniform consistency obtained by draining off the whey from the
Yoghurt obtained by the lactic fermentation of cow’s milk, buffalo’s milk,
skimmed milk and recombined or standardized milk which has been

129
subjected to minimum heat treatment equivalent to that of
pasteurisation. It shall have pleasant Yoghurt / Dahi like flavour. It shall
not contain any ingredient foreign to milk. It shall be free from mouldness
and free from signs off at or water see page or both. It shall be smooth
and it shall not appear dry. It shall not contain extraneous colour and
flavours. It shall conform to the following requirements, namely:
Sr.no. Requirements Chakka
1 Total solids, percent Min.30
by weight
2 Milk fat (on dry basis) Min.33
percent by weight
3 Milk protein (on dry Min.30
basis) percent by
weight
4 Titrable acidity Max.2.5
(aslacticacid) percent
by Weight
5 Total Ash (on dry Max.3.5

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 basis) percent by
weight

Chakka when sold without any indication shall conform to the standards
of Chakka
15.2SHRIKHAND
Shrikhand-means the product obtained from chakka or Skimmed Milk
Chakka to which milk fat is added. It may contain fruits, nuts, sugar,
cardamom, saffron and other spices. It shall not contain any added
colouring and artificial flavouring substances. It shall conform to the
following specifications, namely

Sr.no Requirements Shrikhand

1 Total solids, percent by weight Not less than…58
2 Milk fat (on dry basis) percent by weight Not less than…8.5

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3 Milk protein (on dry basis) percent by weight Not less than…9
4 Titrable acidity (aslactic acid) percent by Not more
weight than….1.4
5 Sugar (sucrose) (on dry basis) percent by Not more
weight than…72.5
6 Total Ash (on dry basis) percent by weight Not more
than….0.9

16.DAIRY BY-PRODUCTS
Definition
A dairy by-product may be defined as a product of commercial value
produced during the manufacture of a main product.
Classification
The by-product of Indian Dairy Industry
Main product By-Product
Cream Skim milk
Butter Butter milk
Ghee Lasee Ghee Residue
Chhana/ Paneer cheese casein Whey

16.1RENNET
ACID RENNET
Acid casein, free casein or simply casein is industrial casein which has
been precipitated by various acids from skim milk. Acid casein is used
for the production of plastics. This is normally yellowish white in colour
for cow and chalky white for buffalo milk, a slightly acid taste, a total
acidity equivalent to not more than 10.5ml and N/10 alkali per g., not
more than 10% moisture and not more than 4% ash.

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Method of preparation
Flow Diagram
Receiving skim milk
↓
Precipitating using acid
(Casein begins to precipitate at pH 5.3
And maximum at pH 4.7)
↓
Draining and washing
↓
Pressing
↓
Milling and pressing
↓
Drying (moisture reduced to less than 8%,
Inlet temperature- 71-77°C)
↓
Grinding
↓
Packaging
↓
Storage

RENNET CASEIN

133
Rennet Casein: Rennet casein is industrial casein which has been
precipitated by rennet from skim milk. Rennet casein is used for the
production of adhesives, paper coating, paint, fibre etc. This is normally
light-yellowish in colour for cow and whitish
for buffalo milk, is tasteless,has a pH of about 7.0, not more than 10%
moisture and approximately 7.5% ash.
Method of preparation
High quality fresh skim milk is heated to 36-38°C. Sufficient rennet and
calcium chloride are added to it to give a setting time of 20-30 minutes.
The coagulum is agitated for 2-5 minutes after coagulation begins but
before the coagulum reaches a solid clot, so as to produce curd particles
of an optimum size for further processing.
Then the temperature of curd rises to 54-66°C and the curd is cooked at
this temperature for about 30 minutes. After cooking, this is processed in
the same manner as acid caseins.
Additional knowledge:
The rennet should previously have been diluted with about 15-20 times
its weight in water; calcium chloride is also use @ 1% solution.
Edible casein:

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According to Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI -
2011) Standards, edible casein products mean the products obtained by
separating, washing and drying the coagulum of skimmed milk. Edible
casein is used in various food products such as ice cream, coffee
whiteners, imitation milk etc.
Method of preparation
This includes:-
1. Precipitation of curd at pH 4.1-4.3
2. At least 3 separate washings of the curd in waters of proper pH and
with a contact time of 15-20 minutes each.
3. Last but one washing with hot water at 71-77°C, which effects
pasteurization of curd for reducing bacterial count.
4. Last washing with neutral water at 41°C.
16.2WHEY BEVERAGE
Whey beverage: Whey is obtained as a by-product of chhana/ paneer/
cheese industries. Whey is used for the production of fermented
beverages, both alcoholic and non-alcoholic (acid). Whevit, Yeast-whey,
Plain condensed whey, sweetened condensed whey,
whey sip-up, whey drink are some of the commercially available whey
beverages.
Whevit:
Whevit is a nourishing soft drink. National Dairy Research Institute,
Karnal, have developed a soft drink out of whey known as “Whevit”. The
manufacturing process of whevit is fresh whey obtained from chhana (or
paneer) making is passed through a cream separator, and the separated
whey is steamed for 30 min in a double jacketed vat. It is cooled to room
temperature and kept overnight to allow the precipitated proteins to
settle down, and then filtered through a muslin cloth. Now 50% sugar

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syrup @ 22-23% of whey, 10% citric acid @ 2-2.1% of whey and sugar
mixture, selected colour and flavours in requisite amounts are added.
This mixture is inoculated with a culture of Saccharomyces cerevisiae @
1% of yeast whey broth (whey broth is prepared by adding 1% sugar in
filtered whey and sterilizing it at 15 lb pressure for 15 min; the inoculums
is prepared by inoculating it with the yeast culture and incubating it for
48 h at 25°C). After mixing the inoculums in the whey, it is incubated at
22°C for 14-16 h. The product is then filled in bottles
leaving about 5% air space. The bottles are then crown corked to retain
CO2 and pasteurized at 75°C for 30 min in hot water, cooled and stored
at low temperature (5-10°C). In the above process of manufacture, the
carbonation is achieved by the fermentation of sugar by the yeast
culture. With a view to meet situation where cultivation of the
yeast and fermentation of whey is not practicable, the process has been
modified to incorporate CO2 through a carbonated plant.
Whey sip-up:
Whey can be used for the preparation of sip-up by the addition of sugar,
stabilizers, flavour and colour.
Whey drink:

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Whey can be used as a refreshing drink by adding different flavours,
colour and sugar. The different flavours available in the market include
pineapple, mango, chocolate, strawberry, vanilla etc.

17. PERCENTAGE SHARE OF DIFFERENT MILK PROCESSED

PRODUCTS IN A MODEL DAIRY PROCESSING INDUSTRY

The milk products produced include curd, ghee, khoa, chhana, paneer,
shrikhand , milk powder, whitener ,condensed milk, malted milk food, ice
cream and a variety of milk sweets, some of which are now produce d by
the organized dairy industries as well, are major value added products
from the Indian dairy sector. 148 The market for traditional dairy
products in India is estimated to be US $ 10 billion, being the largest and
fastest growing segment of the Indian dairy industry.

17.1 DEPICTING POTENTIAL FOR VALUE-ADDED DAIRY

PRODUCTS

Driven by steady population growth and rising income, milk consumption

continues to rise in India. Dairy market is currently growing at an annual
growth rate of around 7 per cent in volume terms. The market size of
Indian dairy industry stands at around US$ 45 billion. India is well known
as ‘Oyster of global Dairy Industry with opportunities galore for
entrepreneurs on the globe. It might be dream for any nation in world to
capitalize on large and fast growing milk and milk products marketing.
Main objective of Indian Dairy Industry is to manage national resources
in a manner to enhance milk production and upgradation of milk
processing using innovative technologies. Indian dairy Industry achieved
the status of producer-owned and profit manufacturing co-operative
system. More than 10 million dairy farmers belonging to 96,000 dairy co-
operatives who sell produce to one of 170 milk primary co-operative
unions who in turn are supported by 15 state co-operative milk marketing
federations are all the constituents of Indian Dairy Industry.

Since India’s population is predominantly vegetarian; milk serves as an

important part of daily diet. Indians use milk in various preparations such
as in brewing tea and coffee, in 149 making yogurt or curd and in
preparing many Indian dishes. For most households, milk is also a
popular beverage due to its nutritional value. As income from crop
production is seasonal, instead dairying provides stable income which is

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year round and also important economic incentive for several farmers
every rural household in India concentrates on dairying.

In India, rural households consume almost 50 percent of total milk

production. The remaining 50 percent is sold in the domestic market. Of
the share of milk sold in the domestic market, almost 50 percent is
consumed in fluid form, 35 percent is consumed as traditional products
(cheese, yoghurt and milk based sweets), and 15 percent is consumed
for the production of butter, ghee, milk powder and other processed
dairy products (including baby foods, ice cream, whey powder, casein,
and milk albumin). Favourable price environment for milk production in
Dairy Industry in India weakened in 90’s.

Decline in real profits in milk noticed after 1992 and then regained glory
after 1992 till now. The Indian dairy sector is also different from other
dairy producing countries as India places its emphasis on both cattle and
buffalo milk. In 2010, the government and the National Dairy
Development Board have drawn up a National Dairy Plan (NDP) that
proposes to nearly double India’s milk production by 2020.

This plan will endeavour to increase the country’s milk productivity,

improve access to quality feeds and improve farmer access to the
organized market.

These goals will be achieved through activities that focus on increasing

cooperative membership and growing the network of milk collection
facilities throughout India. Most dairy products are consumed in the fresh
form and only a small quantity is processed for value addition. In recent
years, however, the market for branded processed food products has
expanded. Although only around 2 per cent food is processed in India,
still the highest processing happens in the dairy sector, where 35 per
cent of the total produce is processed, of which only 13 per cent is
processed by the organized sector. 150 India is one of the most
attractive destinations for business & investment opportunities, having
16% of the world's human population i.e. 1.22 billion being the 4th
largest economy of the world with growing GDP @ 8% and per capita
income @ 17.3% (i.e. Rs 54,527 in 2010-11)

17.2Indian Dairy Key Facts

 Ranks 1st in world milk production (115 million metric tones)

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  Value of milk output from livestock (at current price) is around INR
2400 Billion

 Value of dairy products market is around INR 4000 Billion

 Ice cream industry is around INR 25 Billion  Milk production in India

has come a long way over the years from a low volume of 17 MT in 1951
to around 115 MT in 2010; 70% of milk is produced by marginal farmers.

 65 per cent of the milk is sold in “loose” form

 Only 5 per cent of the milk is sold through retail chains  70 per cent is
delivered to the homes by ‘milk agents’

 Carton milk or packaged milk has been growing at 24 per cent annually

 Most branded FMCG companies are keen on launching flavoured

dairy products whose market size is pegged at US$ 166 million. Despite
India being the largest milk producing nation in the world the Indian
Dairy Industry is weighed down by a host of problems like low milk
productivity of milch animal i.e. 987kg/year (world average is
2200kg/year) , large no. of unproductive animals, low genetic potency,
poor nutrition etc.

TABLE SHOWING KEY STATISTICS OF INDIA’S DAIRY INDUSTRY

Key Statistics:

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Annual Milk Production (2008‐9)
108.5 Million Tons

Annual Export Volume (2008‐9)

70,790 Tons

Share of world dairy production (2010)

15%

Share of world trade in dairy products (2003)

0.3%

Milking herd size

115.5 million

Number of milk producers’ cooperative unions

170

Number of local dairy cooperatives

96,000

Number of state cooperatives

15

Per capita consumption (Drinking milk)

250g/day

Estimated percentage of dairy farmers in organised sector

40‐50%

% of dairy produce consumed by unorganised sector

65%

Dairy industry workforce 1

75 million women/15million men

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