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Developing your academic writing skills:

a handbook

Dr Marian Fitzmaurice & Dr Ciara O’Farrell

Academic Practice & eLearning

Trinity College Dublin
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HANDBOOK OF ACADEMIC WRITING

Foreword

This handbook offers you advice on how to approach your academic writing,
especially in your transition from second to third level. We hope it will provide
you with an overview of the knowledge, skills and good working practices
needed to craft your academic writing. It will teach you how to apply the
conventions of writing at university level; however, equally important is that you
will gain the confidence to develop your own voice as an academic writer, a
focus that underpins this handbook.

Writing remains one of the main ways you will be assessed in University, so it is
an important skill to master. As a craft, writing is a complex task in itself, but it is
made all the more challenging in University due to the specialised nature of
academic discourse. Writing is also an iterative process and this handbook was
designed to reflect this process, divided into sections and tasks to which you can
refer or return as you approach and complete the different stages of your
academic writing task. This handbook thus provides advice, strategies and
writing activities to help you develop your academic writing, and to feel confident
in expressing your own voice in your writing.

Ciara O’Farrell.
Director, Academic Practice.
HANDBOOK OF ACADEMIC WRITING

Format:
Spelling,
Punctuation, Planning
Grammar &
Paragraphs

Procrastination
& Writer's Block
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This online Handbook of Academic Writing is focused on the following key

elements of the academic writing process:

 Planning for your writing task

 Reading critically and drawing relevant material from scholarly texts to craft
your academic writing

 Being critical

 Intertextuality: Making connections between texts and putting forward your

own understanding

 Structuring an argument and substantiating claims or assertions through

careful argument

 Finding your voice

Links are provided at the end of the document to recommended online resources
regarding:

· writing clear, grammatically correct sentences

· punctuation
· writing paragraphs
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Some comments from students in Trinity:

I guess just coming across as

Getting my own
professional is kind of a
opinions in, I didn’t know that
challenge, like avoiding
was what was
colloquialisms and all that sort of thing,
wanted .....and I
picking the right register,
probably tried to cover too
picking the right sort of tone..all that....for a
many topics so it has to be a lot
lot of reports they say to use the passive
more focused I think.
voice.

What we would mainly get is tips like never use the

first or second person, be formal in your language,
things like that...

What is Academic Writing?

Academic writing differs from other types of writing such as journalistic or
creative writing. In most forms of academic writing a detached and objective
approach is required. An academic argument appeals to logic and provides
evidence in support of an intellectual position. It is important to present your
arguments in logical order and to arrive at conclusions. However, academic
writing can take many forms. You may be asked to write an essay, a report, a
review or a reflective article. Different styles adhere to each of these types of
academic writing, so always check with your lecturer. In academic writing,
writers always interact with each others’ texts and so there will be frequent
references to the ideas, thinking or research of other authors writing in this field.
You must give credit to those with whom you are interacting and there are
structured guidelines for referencing and citation. Also, in academic writing it is
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important that when a claim is made it is backed up by reasons based on some

form of evidence; it is expected that the author takes a critical approach to the
material being explored (Crème & Lea, 2003 & Borg, 2008). ·

1. Planning for your writing task

Writing typically consists of 4 main stages: planning, writing, editing and

reviewing. As writing is an iterative process, these activities do not occur in a
fixed order; rather, writers move among these activities although typically, more
time is spent on planning or thinking at the start and on editing and reviewing at
the end (Hartley, 2008). Planning for your writing has been identified as one of
the key practices of good writers (Wellington, 2003) and you need to factor in
time to gather, absorb and plan your arguments before composing text.

1.1 Freewriting
Freewriting involves writing in full sentences about a topic for a specified amount
of time without planning or worrying about quality; it can help writing at all stages.
Elbow & Belanof (2003) argue that freewriting is about trusting yourself and your
words; they believe it is especially helpful at the initial stages of academic
writing.
Freewriting means
· Not showing your words to anyone (unless you later change your
mind);

· Not having to stay on one topic – that is, freely digressing;

· Not thinking about spelling, grammar, and mechanics;

· Not worrying about how good the writing is.

(Elbow, 2000, p. 85)

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Most people learn and practise freewriting by doing freewriting exercises of five
to ten minutes. It is more than just putting words on paper as it helps improve
thinking and also this is the beginning of your voice in the writing. It is really
good to do some freewriting or focused freewriting which requires you to stay on
one topic on a regular basis. So try it and remember the important thing is to
keep writing.

1.2 Using primary evidence or published sources

When reading and gathering information in an academic context, evidence
comes from 2 sources, primary and published, although for much undergraduate
writing it is acceptable to use published sources only. Primary evidence is the
raw data such as questionnaires, interviews, focus groups or experiments that
are used by a researcher to gather data to answer a specific research question;
they provide proof or insight in regard to the topic or question.

Published sources constitute the literature on a topic, such as books, journals or

reports. In journals, published sources from peer-reviewed journals carry most
weight. To be published in a peer-reviewed journal, the paper is typically sent
out to two or three experts in the field for review and is only published when the
reviewers and editor deem it suitable. It is important to read appropriate peer-
reviewed journals in your literature when planning your academic writing. Ask
your lecturer to recommend some. Further, each academic subject has a Subject
Librarian who is very willing to provide training in using the library catalogue and
accessing resources and relevant databases. Make time to speak to the Subject
Librarian who is there to help you.

 http://www.tcd.ie/Library/support/subjects/index.php

 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kwfiGfOYOxk&feature=youtu.be
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Activity 1: Getting started—4 things to write.

1. First of all consider, what is your topic for consideration? Write

this in less than 25 words.

2. Next brainstorm all the ideas that come to mind. Let your

ideas flow and write down everything. Don’t censor.

3. Now, do some freewriting to a prompt: What do I already know

about this topic/question? What do I need to find out? Write for

5 minutes.

4. Finally, write a list of books, journals, reports that you need to

read. This will help you provide the foundation for your

writing /assignment/project.

1.3 Referencing the work of others in one’s own writing

In academic writing, you will almost always draw on the work of other writers:
knowing how to reference is key. There are a variety of referencing systems but
in all systems, a source is cited in the text with a name or number. The name or
number connects with the full source details in a footnote or reference list. The
links to the Library and Student Learning Development in Trinity College provide
comprehensive detail of different referencing systems:

· Library in Trinity College

http://www.tcd.ie/Library/support/referencing.php http://www.tcd.ie/Library/
support/endnote/
http://www.tcd.ie/Library/infolit/
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· Student Learning Development in Trinity College

http://www.tcd.ie/Student_Counselling/student-learning/undergraduate/
topics/writing/references/
http://student-learning.tcd.ie/about/what/workshops/

It is important to follow the guidelines that accompany your assignment brief and
use the correct referencing system.

1.4 Structure and Sequence

It is useful to think about the structure of an assignment. Simple as it might
seem, all written assignments should have 3 parts:

 Introduction
 Main Body
 Conclusion

Completing your assignment: Your writing should contain a

strong, coherent argument.

Sections Ideas and Arguments Words

Introduction State the main issues and the issues 10% to 15%
you will deal with in the paper

Main Body Readings 70% to 80%

Conclusion This should not be a summary of all 10% to 15%

the points made in the assignment/
paper but it should state what you be-
lieve to be reasonable conclusions
based on the arguments made. It is
important to relate the conclusions to
the question.

(Adapted from Nottingham Trent University, Academic Writing Information

Sheet)
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Activity 2

To help writers achieve an authoritative stance in their introduction,

Thompson and Kamler (2013) suggest selecting a passage of writing
from the introduction of a published article and deleting its content.
What remains is the skeleton that writers can then work with. The ex-
ample below shows how the writer builds a connection with the field
and structures the article. Removing the content makes the syntax visi-
ble without plagiarising. ‘It makes explicit the ways of arguing and lo-
cating used in particular discourses’ (p.13). However, do not feel
obliged to follow a particular structure if you have your own approach.
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In this article, I discuss the main arguments that deal with the issue of

In distinguishing between it is my purpose

to highlight ,

by pointing to .

Besides providing a map of the ,I

assess the extent to which these lay a

ground work for .

The article is structured as follows. After giving an overview of the

scope of the , I review the particular

Next, I provide a summary of

.

Finally, in the last two sections, I consider several implications de-

rived from

and argue that

(Sentence skeleton from an article by Lavie, 2006, Education

Administration Quarterly.)
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1.5 Procrastination and Writer’s Block

We are all guilty of procrastinating when we have difficult tasks to do and with
writing, this often happens. It is helpful to recognise what you are doing and
realise that you need to get on with the task and then you can reward yourself by
doing something you really enjoy. Writer’s block is when you just cannot get
anything on paper and writers in this situation often complain that the task is too
complex (Hartley, 2008). If this happens it can be a real struggle, but once you
get going, you often find you enjoy the process. Hartley (2008, p. 167-168)
offers the following practical suggestions to get people started:

· Make time to write: if possible, set aside a specific time for writing each
day.
· Recognise and label distracters as distracters, and ignore them.
· Do not aim for perfection on the first draft. Let it flow, and then come
back to polish it.
· Start by reading what you have produced so far, and spend a bit of time
rephrasing things, clarifying or adding in a reference or a quotation.
· Make a note of the structure of the text you want to write – and list its
main headings. Then work to these, perhaps one at a time, and not
necessarily in order.
· Do not stop writing at the end of a section. Write one or two sentences
of the next one and then finish. Pick up from where you left off when
you next begin.
· Do not finish the end of a section by running the spell and grammar
checker before you switch off. You can do this the next time you begin.
· Do not stop to correct and revise. Keep going and then come back to
do this later.
· Reward yourself for meeting your targets.
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2. Reading critically and drawing relevant material from

scholarly texts to craft your academic writing

In every discipline, writing helps us learn to think critically about our own ideas
and the ideas of others. Academic writing is closely linked to reading – you will
rarely be asked to write about something without first being expected to read
some appropriate texts. In academic writing you will almost always draw on the
work of others and so it is essential that you learn to read critically and draw
relevant material from other texts. So how do you develop that skill? How do
you become a critical reader and draw relevant material from scholarly texts to
craft essays?

2.1 Reading Critically

Academic reading is not a passive activity; to become a good academic reader
you must approach the text as something that needs a response from you.
‘Active Reading’ requires a planned approach so that you can begin to grapple
with the meaning in the text. When you are ready to read articles, use a method
that works best for you to capture key points and issues. You might use a
computer programme or pen and paper but always write as you read. Write from
the beginning because as you write you are developing content which you can
revise and structure later.

When you do this, you are drawing on the work and ideas of an author and it is
important to integrate the work of others in an honest way by referencing the
original source. Citing sources also shows you are entering the conversation
already begun in the academic or professional community. Citing others will
improve your academic writing by clearly creating an intellectual basis and
framework for your writing and result in better writing (Craig, 2013).
Three skills are particularly important as you write: Summarising, Paraphrasing
and Direct Quotation. Summarising means writing an overview in your own
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words of the main ideas, issues and general meanings of a text. It is about giving
a general picture where you cite the original author. Sources help the writer to
make a point and academic writers have a responsibility to cite all sources used.
Paraphrasing means focusing on a particular issue, idea or section in a text and
using your own words to put forward the meaning of the original text. In a
paraphrase you do not directly quote the text but, again, you must cite the
original author. Try and be confident to write in your own voice and to
paraphrase in your own words. Direct Quotation is usually identified by
quotation marks or block indentation and is entirely the words of the original
author which you have chosen to use. Use quotation for specific purposes:
· To present a very well-stated passage of text whose meaning would be
lessened if paraphrased

· To present an idea or argument to comment on.

If you use an author’s specific words, you must place the words within quotation
marks, or in block indentation and you must credit the source.

Activity 3: Active Reading

Have a book/journal article or report in front of you that you are

planning to read and do the following:

 Underline key ideas and key terms

 Use lines on the margin to draw attention to an important

passage

 At the end of a chapter or paper, sketch a simple outline of

the key arguments or ideas

 Write a number of summary sentences to give you an over-

all picture of what the reading is about

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Examples of drawing from sources

A sample piece of text on Academic Writing

As you begin your graduate studies it will soon become clear that
there are differences between your writing in school and the writing
that is expected of you in college. To succeed in college you need to
write well in your academic discipline as this is still the primary way
in which your learning is assessed and graded. However, academic
writing is challenging and good academic writing in all disciplines
requires accuracy, logical structure, attention to referencing conven-
tions and eloquence; it is rarely achieved in one draft. In academic
writing it is important to lay out the aims and extent of the content
material and present it in logical order and arrive at conclusions.

In academic writing a detached and objective approach is required. An

academic argument appeals to logic, provides evidence in sup- port
of an intellectual position and is distinguished by the lack of an
emotional appeal. In academic writing, writers always interact with
each others’ texts and so there will be frequent references to the ide-
as, thinking or research of other authors writing in this field. You
must give credit to those with whom you are interacting and there are
structured guidelines for referencing and citation. Also, in academic
writing it is important that when a claim is made it is backed up by
reasons based on some form of evidence but it is expected that the
author takes a critical approach. (Fitzmaurice & O’Farrell, 2013, p.1)
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Example of a Summary

Fitzmaurice & O’Farrell (2013) argue that academic writing is an important

skill for college students and is different from the writing they undertook in
school. It is challenging as it requires the author to be objective, logical in
approach, and critical; when a claim is made it must be supported by evi-
dence. The authors point out that in academic writing it is important to
draw on the ideas or research of other authors in the field and correctly ref-
erence all sources.

Example of Paraphrasing

Academic writing presents challenges as it demands clarity in presentation,

a clear structure, correct referencing and fluency of expression which may
not be achieved in one draft (Fitzmaurice & O’Farrell, 2013).

Direct Quotation

Fitzmaurice & O’Farrell (2013, p1) argue that ‘academic writing is challeng-
ing and good academic writing in all disciplines requires accuracy, logical
structure, attention to referencing conventions and eloquence; it is rarely
achieved in one draft’.
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You have just read some examples of different ways of drawing from your
sources to explain a concept or develop a point; you must cite all your sources
and ensure academic integrity.

As a student in higher education it is not enough to be able to summarise,

paraphrase or quote from what you have read. You need also to engage in
critical reading, which requires you to think about, assess and give consideration
to the texts of other scholars. The three questions outlined below, which are
adapted from Wallace and Gray (2006), provide a framework for a critical
reading of a text and build on the work already outlined. Use the same piece of
text you were working on and write in answers to the questions.

As you do this in relation to a number of texts, you are making judgements about
what different writers are saying; you will also need to adopt a critical stance.
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Activity 4: A Critical Synopsis of a Text

Consider the following questions:

1. What are the authors saying that has relevance to my

work?

This question requires you to consider the links, if any, to your

own project, assignment or research. Answer this question in
25 words.

2. How convincing are the authors’ statements?

This question requires you to evaluate the arguments put for-

ward by the authors.

 What claims are made?

 Are there unsubstantiated claims?
 What evidence is used to support the arguments? Is there
a data set used and, if so, are the claims clearly related to
this?
 Are the claims consistent with other articles you have
read? If not in what way do the claims differ?

Write one sentence in answer to each of the above questions.

3. What use can I make of this in my assignment?

This question requires you to think about whether this is a key

text that you will use and discuss in depth. Think about how

the claims made here tie in with what you believe. Or if they

can be used to expand or question other claims that you have

read. Or will you only refer to it briefly? Freewrite for 5 minutes

to answer this question.

Remember to feel free to disagree with the experts, explaining why you
do so and that your own analysis is the star; the views of others play a
supporting role.
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A comment from a Trinity Student.

I just thought we were

supposed to show that we could
bring in, tie in lots of research,
but she said there wasn’t
enough critical analysis—but I
don’t know how to critically
analyse.

‘Critical’ is often understood in terms of pointing out what is wrong; students are
concerned about being critical of experts in the field. So what does it mean to be
critical?

3. Being critical

Being critical is not just about praising or tearing apart the work of others.
Adopting a critical stance to a text means paying close attention to the text in
terms of definitions, ideas, assumptions and findings or arguments. It is focused
questioning and interrogation which is respectful of what others have done and
contributed (Kamler & Thomson, 2006). It is not about being negative about the
work of others but assessing the contribution of other scholars. Asking and
answering the questions which follow will help you as a student to judge the work
of other scholars.
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Activity 5

 What is the argument?

 What aspect of the topic/argument is spoken about in this

article? What evidence is used to back up the

argument?

 What claims are made by the author?

As you answer these questions you are moving beyond summaries and into
evaluating and becoming critical. The following link is helpful in this regard.

http://www.phrasebank.manchester.ac.uk/critical.htm

The link forms part of the Academic Phrasebank, created by John Morley of the
University of Manchester. Morley makes the important point that the phrases
are content-neutral and generic in nature and therefore in using them, you are
not stealing other people's ideas and this does not constitute plagiarism.

4. Intertextuality: Making connections between texts and putting

forward your own understanding

When writing your paper you will read a number of texts; the next stage is to
move between the texts and draw ideas together before putting forward your
own understanding. This is ‘Intertexual’ work, an important part of academic
writing, where an important task is negotiating how to relate and make
connections between the ideas drawn from different writers and putting forward
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your own understanding. Almost every word and phrase we use we have heard
or read before. So as we create our texts we are influenced by words or ideas
already written. Intertextuality means working with a number of texts and relating
one text to another. Firstly, it is about drawing on other texts to build a context.
It also requires you to think about how to use these texts to inform your argument
and make your own assertion. As a new student to university there is a real
challenge in deciding how ideas and information are joined, structured and
supported. As you work through the activities in this handbook you are involved
in focused questioning and examination of a number of texts which will help you
to make connections between the texts, and recognise and distinguish the major
ideas, arguments and debates about a topic. This is what intertextual work is all
about. As you are seeking to analyse relationships among sources it is useful to
have a list of phrases which you can incorporate into your own work such as:
According to.............or X argues for..............Others have suggested........y has
shown in her study..................In his article Z concludes. The following link is
helpful in this regard: http://www.phrasebank.manchester.ac.uk/conclusions.htm

Activity 6

Find 2 scholarly articles from your own discipline and

answer the following questions:

1. How does the writer create a context using the texts of

others?

2. How does the writer use the texts of others to build his/her

own argument?

3. Write down any connections or differences you can see be-

tween the two articles.

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5. Structuring an argument and substantiating claims or

assertions through careful argument

Argument is a difficult skill to master, developed over time and through practice,
and by reading scholarly writing. One of the requirements of higher education is
that you read widely and with close attention to the text. Through this reading
you will be exposed to a range of books, documents and journals written in

Activity 7: Constructing an argument

1. Select a passage from a scholarly piece of writing in your

own discipline which builds a good argument and examine it to

see how the author achieves this.

2. Now focus on your own piece of writing. Freewrite for five

minutes in full sentences: what is my argument?

3. Read over what you have written and reduce your argument

to just 25 words.

4. Answer the following questions.

a. Does my argument have a clear focus? What exactly am I

claiming?

b. Does my argument have sound logic? Is there a clear ap-

peal to reason not emotion?

c. What evidence can I provide in support of my argument?

What is the literature saying?

d. Does my argument have a clear, logical structure? Does my

argument develop through evidence and analysis? Does it

lead to a conclusion?
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different styles. It is important to consider how experienced writers present their

work and build an effective argument.

There is no one technique for developing a good argument but argument has a
number of key elements including focus, logic and evidence. Good argument
shows an ability to express a critical and objective outlook. However, developing
an argument takes time and work. In order to construct a strong and logical
argument, Leki (1998, p. 258) notes that it is important to avoid these common
flaws:

· Exaggeration and unsubstantiated generalisations

· Oversimplification of your argument or of the opposing argument
· Logical flaws
· Appeals to inappropriate authorities
· Emotionally charged words
· Out-of-date facts.

Keep your tone controlled and reasonable and remember that a convincing
argument always displays the writer’s ability to understand the other side of an
argument and to appraise opposing points of view. The skills you are developing
include the ability to write in an objective tone, to use relevant sources to support
your argument and to provide a logical and systematic analysis. The flow chart
below summarises the key issues.
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Neville, 2010, p. 10)

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The Language of Argumentation

Certain phrases are often used in argumentation and some examples are
provided below which you can use to help write your argument.

Words and phrases which can be used in argumentation

 Y argues that…..
 Y suggests that….
 Y contends that…
 Y makes a case that…….
 X develops the argument further by suggesting that………
 X maintains that……..
 X claims that………
 X asserts that……..
 In contrast, Y states that…….
 X concludes that…….
Providing a counter argument
 Despite claims that…..
 Some would argue that……….but
 It has been argued that…….., however……..
 However,
 While a lot of evidence points to this conclusion……………there is
another aspect to be considered…………..
 On the contrary……..
 On the other hand………
 Some assert that……but this underestimates the influence of ……
Putting forward your own opinion using the passive voice
 The evidence suggests that…….
 It will be argued………….
 The paper argues…………
 The findings indicate……..
 These findings suggest…….
 This seems to imply……
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I suppose it feels like when You want to find

you’re in University and your voice but it is a
you’re reading these texts, real challenge.
(like in English, you’re
doing Shakespeare or
something on They want us to present and

medieval)...there ‘s so assess what’s already out

much written on it already, there....that’s typically the

there’s the concern can I most common thing they

say anything of want us to do but how do we

value? present our own views, our

voice.

6. Finding your Voice

Voice is a difficult concept to define but developing a voice is an important

aspect of becoming an effective writer. Every piece of writing has a voice; voice
refers to the way we reveal ourselves to others when we write (Richards & Miller,
2005). Voice may be thought of as ‘a combination of the personality of the writer
that comes through to the reader; the perspective the writer assumes, often
influenced by the audience being addressed, as well as by the purpose and
previous levels of knowledge, […] and the tone of the passage’ (Mulvaney &
Jolliffe, 2005, p. 18). However for a novice writer, it can be difficult to find and
express your voice.

Remember that each one of us approaches a topic from a different perspective,

so we can all make a valuable contribution to debate. Your distinctive individual
perspective might reflect your life experiences, your educational background or
your philosophical values. There is no expert or scholar whose answers are so
perfect that the rest of us need no longer give our opinions on the topic.
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Activity 8: Analysing a passage for voice

Read the passage below and answer the questions that

follow.

The term “narrative” carries many meanings and is used in a variety of ways
by different disciplines, often synonymously with “story”. I caution readers
not to expect a simple, clear definition of narrative here that can cover all
applications, but I will review some definitions in use and outline what I think
are the essential ingredients. Briefly, in everyday oral storytelling, a speaker
connects events into a sequence that is consequential for later
action and for the meanings that the speaker wants listeners to take away
from the story. Events perceived by the speaker as important are selected,
organized, connected, and evaluated as meaningful for a particular
audience. Later chapters will expand and complicate the simple definition
with research based on spoken, written, and visual materials...The concept
of narrative has achieved a degree of popularity that few would have pre-
dicted when some of us, several decades ago, began working with stories
that developed in research interviews and medical consultations. More than
ten years ago, I began to be uneasy about what I called the
tyranny of narrative (Riessman, 1997), and the concern has only increased.
It is not appropriate to police language, but specificity has been lost with
popularisation. All talk and text is not narrative.
(Riessman, 2008, p. 3-5)

1. Analyse the passage for features of voice. Think about whether it

sounds informed, authoritative, questioning. Does it sound credible?

2. Describe the voice, drawing on specific items in the passage to

support your views.
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It takes confidence, practice, time and regular writing to develop your voice but
the more you write the more you will develop your own voice. Often the overuse
of quotes or paraphrasing without any attempt to discuss the points being made
shows that the author is having difficulty finding his or her voice. In academic
writing, the use of voice is not about emotion or personal experience, but about
being clear, concise, accurate and backing up what is being said with evidence,
making a judgement and assessing the contribution of other writers.

6.1 When to use ‘I’ in your writing

In the above piece, the first-person use is evident as it positions the writer in the
text. However, in academic writing use of the first person depends on the
discipline. Often, the third person and the passive voice will be used to convey
your ideas and arguments. However, the first person can be used effectively,
especially in introductions and conclusions. Read some articles from your
discipline and see what is typical and what works well.
Whenever you write, a certain voice is being revealed. The challenge is to begin
to develop your academic voice. So to develop your voice:

· Read widely and critically

· Note specialised vocabulary
· Observe textual features (these vary by discipline) including
conventions such as style preferences for writing in first or third person
· Do not overuse the first person
· Let your ideas flow freely at the start and then impose a structure
· Remember that your personal voice should be informed and
knowledgeable
· Establish your credibility by ensuring that you have read enough to
have substance for your arguments
· Always respect other perspectives and develop your counterarguments
in a respectful tone
· Avoid broad, sweeping generalisations
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· Try to get feedback on your work. Ask for honest feedback from a
colleague or friend
(Adapted from Lee, 2011)

7. Academic Writing in Different Disciplines

The Handbook offers general advice to support your development in terms of

textual investigation and academic writing but each discipline has its own
conventions and it is important to take careful note of these in your writing. The
lectures in your discipline and the texts you read in each discipline are the most
important source of information for discipline-specific writing. The focus so far
has been on mastering academic writing but there are disciplinary differences
which are important for you to understand so that you can produce good work.
This section is to help you to explore writing practices in your subject area or
discipline. In order to write well, you need to approach writing tasks with an
understanding that writing is discipline specific. Writing in the disciplines varies
widely in terms of content, research methods and citation styles (Friedrich,
2008). The citation style in Humanities is very different from Science and
Engineering. The use of the passive voice is preferred in almost all cases but
there are times when the use of ‘I’ is acceptable.

To develop your academic writing, you will need to express your own thoughts or
views on the material; you cannot rely on the ideas and thoughts of other people.
However, in the early years of undergraduate study your contribution will relate
to the choice you make about what literature you want to present and to how you
analyse it. In the Humanities and Social Sciences, what is important is that your
views should be informed, clearly expressed and based on careful consideration
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HANDBOOK OF ACADEMIC WRITING

of the views of seminal writers and thinkers on the topic. In scientific disciplines,
you must show that you have a complete knowledge and understanding of the

Activity 9: Read and compare two peer reviewed journal

articles from your discipline on a topic you are researching

and answer the following questions.

Article 1 Article 2
What is the length of the
introductions?

Do the articles use any

headings or sub-headings?

What is the style of

referencing used?

What is the typical paragraph

length?

How many long quotations are

used?

Does the text use more

paraphrasing than quotation?

Create a list of common verbs

used to refer to outside
sources and to introduce
quotations (e.g. according to,
argues that, describes,
concludes).

Does the author use the first

person pronoun?

Does the author make use of

diagrams or any other type of
visuals?

What types of evidence is

used in making argument?

(Adapted from Tardy & Courtney, 2008)

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HANDBOOK OF ACADEMIC WRITING

relevant scientific principles, but in either discipline it is in the analysis and

interpretation that you can make your contribution.

The aim of the activity is to help you become familiar with the style of writing in
your discipline so that you can, from the beginning, approach your writing in the
way required in your discipline.

Summary Guidelines on Academic Writing

Final Thoughts

· Write every day as writing is a generative process and putting pen to

paper helps you to think more clearly
· Start to write early and don’t postpone and procrastinate as there is never
a perfect time
· Keep your topic in mind and do some freewriting exercises
· Break a large piece of writing into manageable pieces; headings can be
useful here
· Write first and edit/revise later as they are different activities.
· Remember that references are a tool to help you to make a point or
develop an argument but you must acknowledge your sources
· Ensure all citations and referencing are correct so that the reader
understands how sources have been used
· Draft and redraft as you will not get it all right the first time
· Remember that there are stages to writing: planning, free-writing, writing
drafts, revising, editing.
· Readers need a route map to guide them through the work so write a
good introduction to make it clear what they are about to read.

(Friedrich, 2008; Wellington, 2003; Badenhorst, 2007; Elbow, 1988)

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References

Badenhorst, C. (2007). Research Writing. Pretoria: Van Schaik Publishers.

Borg, E. (2008). 'Understanding the nature, possibilities and challenges of

academic writing'. in S. Moore (ed) Supporting academic writing among students
and academics. London: Staff and Educational Development Association. (pp. 9-
14).

Craig, J.L. (2013). Integrating Writing Strategies in EFL/ESL University Contexts.

New York: Routledge

Creme, P., & Lea, (2003). Writing at University. Maidenhead: Open University

Press.

Elbow, P. (1988). Writing Without Teachers. (2nd ed.) New York: Oxford

University Press.

Elbow, P. (2000). Everyone Can Write. New York:Orford University Press.

Elbow, P. & Belanoff, P. (2003) Being a Writer. Boston: Mc Graw Hill Higher

Education.

Friedrich, P. (2008). (Ed.) Teaching Academic Writing. New York: Continuum

International Publishing.

Hartley, J. (2008). Academic Writing and Publishing. London: Routledge

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Kamler, B., & Thomson, P. (2006). Helping doctoral students write: Pedagogies

for Supervision. London: Routledge.

Lee, M. (2011). ‘Finding Voice: Appreciating Audience’ in T. S. Rocco, & T.

Hatcher (eds), The Handbook of Scholarly Writing and Publishing. San

Francisco: Jossey Bass. (pp.102-114).

Leki (1998). Academic Writing: Exploring Processes and Strategies. (2nd.ed.)

New York: Cambridge.

Mulvanney, M.K. & Joliffe, D.A. (2005). Academic Writing: Genres, Samples

and Resources. New York: Pearson Longman

Neville, C. (2010). The Complete Guide to Referencing and Avoiding Plagiarism.

2nd. Ed. Berkshire: Mc Graw Hill, Open University Press.

Richards, J.C., & Miller, S.K. (2005). Doing Academic Writing in Education. New

Jersey: Laurence Erlbaum Associates.

Riessman, C. K. (2008). Narrative Methods for the Human Sciences. Thousand

Oaks, C.A: Sage.

Tardy. C. M. & Courtney, J. (2008). ‘Assignments and Activities in Teaching

Academic Writing’ in P. Friedrich (ed), Teaching Academic Writing. New York:

Contunuum. (pp. 73-92).

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Thompson, P. & Kamler, B. (2013). Writing for Peer Reviewed Journals. London:

Routledge.

Wallace, M. & Gray, A. (2006). Critical Reading and Writing for Postgraduates.

Los Angeles: Sage.

Wellington, J. (2003) Getting Published. London: Routledge Falmer.

Useful Links

Defining what Academic Writing is

Learn Higher Centre for Excellence in Teaching and Learning from the
Association for Learning Development in Higher Education
http://learnhigher.ac.uk/Students/Academic-Writing.html

What is Academic Writing http://wac.colostate.edu/books/writingspaces1/irvin--

what-is-academic-writing.pdf

Disability Service in Trinity College

www.tcd.ie/disability/services/AST/Leaflets/Academic/Essays/Academic%
20writing.doc

Writing an Essay

http://www.flinders.edu.au/slc_files/images/New%20webpage%20images/
Guides/Writing%20an%20Essay.pdf

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/685/01/
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HANDBOOK OF ACADEMIC WRITING

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/engagement/index.php?
category_id=2&sub_category_id=2&article_id=65

How to read critically

The Online Writing Lab (OWL) at Purdue University

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/616/01/

Student Learning Development in Trinity College

http://www.tcd.ie/Student_Counselling/student-learning/undergraduate/topics/
study-skills/reading/

Harvard Library
http://guides.hcl.harvard.edu/sixreadinghabits

Winthrop University
http://www.winthrop.edu/uploadedFiles/cas/english/ReadingCritically.pdf

Manchester Metropolitan University http://www.mmu.ac.uk/tips/downloads/

Criticalreading.pdf

Toronto University
http://ctl.utsc.utoronto.ca/twc/sites/default/files/CriticalReading.pdf
http://www.writing.utoronto.ca/advice/reading-and-researching/critical-reading

Open University
http://www.open.ac.uk/skillsforstudy/critical-reading-techniques.php

Writing Center - Princeton http://www.princeton.edu/writing/center/resources/

DevelopinganArgument.pdf