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 MATHEMATICS
Grade 8
CAPS
Learner Book

Revised edition

Developed and funded as an ongoing project by the Sasol Inzalo

Foundation in partnership with the Ukuqonda Institute.

Maths_Gr8_LB_book.indb 1 2017/11/20 10:38:32 AM

 Published by The Ukuqonda Institute
9 Neale Street, Rietondale 0084
Registered as a Title 21 company, registration number 2006/026363/08
Public Benefit Organisation, PBO Nr. 930035134
Website: http://www.ukuqonda.org.za

This edition published in 2017

© 2017. Copyright in the work is vested in the publisher.
Copyright in the text remains vested in the contributors.

ISBN: 978-1-4315-2877-6

This book was developed with the participation of the Department of Basic Education of
South Africa with funding from the Sasol Inzalo Foundation.

Contributors:
Herholdt Bezuidenhout, Lucinda Cruickshank, Marthinus de Jager, Gudrun Elliott,
Andrew Hofmeyr, Piet Human, Louise Keegan, Erna Lampen, Nathi Makae, Enoch Masemola,
Alwyn Olivier, Cerenus Pfeiffer, Rika Potgieter, Johan Pretorius, Renate Röhrs, Paul van Koersveld,
Therine van Niekerk, Dirk Wessels

Illustrations and computer graphics:

Leonora van Staden, Lisa Steyn Illustration
Zhandré Stark, Lebone Publishing Services

Computer graphics for chapter frontispieces: Piet Human

Cover illustration: Leonora van Staden

Text design: Mike Schramm

Layout and typesetting: Lebone Publishing Services

Printed by: [printer name and address]

Maths_Gr8_LB_book.indb 2 2017/11/20 10:38:32 AM

 COPYRIGHT NOTICE

Your freedom to legally copy this book

This book is published under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0

International Licence (CC BY-NC).

You are allowed and encouraged to freely copy this book. You can photocopy, print
and distribute it as often as you like. You may download it onto any electronic
device, distribute it via email, and upload it to your website, at no charge. You may
also adapt the text and illustrations, provided you acknowledge the copyright
holders (“attribute the original work”).

Restrictions: You may not make copies of this book for a profit-seeking purpose.
This holds for printed, electronic and web-based copies of this book, and any part
of this book.

For more information about the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial

4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) licence, see: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/
by-nc/4.0/

Except where otherwise noted, this work is licensed under

the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommerical 4.0
International licence.

Maths_Gr8_LB_book.indb 3 2017/11/20 10:38:32 AM

 Contents
Term 1
Chapter 1:
Whole numbers..................................................................................... 1
Chapter 2:
Integers................................................................................................... 19
Chapter 3:
Exponents............................................................................................... 33
Chapter 4:
Numeric and geometric patterns......................................................... 49
Chapter 5:
Functions and relationships.................................................................. 59
Chapter 6:
Algebraic expressions 1......................................................................... 67
Chapter 7:
Algebraic equations 1............................................................................ 74

Term 2
Chapter 8:
Algebraic expressions 2......................................................................... 77
Chapter 9:
Algebraic equations 2............................................................................ 88
Chapter 10:
Construction of geometric figures....................................................... 92
Chapter 11:
Geometry of 2D shapes........................................................................ 108
Chapter 12:
Geometry of straight lines.................................................................... 124

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 Term 3
Chapter 13:
Common fractions................................................................................. 141
Chapter 14:
Fractions in decimal notation............................................................... 158
Chapter 15:
The theorem of Pythagoras.................................................................. 165
Chapter 16:
Perimeter and area of 2D shapes......................................................... 175
Chapter 17:
Surface area and volume of 3D objects............................................... 188
Chapter 18:
Collect, organise and summarise data................................................ 198
Chapter 19:
Represent data....................................................................................... 212
Chapter 20:
Interpret, analyse and report on data.................................................. 222

Term 4
Chapter 21:
Functions and relationships.................................................................. 227
Chapter 22:
Algebraic equations............................................................................... 236
Chapter 23:
Graphs..................................................................................................... 242
Chapter 24:
Transformation geometry...................................................................... 254
Chapter 25:
Geometry of 3D objects........................................................................ 269
Chapter 26:
Probability............................................................................................... 300

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Maths_Gr8_LB_book.indb 6 2017/11/20 10:38:32 AM
 Chapter 1
Whole numbers

1.1 Properties of whole numbers

the commutative property of addition and multiplication

1. Which of the following calculations would you choose

to calculate the number of yellow beads in this pattern?
Do not do any calculations now, just make a choice.

(a) 7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 7
(b) 10 + 10 + 10 + 10 + 10 + 10 + 10
(c) 5 + 5 + 5 + 5 + 5 + 5 + 5 + 5 + 5 + 5
(d) 5 + 5 + 5 + 5 + 5 + 5 + 5
(e) 7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 7
(f) 10 + 10 + 10 + 10 + 10

2. (a) How many red beads are there in the pattern? How many yellow beads are there?
(b) How many beads are there in the pattern in total?

3. (a) Which expression describes what you did to calculate the total number of beads:
70 + 50 or 50 + 70?
(b) Does it make a difference?
(c) Which expression describes what you did to calculate the number of red beads:
7 × 10 or 10 × 7?
(d) Does it make a difference?

We say: addition and multiplication are

commutative. The numbers can be swopped
around as their order does not change the answer.
This does not work for subtraction and division,
however.

4. Calculate each of the following:

(a)  5 × 8 (b)  10 × 8 (c)  12 × 8 (d)  8 × 12
(e)  6 × 8 (f)  3 × 7 (g)  6 × 7 (h)  7 × 6

CHAPTER 1: WHOLE NUMBERS 1

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 the associative property of addition and multiplication

Lebogang and Nathi both have to calculate 25 × 24.

Lebogang calculates 25 × 4 and then multiplies by 6.
Nathi calculates 25 × 6 and then multiplies by 4.
1. Will they get the same answer or not?

If three or more numbers have to be multiplied, it does not

matter which two of the numbers are multiplied first.
This is called the associative property of multiplication.
We also say multiplication is associative.
2. Do the following calculations. Do not use a calculator now.
(a) 4 + 7 + 5 + 6 (b) 7 + 6 + 5 + 4
(c) 6 + 5 + 7 + 4 (d) 7 + 5 + 4 + 6

3. (a) Is addition associative?

(b) Illustrate your answer with an example.
4. Find the value of each expression by working in the easiest possible way:
(a) 2 × 17 × 5 (b) 4 × 7 × 5
(c) 75 + 37 + 25 (d) 60 + 87 + 40 + 13
5. What must you add to each of the following numbers to get 100?
82 44 56 78 24 89 77
6. What must you multiply each of these numbers by to get 1 000?
250 125 25 500 200 50
7. Calculate each of the following. Note that you can make the work very easy by
deciding how to group the operations.
(a) 82 + 54 + 18 + 46 + 237 (b) 24 + 89 + 44 + 76 + 56 + 11
(c) 25 × (86 × 4) (d) 32 × 125

more conventions and the distributive property

The distributive property is a useful property because it allows us to do this:

3 × (2 + 4) 3×2+3×4
Both answers are 18. We used brackets in the first example to show that the addition
operation must be done first. Otherwise, we would have done the multiplication first.
For example, the expression 3 × 2 + 4 means “multiply 3 by 2; then add 4”. It does not
mean “add 2 and 4; then multiply by 3”.

2 MATHEMATICS Grade 8: Term 1

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 The expression 4 + 3 × 2 also means “multiply 3 by 2; then add 4”.
If you wish to specify that addition or subtraction
should be done first, that part of the expression
should be enclosed in brackets.
The distributive property can be used to break up a difficult multiplication into smaller
parts. For example, it can be used to make it easier to calculate 6 × 204:
6 × 204 can be rewritten as 6 × (200 + 4) (Remember the brackets!)
= 6 × 200 + 6 × 4
= 1 200 + 24
= 1 224
Multiplication can also be distributed over subtraction, for example to calculate 7 × 96:
7 × 96 = 7 × (100 − 4)
= 7 × 100 − 7 × 4
= 700 − 28
= 672
1. Here are some calculations with answers. Rewrite them with brackets to make all
the answers correct.
(a) 8 + 6 × 5 = 70 (b) 8 + 6 × 5 = 38 (c) 5 + 8 × 6 − 2 = 52
(d) 5 + 8 × 6 − 2 = 76 (e) 5 + 8 × 6 − 2 = 51 (f) 5 + 8 × 6 − 2 = 37

2. Calculate the following:

(a) 100 × (10 + 7) (b) 100 × 10 + 100 × 7
(c) 100 × (10 − 7) (d) 100 × 10 − 100 × 7

3. Copy and complete the table:

× 8 5 4 9 7 3 6 2 10 11 12
7
3 27 6
9
5
8
6
4 28
2
10 80 110
12
11

CHAPTER 1: WHOLE NUMBERS 3

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 4. Use the various mathematical conventions for numerical expressions to make the
following calculations easier. Show how you work them out.
(a) 18 × 50 (b) 125 × 28 (c) 39 × 220
(d) 443 + 2 100 + 557 (e) 318 + 650 + 322 (f) 522 + 3 003 + 78

Two more properties of numbers are:

• The additive property of 0: when we add zero to
any number, the answer is that number.
• The multiplicative property of 1: when we
multiply any number by 1, the answer is that number.

1.2 Calculations with whole numbers

estimating, approximating and rounding

1. Copy and complete the following statements by giving answers to these questions,
without doing any calculations with the given numbers.
(a) Is 8 × 117 more than 2 000 or less than 2 000?    than 2 000
(b) Is 27 × 88 more than 3 000 or less than 3 000?    than 3 000
(c) Is 18 × 117 more than 3 000 or less than 3 000?    than 3 000
(d) Is 47 × 79 more than 3 000 or less than 3 000?    than 3 000

What you have done when you tried to give answers

An estimate may also be
to questions 1(a) to (d), is called estimation. To called an approximation.
estimate is to try to get close to an answer without
actually doing the calculations with the given numbers.

2. Look at question 1 again.

(a) The numbers 1 000, 2 000, 3 000, 4 000, 5 000, 6 000, 7 000, 8 000, 9 000 and
   10 000 are all multiples of a thousand. In each case, write down the multiple of
   1 000 that you think is closest to the answer. The numbers you write down are
called estimates.
(b) In some cases you may achieve a better estimate by adding 500 to your
estimate, or subtracting 500 from it. If so, you may add or subtract 500.
(c) If you wish, you may write what you believe is an even better estimate by
   adding or subtracting some hundreds.
3. (a) Use a calculator to find the exact answers for The difference between
   the calculations in question 1. Calculate the an estimate and the actual
error in your last approximation of each of answer is called the error.
the answers in question 1.
(b) What was your smallest error?

4 MATHEMATICS Grade 8: Term 1

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 4. Think again about what you did in question 2. In 2(a) you tried to approximate the
answers to the nearest 1 000. In 2(c) you tried to approximate the answers to the
nearest 100. Describe what you tried to achieve in question 2(b).

5. Estimate the answers for each of the following products and sums. Try to approximate
the answers for the products to the nearest thousand, and for the sums to the
nearest hundred.

(a) 84 × 178 (b) 677 + 638

(c) 124 × 93 (d) 885 + 473
(e) 79 × 84 (f) 921 + 367
(g) 56 × 348 (h) 764 + 829

6. Use a calculator to find the exact answers for the calculations in question 5. Calculate
the error in each of your approximations. Use the second line in each question to do
this.

Calculating with “easy” numbers that are close to given numbers is a good way to obtain
approximate answers, for example:
• To approximate 764 + 829, you may calculate 800 + 800 to get the approximate answer
1 600; with an error of 7.
• To approximate 84 × 178, you may calculate 80 × 200 to get the approximate answer
16 000; with an error of 1 048.

7. Calculate with “easy” numbers close to the given numbers to produce approximate
answers for each product below. Do not use a calculator. When you have made
your approximations, use a calculator to work out the precise answers.

(a) 78 × 46 (b) 67 × 88
(c) 34 × 276 (d) 78 × 178

rounding off and compensating

1. (a) Approximate the answer for 386 + 3 435, by The word compensate
   rounding both numbers off to the nearest means to do things that will
   hundred, and then adding the rounded numbers. remove damage.
(b) Because you rounded 386 up to 400, you
introduced an error of 14 in your approximate
answer. What error did you introduce by rounding 3 435 down to 3 400?
(c) What combined (total) error did you introduce by rounding both numbers off
  before calculating?
(d) Use your knowledge of the total error to correct your approximate answer, so
   that you have the correct answer for 386 + 3 435.

CHAPTER 1: WHOLE NUMBERS 5

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 In question 1, you used rounding off and compensating to find the correct
answer for 386 + 3 435. By rounding the numbers off you introduced errors. You then
compensated for the errors by making adjustments to your answer.

2. Round off and compensate to calculate each of the following accurately:

(a) 473 + 638 (b) 677 + 921

Subtraction can also be done in this way. For example, to work out R5 362 − R2 687, you
may round R2 687 up to R3 000. You may do this in the following ways:

• Rounding R2 687 up to R3 000 can be done in two steps: 2 687 + 13 = 2 700, and
2 700 + 300 = 3 000. In total, 313 is added.
• You can now add 313 to 5 362 too: R5 362 + 313 = 5 675.
• Instead of calculating R5 362 − R2 687, which is a bit difficult, you may calculate
R5 675 − R3 000. This is easy: R5 675 − R3 000 = R2 675.

This means that R5 362 − R2 687 = R2 675, because

R5 362 − R2 687 = (R5 362 + R313) − (R2 687 + R313).

adding numbers in parts written in columns

Numbers can be added by thinking of their parts as we say the numbers.

For example, we say 4 994 as four thousand nine hundred and ninety-four.
This can be written in expanded notation as 4 000 + 900 + 90 + 4.
Similarly, we can think of 31 837 as 30 000 + 1 000 + 800 + 30 + 7.
31 837 + 4 994 can be calculated by working with the various kinds 31 837
of parts separately. To make this easy, you can write the numbers 4 994
below each other so that the units are below the units, the tens
below the tens and so on, as shown on the right.

We write only this: In your mind you can see this:

31 837 30 000 1 000 800 30 7
4 994 4 000 900 90 4

The numbers in each column can be added to get a new set of numbers.
31 837 30 000 1 000 800 30 7
4 994 4 000 900 90 4
11 11
120 120
1 700 1 700
5 000 5 000
30 000 30 000
36 831 It is easy to add the new set of numbers to get the answer.

6 MATHEMATICS Grade 8: Term 1

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 The work may start with the 10 000s or any other parts. Starting with the units, as
shown on page 6, makes it possible to do more of the work mentally, and write less, as
shown below.

31 837 To achieve this, only the units digit 1 of the 11 is written in

4 994 the first step. The 10 of the 11 is remembered and added to
36 831 the 30 and 90 of the tens column, to get 130.

We say the 10 is carried from the units column to the tens column. The same is done
when the tens parts are added to get 130: only the digit “3” is written (in the tens
column, so it means 30), and the 100 is carried to the next step.

1. Calculate each of the following without using a calculator:

(a) 4 638 + 2 667 (b) 748 + 7 246

2. Impilo Enterprises plans a new computerised training facility in their existing

building. The training manager has to keep the total expenditure budget under
R1 million. This is what she has written so far:

Architects and builders R 102 700

Painting and carpeting R 42 600
Security doors and blinds R 52 000
Data projector R 4 800
25 new secretary chairs R 50 400
24 desks for work stations R123 000
1 desk for presenter R 28 000
25 new computers R300 000
12 colour laser printers R 38 980

Work out the total cost of all the items for which the training manager has budgeted.

3. Calculate each of the following, without using a calculator:

(a) 7 828 + 6 284 (b) 7 826 + 888 + 367
(c) 657 + 32 890 + 6 542 (d) 6 666 + 3 333 + 1

methods of subtraction

There are many ways to find the difference between two numbers. For example, to find
the difference between 267 and 859, you may think of the numbers as they would appear
on a number line, for example:

267 859
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1 000

CHAPTER 1: WHOLE NUMBERS 7

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 We may think of the distance between 267 and 859 as three steps: from 267 to 300, from
300 to 800, and from 800 to 859. How big are each of these three steps?

267 859
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1 000
267 + 33  300 + 500  800 + 59 = 859

This number line shows that 859 − 267 is 33 + 500 + 59.

1. Calculate 33 + 500 + 59 to find the answer for 859 − 267.

2. Calculate each of the following. You may think of working out the distance between
the two numbers as shown above, or use any other method you prefer.
Do not use a calculator now.
(a) 823 − 456 (b) 1 714 − 829
(c) 3 045 − 2 572 (d) 5 131 − 367

Like addition, subtraction can also be done by working with the different parts in
which we say numbers. For example, 8 764 − 2 352 can be calculated as follows:
8 thousand − 2 thousand = 6 thousand
7 hundred − 3 hundred = 4 hundred
6 tens − 5 tens = 1 ten
4 units − 2 units = 2 units
So, 8 764 − 2 352 = 6 412

Subtraction by parts is more difficult in some cases, for example 6 213 − 2 758:
6 000 − 2 000 = 4 000. This step is easy, but the following steps cause problems:
200 − 700 = ? One way to overcome these
10 − 50 = ? problems is to work with
3 − 8 =? negative numbers:
200 − 700 = (−500)
Fortunately, the parts and sequence of work may be
10 − 50 = (−40)
rearranged to overcome these problems, as shown 3 − 8 = (−5)
below: 4 000 − 500 → 3 500 − 45 =

Instead of we may do
3−8= ? 13 − 8 = 5 “borrow” 10 from below
10 − 50 = ? 100 − 50 = 50 “borrow” 100 from below
200 − 700 = ? 1 100 − 700 = 400 “borrow” 1 000 from below
6 000 − 2 000 = ? 5 000 − 2 000 = 3 000

8 MATHEMATICS Grade 8: Term 1

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 This reasoning can also be set out in columns:

Instead of             we may do         but write only this

6 000 200 10 3 5 000 1 100 100 13 6 2 1 3
2 000 700 50 8 2 000 700 50 8 2 7 5 8
3 000 400 50 5 3 4 5 5

3. (a) Complete the above calculations and find the answer for 6 213 − 2 758.
(b) Use the borrowing technique to calculate 823 − 376 and 6 431 − 4 968.
6 213
4. Check your answers in question 3(b) by doing addition.
2 758
With some practice, you can learn to subtract using borrowing without 5
writing all the steps. When calculating 6 213 − 2 758, use the column 50
method, as shown on the right. 400
3 000
If you work more mentally, you will write even less, as shown below:
3 455
6 213
2 758
3 455
Do not use a calculator when you do question 5, because the purpose of this work is for
you to understand the methods of subtraction. What you learn here will help you to
understand algebra better at a later stage.

5. Calculate each of the following:

(a) 7 342 − 3 877 (b) 8 653 − 1 856 (c) 5 671 − 4 528

You may use a calculator to do questions 6 and 7.

6. Estimate the difference between the two car prices in each case, to the nearest R1 000
or closer. Then calculate the difference.
(a) R102 365 and R98 128 (b) R63 378 and R96 889
7. First estimate the answers to the nearest 100 000, 10 000 or 1 000. Then calculate.
(a) 238 769 −141 453 (b) 856 333 − 739 878 (c) 65 244 − 39 427

a method of multiplication

You can calculate 7 × 4 598 in parts, as shown here:

7 × 4 000 = 28 000 4 5 9 8
7 × 500 = 3 500 × 7
7 × 90 = 630 5 6
7 × 8 = 56
6 3 0
The four partial products can now be added to get the answer, which 3 5 0 0
is 32 186. It is convenient to write the work in vertical columns for 2 8 0 0 0
units, tens, hundreds and so on, as shown on the right. 3 2 1 8 6

CHAPTER 1: WHOLE NUMBERS 9

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 When working from right to left in the columns, you can “carry” 4 5 9 8
parts of the partial answers to the next column. Instead of writing 7
56, only the 6 of the product 7 × 8 is written down. The 50 is kept 3 2 1 8 6
in mind, and added to the 630 obtained when 7 × 90 is calculated
in the next step.
1. Calculate each of the following. Do not use a calculator now.
(a) 27 × 649 (b) 75 × 1 756 (c) 348 × 93
2. Use your calculator to check your answers for question 1. Redo the questions for
which you had the wrong answers.
3. Calculate each of the following. Do not use a calculator now.
(a) 67 × 276 (b) 84 × 178
4. Use a calculator to check your answers for question 3. Redo the questions for which
you had the wrong answers.

long division

1. The municipal head gardener wants to buy young trees to plant along the main
street of the town. The young trees cost R27 each, and an amount of R9 400 has
been budgeted for trees. He needs 324 trees. Do you think he has enough money?
2. (a) How much will 300 trees cost?
(b) How much money will be left if 300 trees are bought?
(c) How much money will be left if 20 more trees are bought?

The municipal gardener wants to work out exactly how many trees, at R27 each, he can
buy with the budgeted amount of R9 400. His thinking and writing are described below.
Step 1:
What he writes: What he thinks:
27 9 400 I want to find out how many chunks of 27 there are in 9 400.
Step 2:
What he writes: What he thinks:
300 I think there are at least 300 chunks of 27 in 9 400.
27 9 400
8 100 300 × 27 = 8 100. I need to know how much is left over.
1 300 I want to find out how many chunks of 27 there are in 1 300.
Step 3: (He has to rub out the one “0” of the 300 on top, to make space.)
What he writes: What he thinks:
340 I think there are at least 40 chunks of 27 in 1 300.
27 9 400
8 100
1 300
1 080 40 × 27 = 1 080. I need to know how much is left over.
220 I want to find out how many chunks of 27 there are in 220.
Perhaps I can buy some extra trees.

10 MATHEMATICS Grade 8: Term 1

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 Step 4: (He rubs out another “0”.)
What he writes: What he thinks:
348 I think there are at least 8 chunks of 27 in 220.
27 9 400
8 100
1 300
1 080
220
216 8 × 27 = 216
4 So, I can buy 348 young trees and will have R4 left.

Do not use a calculator to do questions 3 and 4. The purpose of this work is for you
to develop a good understanding of how division can be done. Check all your answers by
doing multiplication.

3. (a) Graham bought 64 goats, all at the same price. He paid R5 440 in total. What was
the price for each goat? You can start by working out how much he would have
paid if he paid R10 per goat. You can start with a bigger step if you wish.
(b) Mary has R2 850 and she wants to buy candles for her sister’s wedding reception.
The candles cost R48 each. How many candles can she buy?

4. Calculate each of the following. Do not use a calculator.

(a) 7 234 ÷ 48 (b) 3 267 ÷ 24
(c) 9 500 ÷ 364 (d) 8 347 ÷ 24

1.3 Multiples, factors and prime factors

multiples and factors

1. The numbers 6; 12; 18; 24; ... are multiples of 6. If n is a natural number, 6n
The numbers 7; 14; 21; 28; ... are multiples of 7. represents the multiples of 6.

(a) What is the hundredth number in each sequence above?

(b) Is 198 a number in the first sequence?
(c) Is 175 a number in the second sequence?

Of which numbers is 20 a multiple?

20 = 1 × 20 = 2 × 10 = 4 × 5 = 5 × 4 = 10 × 2 = 20 × 1 20 is a multiple of 1; 2; 4; 5;
Factors come in pairs. The following pairs are factors 10 and 20, and all of these
numbers are factors of 20.
of 20:

1 2 4 5 10 20

CHAPTER 1: WHOLE NUMBERS 11

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 2. A rectangle has an area of 30 cm. What are the possible lengths of the sides of the
rectangle in centimetres if the lengths of the sides are natural numbers?
3. Are 4, 8, 12 and 16 factors of 48? Simon says that all multiples of 4 smaller than 48 are
factors of 48. Is he right?
4. We have defined factors in terms of the product of two numbers. What happens if we
have a product of three or more numbers, for example: 210 = 2 × 3 × 5 × 7?
(a) Explain why 2, 3, 5 and 7 are factors of 210.
(b) Are 2 × 3, 3 × 5, 5 × 7, 2 × 5 and 2 × 7 factors of 210?
(c) Are 2 × 3 × 5, 3 × 5 × 7 and 2 × 5 × 7 factors of 210?
5. Is 20 a factor of 60? What factors of 20 are also factors of 60?

prime numbers and composite numbers

1. Express each of the following numbers as a The number 36 can be formed

product of as many factors as possible, including as 2 × 2 × 3 × 3. Because 2 and
repeated factors. Do not use 1 as a factor. 3 are used twice, they are called
(a) 66 (b) 67 repeated factors of 36.
(c) 68 (d) 69
(e) 70 (f) 71
(g) 72 (h) 73

2. Which of the numbers in question 1 cannot be expressed as a product

of two whole numbers, except as the product 1 × the number itself?

A number that cannot be expressed as a product of

two whole numbers, except as the product
1 × the number itself, is called a prime number.

3. Which of the numbers in question 1 are prime numbers?

Composite numbers are natural numbers with

more than two different factors. The sequence of
composite numbers is 4; 6; 8; 9; 10; 12; ...

4. Are the statements below true or false? If you answer “false”, explain why.
(a) All prime numbers are odd numbers.
(b) All composite numbers are even numbers.
(c) 1 is a prime number.
(d) If a natural number is not prime, then it is composite.
(e) 2 is a composite number.
(f) 785 is a prime number.
(g) A prime number can only end in 1, 3, 7 or 9.
(h) Every composite number is divisible by at least one prime number.

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 5. We can find out if a given number is prime by systematically checking whether the
primes 2; 3; 5; 7; 11; 13; … are factors of the given number or not.
To find possible factors of 131, we need to consider only the primes 2; 3; 5; 7 and 11.
Why not 13; 17; 19; …?

6. Determine whether the following numbers are prime or composite. If the number is
composite, write down at least two factors of the number (besides 1 and the number
itself).
(a)
221 (b)
713

prime factorisation

To find all the factors of a number you can write the Every composite number can
number as the product of prime factors; first by writing it be expressed as the product
as the product of two convenient (composite) factors of prime factors and this can
and then by splitting these factors into smaller factors happen in only one way.
until all factors are prime. Then you take all the possible
combinations of the products of the prime factors.
Example: Find the factors of 84.
Write 84 as the product of prime factors by starting with different known factors:
84 = 4 × 21 or 84 = 7 × 12 or 84 = 2 × 42
= 2 × 2 × 3 × 7 = 7 × 3 × 4 =2×6×7
= 7 × 3 × 2 × 2 =2×2×3×7

A more systematic way of finding the prime factors of a number would be to start with
the prime numbers and try the consecutive prime numbers 2; 3; 5; 7; ... as possible
factors. The work may be set out as shown below.

2 1 430 3 2 457
5 715 3 819
11 143 3 273
13 13 7 91
1 13 13
1
1 430 = 2 × 5 × 11 × 13 2 457 = 3 × 3 × 3 × 7 × 13

We can use exponents to write the products of prime factors more compactly as
products of powers of prime factors.
2 457 = 3 × 3 × 3 × 7 × 13 =  33 × 7 × 13
72 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 =  23 × 32
1 500 = 2 × 2 × 3 × 5 × 5 × 5 =  22 × 3 × 53

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 1. Express the following numbers as the product of powers of primes:

(a) 792 (b) 444

2. Find the prime factors of the following numbers:

28 32 124 36 42 345 182

common multiples and factors

1. Is 4 × 5 a multiple of 4? Is 4 × 5 a multiple of 5?
2. Comment on the following statement:
The product of numbers is a multiple of each of the numbers in the product.

We use common multiples when fractions with different denominators are added.
2 3 8 9
To add + , the common denominator is 3 × 4, so the sum becomes + .
3 4 12 12
1 3
In the same way, we could use 6 × 8 = 48 as a common denominator to add + , but
6 8
24 is the lowest common multiple (LCM) of 6 and 8.
Prime factorisation makes it easy to find the LCM or highest common factor.
When we simplify a fraction, we divide the same The HCF is divided into the
number into the numerator and the denominator. numerator and the denominator
For the simplest fraction, use the highest common to write the fraction in its
factor (HCF) to divide into both the numerator and simplest form.
denominator.
36 2 ×2 ×3×3 1
So = =
144 2 ×2 ×2 ×2 ×3×3 4

Use prime factorisation to determine the LCM and HCF of 32, 48 and 84 in a systematic
way:
32 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 25
48 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 = 24 × 3
84 = 2 × 2 × 3 × 7 = 22 × 3 × 7

The LCM is a multiple and therefore, all of the factors of all the numbers must divide
into it.
All of the factors that are present in the three numbers must also be factors of the
LCM, even if it is a factor of only one of the numbers. But because it has to be the lowest
common multiple, there are no unnecessary factors in the LCM.

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 The highest power of each factor is in the LCM, because all of the other factors can divide
into it. In 32, 48 and 84, the highest power of 2 is 25, the highest power of 3 is 3 and the
highest power of 7 is 7.
LCM = 25 × 3 × 7 = 672
The HCF is a common factor. Therefore, for a factor to be in the HCF, it must be a factor
of all of the numbers. The only number that appears as a factor of all three numbers is 2.
The lowest power of 2 is 22; therefore, the HCF is 22.

3. Determine the LCM and the HCF of the numbers in each case:
(a) 24; 28; 42 (b) 17; 21; 35
(c) 75; 120; 200 (d) 18; 30; 45

investigate prime numbers

You may use a calculator for this investigation.

1. Find all the prime numbers between 110 and 130.

2. Find all the prime numbers between 210 and 230.

3. Find the biggest prime number smaller than 1 000.

1.4 Solving problems

rate and ratio

You may use a calculator for the work in this section.

1. Tree plantations in the Western Cape are to be cut down in favour of natural
vegetation. There are roughly 3 000 000 trees on plantations in the area and it is
possible to cut them down at a rate of 15 000 trees per day with the labour available.
How many working days will it take before all the trees will be cut down?

The word per is often used

Instead of saying “… per day”, people often say “at to describe a rate and can
a rate of … per day”. Speed is a way in which to mean for every, for, in each,
describe the rate of movement. in, out of, or every.

2. A car travels a distance of 180 km in two hours on a straight road. How many
kilometres can it travel in three hours at the same speed?

3. Thobeka wants to order a book that costs $56,67. The rand-dollar exchange rate is
R13,79 to a dollar. What is the price of the book in rands?

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 4. In pattern A below, there are five red beads for every four yellow beads.

Pattern A Pattern B Pattern C

Describe patterns B and C in the same way.

5. Copy and complete the following table to show how many screws are produced by
two machines in different periods of time:

Number of hours 1 2 3 5 8
Number of screws at machine A 1 800
Number of screws at machine B 2 700

(a) How much faster is machine B than machine A?
(b) How many screws will machine B produce in the same time that it takes
   machine A to make 100 screws?

The patterns in question 4 can be described like this: In pattern A,

the ratio of yellow beads to red beads is 4 to 5. This is written as 4 : 5.
In pattern B, the ratio between yellow beads and red beads is 3 : 6. In
pattern C the ratio is 2 : 7.
In question 5, machine A produces two screws for every three
screws that machine B produces. This can be described by saying that
the ratio between the production speeds of machines A and B is 2 : 3.

6. Nathi, Paul and Tim worked in Mr Setati’s garden. Nathi worked for five hours, Paul
for four hours and Tim for three hours. Mr Setati gave the boys R600 for their work.
How should they divide the R600 among the three of them?
We use ratios to show how
A ratio is a comparison of two (or more) quantities.
many times more, or less,
The number of hours that Nathi, Paul and Tim
one quantity is than another.
worked are in the ratio 5 : 4 : 3. To be fair, the money
should also be shared in that ratio. Therefore, Nathi should receive five parts, Paul
four parts and Tim three parts of the money. There were 12 parts, which means Nathi
5 4 3
should receive of the total amount, Paul should get and Tim should get .
12 12 12
7. Ntabi uses three packets of jelly to make a pudding for eight people. How many
packets of jelly does she need to make a pudding for 16 people? And for 12 people?

8. Which rectangle is more like a square: a 3 × 5 rectangle or a 6 × 8 rectangle? Explain.

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 To increase 40 in the ratio 2 : 3 means that the Remember that if you
40 represents two parts and must be increased so multiply by 1, the number
that the new number represents three parts. If 40 does not change. If you
represents two parts, 20 represents one part. The multiply by a number
increased number will therefore be 20 × 3 = 60. greater than 1, the number
increases. If you multiply by
a number smaller than 1, the
9. (a) Increase 56 in the ratio 2 : 3.
number decreases.
(b) Decrease 72 in the ratio 4 : 3.

10. (a) Divide 840 in the ratio 3 : 4.

(b) Divide 360 in the ratio 1 : 2 : 3.

11. Look at the following data about the performance of different athletes during a
walking event. Investigate the data to find out who walks the fastest and who walks
the slowest. Arrange the athletes from the fastest walker to the slowest walker.
(a) First make estimates to do the investigation.
(b) Then use your calculator to do the investigation.

Athlete A B C D E F
Distance walked in metres 2 480 4 283 3 729 6 209 3 112 5 638
Time taken in minutes 17 43 28 53 24 45

profit, loss, discount and interest

1. (a) How much is one eighth of R800?

(b) How much is one hundredth of R800?
(c) How much is seven hundredths of R800?

Rashid is a furniture dealer. He buys a couch for R2 420. He displays the couch in
his showroom with the price marked as R3 200. Rashid offers a discount of R320 to
customers who pay cash.

The amount for which a dealer buys an article from

a producer or manufacturer is called the cost price.
The price marked on the article is called the marked
price and the price of the article after discount is the
selling price.

2. (a) What is the cost price of the couch in Rashid’s furniture shop?
(b) What is the marked price?
(c) What is the selling price for a customer who pays cash?
(d) How much is ten hundredths of R3 200?

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 The discount on an article is always less than the % is a symbol for hundredths.
marked price of the article. In fact, it is only a fraction 8% means eight hundredths
of the marked price. The discount of R320 that Rashid and 15% means 15 hundredths.
offers on the couch is ten hundredths of the marked price. The symbol % is just a
Another word for hundredths is percentage, and variation of the that is
100
the symbol for percentage is  %. We can therefore say that used in the common fraction
Rashid offers a discount of 10%. notation for hundredths.
8
A percentage is a number of hundredths. For example: 8% is .
100
18% is 18 hundredths and 25% is 25 hundredths.

A discount of 6% on an article can be calculated in two steps:

Step 1: Calculate one hundredth of the marked price (divide by 100).
Step 2: Calculate six hundredths of the marked price (multiply by six).

3. Calculate a discount of 6% on each of the following marked prices of articles:

(a)
R3 600 (b)
R9 360

4. (a) How much is one hundredth of R700?

(b) A customer pays cash for a coat marked at R700.
He is given a R63 discount. How many hundredths of R700 is this?
(c) What is the percentage discount?

5. A client buys a blouse marked at R300 and she is given R36 discount for paying cash.
Work as in question 4 to determine what percentage discount she was given.

You may use a calculator to do questions 6, 7 and 8.

6. A dealer buys an article for R7 500 and makes the price 30% higher. The article is sold
at a 20% discount.
(a) What is the selling price of the article?
(b) What is the dealer’s percentage profit?

When a person borrows money from a bank or some other institution, he or

she normally has to pay for the use of the money. This is called interest.

7. Sam borrows R7 000 from a bank at 14% interest for one year. How much does he
have to pay back to the bank at the end of the period?

8. Jabu invests R5 600 for one year at 8% interest.

(a) What will the value of his investment be at the end of that year?
(b) At the end of the year, Jabu does not withdraw the investment or the interest
   earned; instead, he reinvests it for another year. How much will it be worth at the
end of the second year?
(c) What will the value of Jabu’s investment be after five years?

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 Chapter 2
Integers

2.1 What is beyond 0?

why people decided to have negative numbers

On the right, you can see how Jimmy prefers to work 500 + 200 = 700
when doing calculations, such as 542 + 253. 40 + 50 = 90
He tries to calculate 542 − 253 in a similar way: 2+3=5
500 − 200 = 300 700 + 90 + 5 = 795

40 − 50 = ?
Jimmy clearly has a problem. He reasons as follows:
I can subtract 40 from 40; that gives 0. But then there is still 10 that I have to subtract.
He decides to deal with the 10 that he still has to subtract later, and continues:
500 − 200 = 300
40 − 50 = 0, but there is still 10 that I have to subtract.
2 − 3 = 0, but there is still 1 that I have to subtract.

1. (a) What must Jimmy still subtract, and what will his final answer be?
(b) When Jimmy did another subtraction problem, he ended up with this writing at
  one stage:
600 and (−)50 and (−)7
What do you think Jimmy’s final answer for this subtraction problem is?

About 500 years ago, some mathematicians proposed that a “negative number” may
be used to describe the result in a situation, such as in Jimmy’s subtraction problem
above, where a number is subtracted from a number smaller than itself.
For example, we may say 10 − 20 = (−10).
Mathematicians are people
This proposal was soon accepted by other who do mathematics for a
mathematicians, and it is now used all over the world. living. Mathematics is their
profession, like healthcare is
the profession of nurses and
medical doctors.

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 2. Calculate each of the following:

(a) 16 − 20 (b) 16 − 30
(c) 16 − 40 (d) 16 − 60
(e) 16 − 200 (f) 5 − 1 000

3. Some numbers are shown on the number lines below. Copy the number lines and
numbers shown, and fill in the missing numbers.

–9 –5 –4 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 9

–10 –5 0 5 10 15

The following statement is true if the number is 5: The numbers 1; 2; 3; 4 etc.

15 − (a certain number) = 10 are called the natural
A few centuries ago, some mathematicians decided numbers. The natural
they wanted to have numbers that will also make numbers, 0 and the negative
whole numbers together, are
sentences like the following true:
called the integers.
15 + (a certain number) = 10
But to go from 15 to 10 you have to subtract 5.
The number we need to make the sentence 15 + (a certain number) = 10 true must have
the following strange property:
If you add this number, it should have the same effect as to subtract 5.
Now the mathematicians of a few centuries ago really wanted to have numbers for which
such strange sentences would be true. So they thought:
Let us decide, and agree amongst ourselves, that the number we call negative 5
will have the property that if you add it to another number, the effect will be the
same as when you subtract the natural number 5.
This means that the mathematicians agreed that 15 + (−5) is equal to 15 − 5.
Stated differently, instead of adding negative 5 to a number, you may subtract 5.

Adding a negative number has the same effect as

subtracting a natural number.
For example: 20 + (−15) = 20 − 15 = 5

4. Calculate each of the following:

(a) 500 + (−300) (b) 100 + (−20) + (−40)

(c) 500 + (−200) + (−100) (d) 100 + (−60)

5. Make a suggestion of what the answer for (−20) + (−40) should be. Give reasons for
your suggestion.

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 6. Copy and continue the lists of numbers to complete the following table:

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g)

10 100 3 −3 −20 150 0
9 90 6 −6 −18 125 −5
8 80 9 −9 −16 100 −10
7 70 12 −12 −14 75 −15
6 60 15 −15 50 −20
5 50 −25
4 40
3 30
2 20
1 10
0 0
−1 −10

The following statement is true if the number is 5:

15 + (a certain number) = 20
What properties should a number have so that it makes the following statement true?
15 − (a certain number) = 20
To go from 15 to 20 you have to add 5. The number we need to make the sentence
15 − (a certain number) = 20 true, must have the following property:
If you subtract this number, it should have the same effect as to add 5.
Let us agree that 15 − (−5) is equal to 15 + 5.
Stated differently, instead of subtracting negative 5 from a number, you may add 5.

Subtracting a negative number has the same effect as

adding a natural number.
For example: 20 − (−15) = 20 + 15 = 35

7. Calculate each of the following:

(a) 30 − (−10) (b) 30 + 10 (c) 30 + (−10) (d) 30 − 10
(e) 30 − (−30) (f) 30 + 30 (g) 30 + (−30) (h) 30 − 30

You probably agree that:

5 + (−5) = 0     10 + (−10) = 0   and   20 + (−20) = 0

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 We may say that for each “positive” number there is a corresponding or opposite
negative number. Two positive and negative numbers that correspond, for example 3
and (−3), are called additive inverses. They wipe each other out when you add them.

When you add any number to its additive What may each of the
inverse, the answer is 0 (the additive following be equal to?
property of 0). For example, 120 + (−120) = 0.   (−8) + 5
  (−5) + (−8)
8. Write the additive inverse of each of the
following numbers:
(a) 24 (b) −24
(c) −103 (d) 2 348

The idea of additive inverses may be used to explain why 8 + (−5) is equal to 3:
8 + (−5) = 3 + 5 + (−5) = 3 + 0 = 3

9. Use the idea of additive inverses to explain why each of these statements is true:
(a) 43 + (−30) = 13 (b) 150 + (−80) = 70

STATEMENTS THAT ARE TRUE FOR MANY DIFFERENT NUMBERS

For how many different pairs of numbers can the following statement be true, if only natural
(positive) numbers are allowed?
a number + another number = 10
For how many different pairs of numbers can the statement be true if negative numbers are also
allowed?

2.2 Adding and subtracting with integers

adding can make less and subtraction can make more

1. Calculate each of the following:

(a) 10 + 4 + (−4) (b) 10 + (−4) + 4
(c) 3 + 8 + (−8) (d) 3 + (−8) + 8

Natural numbers can be arranged in any order to add The numbers 1; 2; 3; 4; ...
and subtract them. This is also the case for integers. that we use to count, are
called natural numbers.
2. Calculate each of the following:
(a) 18 + 12 (b) 12 + 18 (c) 2+4+6
(d) 6 + 4 + 2 (e) 2 + 6 + 4 (f) 4+2+6
(g) 4 + 6 + 2 (h) 6 + 2 + 4 (i) 6 + (−2) + 4
(j) 4 + 6 + (−2) (k) 4 + (−2) + 6 (l) (−2) + 4 + 6
(m) 6 + 4 + (−2) (n) (−2) + 6 + 4 (o) (−6) + 4 + 2

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 3. Calculate each of the following:
(a) (−5) + 10 (b) 10 + (−5) (c) (−8) + 20
(d) 20 − 8 (e) 30 + (−10) (f) 30 + (−20)
(g) 30 + (−30) (h) 10 + (−5) + (−3)
(i) (−5) + 7 + (−3) + 5 (j) (−5) + 2 + (−7) + 4
4. In each case, find the number that makes the Statements like these are also
statement true. Give your answer by writing a called number sentences.
closed number sentence. An incomplete number
(a) 20 + (an unknown number) = 50 sentence, where some numbers
(b) 50 + (an unknown number) = 20 are not known at first, is
(c) 20 + (an unknown number) = 10 sometimes called an open
number sentence:
(d) (an unknown number) + (−25) = 50
8 − (a number) = 10
(e) (an unknown number) + (−25) = −50 A closed number sentence
5. Use the idea of additive inverses to explain why is where all the numbers are
each of the following statements is true: known:
8 + 2 = 10
(a) 43 + (−50) = −7 (b) 60 + (−85) = −25
6. Copy and complete the following table as far as you can:

(a) (b) (c)

5−8= 5+8= 8−3=
5−7= 5+7= 7−3=
5−6= 5+6= 6−3=
5−5= 5+5= 5−3=
5−4= 5+4= 4−3=
5−3= 5+3= 3−3=
5−2= 5+2= 2−3=
5−1= 5+1= 1−3=
5−0= 5+0= 0−3=
5 − (−1) = 5 + (−1) = (−1) − 3 =
5 − (−2) = 5 + (−2) = (−2) − 3 =
5 − (−3) = 5 + (−3) = (−3) − 3 =
5 − (−4) = 5 + (−4) = (−4) − 3 =
5 − (−5) = 5 + (−5) = (−5) − 3 =
5 − (−6) = 5 + (−6) = (−6) − 3 =

7. Calculate each of the following:

(a) 80 + (−60) (b) 500 + (−200) + (−200)

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 8. (a) Is 100 + (−20) + (−20) = 60, or does it equal to something else?
(b) What do you think (−20) + (−20) is equal to?
9. Calculate each of the following:
(a) 20 − 20 (b) 50 – 20 (c) (−20) − (−20) (d) (−50) − (−20)
10. Calculate each of the following:
(a) 20 − (−10) (b) 100 − (−100) (c) 20 + (−10) (d) 100 + (−100)
(e) (−20) − (−10) (f) (−100) − (−100) (g) (−20) + (−10) (h) (−100) + (−100)
11. Copy and complete the following table as far as you can:

(a) (b) (c)

5 − (−8) = (−5) + 8 = 8 − (−3) =
5 − (−7) = (−5) + 7 = 7 − (−3) =
5 − (−6) = (−5) + 6 = 6 − (−3) =
5 − (−5) = (−5) + 5 = 5 − (−3) =
5 − (−4) = (−5) + 4 = 4 − (−3) =
5 − (−3) = (−5) + 3 = 3 − (−3) =
5 − (−2) = (−5) + 2 = 2 − (−3) =
5 − (−1) = (−5) + 1 = 1 − (−3) =
5−0= (−5) + 0 = 0 − (−3) =
5−1= (−5) + (−1) = (−1) − (−3) =
5−2= (−5) + (−2) = (−2) − (−3) =
5−3= (−5) + (−3) = (−3) − (−3) =
5−4= (−5) + (−4) = (−4) − (−3) =
5−5= (−5) + (−5) = (−5) − (−3) =

12. In each case, state whether the statement is true or false and give a numerical
example to demonstrate your answer:
(a) Subtracting a positive number from a negative number has the same effect as
   adding the additive inverse of the positive number.
(b) Adding a negative number to a positive number has the same effect as adding
   the additive inverse of the negative number.
(c) Subtracting a negative number from a positive number has the same effect as
   subtracting the additive inverse of the negative number.
(d) Adding a negative number to a positive number has the same effect as subtracting
   the additive inverse of the negative number.

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 (e) Adding a positive number to a negative number has the same effect as adding the
   additive inverse of the positive number.
(f) Adding a positive number to a negative number has the same effect as subtracting
   the additive inverse of the positive number.
(g) Subtracting a positive number from a negative number has the same effect as
   subtracting the additive inverse of the positive number.
(h) Subtracting a negative number from a positive number has the same effect as
   adding the additive inverse of the negative number.

comparing integers and solving problems

1. Rewrite and include <, > or = to make the relationship between the numbers true:
(a) −103    −99 (b) −699   −701

(c) 30    −30 (d) 10 − 7    −(10 − 7)

(e) −121    −200 (f) 12 − 5    −(12 + 5)

(g) −199   −110

2. At 5 a.m. in Bloemfontein the temperature was −5 °C. At 1 p.m., it was 19 °C. By how
many degrees did the temperature rise?

3. A diver swims 150 m below the surface of the sea. She moves 75 m towards the
surface. How far below the surface is she now?

4. One trench in the ocean is 800 m deep and another is 2 200 m deep. What is the
difference in their depths?

5. An island has a mountain which is 1 200 m high. The surrounding ocean has a depth
of 860 m. What is the difference in height?

6. On a winter’s day in Upington the temperature rose by 19 °C. If the minimum

temperature was −4 °C, what was the maximum temperature?

2.3 Multiplying and dividing with integers

multiplication with integers

1. Calculate each of the following:

(a) −5 + −5 + −5 + −5 + −5 + −5 + −5 + −5 + −5 + −5
(b) −10 + −10 + −10 + −10 + −10
(c) −6 + −6 + −6 + −6 + −6 + −6 + −6 + −6
(d) −8 + −8 + −8 + −8 + −8 + −8
(e) −20 + −20 + −20 + −20 + −20 + −20 + −20

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 2. In each case, show whether you agree (✓) or disagree (✗) with the given statement:
(a) 10 × (−5) = 50 (b) 8 × (−6) = (−8) × 6
(c) (−5) × 10 = 5 × (−10) (d) 6 × (−8) = −48
(e) (−5) × 10 = 10 × (−5) (f) 8 × (−6) = 48
(g) 4 × 12 = −48 (h) (−4) × 12 = −48

Multiplication of integers is commutative:

(−20) × 5 = 5 × (−20)

3. Is addition of integers commutative? Demonstrate your answer with three different

examples.
4. Calculate each of the following:
(a) 20 × (−10) (b) (−5) × 4 (c) (−20) × 10
(d) 4 × (−25) (e) 29 × (−20) (f) (−29) × (−2)
5. Calculate each of the following:
(a) 10 × 50 + 10 × (−30) (b) 50 + (−30) (c) 10 × (50 + (−30))
(d) (−50) + (−30) (e) 10 × (−50) + 10 × (−30) (f) 10 × ((−50) + (−30))

The product of two positive numbers is a positive

number, for example: 5 × 6 = 30.
The product of a positive number and a negative
number is a negative number, for example:
5 × (−6) = −30.
The product of a negative number and a positive
number is a negative number, for example:
(−5) × 6 = −30.

6. (a) Four numerical expressions are given below. Which expressions do you expect to
have the same answers? Do not do the calculations.
14 × (23 + 58)    23 × (14 + 58)    14 × 23 + 14 × 58    14 × 23 + 58

(b) What property of operations is demonstrated by the fact that two of the above
   expressions have the same value?

7. Consider your answers for question 6.

(a) Does multiplication distribute over addition in the case of integers?
(b) Illustrate your answer with two examples.

8. Three numerical expressions are given below. Which expressions do you expect to
have the same answers? Do not do the calculations.

10 × ((−50) − (−30))
10 × (−50) − (−30) 10 × (−50) − 10 × (−30)

9. Do the three sets of calculations given in question 8.

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 Your work in questions 5, 8 and 9 demonstrates that multiplication with a positive
number distributes over addition and subtraction of integers. For example:
10 × (5 + (−3)) = 10 × 2 = 20 and 10 × 5 + 10 × (−3) = 50 + (−30) = 20
10 × (5 − (−3)) = 10 × 8 = 80 and 10 × 5 − 10 × (−3) = 50 − (−30) = 80

10. Calculate: (−10) × (5 + (−3))

Now consider the question of whether or not multiplication with a negative number
distributes over addition and subtraction of integers. For example, would
(−10) × 5 + (−10) × (−3) also have the answer −20, as does (−10) × (5 + (−3))?

11. What must (−10) × (−3) be equal to, if we want (−10) × 5 + (−10) × (−3) to be equal
to −20?

In order to ensure that multiplication distributes over addition and subtraction in the
system of integers, we have to agree that
(a negative number) × (a negative number) is a positive number.
For example: (−10) × (−3) = 30.

12. Calculate each of the following:

(a) (−10) × (−5) (b) (−10) × 5
(c) 10 × 5 (d) 10 × (−5)
(e) (−20) × (−10) + (−20) × (−6) (f) (−20) × ((−10) + (−6))
(g) (−20) × (−10) − (−20) × (−6) (h) (−20) × ((−10) − (−6))

Here is a summary of the properties of integers that make it possible to do

calculations with integers:

• When a number is added to its additive inverse, the

result is 0, for example (+12) + (−12) = 0.
• Adding an integer has the same effect as
subtracting its additive inverse. For example,
3 + (−10) can be calculated by doing 3 − 10,
and the answer is −7.
• Subtracting an integer has the same effect as
adding its additive inverse. For example, 3 − (−10)
can be calculated by doing 3 + 10, and the answer
is 13.
• The product of a positive and a negative integer is
negative, for example (−15) × 6 = −90.
• The product of a negative and a negative integer is
positive, for example (−15) × (−6) = 90.

CHAPTER 2: INTEGERS 27

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 division with integers

1. (a) Calculate 25 × 8. 

(b) How much is 200 ÷ 25?
(c) How much is 200 ÷ 8?

Division is the inverse of multiplication. Therefore,

if two numbers and the value of their product are
known, the answers to two division problems are
also known.

2. Calculate each of the following:

(a) 25 × (−8) (b) (−125) × 8
3. Use the work you have done for question 2 to write the answers for the following
division questions:
(a) (−1 000) ÷ (−125) (b) (−1 000) ÷ 8
(c) (−200) ÷ 25 (d) (−200) ÷ 8
4. Can you also work out the answers for the following division questions by using the
work you have done for question 2?
(a) 1 000 ÷ (−125) (b) (−1 000) ÷ (−8)
(c) (−100) ÷ (−25) (d) 100 ÷ (−25)

When two numbers are multiplied, for example 30 × 4 = 120, the word “product” can
be used in various ways to describe the situation:
• An expression that specifies multiplication only, such as 30 × 4, is called a product
or a product expression.
• The answer obtained is also called the product of the two numbers. For example,
120 is called the product of 30 and 4.
An expression that specifies division only, such as 30 ÷ 5, is called a quotient or a
quotient expression. The answer obtained is also called the quotient of the two
numbers. For example, 6 is called the quotient of 30 and 5.

5. In each case, state whether you agree or disagree with the statement, and give an
example to illustrate your answer:
(a) The quotient of a positive and a negative integer is negative.
(b) The quotient of a positive and a positive integer is negative.
(c) The quotient of a negative and a negative integer is negative.
(d) The quotient of a negative and a negative integer is positive.
6. Do the necessary calculations to enable you to provide the values of the quotients:
(a) (−500) ÷ (−20) (b) (−144) ÷ 6 (c) 1 440 ÷ (−60)
(d) (−1 440) ÷ (−6) (e) −14 400 ÷ 600 (f) 500 ÷ (−20)

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 the associative properties of operations with integers

Multiplication of whole numbers is associative. This means that in a product with

several factors, the factors can be placed in any sequence, and the calculations can be
performed in any sequence. For example, the following sequences of calculations will all
produce the same answer:

A. 2 × 3, the answer of 2 × 3 multiplied by 5, the new answer multiplied by 10

B. 2 × 5, the answer of 2 × 5 multiplied by 10, the new answer multiplied by 3
C. 10 × 5, the answer of 10 × 5 multiplied by 3, the new answer multiplied by 2
D. 3 × 5, the answer of 3 × 5 multiplied by 2, the new answer multiplied by 10

1. Do the four sets of calculations given in A to D to check whether or not they really
produce the same answers.
2. (a) If the numbers 3 and 10 in the calculation sequences A, B, C and D are replaced
   with −3 and −10, do you think the four answers will still be the same?
(b) Investigate to check your expectation.
Multiplication with integers is associative.

The calculation sequence A can be represented in symbols in only two ways:

• 2 × 3 × 5 × 10: The convention to work from left to right unless otherwise indicated
with brackets, ensures that this representation corresponds to A.
• 5 × (2 × 3) × 10, where brackets are used to indicate that 2 × 3 should be calculated first.
When brackets are used, there are different possibilities to describe the same sequence.
3. Express the calculation sequences B, C and D given above symbolically, without using
brackets.
4. Investigate, in the same way that you did for multiplication in question 2, whether or
not addition with integers is associative. Use sequences of four integers.
5. (a) Calculate: 80 − 30 + 40 − 20 (b) Calculate: 80 + (−30) + 40 + (−20)
(c) Calculate: 30 − 80 + 20 − 40 (d) Calculate: (−30) + 80 + (− 20) + 40
(e) Calculate: 20 + 30 − 40 − 80

mixed calculations with integers

1. Calculate each of the following:

(a) −3 × 4 + (−7) × 9 (b) −20(−4 − 7) (c) 20 × (−5) − 30 × 7
(d) −9(20 − 15) (e) −8 × (−6) − 8 × 3 (f) (−26 − 13) ÷ (−3)
(g) −15 × (−2) + (−15) ÷ (−3) (h) −15(2 − 3) (i) (−5 + −3) × 7
(j) −5 × (−3 + 7) + 20 ÷ (−4)
2. Calculate each of the following:
(a) 20 × (−15 + 6) − 5 × (−2 − 8) − 3 × (−3 − 8)
(b) 40 × (7 + 12 − 9) + 25 ÷ (−5) − 5 ÷ 5

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 (c) −50(20 − 25) + 30(−10 + 7) − 20(−16 + 12)
(d) −5 × (−3 + 12 − 9)
(e) −4 × (30 − 50) + 7 × (40 − 70) − 10 × (60 − 100)
(f) −3 × (−14 + 6) × (−13 + 7) × (−20 + 5)
(g) 20 × (−5) + 10 × (−3) + (−5) × (−6) − (3 × 5)
(h) −5(−20 − 5) + 10(−7 − 3) − 20(−15 − 5) + 30(−40 − 35)
(i) (−50 + 15 − 75) ÷ (−11) + (6 − 30 + 12) ÷ (−6)

2.4 Squares, cubes and roots with integers

squares and cubes of integers

1. Calculate each of the following:

(a) 20 × 20 (b) 20 × (−20)
2. Write the answers for each of the following:
(a) (−20) × 20 (b) (−20) × (−20)
3. Copy and complete the following table:

x 1 −1 2 −2 5 −5 10 −10
x2 which is x × x
x3

4. In each case, state for which values of x, in the table in question 3, the given
statement is true.
(a) x3 is a negative number (b) x2 is a negative number
(c) x2 > x3 (d) x2 < x3
5. Copy and complete the following table:

x 3 −3 4 −4 6 −6 7 −7
x2
x3

6. Ben thinks of a number. He adds 5 to it and his answer is 12.

(a) What number did he think of?
(b) Is there another number that would also give 12 when 5 is added to it?
7. Lebo also thinks of a number. She multiplies the number by itself and gets 25.
(a) What number did she think of?
(b) Is there more than one number that will give 25 when multiplied by itself?

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 8. Mary thinks of a number and calculates (the number) × (the number) × (the number).
Her answer is 27. What number did Mary think of?

102 is 100 and (−10)2 is also 100.

Both 10 and (−10) are called square roots of 100.
10 may be called the positive square root of 100,
and (−10) may be called the negative square root
of 100.

9. Write the positive square root and the negative square root of each number:
(a) 64 (b) 9
10. Copy and complete the following table:

Number 1 4 9 16 25 36 49 64
Positive square root 3 8
Negative square root −3 −8

11. Copy and complete the following tables:

(a) x 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
x3

(b) x −1 −2 −3 −4 −5 −6 −7 −8
x3

33 is 27 and (−5)3 is −125.

3 is called the cube root of 27, because 33 = 27.
−5 is called the cube root of −125 because (−5)3 = −125.
12. Copy and complete the following table:

Number −1 8 −27 −64 −125 −216 1 000

Cube root −3 10

The symbol is used to indicate “root”.

3
−125 represents the cube root of −125. That means 3
−125 = −5.
2
36 represents the positive square root of 36, and − 2 36 represents the negative square
root. The “2” that indicates “square” is normally omitted, so 36 = 6 and − 36 = −6.

13. Copy and complete the following table:

3
−8 121 3
−64 − 64 64 3
−1 − 1 3
−216

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 Worksheet

1. Use the numbers −8, −5 and −3 to demonstrate each of the following:

(a) Multiplication with integers distributes over addition.
(b) Multiplication with integers distributes over subtraction.
(c) Multiplication with integers is associative.
(d) Addition with integers is associative.

2. Calculate each of the following without using a calculator:

(a) 5 × (−2)3 (b) 3 × (−5)2
(c) 2 × (−5)3 (d) 10 × (−3)2

3. Use a calculator to work out each of the following:

(a) 24 × (−53) + (−27) × (−34) − (−55) × 76
(b) 64 × (27 − 85) − 29 × (−47 + 12)

4. Use a calculator to work out each of the following:

(a) −24 × 53 + 27 × 34 + 55 × 76
(b) 64 × (−58) + 29 × (47 − 12)

If you do not get the same answers in questions 3 and 4, you have made mistakes.

INTEGERS

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 Chapter 3
Exponents

3.1 Revision
exponential notation

1. Calculate each of the following:

(a) 2 × 2 × 2 (b) 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2
(c) 3 × 3 × 3 (d) 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3
Instead of writing 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3, we can write 36.
We read this as “3 to the power of 6”. The number 3 is
the base and 6 is the exponent.
When we write 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 as 36, we are using
exponential notation.
2. Write each of the following in exponential form:
(a) 2 × 2 × 2 (b) 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2
(c) 3 × 3 × 3 (d) 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3
3. Calculate each of the following:
(a) 52 (b) 25 (c) 102 (d) 152
(e) 34 (f) 43 (g) 23 (h) 32

squares

To square a number is to multiply it by itself.

The square of 8 is 64 because 8 × 8 equals 64.
We write 8 × 8 as 82 in exponential form.
We read 82 as eight squared.
1. Copy and complete the following table:

Square the Exponential

Number Square
number form
(a) 1
(b) 2
(c) 3

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 Square the Exponential
Number Square
number form
(d) 4
(e) 5
(f) 6
(g) 7
(h) 8 8×8 82 64
(i) 9
(j) 10
(k) 11
(l) 12

2. Calculate each of the following:

(a) 32 × 42 (b) 22 × 32 (c) 22 × 52 (d) 22 × 42

3. Copy and complete the following statements to make them true:

2 2
(a) 32 × 42 = (b) 22 × 32 =
2 2
(c) 22 × 52 = (d) 22 × 42 =

cubes

To cube a number is to multiply it by itself and then by

itself again. The cube of 3 is 27 because 3 × 3 × 3 equals 27.
We write 3 × 3 × 3 as 33 in exponential form.
We read 33 as three cubed.

1. Copy and complete the following table:

Cube the Exponential

Number Cube
number form
(a) 1
(b) 2
(c) 3 3×3×3 33 27
(d) 4
(e) 5
(f) 6
(g) 7

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 Cube the Exponential
Number Cube
number form
(h) 8
(i) 9
(j) 10

2. Calculate each of the following:

(a) 23 × 33 (b) 23 × 53 (c) 23 × 43 (d) 13 × 93

3. Which of the following statements are true? If a statement is false, rewrite it as a

true statement.
(a) 23 × 33 = 63 (b) 23 × 53 = 73 (c) 23 × 43 = 83 (d) 13 × 93 = 103

square and cube roots

To find the square root of a number we ask the question:
Which number was multiplied by itself to get a square?
The square root of 16 is 4 because 4 × 4 = 16.
The question: Which number was multiplied by
itself to get 16? is written mathematically as 16.
The answer to this question is written as 16 = 4.

1. Copy and complete the following table:

Square root of
Square of the
Number the square of Reason
number
the number
(a) 1
(b) 2
(c) 3
(d) 4 16 4 4 × 4 = 16
(e) 5
(f) 6
(g) 7
(h) 8
(i) 9
(j) 10
(k) 11
(l) 12

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 2. Calculate the following. Justify your answer.
100 (c)
(a) 144 (b) 81 (d)
64

To find the cube root of a number we ask the

question: Which number was multiplied by itself and
again by itself to get a cube?
The cube root of 64 is 4 because 4 × 4 × 4 = 64.
The question: Which number was multiplied by
itself and again by itself (or cubed) to get 64?
is written mathematically as 3 64 . The answer to this
question is written as 3 64 = 4.

3. Copy and complete the following table:

Cube of the Cube root of the

Number Reason
number cube of the number
(a) 1
(b) 2
(c) 3
(d) 4 64 4 4 × 4 × 4 = 64
(e) 5
(f) 6
(g) 7
(h) 8
(i) 9
(j) 10

4. Calculate the following and give reasons for your answers:

3
(a) 216
3 3
(b) 8 (c) 125
3
(d) 27 3
(e) 64 (f)
3
1 000

3.2 Working with integers

representing integers in exponential form

1. Calculate the following, without using a calculator:

(a) −2 × −2 × −2 (b) −2 × −2 × −2 × −2
(c) −5 × −5 (d) −5 × −5 × −5
(e) −1 × −1 × −1 × −1 (f) −1 × −1 × −1

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 2. Calculate each of the following:
(a) −22 (b) (−2)2
(c) (−5)3 (d) −53

3. Use your calculator to work out the answers to question 2.

(a) Are your answers to question 2(a) and (b) different or the same as those of the
calculator?
(b) If your answers are different to those of the calculator, try to explain how the
calculator did the calculations differently from you.

The calculator “understands” −52 and (−5)2 as two

different numbers.
It understands −52 as −5 × 5 = −25 and
(−5)2 as −5 × −5 = 25.

4. Write the following in exponential form:

(a) −2 × −2 × −2 (b) −2 × −2 × −2 × −2
(c) −5 × −5 (d) −5 × −5 × −5
(e) −1 × −1 × −1 × −1 (f) −1 × −1 × −1

5. Calculate each of the following:

(a) (−3)2 (b) (−3)3
(c) (−2)4 (d) (−2)6
(e) (−2)5 (f) (−3)4

6. Say whether the sign of the answer is negative or positive. Explain why.
(a) (−3)6 (b) (−5)11
(c) (−4)20 (d) (−7)5

7. Say whether the following statements are true or false. If a statement is false, rewrite it
as a correct statement.
(a) (−3)2 = −9 (b) −32 = 9
(c) (−52) = −52 (d) (−1)3 = −13
(e) (−6)3 = −18 (f) (−2)6 = 26

3.3 Laws of exponents

product of powers

1. A product of 2s is given below. Describe it using exponential notation, that is, write
it as a power of 2.
2×2×2×2×2×2×2×2×2×2×2×2

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 2. Express each of the following as a product of the powers of 2, as indicated by the
brackets.
(a) (2 × 2 × 2) × (2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2)
(b) (2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2) × (2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2) × (2 × 2)
(c) (2 × 2) × (2 × 2) × (2 × 2) × (2 × 2) × (2 × 2) × (2 × 2)
(d) (2 × 2 × 2) × (2 × 2 × 2) × (2 × 2 × 2) × (2 × 2 × 2)
(e) (2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2) × (2 × 2)

3. Copy and complete the following statements so that they are true. You may want to
refer to your answers to question 2(a) to (e) to help you.
(a) 23 × = 212 (b) 25 × × 22 = 212

(c) 22 × 22 × 22 × 22 × 22 × 22 = (d) 28 × = 212

(e) 23 × 23 × 23 × = 212 (f) 26 × = 212

(g) 22 × 210 =

Suppose we are asked to simplify: 32 × 34. The base (3) is a repeated

The solution is: 32 × 34 = 9 × 81 factor. The exponents (2 and
= 729 4) tell us the number of times
each factor is repeated.
= 36

We can explain this solution in the following manner:

32 × 34 = 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 = 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 = 36
2 factors 4 factors 6 factors

4. Copy and complete the following table:

Product of Repeated Total number of times

Simplified form
powers factor the factor is repeated
(a) 27 × 23
(b) 52 × 54
(c) 41 × 45
(d) 63 × 62
(e) 28 × 22
(f) 53 × 53
(g) 42 × 44
(h) 21 × 29

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 When you multiply two or more powers that have
the same base, the answer has the same base, but its
exponent is equal to the sum of the exponents of the
numbers you are multiplying.
We can express this symbolically as am × an = am + n,
where m and n are natural numbers and a is not zero.

5. What is wrong with these statements? Correct each one.

(a) 23 × 24 = 212 (b) 10 × 102 × 103 = 101 × 2 × 3 = 106
(c) 32 × 33 = 36 (d) 53 × 52 = 15 × 10
6. Express each of the following numbers as a single power of 10.
Example: 1 000 000 as a power of 10 is 106.
(a) 100 (b) 1 000 (c) 10 000
(d) 102 × 103 × 104 (e) 100 × 1 000 × 10 000 (f) 1 000 000 000
7. Write each of the following products in exponential form:
(a) x×x×x×x×x×x×x×x×x
(b) (x × x) × (x × x × x) × (x × x × x × x)
(c) (x × x × x × x) × (x × x) × (x × x) × x
(d) (x × x × x × x × x × x) × (x × x × x)
(e) (x × x × x) × (y × y × y)
(f) (a × a) × (b × b)
8. Copy and complete the following table:

Product of Repeated Total number of times Simplified

powers factor the factor is repeated form
(a) x7 × x3
(b) x2 × x4
(c) x1 × x5
(d) x3 × x2
(e) x8 × x2
(f) x3 × x3
(g) x1 × x9

raising a power to a power

1. Copy and complete the table of powers of 2:

x 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
2x 2 4
21 22 23

CHAPTER 3: EXPONENTS 39

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 x 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
2x

2. Copy and complete the table of powers of 3:

x 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
3x
31 32 33

x 10 11 12 13 14
3x

3. Copy and complete the table. You can read the values from the tables you made in
questions 1 and 2.
Power of Total
Repeated Simplified
Product of powers power number of Value
factor form
notation repetitions
24 × 24 × 24 2 (24)3 12 212 4 096
32 × 32 × 32 × 32
23 × 23 × 23 × 23 × 23
34 × 34 × 34
26 × 26 × 26

4. Copy and complete by using your table of powers of 2 to find the answers for the
following:
(a) 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 = =
(b) (2 × 2 × 2 × 2) × (2 × 2 × 2 × 2) × (2 × 2 × 2 × 2) = =
(c) 163 = = =

5. Use your table of powers of 2 to find the answers for the following:
(a) Is 163 = 212? (b) Is 24 × 24 × 24 = 212?
(c) Is 24 × 23 = 212? (d) Is (24)3 = 24 × 24 × 24?
(e) Is (24)3 = 212? (f) Is (24)3 = 24 + 3?
(g) Is (24)3 = 24 × 3? (h) Is (22)5 = 22 + 5?

6. (a) Express 85 as a power of 2. It may help to first express 8 as a power of 2.

(b) Can (23) × (23) × (23) × (23) × (23) be expressed as (23)5?
(c) Is (23)5 = 23 + 5 or is (23)5 = 23 × 5?

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 7. (a) Express 43 as a power of 2.
(b) Calculate 22 × 22 × 22 and express your answer as a single power of 2.
(c) Can (22) × (22) × (22) be expressed as (22)3?
(d) Is (22)3 = 22 + 3 or is (22)3 = 22 × 3?
8. Simplify the following:
Example: (102)2 = 102 × 102 = 102 + 2 = 104 = 10 000
(a) (33)2 (b) (43)2 (c) (24)2 (d) (92)2
(e) (33)3 (f) (43)3 (g) (54)3 (h) (92)3

(am)n = am × n, where m and n are natural numbers and

a is not equal to zero.

9. Simplify:
(a) (54)10 (b) (104)5 (c) (64)4 (d) (54)10
10. Write 512 as a power of powers of 5 in two different ways.

To simplify (x2)5 we can write it out as a product of powers or we can use a shortcut.
(x2)5 = x2 × x2 × x2 × x2 × x2
= x × x × x × x × x × x × x × x × x × x = x10

2 × 5 factors = 10 factors

11. Copy and complete the following table:

Write as a product of the Use the rule (am)n to

Expression
powers and then simplify simplify
a4 × a4 × a4 × a4 × a4
(a) (a4)5 (a4)5 = a4 × 5 = a20
= a4 + 4 + 4 + 4 + 4 = a20

(b) (b10)5

(c) (x7)3

s6 × s6 × s6 × s6
(d) = s6 + 6 + 6 + 6
= s24

(e) y3 × 7 = y21

CHAPTER 3: EXPONENTS 41

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 power of a product

1. Copy and complete the table. You may use your calculator when you are not sure of
a value.

x 1 2 3 4 5

(a) 2x 21 = 2

(b) 3x 32 = 9

(c) 6x 63 = 216

2. Use the table in question 1 to answer the questions below. Are these statements true
or false? If a statement is false, rewrite it as a correct statement.
(a) 62 = 22 × 32 (b) 63 = 23 × 33
(c) 65 = 25 × 35 (d) 68 = 24 × 34

3. Copy and complete the following table:

The bases of the

Equivalent
Expression expression are factors
expression
of …

(a) 26 × 56 10 106

(b) 32 × 42

(c) 42 × 22

(d) 565

(e) 303

(f) 35 × x5 3x (3x)5

(g) 72 × z2

(h) 43 × y3

(i) (2m)6

(j) (2m)3

(k) 210 × y10 (2y)10

122 can be written in terms of its factors as (2 × 6)2 or as (3 × 4)2.

We already know that 122 = 144.
What this tells us is that both (2 × 6)2 and (3 × 4)2 also equal to 144.

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 We write 122 = (2 × 6)2 or 122 = (3 × 4)2
= 22 × 62 = 32 × 42
= 4 × 36 = 9 × 16
= 144 = 144
A product raised to a power is the product of the
factors each raised to the same power.
Using symbols, we write (a × b)m = am × bm, where m
is a natural number and a and b are not equal to zero.

4. Write each of the following expressions as an expression with one base.

Example: 310 × 210 = (3 × 2)10 = 610
(a) 32 × 52 (b) 53 × 23 (c) 74 × 44
(d) 23 × 63 (e) 44 × 24 (f) 52 × 72
5. Write the following as a product of powers.
Example: (3x)3 = 33 × x3 = 27x3
(a) 63 (b) 152 (c) 214 (d) 65
(e) 182 (f) (st)7 (g) (ab)3 (h) (2x)2
(i) (3y)5 (j) (3c)2 (k) (gh)4 (l) (4x)3
6. Simplify the following expressions.
Example: 32 × m2 = 9 × m2 = 9m2
(a) 35 × b5 (b) 26 × y6 (c) x2 × y2
(d) 104 × x4 (e) 33 × x3 (f) 52 × t2
(g) 63 × m7 (h) 122 × a2 (i) n3 × p9

a quotient of powers
Consider the following table:

x 1 2 3 4 5 6
2x 2 4 8 16 32 64
3x 3 9 27 81 243 729
5x 5 25 125 625 3 125 15 625

Answer questions 1 to 4 by referring to the table when needed.

1. Give the value of each of the following:

(a) 34 (b) 25 (c) 56
2. (a) Calculate 36 ÷ 33. (Read the values of 36 and 33 from the table and then divide.
You may use a calculator where necessary.)
(b) Calculate 36 − 3.
(c) Is 36 ÷ 33 equal to 33? Explain.

CHAPTER 3: EXPONENTS 43

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 3. (a) Calculate the value of 26 − 2 . To calculate 45 – 3, we first
(b) Calculate the value of 26 ÷ 22. do the calculation in the
(c) Calculate the value of 26 ÷ 2 . exponent, that is, we
(d) Read the value of 23 from the table. subtract 3 from 5. Then
(e) Read the value of 24 from the table. we can calculate 42 as
(f) Which of the statements below is true? 4 × 4 = 16.

Give an explanation for your answer.

A. 26 ÷ 22 = 26 − 2 = 24 B.
26 ÷ 22 = 26 ÷ 2 = 23
4. Say which of the statements below are true and which are false. Rewrite false
statements as correct statements.
(a) 56 ÷ 54 = 56 ÷ 4 (b) 34 − 1 = 34 ÷ 3
(c) 56 ÷ 5 = 56 − 1 (d) 25 ÷ 23 = 22

am ÷ an = am – n
Here, m and n are natural numbers, and m is a
number greater than n and a is not zero.

5. Simplify the following. Do not use a calculator.

Example: 317 ÷ 312 = 317 − 12 = 35 = 243
(a) 212 ÷ 210 (b) 617 ÷ 614 (c) 1020 ÷ 1014 (d) 511 ÷ 58
6. Simplify the following:
(a) x12 ÷ x10 (b) y17 ÷ y14 (c)
t20 ÷ t14 (d)
n11 ÷ n8

the power of zero

1. Simplify the following:

(a) 212 ÷ 212 (b) 617 ÷ 617 (c) 614 ÷ 614 (d) 210 ÷ 210

We define a0 = 1.
Any number raised to the power of zero is always
equal to 1.
2. Simplify the following:
(a) 1000 (b)
x0 (c) (100x)0 (d) (5x3)0

3.4 Calculations
mixed operations

Simplify the following:

1. 33 + 3 −27 × 2 2. 5 × (2 + 3)2 + (−1)0

44 MATHEMATICS Grade 8: Term 1

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 3
1 000
3. 32 × 23 + 5 × 100 4. + (4 − 1)2
100
3
5. 16 × 16 + 216 + 32 × 10 6. 43 ÷ 23 + 144

3.5 Squares, cubes and roots of rational numbers

squaring a fraction

Squaring or cubing a fraction or a decimal fraction is

no different from squaring or cubing an integer.
1. Copy and complete the following table:

Value of the square of

Fraction Square the fraction
the fraction
1 1 1 1 1 1
(a) × × =
2 2 2 2 2 4

2
(b)
3

3
(c)
4

2
(d)
5

3
(e)
5

2
(f)
6

3
(g)
7

11
(h)
12

2. Calculate each of the following:

2 2 2
�3� �4� �7�
(a) � � (b)
� � (c)
� �
2 5
� � 8 � � � �
6
3. (a) Use the fact that 0,6 can be written as to calculate (0,6)2.
10
8
(b) Use the fact that 0,8 can be written as to calculate (0,8)2.
10

CHAPTER 3: EXPONENTS 45

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 finding the square root of a fraction

1. Copy and complete the following table:

Writing the fraction as a

Fraction Square root
product of factors

81
(a)
121

64
(b)
81

49
(c)
169

100
(d)
225

2. Determine the following:

25 81 400 36
(a) (b) (c) (d)
16 144 900 81
1
3. (a) Use the fact that 0,01 can be written as to calculate 0, 01 .
100
49
(b) Use the fact that 0,49 can be written as to calculate 0, 49 .
100
4. Calculate each of the following:
(a) 0, 09 (b) 1, 44
0, 64 (c)

cubing a fraction

One half cubed is equal to one eighth.

3
�1� 1 1 1 1
We write this as � � = × × =
�2� 2 2 2 8

1. Calculate each of the following:

3 3 3 3
�2� � 5 � �5� �4�
(a) � � (b)
� � (c)
� � (d) � �
�3� � 10 � �6� �5�
6
2. (a) Use the fact that 0,6 can be written as to find (0,6)3.
10
8
(b) Use the fact that 0,8 can be written as to calculate (0,8)3.
10
7
(c) Use the fact that 0,7 can be written as to calculate (0,7)3.
10

46 MATHEMATICS Grade 8: Term 1

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 3.6 Scientific notation
very large numbers

1. Express each of the following as a single number. Do not use a calculator.

Example: 7,56 × 100 can be written as 756.
(a) 3,45 × 100 (b) 3,45 × 10 (c) 3,45 × 1 000
(d) 2,34 × 102 (e) 2,34 × 10 (f) 2,34 × 103
(g) 104 × 102 (h) 100 × 106 (i) 3,4 × 105
We can write 136 000 000 as 1,36 × 108.
1,36 × 108 is called the scientific notation for 136 000 000.
In scientific notation, a number is expressed in two parts:
a number between 1 and 10 multiplied by a power of 10. The
exponent must always be an integer.

2. Write the following numbers in scientific notation:

(a) 367 000 000 (b) 21 900 000
(c) 600 000 000 000 (d) 178
3. Write each of the following numbers in the ordinary way.
For example: 3,4 × 105 written in the ordinary way is 340 000.
(a) 1,24 × 108 (b) 9,2074 × 104 (c) 1,04 × 106 (d) 2,05 × 103
4. The universe is 15 000 000 000 years old. Express the age of the universe in scientific
notation.
5. The average distance from the earth to the sun is 149 600 000 km. Express this
distance in scientific notation.

Because it is easier to multiply powers of ten without

a calculator, scientific notation makes it possible
to do calculations in your head.

6. Explain why the number 24 × 103 is not in scientific notation.

7. Calculate the following. Do not use a calculator.

Example: 3 000 000 × 90 000 000 = 3 × 106 × 9 × 107 = 3 × 9 × 106 + 7
= 27 × 1013 = 270 000 000 000 000
(a) 13 000 × 150 000 (b) 200 × 6 000 000
(c) 120 000 × 120 000 000 (d) 2,5 × 40 000 000
8. Copy the statements and use > or < to compare these numbers:
(a) 1,3 × 109    2,4 × 107 (b) 6,9 × 102    4,5 × 103
(c) 7,3 × 104    7,3 × 102 (d) 3,9 × 106    3,7 × 107

CHAPTER 3: EXPONENTS 47

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 Worksheet

1. Calculate:
(a) 112 (b) 32 × 42

(c) 63 (d) 121

(e) (−3)2 (f) 125

3

2. Simplify:
(a) 34 × m6 (b)
b2 × n6

y12 ÷ y5
(c) (d) (102)3

(e) (2w2)3 (f) (3d 5)(2d)3

3. Calculate:
2
� 2 �
(a) (b) 9

� �
�5� 25

(c) (64y 2)0 (d) (0,7)2

4. Simplify:
62
(a) (22 + 4)2 + (b)
3
−125 − 5 × 32
32

5. Write 3 × 109 in the ordinary way.

6. The first birds appeared on earth about 208 000 000 years ago. Write this
number in scientific notation.

EXPONENTS

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 Chapter 4
Numeric and geometric
patterns
4.1 The term-term relationship in a sequence
going from one term to the next

Write down the next three numbers in each of A list of numbers which form a
the sequences below. Also explain in writing, in pattern is called a sequence.
each case, how you figured out what the numbers Each number in a sequence is
should be. called a term of the sequence.
The first number is the first term
1. Sequence A: 2; 5; 8; 11; 14; 17; 20; 23; of the sequence.

2. Sequence B: 4; 5; 8; 13; 20; 29; 40;

3. Sequence C: 1; 2; 4; 8; 16; 32; 64;
4. Sequence D: 3; 5; 7; 9; 11; 13; 15; 17; 19;
5. Sequence E: 4; 5; 7; 10; 14; 19; 25; 32; 40;
6. Sequence F: 2; 6; 18; 54; 162; 486;
7. Sequence G: 1; 5; 9; 13; 17; 21; 25; 29; 33;
8. Sequence H: 2; 4; 8; 16; 32; 64;

Numbers that follow one another are said to be

consecutive.

adding or subtracting the same number

1. Which sequences above are of the same kind as sequence A? Explain your answer.

Amanda explains how she figured out how to continue sequence A:

I looked at the first two numbers in the sequence and saw that I needed 3 to go from
2 to 5. I looked further and saw that I also needed 3 to go from 5 to 8. I tested that and
it worked for all the next numbers.
This gave me a rule I could use to extend the sequence: add 3 to each number to find
the next number in the pattern.

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 Tamara says you can also find the pattern by working When the differences between
backwards and subtracting 3 each time: consecutive terms of a sequence
14 − 3 = 11;  11 − 3 = 8;  8 − 3 = 5;  5 − 3 = 2 are the same, we say the
difference is constant.
2. Provide a rule to describe the relationship between
the numbers in the sequence. Use this rule to calculate
the missing numbers in each sequence.
(a) 1; 8; 15; ; ; ; ; ; ...

(b) 10 020; ; ; ; 9 980; 9 970; ; ; 9 940; 9 930; ...

(c) 1,5; 3,0; 4,5; ; ; ; ; ; ...

(d) 2,2; 4,0; 5,8; ; ; ; ; ; ...

3 1 1
(e) 45 4 ; 46 2 ; 47 4 ; 48; ; ; ; ; ;…

(f) ; 100,49; 100,38; 100,27; ; ; 99,94; 99,83; 99,72; …

3. Copy and complete the following table:

Input number 1 2 3 4 5 12 n
Input number + 7 8 11 15 30

multiplying or dividing with the same number

Take another look at sequence F on page 49: 2; 6; 18; 54; 162; 486; ...
Piet explains that he figured out how to continue the sequence F:

I looked at the first two terms in the sequence and wrote 2 × ? = 6.

When I multiplied the first number by 3, I got the second number: 2 × 3 = 6.
I then checked to see if I could find the next number if I multiplied 6 by 3: 6 × 3 = 18.
I continued checking in this way: 18 × 3 = 54; 54 × 3 = 162 and so on.
This gave me a rule I can use to extend the sequence and my rule was: multiply each
number by 3 to calculate the next number in the sequence.

Zinhle says you can also find the pattern by The number that we multiply with
working backwards and dividing by 3 each to get the next term in the sequence
time: is called a ratio. If the number we
multiply with remains the same
54 ÷ 3 = 18; 18 ÷ 3 = 6; 6 ÷ 3 = 2
throughout the sequence, we say it is
1. Check whether Piet’s reasoning works for a constant ratio.
sequence H on page 49: 2; 4; 8; 16; 32; 64; ...
2. Describe, in words, the rule for finding the next number in the sequences on the next
page. Write down the next five terms of each sequence.

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 (a) 1; 10; 100; 1 000; (b) 16; 8; 4; 2; (c) 7; −21; 63; −189;
(d) 3; 12, 48; (e) 2 187; −729; 243; −81;
3. (a) Copy and fill in the missing output and input numbers:
1 6

3
×6 24
5
What is the term-to-term rule
36 for the output numbers here,
+ 6 or × 6?
7

(b) Copy and complete the following table:

Input numbers 1 2 3 4 5 12 x
Output numbers 6 24 36

neither adding nor multiplying by the same number

1. Consider sequences A to H again and answer the questions that follow:

Sequence A: 2; 5; 8; 11; 14; 17; 20; 23; ...
Sequence B: 4; 5; 8; 13; 20; 29; 40; …
Sequence C: 1; 2; 4; 8; 16; 32; 64; …
Sequence D: 3; 5; 7; 9; 11; 13; 15; 17; 19; ...
Sequence E: 4; 5; 7; 10; 14; 19; 25; 32; 40; …
Sequence F: 2; 6; 18; 54; 162; 486; …
Sequence G: 1; 5; 9; 13; 17; 21; 25; 29; 33; ...
Sequence H: 2; 4; 8; 16; 32; 64; ….
(a) Which other sequence(s) is/are of the same kind as sequence B? Explain.
(b) In what way are sequences B and E different from the other sequences?

There are sequences where there is neither a constant

difference nor a constant ratio between consecutive
terms and yet a pattern still exists, as in the case of
sequences B and E.

2. Consider the sequence: 10; 17; 26; 37; 50; ...

(a) Write down the next five numbers in the sequence.
(b) Eric observed that he can calculate the next term in the sequence as follows:
  10 + 7 = 17; 17 + 9 = 26; 26 + 11 = 37. Use Eric’s method to check whether your
   numbers in question 2(a) above are correct.

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 3. Which of the statements below can Eric use to describe the relationship between the
numbers in the sequence in question 2? Test the rule for the first three terms of the
sequence and then simply write “yes” or “no” next to each statement.
(a) Increase the difference between consecutive terms by two each time.
(b) Increase the difference between consecutive terms by one each time.
(c) Add two more than you added to get the previous term.

4. Provide a rule to describe the relationship between the numbers in the sequences
below. Use your rule to provide the next five numbers in each sequence.
(a) 1; 4; 9; 16; 25; (b) 2; 13; 26; 41; 58;
(c) 4; 14; 29; 49; 74; (d) 5; 6; 8; 11; 15; 20;

4.2 The position-term relationship in a sequence

using position to make predictions

1. Take another look at sequences A to H. Which sequence(s) are of the same kind as
sequence A? Explain.

Sequence A: 2; 5; 8; 11; 14; 17; 20; 23;...
Sequence B: 4; 5; 8; 13; 20; 29; 40; …
Sequence C: 1; 2; 4; 8; 16; 32; 64; …
Sequence D: 3; 5; 7; 9; 11; 13; 15; 17; 19; ...
Sequence E: 4; 5; 7; 10; 14; 19; 25; 32; 40; …
Sequence F: 2; 6; 18; 54; 162; 486; …
Sequence G: 1; 5; 9; 13; 17; 21; 25; 29; 33; ...
Sequence H: 2; 4; 8; 16; 32; 64; …

Sizwe has been thinking about Amanda and Tamara’s explanations of how they worked
out the rule for sequence A and has drawn up a table. He agrees with them but says that
there is another rule that will also work. He explains:

My table shows the terms in the sequence and the difference between consecutive terms:
1st 2nd 3rd 4th
term term term term
A: 5 8 11 14
differences +3 +3 +3 +3 +3 +3 +3 +3 +3

Sizwe reasons that the following rule will also work:

Multiply the position of the number by 3 and add 2 to the answer.
I can write this rule as a number sentence: Position of the number × 3 + 2
I use my number sentence to check: 1 × 3 + 2 = 5; 2 × 3 + 2 = 8; 3 × 3 + 2 = 11

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 2. (a) What do the numbers in bold in Sizwe’s number sentence stand for?
(b) What does the number 3 in Sizwe’s number sentence stand for?
3. Consider the sequence 5; 8; 11; 14; ...
Apply Sizwe’s rule to the sequence and determine:
(a) term number 7 of the sequence
(b) term number 10 of the sequence
(c) the hundredth term of the sequence
4. Consider the sequence: 3; 5; 7; 9; 11; 13; 15; 17; 19; ...
(a) Use Sizwe’s explanation to find a rule for this sequence.
(b) Determine the 28th term of the sequence.

more predictions

Copy and complete the following tables by calculating the missing terms:
1. Position in sequence 1 2 3 4 10 54
Term 4 7 10 13

2. Position in sequence 1 2 3 4 8 16
Term 4 9 14 19

3. Position in sequence 1 2 3 4 7 30
Term 3 15 27

4. Copy the following table. Use the rule position in the sequence × (position in
the sequence + 1) to complete it.

Position in sequence 1 2 3 4 5 6
Term 2

4.3 Investigating and extending geometric patterns

square numbers

A factory makes window frames. Type 1 has one windowpane, type 2 has four
windowpanes, type 3 has nine windowpanes, and so on.

Type 1 Type 2 Type 3 Type 4

CHAPTER 4: NUMERIC AND GEOMETRIC PATTERNS 53

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 1. How many windowpanes will there be in type 5?
2. How many windowpanes will there be in type 6?
3. How many windowpanes will there be in type 7?
4. How many windowpanes will there be in type 12? Explain.

5. Copy and complete the table. Show your calculations.

Frame type 1 2 3 4 15 20
Number of windowpanes 1 4 9 16

The symbol n is used below to

In algebra we think of a square as a number that is
represent the position number
obtained by multiplying a number by itself. So, 1 is in the expression that gives the
also a square because 1 × 1 = 1. rule (n2) when generalising.

12 22 32 42 52 ... n2

triangular numbers

Therese uses circles to form a pattern of triangular shapes:

Picture 1 Picture 2 Picture 3 Picture 4

1. If the pattern is continued, how many circles must Therese have:

(a) in the bottom row of picture 5?
(b) in the second row from the bottom of picture 5?
(c) in the third row from the bottom of picture 5?
(d) in the second row from the top of picture 5?
(e) in the top row of picture 5?
(f) in total in picture 5? Show your calculations.

2. How many circles does Therese need to form triangle picture 7? Show the calculation.
3. How many circles does Therese need to form triangle picture 8?

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 4. Copy and complete the following table. Show all your work.

Picture
1 2 3 4 5 6 12 15
number
Number of
1 3 6 10
circles

More than 2 500 years ago, Greek mathematicians already knew that the numbers 3, 6,
10, 15 and so on could form a triangular pattern. They represented these numbers with
dots which they arranged in such a way that they formed equilateral triangles, hence the
name triangular numbers. Algebraically, we think of them as sums of consecutive
natural numbers starting with 1.
Let us revisit the activity on triangular numbers that we did on the previous page.

Picture 1 Picture 2 Picture 3 Picture 4

So far, we have determined the number of circles in the pattern by adding consecutive
natural numbers. If we were asked to determine the number of circles in picture 200, for
example, it would take us a very long time to do so. We need to find a quicker method
of finding any triangular number in the sequence.

Consider the arrangement below.

Picture 1 Picture 2 Picture 3 Picture 4

We have added the yellow circles to the original blue circles and then rearranged the
circles in such a way that they are in a rectangular form.

5. Picture 2 is three circles long and two circles wide. Copy and complete the following
sentences:
(a) Picture 3 is    circles long and    circles wide.
(b) Picture 1 is    circles long and    circle wide.
(c) Picture 4 is    circles long and    circles wide.
(d) Picture 5 is    circles long and    circles wide.

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 6. How many circles will there be in a picture that is:
(a) ten circles long and nine circles wide?
(b) seven circles long and six circles wide?
(c) six circles long and five circles wide?
(d) 20 circles long and 19 circles wide?
Suppose we want to use a quicker method to determine the number of circles in
picture 15. We know that picture 15 is 16 circles long and 15 circles wide. This gives a
total of 15 × 16 = 240 circles. But we must compensate for the fact that the yellow circles
were originally not there by halving the total number of circles. In other words, the
original figure has 240 ÷ 2 = 120 circles.

7. Use the above reasoning to calculate the number of circles in:

(a) picture 20 (b) picture 35

4.4 Describing patterns in different ways

t-shaped numbers

The pattern below is made from squares.

1 2 3 4

1. (a) How many squares will there be in pattern 5?

(b) How many squares will there be in pattern 15?
(c) Copy and complete the following table:

Pattern number 1 2 3 4 5 6 20
Number of squares 1 4 7 10

You can use the following three plans (or methods) to calculate the number of squares
for pattern 20. Study each one carefully.
Plan A:
To get from one square to four squares, you have to add three squares. To get from four
squares to seven squares, you have to add three squares. To get from seven squares to ten
squares, you have to add three squares. Continue to add three squares for each pattern
until pattern 20.
Plan B:
Multiply the pattern number by three and subtract two. Pattern 20 will therefore have
20 × 3 − 2 squares.

56 MATHEMATICS Grade 8: Term 1

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 Plan C:
The number of squares in pattern 5 is 13. Pattern 20 will therefore have 13 × 4 = 52
squares because 20 = 5 × 4.

2. (a) Which method or plan (A, B or C) will give the right answer? Explain why.
(b) Which of the above plans did you use? Explain why?
(c) Can this flow diagram be used to calculate the number of squares?
Input Output

×3 –2

… and some other shapes

1. Three figures are given below. Draw the next figure in the tile pattern.
1 2 3 4

2. (a) If the pattern is continued, how many tiles will there be in the 17th figure?
   Answer this question by analysing what happens.
(b) Thato decides that it easier for him
to see the pattern when the tiles are
rearranged as shown on the right:
3×1+2 3×2+2 3×3+2
Use Thato’s method to determine the number of tiles in the 23rd figure.
(c) Copy and complete the following flow diagram by writing the appropriate
operators so that it can be used to calculate the number of tiles in any figure of
the pattern.
Input Output

1 5

2 8

3 11

17 53

(d) How many tiles will there be in the 50th figure if the pattern is continued?

CHAPTER 4: NUMERIC AND GEOMETRIC PATTERNS 57

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 Worksheet

1. Write down the next four terms in each sequence. Also explain, in each case, how
you figured out what the terms are.
(a) 2; 4; 8; 14; 22; 32; 44;  
(b) 2; 6; 18; 54; 162;  
(c) 1; 7; 13; 19; 25;  

2. (a) Copy and complete the following table by calculating the missing terms:

Position in sequence 1 2 3 4 5 7 10
Term 3 10 17

(b) Write the rule to calculate the term from the position in the sequence
in words.

3. Consider the stacks below.

Stack 1 Stack 2 Stack 3

(a) How many cubes will there be in stack 5?
(b) Copy and complete the following table:

Stack number 1 2 3 4 5 6 10
Number of cubes 1 8 27

(c) Write down the rule to calculate the number of cubes for any stack number.

NUMERIC AND GEOMETRIC PATTERNS

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 Chapter 5
Functions and relationships

5.1 Constant and variable quantities

Looking for connections between quantities

Consider the following seven situations. There are two quantities in each situation.
For each quantity, state whether it is constant (always the same number) or whether it
changes. Also state, in each case, whether one quantity has an influence on the other.
If it has, try to say how the one quantity will influence the other quantity.

1. Your age and the number of fingers on your hands

2. The number of calls you make and the airtime left on your cell phone
3. The length of your arm and your ability to finish Mathematics tests quickly
4. The number of identical houses to be built and the number of bricks required
5. The number of learners at a school and the length of the school day
6. The number of learners at a school and the number of classrooms needed
7. The number of matches in each arrangement, and the number of triangles in the
arrangement:

If one variable quantity is influenced by another, A quantity that changes is

we say there is a relationship between the two called a variable quantity,
variables. It is sometimes possible to find out what or just a variable.
value of the one quantity, in other words what
number, is linked to a specific value of the other
quantity.

8. (a) Look at the match arrangements in question 7. If you know that there are three
triangles in an arrangement, can you say with certainty how many matches
there are in that specific arrangement?
(b) How many matches are there in the arrangement with ten triangles?
(c) Is there another possible answer for question (b)?

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 9. Copy and complete the following flow diagrams by filling in all the missing numbers.
Do you see any connections between the situation in question 7 on page 59 and this
flow diagram? If so, describe the connections.

1 2 3

2 4 5

4 ×2 8 +1 9

5 10
6

7
Input numbers Output numbers

Completing some flow diagrams

A relationship between two quantities can be shown with a flow diagram, such as those
below. Unfortunately, only some of the numbers can be shown on a flow diagram.

1. Copy the following flow diagram. Calculate the output numbers. Some input
numbers are missing. Choose and insert your own input numbers.
(a) 3 8 Each input number in a flow
diagram has a corresponding
7 output number. The first
(top) input number
1
corresponds to the first
0 +5 output number. The second
input number corresponds to
–1 4
the second output number
and so on. We call + 5 the
operator.

(b) What type of numbers are the given input numbers?

(c) In the above flow diagram, the output number 8 corresponds to the input
number 3. Copy and complete the following sentences:
In the relationship shown in the above flow diagram, the output number
corresponds to the input number −1.
The input number corresponds to the output number 7.
If more places are added to the flow diagram, the input number will correspond to
the output number 31.

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 2. (a) Copy and complete this flow diagram. 7
(b) Compare this flow diagram to the flow
6
diagram in question 1. What link do you
find between the two? 5 –5

3. Copy and complete the following flow diagrams. 4

You have to find out what the operator for 3
(b) is, and fill it in yourself.
(a) (b)
–105 –23 45

–100 5
–15 –80 –12

0 –5 –4

15 –15 53

100
105

(c) What number can you add in (a), instead of subtracting 5, that will produce the
same output numbers?
(d) What number can you subtract in (b), instead of adding a number, that will
produce the same output numbers?

4. Copy and complete the following flow diagram:

–1

–2

–3 ×6 + 40

–4

–5

A completed flow diagram shows two kinds of information:

• It shows what calculations are done to produce the
output numbers.
• It shows which output number is connected to which
input number.

The flow diagram that you completed in question 4 shows the following information:
• Each input number is multiplied by 6, then 40 is added to produce the output numbers.
• The input and output numbers are connected, as shown in the table on page 62.

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 Input numbers −1 −2 −3 −4 −5
Output numbers 34 28 22 16 10

5. (a) Describe, in words, how the following output numbers can be calculated:
10

20

30 ×4 – 15

40
50
(b) Copy the following table and use it to show which output numbers are connected
to which input numbers in the above flow diagram.

6. The following information is available about the floor space and cost of houses in a
new development. The cost of an empty stand is R180 000.

Floor space in square

90 120 150 180 210
metres (m2)
Cost of house and stand 540 000 660 000 780 000 900 000 1 020 000

(a) Represent the above information in the following flow diagram:

(b) Show what the houses only will cost, if you get the stand for free.

(c) Try to figure out what the cost of a house and stand will be, if there are exactly
100 m2 of floor space in the house.

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 5.2 Different ways to describe relationships
A relationship between red dots and blue dots

Here is an example of a relationship between two quantities:

In each arrangement there are some red dots and some blue dots.

1. How many blue dots are there if there is one red dot?

2. How many blue dots are there if there are two red dots?

3. How many blue dots are there if there are three red dots?

4. How many blue dots are there if there are four red dots?

5. How many blue dots are there if there are five red dots?

6. How many blue dots are there if there are six red dots?

7. How many blue dots are there if there are seven red dots?

8. How many blue dots are there if there are ten red dots?

9. How many blue dots are there if there are 20 red dots?

10. How many blue dots are there if there are 100 red dots?

11. Which of the following descriptions correctly describe Something to think about
the relationship between the number of blue dots and Are there different possibilities
the number of red dots in the above arrangements? for the number of blue dots
Test each description thoroughly for all the above if there are three red dots in
arrangements. the arrangement?
Are there different possibili-
(a) The number of red dots ×4 +2 the ties for the number of blue
number of blue dots dots if there are two red dots
in the arrangement?
(b) To calculate the number of blue dots you multiply
Are there different possibili-
the number of red dots by 2, add 1 and multiply
ties for the number of blue
the answer by 2 dots if there are 20 red dots
(c) The number of blue dots = 2 × the number of red in the arrangement?
dots + 4

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 (d) Number of red dots 1 2 3 4 5 6
Number of blue dots 6 10 14 18 22 26

(e) 1

3 ×4 +2

4
5

(f) 1
2

3 ×2 +1 ×2

4
5

(g) The number of blue dots = 4 × the number of red dots + 2

(h) The number of blue dots = 2 × (2 × the number of red dots + 1)
(Remember that the calculations inside the brackets are done first.)

The descriptions in (c), (g) and (h) above are called

word formulae.

Translating between different languages of description

A relationship between two quantities can be

described in different ways, including:
• a table of values of the two quantities
• a flow diagram
• a word formula You will learn about symbolic
formulae in Section 5.3.
• a symbol formula (or symbolic formula).

1. The relationship between two quantities is described as follows:

The second quantity is always three times the first quantity plus 8.
The first quantity varies between 1 and 5, and it is always a whole number.

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 (a) Describe this relationship using the flow diagram.

(b) Describe the relationship between the two quantities using this table:

(c) Describe the relationship between the two quantities using a word formula.

2. The relationship between two quantities is described as follows:

The input numbers are the first five odd numbers.
value of the one the corresponding value of
+5 ×3
quantity the other quantity

(a) Describe this relationship using a table.

(b) Describe the relationship using a word formula.

5.3 Algebraic symbols for variables and relationships

Describing procedures in different ways

1. In each case, do four things:

• Complete the table.
• Describe the relationship with a word formula.
• Describe the input numbers in words.
• Describe the output numbers in words.

(a) input number × 10 + 15 output number

Input number 5 10 15 20 25 30
Output number

output number =

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 (b) input number + 15 × 10 output number

Input number 5 10 15 20 25 30
Output number

(c) input number ×2 +3 ×5 output number

Input number 5 10 15 20 25 30
Output number

Formulae with symbols

Instead of writing “input number” and “output number” in formulae, you may just write
a single letter symbol as an abbreviation.
Many years ago, mathematicians adopted the Letter symbols other than x
convention of using the letter symbol x as an and y are also used to indicate
abbreviation for the “input number”, and the letter variable quantities.
symbol y as an abbreviation for the “output number”.
The word formula you wrote for question 1(a) can be written more shortly as:
y = 10 × x + 15
Mathematicians have also agreed that one may leave Note that it is not at all wrong
the ×-sign (multiplication sign) out when writing to use the multiplication sign
symbolic formulae. in symbolic formulae.
So, instead of y = 10 × x + 15, we may write y = 10x + 15.

2. Rewrite your word formulae in questions 1(b) and 1(c) as symbolic formulae.

3. Write a word formula for each of the following relationships:

(a) y = 7x + 10 (b) y = 7(x + 10) (c) y = 7(2x + 10)

Writing symbolic FORMULAE

Describe each of the following relationships with a symbolic formula:

1. To calculate the output number, the input number is multiplied by 4 and 7 is
subtracted from the answer.

2. To calculate the output number, 7 is subtracted from the input number and the
answer is multiplied by 5.

3. To calculate the output number, 7 is subtracted from the input number, the answer is
multiplied by 5 and 3 is added to this answer.

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 Chapter 6
Algebraic expressions 1

6.1 Algebraic language

words, diagrams and symbols

1. Copy and complete the following table:

Words Flow diagram Expression

Multiply a number by two
×2 +6 2×x+6
and add six to the answer.
Add three to a number
(a) and then multiply the answer
by two.

(b) ×5 –1

(c) 7+4×x

(d) 10 − 5 × x

An algebraic expression indicates a sequence of

calculations that can also be described in words or
by means of a flow diagram.
The flow diagram illustrates the order in which the
calculations must be done.
In algebraic language, the multiplication sign
is usually omitted. So, we write 2x instead of 2 × x.
We also write x × 2 as 2x.

2. Write the following expressions in “normal” algebraic language:

(a) −2 × a + b (b) a2

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 Looking different but yet the same

1. Copy and complete the table by calculating the numerical values of the expressions
for the values of x. Some answers for x = 1 have been done for you as an example.

x 1 3 7 10
2×1+3×1
(a) 2x + 3x
2+3=5

(b) 5x

(c) 2x + 3

5 × (1)2
(d) 5x 2
5×1=5

2. Do the expressions 2x + 3x and 5x in question 1 above, produce different answers or

the same answer for:
(a) x = 3? (b) x = 10?
3. Do the expressions 2x + 3 and 5x produce different answers or the same answer for:
(a) x = 3? (b) x = 10?
4. Although they may look different, write down all the algebraic expressions in question 1
that have the same numerical value for the same value(s) of x. Justify your answer.

One of the things we do in algebra is to evaluate

expressions. When we evaluate an expression we
choose or are given a value of the variable in the
expression. Now that we have an actual value, we can
carry out the operations in the expression using this
value, as in the examples given in the table.
Algebraic expressions that have the same
numerical value for the same value of x but look
different, are called equivalent expressions.

5. Say whether the following statements are true or false. Explain your answer in each case.
(a) The expressions 2x + 3x and 5x are equivalent.
(b) The expressions 2x + 3 and 5x are equivalent.
6. Consider the expressions 3x + 2z + y and 6xyz. Remember that 6xyz is
(a) What is the value of 3x + 2z + y for x = 4, y = 7 and the same as 6 × x × y × z.
z = 10?
(b) What is the value of 6xyz for x = 4, y = 7 and z = 10?
(c) Are the expressions 3x + 2z + y and 6xyz equivalent? Explain.

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 To show that the two expressions in question 5(a) are The term 3x is a product.
equivalent, we write 2x + 3x = 5x. The number 3 is called the
We can explain this as: coefficient of x.
2x + 3x = (x + x) + (x + x + x) = 5x
We say the expression 2x + 3x simplifies to 5x.

7. In each case below, write down an expression equivalent to the one given:
(a) 3x + 3x (b) 3x + 8x + 2x
(c) 8b + 2b + 2b (d) 7m + 2m + 10m
(e) 3x2 + 3x2 (f) 3x2 + 8x2 + 2x2

8. What is the coefficient of x2 for the expression equivalent to 3x2 + 8x2 + 2x2?

In an expression that can be written as a sum, the

different parts of the expression are called the terms
of the expression. For example, 3x, 2z and y are the
terms of the expression 3x + 2z + y.
An expression can have like terms or unlike
terms, or both.
Like terms are terms that have the same
variable(s) raised to the same power. The terms
2x and 3x are examples of like terms.

9. (a) Copy the diagram. Calculate the numerical value of 10x + 2y for x = 3 and y = 2 by
completing the empty spaces in the diagram.

Input value: 3 × 10

+ =   (Output value)

Input value: 2 ×2

(b) What is the output value for the expression 12xy for x = 3 and y = 2?
(c) Are the expressions 10x + 2y and 12xy equivalent? Explain.
(d) Are the terms 10x and 2y like or unlike terms? Explain.

10. (a) Which of the following algebraic expressions do you think will give the same
results?
A. 6x + 4x B. 10x C. 10x2 D. 9x + x
(b) Test the algebraic expressions you have identified for the following values of x:
x = 10 x = 17 x = 54
(c) Are the terms 6x and 4x like or unlike terms? Explain.
(d) Are the terms 10x and 10x2 like or unlike terms? Explain.

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 11. Ashraf and Hendrik have a disagreement about whether the terms 7x2y3 and 301y3x2
are like terms or not. Hendrik thinks they are not, because in the first term the x2
comes before the y3, whereas in the second term the y3 comes before the x2.
Explain to Hendrik why his argument is not correct.
12. Explain why the terms 5abc, 10acb and 15cba are like terms.

6.2 Add and subtract like terms

rearrange terms and then combine like terms

1. Copy and complete the table by evaluating the expressions for the given values of x:

x 1 2 10
30 × 1 + 80
30x + 80
= 30 + 80 = 110

5x + 20

30x + 80 + 5x + 20

35x + 100

135x

2. Write down all the expressions in the table that are equivalent.
3. Tim thinks that the expressions 135x and 35x + 100 are equivalent because for x = 1,
they both have the same numerical value 135. Explain to Tim why the two
expressions are not equivalent.

We have already come across the commutative and associative properties of operations.
We will now use these properties to help us form equivalent algebraic expressions.
Commutative property
The order in which we add or multiply numbers does
not change the answer: a + b = b + a and ab = ba
Associative property
The way in which we group three or more numbers
when adding or multiplying does not change the
answer: (a + b) + c = a + (b + c) and (ab)c = a(bc)

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 We can find an equivalent expression by rearranging The terms 80 and 20 are
and combining like terms, as shown below: called constants. The
numbers 30 and 5 are called
30x + 80 + 5x + 20
coefficients.
Hence 30x + (80 + 5x) + 20
Hence 30x + (5x + 80) + 20
= (30x + 5x) + (80 + 20) Brackets are used in the
= 35x + 100 expression on the left to
show how the like terms
Like terms are combined to form a
have been rearranged.
single term.

The terms 30x and 5x are combined to get the new term 35x, and the terms 80 and 20 are
combined to form the new term: 100. We say that the expression 30x + 80 + 5x + 20 is
simplified to a new expression 35x + 100.

4. Simplify the following expressions:

(a) 13x + 7 + 6x − 2 (b) 21x − 8 + 7x + 15 (c) 18c − 12d + 5c − 7c
(d) 3abc + 4 + 7abc − 6 (e) 12x2 + 2x − 2x2 + 8x (f) 7m3 + 7m2 + 9m3 + 1

When you are not sure about whether or not you When we use a value of the
correctly simplified an expression, it is always variable in the expression, we
advisable to check your work by evaluating the call it a substitution.
original expression and the simplified expression for
some values.

5. Make a simpler expression that is equivalent to the given expression. Test your answer
for three different values of x, and redo your work until you get it right.
(a) Simplify (15x + 7y) + (25x + 3 + 2y) (b) Simplify 12mn + 8mn

In questions 6 to 8 below, write down the letter representing the correct answer. Explain
why you think your answer is correct.

6. The sum of 5x2 + x + 7 and x − 9 is:

A.  x2 − 2 B.  5x2 + 2x +16 C.  5x2 + 16 D.  5x2 + 2x − 2
7. The sum of 6x2 − x + 4 and x2 − 5 is equivalent to:
A. 7x2 − x + 9 B.  7x2 − x − 1 C.  6x4 − x − 9 D.  7x4 − x − 1
8. The sum of 5x2 + 2x + 4 and 3x2 − 5x − 1 can be expressed as:
A. 8x2 + 3x + 3 B.  8x2 + 3x − 3 C.  8x2 − 3x + 3 D.  8x2 − 3x − 3

Combining like terms is a useful algebraic habit. It allows us to replace an expression

with another expression that may be convenient to work with.
Do the questions on page 72 to get a sense of what we are talking about.

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 convenient replacements

1. Consider the expression x + x + x + x + x + x + x + x + x + x. What is the value of the

expression in each of the following cases?
(a) x = 2 (b) x = 50
2. Consider the expression x + x + x + z + z + y. What is the value of the expression in
each of the following cases?
(a) x = 4, y = 7, z = 10 (b) x = 0, y = 8, z = 22
3. Suppose you have to evaluate 3x + 7x for x = 20. Will calculating 10 × 20 give the
correct answer? Explain.
Suppose we evaluate the expression 3x + 7x for x = 20 without first combining the like
terms. We will have to do three calculations, namely 3 × 20, then 7 × 20 and then find
the sum of the two: 3 × 20 + 7 × 20 = 60 + 140 = 200.
But if we first combine the like terms 3x and 7x into one term 10x, we only have to do
one calculation: 10 × 20 = 200. This is one way of thinking about the convenience or
usefulness of simplifying an algebraic expression.
4. The expression 5x + 3x is given and you are required to evaluate it for x = 8.
Will calculating 8 × 8 give the correct answer? Explain.
5. Suppose you have to evaluate 7x + 5 for x = 10. Will calculating 12 × 10 give the correct
answer? Explain.
6. The expression 5x + 3 is given and you have to evaluate it for x = 8.
Will calculating 8 × 8 give the correct answer? Explain.

Samantha was asked to evaluate the expression 12x2 + 2x − 2x2 + 8x for x = 12.
She thought to herself that just substituting the value of x directly into the terms
would require a lot of work. She first combined the like terms as shown below:
12x2 − 2 2 + 2 + 8x The terms + 2x and – 2x2 change
= 10x2 + 10x positions by the commutative
Then for x = 10, Samantha found the value of property of operations.
10x2 + 10x by calculating:
10 × 102 + 10 × 10
= 1 000 + 100
= 1 100
Use Samatha’s way of thinking for questions 7 to 9.

7. What is the value of 12x + 25x + 75x + 8x when x = 6?

8. Evaluate 3x2 + 7 + 2x2 + 3 for x = 5.
9. When Zama was asked to evaluate the expression 2n − 1 + 6n for n = 4, she wrote
down the following:
 2n − 1 + 6n = n + 6n = 6n2
  Hence for n = 4: 6 × (4)2 = 6 × 8 = 48. Explain where Zama went wrong and why.

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 Worksheet

1. Copy and complete the following table:

Words Flow diagram Expression
(a) Multiply a number by three ×3 +2
and add two to the answer
(b)
9x − 6

(c)
×7 –3 7x – 3

2. Which of the following pairs consist of like terms? Explain.

A. 3y; −7y B. 14e2; 5e C. 3y2z; 17y2z D. −bcd; 5bd
3. Write the following in the “normal” algebraic way:
(a) c2 + d3 (b) 7 × d × e × f
4. Consider the expression 12x2 − 5x + 3.
(a) What is the number 12 called? (b) Write down the coefficient of x.
(c) What name is given to the number 3?
5. Explain why the terms 5pqr, −10prq and 15qrp are like terms.
6. If y = 7, what is the value of each of the following?
(a) y + 8 (b) 9y (c) 7 − y
7. Simplify the following expressions:
(a) 18c + 12d + 5c − 7c (b) 3def + 4 + 7def − 6
8. Evaluate the following expressions for y = 3, z = −1:
(a) 2y2 + 3z (b) (2y)2 + 3z
9. Write each of the following algebraic expressions in the simplest form:
(a) 5y + 15y (b) 5c + 6c − 3c + 2c (c) 4b + 3 + 16b − 5
(d) 7m + 3n + 2 − 6m (e) 5h2 + 17 − 2h2 + 3 (f) 7e2f + 3ef + 2 + 4ef
10. Evaluate each of the following expressions:
(a) 3y + 3y + 3y + 3y + 3y + 3y for y = 18
(b) 13y + 14 − 3y + 6 for y = 200
(c) 20 − y2 + 101y2 + 80 for y = 1
(d) 12y2 + 3yz + 18y2 + 2yz  for y = 3 and z = 2

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 Chapter 7
Algebraic equations 1

7.1 Setting up equations

An equation is a mathematical sentence that is
true for some numbers but false for other numbers.
The following are examples of equations:
x + 3 = 11  and  2x = 8
x + 3 = 11 is true if x = 8, but false if x = 3.
When we look for a number or numbers that make
an equation true, we say that we are solving the
equation. For example, x = 4 is the solution of
2x = 8 because it makes 2x = 8 true. (Check: 2 × 4 = 8)

looking for numbers to make statements true

1. Are the following statements true or false? Justify your answer.

(a) x − 3 = 0, if x = −3 (b) x3 = 8, if x = −2 (c) 3x = −6, if x = −3
(d) 3x = 1, if x = 1 (e) 6x + 5 = 47, if x = 7

2. Find the original number. Show your reasoning.

(a) A number multiplied by 10 is 80.
(b) Add 83 to a number and the answer is 100.
(c) Divide a number by 5 and the answer is 4.
(d) Multiply a number by 4 and the answer is 20.
(e) Twice a number is 100. (f) A number raised to the power 5 is 32.
(g) A number raised to the power 4 is −81. (h) Fifteen times a number is 90.
(i) 93 added to a number is −3. (j) Half a number is 15.

3. Write the equations below in words using “a number” in place of the letter symbol x.
Then write what you think “the number” is in each case.
Example: 4 + x = 23. Four plus a number equals twenty-three. The number is 19.

2x
(a) 8x = 72 (b) = 2 (c) 2x + 5 = 21
5
(d) 12 + 9x = 30 (e) 30 − 2x = 40 (f) 5x + 4 = 3x + 10

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 7.2 Solving equations by inspection
THE ANSWER IS IN PLAIN SIGHT

1. Seven equations are given in the following table. You can read the solutions of
Use the table to find out for which of the given an equation from a table.
values of x it will be true that the left-hand side of
the equation is equal to the right-hand side.

x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
2x + 3 −3 −1 1 3 5 7 9 11
x+4 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
9−x 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5
3x − 2 −11 −8 −5 −2 1 4 7 10
10x − 7 −37 −27 −17 −7 3 13 23 33
5x + 3 −12 −7 −2 3 8 13 18 23
10 − 3x 19 16 13 10 7 4 1 −2

(a) 2x + 3 = 5x + 3 (b) 5x + 3 = 9 − x (c) 2x + 3 = x + 4

(d) 10x − 7 = 5x + 3 (e) 3x − 2 = x + 4 (f) 9 − x = 2x + 3
(g) 10 − 3x = 3x − 2

Two or more equations can have the same solution. Two equations are called
For example, 5x = 10 and x + 2 = 4 have the same equivalent if they have the
solution; x = 2 is the solution for both equations. same solution.

2. Which of the equations in question 1 have the same solutions? Explain.

3. Copy and complete the following table. You can also do a search by
Then answer the questions that follow. narrowing down the possible
solution to an equation.

x 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
2x + 3
3x − 10

(a) Can you find a solution for 2x + 3 = 3x − 10 in the table?

(b) What happens to the values of 2x + 3 and 3x − 10 as x increases? Do they become
bigger or smaller?
(c) Is there a point where the value of 3x − 10
becomes bigger or smaller than the value of This point where the two
2x + 3 as the value of x increases? If so, expressions are equal is called
the break-even point.
between which x-values does this happen?

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 (d) Now that you narrowed down where “Searching” for the
the possible solution can be, try other solution of an equation by
possible values for x until you find out using tables or by narrowing
for what value of x the statement down to the possible
2x + 3 = 3x − 10 is true. solution is called solution
by inspection.

7.3 More examples

looking for and checking solutions

1. What is the solution for the equations shown below?

(a) x − 3 = 4 (b) x + 2 = 9 (c) 3x = 21 (d) 3x + 1 = 22

When a certain number is the solution of an equation

we say that the number satisfies the equation.
For example, x = 4 satisfies the equation 3x = 12
because 3 × 4 = 12.

2. Choose the number in brackets that satisfies the equation. Explain your choice.
(a) 12x = 84 {5; 7; 10; 12}
84
(b) = 12 {−7; 0; 7; 10}
x
(c) 48 = 8k + 8 {−5; 0; 5; 10}
(d) 19 − 8m = 3 {−2; −1; 0; 1; 2}
(e) 20 = 6y − 4 {3; 4; 5; 6}
(f) x3 = −64 {−8; −4; 4; 8}
(g) 5x = 125 {−3; −1; 1; 3}
(h) 2x = 8 {1; 2; 3; 4}
(i) x2 = 9 {1; 2; 3; 4}
3. What makes the following equations true? Check your answers.
(a) m + 8 = 100 (b) 80 = x + 60 (c) 26 − k = 0 (d) 105 × y = 0
15 t
(e) k ×10 = 10 (f) 5x = 100 (g) = 5 (h) 3 =
t 5
4. Solve the following equations by inspection. Check your answers.
(a) 12x + 14 = 50 (b) 100 = 15m + 25
100
(c) = 20 (d) 7m + 5 = 40
x
(e) 2x + 8 = 10 (f) 3x + 10 = 31
x
(g) −1 + 2x = −11 (h)
2+ =5
7
2x
(i) 100 = 64 + 9x (j) = 4
6

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 Chapter 8
Algebraic expressions 2

8.1 Expanding algebraic expressions

multiply often or multiply once: it is your choice

1. (a) Calculate 5 × 13 and 5 × 87 and add the two answers.

(b) Add 13 and 87, and then multiply the answer by 5.
(c) If you do not get the same answer for questions 1(a) and 1(b), you have made a
mistake. Redo your work until you get it right.
If you work correctly, you get the same answer for questions The word distribute means
1(a) and 1(b); this is an example of a certain property of “to spread out”. The
addition and multiplication called the distributive distributive properties
property. You use this property each time you multiply a may be described as
number in parts. For example, you may calculate 3 × 24 by follows:
a(b + c) = ab + ac and
calculating 3 × 20 and 3 × 4, and then add the two answers:
a(b − c) = ab – ac,
3 × 24 = 3 × 20 + 3 × 4 where a, b and c can be
What you saw in question 1 was that 5 × 100 = 5 × 13 + 5 × 87. any numbers.
This can also be expressed by writing 5(13 + 87).
2. (a) Calculate 10 × 56. (b) Calculate 10 × 16 + 10 × 40.
3. Write down any two numbers smaller than 100. Let us call them x and y.
(a) Add your two numbers and multiply the answer by 6.
(b) Calculate 6 × x and 6 × y and add the two answers.
(c) If you do not get the same answers for (a) and (b), you have made a mistake
somewhere. Correct your work.
4. Copy and complete the following table:
(a) x 1 2 3 4 5
3(x + 2)
3x + 6
3x + 2
3(x − 2)
3x − 6
3x − 2

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 (b) If you do not get the same answers for the expressions 3(x + 2) and 3x + 6, and
for 3(x − 2) and 3x − 6, you have made a mistake somewhere. Correct your work.

In algebra we normally write 3(x + 2) instead of 3 × (x + 2). The expression 3 × (x + 2)

does not mean that you should first multiply by 3 when you evaluate the expression for
a certain value of x. The brackets tell you that the first thing you should do is add the
value(s) of x to 2 and then multiply the answer by 3.
However, instead of first adding the values within the brackets and then multiplying
the answer by 3, we may just do the calculation 3 × x + 3 × 2 = 3x + 6 as shown in the table.

(c) Which expressions amongst those given in the table on page 77 are equivalent?
Explain.
(d) For what value(s) of x is 3(x + 2) = 3x + 2?
(e) Try to find a value of x such that 3(x + 2) ≠ 3x + 6.

If multiplication is the last step in evaluating an

algebraic expression, then the expression is called
a product expression or, briefly, a product.
The way you evaluated the expression 3(x + 2) in
the table is an example of a product expression.

5. (a) Determine the value of 5x + 15 if x = 6.

(b) Determine the value of 5(x + 3) if x = 6.
(c) Can we use the expression 5x + 15 to calculate the value of 5(x + 3) for any values
of x? Explain.

6. Copy and complete the following flow diagrams:

(a) (b)
2 12 2

4 4

8 ×2 +8 8 ×8 +2

10 10

12 12

(c) (d)
2 2

4 4

8 +8 ×2 8 +4 ×2

10 10

12 12

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 (e) (f)
2 2

4 4

8 +1 ×8 8 ×2 + 16

10 10

12 12

7. (a) Which of the flow diagrams in question 6(a) to (f) produce the same output numbers?
(b) Write an algebraic expression for each of the flow diagrams in question 6.

product expressions AND sum expressions

1. Copy and complete the following:

(a) (3 + 6) + (3 + 6) + (3 + 6) + (3 + 6) + (3 + 6)
=   ×( )
(b) (3 + 6) + (3 + 6) + (3 + 6) + (3 + 6) + (3 + 6)
= (3 + 3 + )+( )
=( ×  ) + ( ×  )

2. Copy and complete the following:

(a) (3x + 6) + (3x + 6) + (3x + 6) + (3x + 6) + (3x + 6)
=   ( )
(b) (3x + 6) + (3x + 6) + (3x + 6) + (3x + 6) + (3x + 6)
= (3x + 3x + )+( )
=( ×  )  ( ×  )

3. In each case, write an expression without brackets that will give the same results as
the given expression.
(a) 3(x + 7) (b) 10(2x + 1)
(c) x(4x + 6) (d) 3(2p + q)
(e) t(t + 9) (f) x(y + z)
(g) 2b(b + a − 4) (h) k2(k − m)

The process of writing product expressions as sum

expressions is called expansion. It is sometimes
also referred to as multiplication of algebraic
expressions.

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 4. (a) Copy and complete the following table for the given values of x, y and z.

3(x + 2y + 4z) 3x + 6y + 12z 3x + 2y + 4z

x=1
y=2
z=3
x = 10
y = 20
z = 30
x = 23
y = 60
z = 100
x = 14
y=0
z=1
x=5
y=9
z = 32

(b) Which sum expression and product expression are equivalent?

5. For each expression, write an equivalent expression without brackets.

(a) 2(x2 + x + 1) (b) p(q + r + s)
(c) −3(x + 2y + 3z) (d) x(2x2 + x + 7)
(e) 6x(8 − 2x) (f) 12x(4 − x)
(g) 3x(8x − 5) − 4x(6x − 5) (h) 10x(3x(8x − 5) − 4x(6x − 5))

8.2 Simplifying algebraic expressions

expand, rearrange and then combine like terms

1. Write the shortest possible equivalent expression without brackets.

(a) x + 2(x + 3) (b) 5(4x + 3) + 5x
(c) 5(x + 5) + 3(2x + 1) (d) (5 + x)2
(e) −3(x2 + 2x − 3) + 3(x2 + 4x) (f) x(x − 1) + x + 2

When you are not sure if you have simplified an

expression correctly, you should always check
your work by evaluating the original expression
and the simplified expression for some values of
the variables.

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 2. (a) Evaluate x(x + 2) + 5x2 − 2x for x = 10.
(b) Evaluate 6x2 for x = 10.
(c) Can we use the expression 6x2 to calculate the values of the expression
x(x + 2) + 5x2 – 2x for any given value of x? Explain.

This is how a sum expression for x(x + 2) + 5x2 − 2x can be made:

x(x + 2) + 5x2 − 2x = x × x + x × 2 + 5x2 − 2x
= x2 + 2x + 5x2 − 2x
= x2 + 5x2 + 2x − 2x    [Rearrange and combine like terms.]
= 6x2 + 0
= 6x2

3. Evaluate the following expressions for x = −5:

(a) x + 2(x + 3) (b) 5(4x + 3) + 5x
(c) 5(x + 5) + 3(2x + 1) (d) (5 + x)2
(e) −3(x2 + 2x − 3) + 3(x2 + 4x) (f) x(x − 1) + x + 2

4. Copy and complete the following table for the given values of x, y and z.

x 100 80 10 20 30
y 50 40 5 5 20
z 20 30 2 15 10
x + (y − z)
x − (y − z)
x−y−z
x − (y + z)
x+y−z
x−y+z

5. Say whether the following statements are true or false. Refer to the table in question 4.
For any values of x, y and z:
(a) x + (y − z) = x + y – z (b) x − (y − z) = x − y − z

6. Write the expressions without brackets. Do not simplify.

(a) 3x − (2y + z) (b) −x + 3(y − 2z)

We can simplify algebraic expressions by using properties of operations as shown:

(5x + 3) − 2(x + 1)
Hence 5x + 3 − 2x − 2 x – (y + z) = x – y – z
Hence 5x − 2x + 3 − 2
Addition is both associative
Hence 3x + 1 and commutative.

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 7. Write an equivalent expression without brackets for each of the following expressions
and then simplify:
(a) 22x + (13x − 5) (b) 22x − (13x − 5)
(c) 22x − (13x + 5) (d) 4x − (15 − 6x)

8. Simplify:
(a) 2(x2 + 1) − x − 2 (b) −3(x2 + 2x − 3) + 3x2

Some of the techniques we have used so far to form

equivalent expressions include:
• remove brackets
• rearrange terms
• combine like terms.

8.3 Simplifying quotient expressions

FROM QUOTIENT EXPRESSIONS TO SUM EXPRESSIONS

1. Copy and complete the table for the given values of x.

x 1 7 −3 −10
7x2 + 5x

7 x2 + 5x
x

7x + 5

7x + 5x

7x2 + 5

2. (a) What is the value of 7x + 5 for x = 0?

7 x2 + 5x
(b) What is the value of for x = 0?
x

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 7 x2 + 5x
(c) Which of the two expressions, 7x + 5 or , requires fewer calculations?
x
Explain.
7 x2 + 5x
(d) Are the expressions 7x + 5 and equivalent, x = 0 excluded? Explain.
x
7 x2 + 5x
(e) Are there any other expressions that are equivalent to from those given
x
in the table? Explain.

If division is the last step in evaluating an algebraic

expression, then the expression is called a quotient
expression or an algebraic fraction.
7 x2 + 5x
The expression is an example of a quotient
x
expression or algebraic fraction.

3. Copy and complete the following table for the given values of x:

x 5 10 –5 –10
10x − 5x2 50 − 125
= −75
5x 5×5
= 25

10 x − 5x2 50 − 125
5x 25
−75
=
25
= −3
2−x 2−5
= −3

(a) What is the value of 2 − x for x = 0?

10 x − 5x2
(b) What is the value of for x = 0?
5x
10 x − 5x2
(c) Are the expressions 2 − x and equivalent, x = 0 excluded? Explain.
5x
10 x − 5x2
(d) Which of the two expressions 2 − x or requires fewer calculations?
5x
Explain.

We have found that quotient expressions, such as

10 x − 5x2
can sometimes be manipulated to give
5x
equivalent expressions, such as 2 − x.
The value of this is that these equivalent
expressions require fewer calculations.

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 10 x − 5x2
The expressions and 2 − x are not quite
5x
equivalent because for x = 0, the value of 2 − x can be
calculated, while the first expression has no value.
However, we can say that the two expressions are
equivalent if they have the same values for all values
of x admissible for both expressions.
7 x2 + 5x 10 x − 5x2
How is it possible that = 7x + 5 and = 2 − x for all admissible values
x 5x
of x? We say x = 0 is not an admissible value of x because division by 0 is not allowed.
One of the methods for finding equivalent expressions for algebraic fractions is by
means of division:

7 x2 + 5x 1 3 1
= (7x2 + 5x) [just as = 3 × ]
x x 5 5
1 1
= ( × 7x2) + ( × 5x) [distributive property]
x x
7 x2 5x
= +
x x

= 7x + 5 [provided x ≠ 0]

4. Use the method shown on the previous page to simplify each fraction below:
8 x + 10 z + 6 20 x2 + 16 x
(a) (b)
2 4
9 x2 y + xy 21ab − 14a2
(c) (d)
xy 7a

Simplifying a quotient expression can sometimes

lead to a result which still contains quotients, as you
can see in the following example:
5x2 + 3x
x2
5x2 3x
= 2
+ 2
x x
3
=5+
x

5x2 + 3x
5. (a) Evaluate for x = −1.
x2
5x2 + 3x 3
(b) For the expression to be equivalent to 5 + , which value of x must be
x2 x
excluded? Why?

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 6. Simplify the following expressions:
8 x2 + 2 x + 4 4n + 1
(a) (b)
2x n
7. Evaluate:
8 x2 + 2 x + 4 4n + 1
(a) for x = 2 (b) for n = 4
2x n
8. Simplify:
6 x4 � 12 x3 � 2 −6n 4 − 4n
(a) (b)
2x 6n
x2 + 2 x + 1
9. When Natasha and Lebogang were asked to evaluate the expression
x
for x = 10, they did it in different ways.

Natasha’s calculation: Lebogang’s calculation:
1 100 + 20 + 1
10 + 2 +
10 10
1 121
= 12 =
10 10
1
= 12
10
Explain how each of them thought about evaluating the given expression.

8.4 Squares, cubes and roots of expressions

simplifying squares and cubes

Study the following example:

(3x)2 = 3x × 3x Meaning of squaring

= 3 × x × 3 × x
= 3 × 3 × x × x Multiplication is commutative: a × b = b × a

= 9x2 We say that (3x)2 simplifies to 9x2

1. Simplify the following expressions:

(a) (2x)2 (b) (2x2)2 (c) (−3y)2
2. Simplify the following expressions:
(a) 25x − 16x (b) 4y + y + 3y (c)
a + 17a − 3a
3. Simplify:
(a) (25x − 16x)2 (b) (4y + y + 3y)2 (c) (a + 17a − 3a)2

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 Study the following example:
(3x)3 = 3x × 3x × 3x Meaning of cubing

=3×x×3×x×3×x
= 3 × 3 × 3 × x × x × x Multiplication is commutative: a × b = b × a

= 27x3 We say that (3x)3 simplifies to 27x3.

4. Simplify:
(a) (2x)3 (b) (−x)3 (c) (5a)3
(d) (7y2)3 (e) (−3m)3 (f) (2x3)3

5. Simplify:
(a) 5a − 2a (b) 7x + 3x (c) 4b + b

6. Simplify:
(a) (5a − 2a)3 (b) (7x + 3x)3 (c) (4b + b)3
(d) (13x − 6x)3 (e) (17x + 3x)3 (f) (20y − 14y)3

Always remember to test if the simplified expression

is equivalent to the given expression for at least three
different values of the given variable.

square and cube roots of expressions

1. Thabang and his friend Vuyiswa were asked to simplify 2a2 × 2a2 .
Thabang reasoned as follows:
To find the square root of a number is the same as asking yourself the question:
“Which number was multiplied by itself?” The number that is multiplied by
itself is 2a2 and therefore 2a2 × 2a2 = 2a2.
Vuyiswa reasoned as follows:
I should first simplify 2a2 × 2a2 to get 4a4 and then calculate 4a 4 = 2a2.
Which of the two methods do you prefer? Explain why.

2. Say whether each of the following is true or false. Give a reason for your answer.

(a) 6 x × 6 x = 6x (b) 5x2 × 5x2 = 5x2

3. Simplify:
(a) y6 × y6 (b)
125x2 + 44x2

4. Simplify:
(a) y12 (b) 125x2 + 44 x2

(c) 25a2 − 16a2 (d) 121y 2

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 (e) 16a2 + 9a2 (f) 25a2 − 9a 2
5. What does it mean to find the cube root of 8x3 written as 3 8 x3 ?

6. Simplify:
(a) 2a × 2a × 2a (b) 10b3 × 10b3 × 10b3
(c) 3x3 × 3x3 × 3x3 (d) −3x3 × −3x3 × −3x3

7. Determine the following:

3 2 a × 2 a × 2 a (c)
b 9 (b)
(a) 1000
3 3
27 x3 (d)
3
−27 x3

8. Simplify each of the following expressions:

(a) 6x3 + 2x3 (b)
−m3 − 3m3 − 4m3

9. Determine the following:

(a) 6
3
x3 + 2 x3 (b)
3
−8m3 (c)
3
125y 3 (d)
3
93a3 + 123a 3

Worksheet

1. Simplify:
(a) 2(3b + 1) + 4 (b) 6 − (2 + 5e)
(c) 18mn + 22mn + 70mn (d) 4pqr + 3 + 9pqr

2. Evaluate each of the following expressions for m = 10:

(a) 3m2 + m + 10 (b) 5(m2 − 5) + m2 + 25
4b + 6
3. (a) Simplify:
2
4b + 6
(b) Evaluate the expression for b = 100.
2
4. Simplify:
(a) (4g)2 (b) (6y)3 (c) (7s + 3s)2

5. Determine the following:

(a) 121b 2 (b)
3
63d 2 + 18d 2
64 y 3 (c)

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 Chapter 9
Algebraic equations 2

9.1 Thinking forwards and backwards

doing and undoing what has been done

1. Copy and complete the flow diagram on the right by –3 –6

finding the output values. –2
2. Copy and complete the following table: 0 ×2
5
x −3 −2 0 5 17
17
2x

3. Evaluate 4x if:
(a) x = −7 (b) x = 10 (c) x = 0

4. (a) Copy and complete the flow diagram on the 4

right by finding the input values. 12
(b) Puleng put another integer into the flow ×4 28
diagram and got −68 as an answer. Which
32
integer did she put in? Show your calculation.
40
(c) Explain how you worked to find the input
numbers when you did question 4(a).

5. (a) Copy and complete the following table:

x
5x 5 15 25 40 90

(b) Copy and complete the following flow diagrams:

5 1
15 3
25 ÷5 5 ×5
40 8
90 18
(c) Explain how you completed the table.

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 One of the things we do in algebra is to evaluate
expressions. When we evaluate expressions we
replace a variable in the expression with an input
number to obtain the value of the expression called
the output number. We think of this process as a
doing process.
However, in other cases we may need to undo what
was done. When we know what output number was
obtained but do not know what input number was
used, we have to undo what was done in evaluating
the expression. In such a case we say we are solving
an equation.

6. Look again at questions 1 to 5. For each question, say whether the question required
a doing or an undoing process. Give an explanation for your answer (for example:
input to output).

7. (a) Copy and complete the following flow diagrams:

1 +6 7 –6

(b) What do you observe?

8. (a) Copy and complete the following flow diagrams:

2 ×5 10 ÷5

(b) What do you observe?

9. (a) Copy and complete the following flow diagrams:

20 ×5 +5 105 –5 ÷5

(b) What do you observe?

10. (a) Copy and complete the following flow diagram:

64 ÷8 + 12

(b) What calculations will you do to determine what the input number was when
the output number is 20?

Solve the following problems by undoing what was done to get the answer:

11. When a certain number is multiplied by 10 the answer is 150. What is the number?

12. When a certain number is divided by 5 the answer is 1. What is the number?

13. When 23 is added to a certain number the answer is 107. What is the original number?

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 14. When a certain number is multiplied by 5 and 2 is subtracted from the answer, the
final answer is 13. What is the original number?

Moving from the output value to the input value is

called solving the equation for the unknown.

9.2 Solving equations using the additive and

multiplicative inverses
finding the unknown

Consider the equation 3x + 2 = 23.

We can represent the equation 3x + 2 = 23 in a flow diagram, where x represents an
unknown number:

x ×3 +2 23

When you reverse the process in the flow diagram, you start with the output number 23,
then subtract 2 and then divide the answer by 3:

23 –2 ÷3

We can write all of the above reverse process as follows:

Subtract 2 from both sides of the equation:
3x + 2 – 2 = 23 − 2
3x = 21

Divide both sides by 3:

3x 21
=
3 3
x = 7

We say x = 7 is the solution of 3x + 2 = 23, because 3 × 7 + 2 = 23. We say that x = 7 makes

the equation 3x + 2 = 23 true.

The numbers + 2 and − 2 are additive inverses of The additive and

each other. When we add a number and its additive multiplicative inverses help
inverse we always get 0. us to isolate the unknown
1 value or the input value.
The numbers 3 and are multiplicative
3
inverses of each other. When we multiply a number
and its multiplicative inverse we always get 1, so
1
3 × = 1.
3

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 Solve the equations below by using the additive and Also remember:
multiplicative inverses. Check your answers. • The multiplicative
1. x + 10 = 0 2. 49x + 2 = 100 property of 1: the
product of any number
3. 2x = 1 4. 20 = 11 − 9x and 1 is that number.
In some cases you need to collect like terms before • The additive property
of 0: the sum of any number
you can solve the equations using additive and
and 0 is that number.
multiplicative inverses, as in the example below:

Example: Solve for x: 7x + 3x = 10 7x and 3x are like terms and

10x = 10 can be replaced with one
10 x 10 equivalent expression:
=
10 10 (7 + 3)x = 10x.
x = 1

5. 4x + 6x = 20 6. 5x = 40 + 3x
7. 3x + 1 − x = 0 8. x + 20 + 4x = −55

9.3 Solving equations involving powers

Solving an exponential equation is the same as asking
the question: To what exponent must the base
be raised in order to make the equation true?
1. Copy and complete the following table:

x 1 3 5 7
2x

2. Copy and complete the following table:

x 2 5
3x 1 27

Karina solved the equation 3x = 27 as follows: The number 27 can be

3x = 27 expressed as 33 because
Hence 3x = 33 33 = 27.

Hence x = 3

3. Now use Karina’s method and solve for x in each of the following:
(a) 2x = 32 (b) 4x = 16 (c) 6x = 216 (d) 5x + 1 = 125

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 Chapter 10
Construction of geometric
figures
10.1 Bisecting lines
When we construct, or draw geometric figures, we often need to bisect lines or angles.
To bisect means to cut something into two equal parts. There are different ways to bisect
a line segment.

Bisecting a line segment with a ruler

1. Read through the following steps:

Step 1: Draw line segment AB and determine its midpoint.

A B

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Step 2: Draw any line segment through the midpoint.

C

A B
F
The small marks on AF
and FB show that AF and
FB are equal.
D

CD is called a bisector because it

bisects AB. AF = FB.

2. Use a ruler to draw and bisect the following line segments:

AB = 6 cm and XY = 7 cm.

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 In Grade 6, you learnt how to use a compass to draw circles and parts of circles called
arcs. We can use arcs to bisect a line segment.

Bisecting a line segment with a compass and ruler

1. Read through the following steps:

Step 1: Place the compass on one endpoint of 0°

0
24
the line segment (point A). Draw an arc above
and below the line. (Notice that all the points
on the arc above and below the line are the same
distance from point A.) A B

Step 2: Without changing

the compass width, place the compass on point B.
Draw an arc above and below the line so that the arcs
A B
cross the first two. (The two points where the arcs
cross are the same distance away from point A and
from point B.)

C Step 3: Use a ruler to join the points where the arcs

intersect. This line segment (CD) is the bisector
of AB.

Intersect means to cross

90° or meet.
A B A perpendicular is a line
that meets another line at
an angle of 90°.

Notice that CD is also perpendicular to AB.

Try this!
Therefore, CD is a perpendicular bisector.
Use only a protractor and
ruler to draw a perpendicular
2. Use a compass and a ruler to practise drawing bisector on a line segment.
perpendicular bisectors on line segments. (Remember that we use a
protractor to measure angles.)

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 10.2 Constructing perpendicular lines
A perpendicular line from a given point

1. Read through the following steps:

Step 1: Place your compass on the Step 2: From each arc on the line, draw
given point (point P). Draw an arc another arc on the opposite side of the
across the line on each side of the line from the given point (P). The two
given point. Do not adjust the compass new arcs will intersect.
width when drawing the second arc. P

A B

Q
A B

Step 3: Use your ruler to join the given

point (P) to the point where the arcs
intersect (Q).

PQ is perpendicular to AB.
We also write it like this: PQ ⊥ AB.

A B

2. Use your compass and ruler to draw a perpendicular

line from each given point to the line segment:

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 A perpendicular line at a given point on a line

1. Read through the following steps:

Step 1: Place your compass on the Step 2: Open your compass so that it
given point (P). Draw an arc across is wider than the distance from one of
the line on each side of the given the arcs to point P. Place the compass
point. Do not adjust the compass on each arc and draw an arc above or
width when drawing the second arc. below the point P. The two new arcs will
intersect.

A P B
A P B

Step 3: Use your ruler to join the

given point (P) and the point
where the arcs intersect (Q).
Q

PQ ⊥ AB

A P B

2. Copy the following diagrams. Use your compass and ruler to draw a perpendicular at
the given point on each line:

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 10.3 Bisecting angles
Angles are formed when any two lines meet. We use degrees (°) to measure angles.

Measuring and classifying angles

In the figures below, each angle has a number from 1 to 9.

1. Use a protractor to measure the sizes of all the angles in each figure. Write your
answers for each figure.
(a) (b)

1 2
7
6 8
4 3
5 9

2. Copy the statements below and use your answers to write the angle sizes:

1 = °  6 = ° 

1 + 2 = °  7 + 8 = ° 

 =
1 + 4 °  6 + 7 + 8 = ° 

2 + 3 = °  5 + 6 + 7 = ° 

3 + 4
 = °  6 + 5 = ° 

1 + 2 + 4
 = °  5 + 6 + 7 + 8 = ° 

1 + 2 + 3 + 4
 = °  5 + 6 + 7 + 8 + 9 = ° 

3. Next to each of your answers above, write down what type of angle it is, namely
acute, obtuse, right, straight, reflex or revolution.

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 Bisecting angles without a protractor

1. Read through the following steps:

Step 1: Place the compass on the Step 2: Place the compass on the
vertex of the angle (point B). Draw an point where one arc crosses an arm and
arc across each arm of the angle. draw an arc inside the angle. Without
changing the compass width, repeat
A
for the other arm so that the two arcs
cross.
A

80°
B C

80°
B C

Step 3: Use a ruler to join A

the vertex to the point where
the arcs intersect (D).
D
 C.
DB is the bisector of AB

80°
B C

2. Copy the following angles and use your compass and You could measure each of
ruler to bisect the angles. the angles with a protractor
P
K to check if you have bisected
the given angle correctly.

50°
L M
Q R

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 10.4 Constructing special angles without a protractor
constructing angles of 60°, 30° and 120°

1. Read through the following steps:

Step 1: Draw a line segment (JK). With Step 2: Without changing the
the compass on point J, draw an arc compass width, move the compass to
across JK and up over above point J. the point where the arc crosses JK, and
draw an arc that crosses the first one.

J K
J K

Step 3: Join point J to the point

where the two arcs meet (point P). P
P JK = 60°

60°
J K

2. (a) Copy the drawing at the top of page 99. When you learn more about
Construct an angle of 60° at point B. the properties of triangles
(b) Bisect the angle you constructed. later, you will understand why
the method above creates
(c) Do you notice that the bisected angle consists
a 60° angle. Or can you
of two 30° angles? already work this out now?
(d) Extend line segment BC to A. (Hint: What do you know
Then measure the angle adjacent to the about equilateral triangles?)
60° angle. What is its size?
(e) What do the 60° angle and its adjacent angle Adjacent means “next to”.
add up to?

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 A B C

Constructing angles of 90° and 45°

1. Construct an angle of 90° at point A. Go back to Section 10.2 if you need help.
2. Bisect the 90° angle to create an angle of 45°. Go back to Section 10.3 if you
need help.
Challenge
Try to construct the following
angles without using a
protractor: 150°, 210° and
135°.

10.5 Constructing triangles

In this section, you will learn how to construct triangles. You will need a pencil, a
protractor, a ruler and a compass.
A triangle has three sides and three angles. We can construct a triangle when we know
some of its measurements, that is, its sides, its angles, or some of its sides and angles.

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 Constructing triangles

Constructing triangles when three sides are given

1. Read through the following steps. They describe how to construct ∆ABC with side
lengths of 3 cm, 5 cm and 7 cm.
Step 1: Draw one side of the triangle Step 2: Set the compass width to 5 cm.
using a ruler. It is often easier to start Draw an arc 5 cm away from point A.
with the longest side. The third vertex of the triangle will
be somewhere along this arc.

A B
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

A 7 cm B

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Step 3: Set the compass width to 3 cm. Step 4: Use your ruler to join points
Draw an arc from point B. Note where A and B to the point where the arcs
this arc crosses the first arc. This will be intersect (C).
the third vertex of the triangle.

5 cm

A 7 cm B A 7 cm B
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

2. Follow the steps above to construct the following triangles:

(a) ∆ABC with sides 6 cm, 7 cm and 4 cm
(b) ∆KLM with sides 10 cm, 5 cm and 8 cm
(c) ∆PQR with sides 5 cm, 9 cm and 11 cm

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 Constructing triangles when certain angles and sides are given
3. Use the rough sketches in (a) to (c) below to construct accurate triangles, using a
ruler, compass and protractor. Make sure that:
• the dotted lines show where you have to use a compass to measure the length
of a side
• you use a protractor to measure the size of the given angles.

(a) Construct ∆ABC, with two angles and

one side given.
C

50° 45°
A 7 cm B

(b) Construct a ∆KLM, with two sides and

an angle given.
M

8 cm

35° L
K
9 cm

(c) Construct a right-angled ∆PQR, with the

hypotenuse and one other side given.

8,1 cm

Q R
6 cm

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 4. Measure the missing angles and sides of each Challenge
triangle in 3(a) to (c) on the previous page. 1. Construct these triangles:
Write the measurements next to your completed (a) ∆STU, with three angles
constructions. given: S = 45°, T = 70° and
U = 65°.
5. Compare each of your constructed triangles in
(b) ∆XYZ, with two sides and
question 3(a) to (c) with a classmate’s triangles.
the angle opposite one of
Are the triangles exactly the same? the sides given: X  = 50°,
XY = 8 cm and XZ = 7 cm.
2. Can you find more than
one solution for each triangle
If triangles are exactly the same, we say they above? Explain your findings to
are congruent. a classmate.

10.6 Properties of triangles

The angles of a triangle can be the same size or different sizes. The sides of a triangle can
be the same length or different lengths.

properties of equilateral triangles

1. (a) Construct ∆ABC.

(b) Measure and label the sizes of all its sides and angles.
C

5 cm 5 cm

A B
5 cm

2. Measure and write down the sizes of the sides D E

and angles of ∆DEF on the right.
3. Both triangles in questions 1 and 2 are called
equilateral triangles. Discuss with a classmate
if the following is true for an equilateral triangle:
• All the sides are equal.
• All the angles are equal to 60°.
F

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 Properties of isosceles triangles

1. (a) Construct ∆DEF with EF = 7 cm, E = 50° and F = 50°.

Also construct ∆JKL with JK = 6 cm, KL = 6 cm and J = 70°.
(b) Measure and label all the sides and angles of each triangle.

2. Both triangles above are called isosceles triangles. Discuss with a classmate
whether the following is true for an isosceles triangle:
• Only two sides are equal.
• Only two angles are equal.
• The two equal angles are opposite the two equal sides.

The sum of the angles in a triangle

1. Look at your constructed triangles ∆ABC, ∆DEF and ∆JKL above and on the previous
page. What is the sum of the three angles each time?

2. Did you find that the sum of the interior angles of each triangle is 180°? Do the
following to check if this is true for other triangles.

B
B C C A

(a) On a clean sheet of paper, construct any triangle. Label the angles A, B and C
and cut out the triangle.
(b) Neatly tear the angles off the triangle and fit them next to one another.
, B
(c) Notice that A  and C
 form a straight angle. Complete: A
 +B
 +C
= °

We can conclude that the interior angles of a triangle

always add up to 180°.

10.7 Properties of quadrilaterals

A quadrilateral is any closed shape with four straight sides. We classify quadrilaterals
according to their sides and angles. We note which sides are parallel, perpendicular or
equal. We also note which angles are equal.

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 Properties of quadrilaterals

1. Measure and write down the sizes of all the angles and the lengths of all the sides of
each of the following quadrilaterals:

Square Rectangle
G
A D

E
B C

Parallelogram Rhombus
M
K N

J
L

L M

Trapezium Kite
D
R U

A C

S T
B

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 2. Use your answers in question 1. Copy the following table and place a ✓ in the correct
box to show which property is correct for each shape.

Properties Parallelogram Rectangle Rhombus Square Kite Trapezium

Only one pair of

sides are parallel

Opposite sides are

parallel

Opposite sides are

equal

All sides are equal

Two pairs of adjacent

sides are equal

Opposite angles are

equal

All angles are equal

Sum of the angles in a quadrilateral

1. Add up the four angles of each quadrilateral on the previous page. What do you
notice about the sum of the angles of each quadrilateral?

2. Did you find that the sum of the interior angles of each quadrilateral equals 360°?
Do the following to check if this is true for other quadrilaterals:
(a) On a clean sheet of paper, use a ruler to construct any quadrilateral.
(b) Label the angles A, B, C and D. Cut out the quadrilateral.
(c) Neatly tear the angles off the quadrilateral and fit them next to one another.
(d) What do you notice?

We can conclude that the interior angles of a

quadrilateral always add up to 360°.

10.8 Constructing quadrilaterals

You learnt how to construct perpendicular lines in Section 10.2. If you know how to
construct parallel lines, you should be able to construct any quadrilateral accurately.

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 Constructing parallel lines to draw quadrilaterals

1. Read through the following steps:

Step 1: From line segment AB, mark a Step 2: Draw an arc from A that crosses
point D. This point D will be on the line AD and AB. Keep the same compass
that will be parallel to AB. Draw a line width and draw an arc from point D as
from A through D. shown.

D
D

A B

A B

Step 3: Set the compass width to the Step 4: Draw a line from D through
distance between the two points where the point where the two arcs meet. DC
the first arc crosses AD and AB. From the is parallel to AB.
point where the second arc crosses AD,
draw a third arc to cross the second arc.

D
C
D
D
D
D
A B
A B
A B A B
A B

2. Practise drawing a parallelogram, square and rhombus.

3. Use a protractor to draw quadrilaterals with at least one set of parallel lines.

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 Worksheet

1. Do the following construction:

(a) Use a compass and ruler to construct equilateral ∆ABC with sides of 9 cm.
 . Let the bisector intersect AC at point D.
(b) Without using a protractor, bisect B
(c) Use a protractor to measure AD B. Write the measurement on the drawing.

2. Name the following types of triangles and quadrilaterals:

A B C

D E F

3. Which of the following quadrilaterals matches each description below? (There may
be more than one answer for each.)

parallelogram; rectangle; rhombus; square; kite; trapezium

(a) All sides are equal and all angles are equal.
(b) Two pairs of adjacent sides are equal.
(c) One pair of sides is parallel.
(d) Opposite sides are parallel.
(e) Opposite sides are parallel and all angles are equal.
(f) All sides are equal.

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 Chapter 11
Geometry of 2D shapes

11.1 Types of triangles

By now, you know that a triangle is a closed 2D shape with three straight sides. We can
classify or name different types of triangles according to the lengths of their sides and
according to the sizes of their angles.

Naming triangles according to their sides

1. Copy the table and match the name of each type of triangle with its correct description:

Name of triangle Description of triangle

Isosceles triangle All the sides of a triangle are equal.
Scalene triangle None of the sides of a triangle are equal.
Equilateral triangle Two sides of a triangle are equal.

2. Name each type of triangle by looking at its sides:

P X G
Z
R
I
H
Q Y

Naming triangles according to their angles

Remember the following types of angles:

A O
D

Q
F P
B C E

Acute angle Right angle Obtuse angle

(< 90°) (= 90°) (between 90° and 180°)

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 Study the following triangles and then answer the questions:

Acute triangle Right-angled triangle Obtuse triangle

1. Are all the angles of a triangle always equal? 

2. When a triangle has an obtuse angle, what kind of triangle is it called?

3. When a triangle has only acute angles, what kind of triangle is it called?

4. What size must one of the angles of a triangle be for it to be called a right-angled
triangle?

investigating the angles and sides of triangles

1. (a) What is the sum of the interior angles of If you cannot work out the
a triangle?  answers in question 1(b)
(b) Can a triangle have two right angles?  and (c), try to construct the
Explain your answer. triangles to find the answers.
(c) Can a triangle have more than one obtuse angle?
Explain your answer.

2. Look at the triangles below. The arcs show which angles are equal.

A A A L L L
MM M

B B B E E E
J J J
C C C F F F K K K
Equilateral triangle Isosceles triangle Right-angled triangle

(a) ∆ABC is an equilateral triangle. What do you notice about its angles?
(b) ∆FEM is an isosceles triangle. What do you notice about its angles?
(c) ∆JKL is a right-angled triangle. Is its longest side opposite the 90° angle?
(d) Construct any three right-angled triangles on a sheet of paper. Is the longest
side always opposite the 90° angle?

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 Properties of triangles: Interior angles are the
• The sum of the interior angles of a triangle angles inside a closed shape;
is 180°. not the angles outside of it.
• An equilateral triangle has all sides equal and
each interior angle is equal to 60°.
• An isosceles triangle has two equal sides and the
angles opposite the equal sides are equal.
• A scalene triangle has no sides equal.
• A right-angled triangle has a right angle (90°).
• An obtuse triangle has one obtuse angle
(between 90° and 180°).
• An acute triangle has three acute angles (< 90°).

11.2 Unknown angles and sides of triangles

You can use what you know about triangles to obtain other information. When you work
out new information, you must always give reasons for the statements you make.
Look at the following examples of working out unknown angles and sides when certain
information is given. The reason for each statement is written in square brackets.

A
J
D

B
85°
40° L
C E F K

 =B
A  =C
 = 60° [Angles in an equilateral ∆ = 60°]
DE = DF [Given]
E = F [Angles opposite the equal sides of an isosceles ∆ are equal]
J = 55° [The sum of the interior angles of a ∆ = 180°; so J = 180° – 40° – 85°]

You can shorten the following reasons in the ways shown:

• Sum of interior angles (∠s) of a triangle (∆) = 180°: Interior ∠s of ∆
• Isosceles triangle has two sides and two angles equal: Isosceles ∆
• Equilateral triangle has three sides and three angles equal: Equilateral ∆
• Angles forming a straight line = 180°: Straight line

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 Working out unknown angles and sides

Find the sizes of unknown angles and sides in the following triangles. Always give
reasons for every statement.

.
1. Find C
A
50°

95°
B C

2. Find P .
P

Q 45°
60°
R

3. (a) Find KM.

(b) Find K .

K
50 mm

L 38° M

4. What is the size of S ?

S

32°
R T

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 5. (a) Find CB.
(b) Find C  if A
 = 50°.

8 cm

A B
6 cm

6. (a) Find DF.

(b) Find E if D = 100°.

4 mm

D 7 mm

working out more unknown angles and sides

 and Z
1. Calculate the size of X .

Y 24°

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 2. Calculate the size of x.
G
x

80° E

3. KLM is a straight line. Calculate the size of x and y.

50°
y M
x L

100°
K

4. Angle b and an angle with a size of 130° form a straight angle. Calculate the size of a and b.

b
130°

30°

5. Angle m and n form a straight angle. Calculate the size of m and n.

m n

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 6. BCD is a straight line segment. Calculate the size of x.
A

D
68°
C

B
.
7. Calculate the size of x and then the size of H
G
x

x + 20° I
2x + 40°
H

.
8. Calculate the size of N
M

2x – 50°

x + 10° P
2x – 30°
N
9. DNP is a straight line. Calculate the size of x and y.

56° P
x
N
D

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 11.3 Types of quadrilaterals and their properties
A quadrilateral is a figure with four straight sides which
meet at four vertices. In many quadrilaterals all the sides
are of different lengths and all the angles are of different
sizes.

You have previously worked with these types of

quadrilaterals, in which some sides have the same
lengths, and some angles may be of the same size:
parallelograms
rectangles
kites
rhombuses
squares
trapeziums

the properties of different types of quadrilaterals

1. In each of the following questions, different examples of a certain type of

quadrilateral are given. In each case identify which kind of quadrilateral it is.
Describe the properties of each type by making statements about the lengths and
directions of the sides and the sizes of the angles of each type. You may have to take
some measurements to be able to do this.

(a)

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 (b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

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 (f)

2. Use your completed lists and the drawings in question 1 to determine if the following
statements are true or false:

(a) A rectangle is a parallelogram. (b) A square is a parallelogram. 

(c) A rhombus is a parallelogram.  (d) A kite is a parallelogram. 
(e) A trapezium is a parallelogram.  (f) A square is a rhombus. 
(g) A square is a rectangle.  (h) A square is a kite. 
(i) A rhombus is a kite.  (j) A rectangle is a rhombus. 
(k) A rectangle is a square. 
A convention is something
If a quadrilateral has all the properties of another (such as a definition or
quadrilateral, you can define it in terms of the other method) that most people
agree on, accept and follow.
quadrilateral, as you have found above.

3. Here are some conventional definitions of quadrilaterals:

• A parallelogram is a quadrilateral with two opposite sides parallel.
• A rectangle is a parallelogram that has all four angles equal to 90°.
• A rhombus is a parallelogram with all four sides equal.
• A square is a rectangle with all four sides equal.
• A trapezium is a quadrilateral with one pair of opposite sides parallel.
• A kite is a quadrilateral with two pairs of adjacent sides equal.

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 Write down other definitions that work for the following quadrilaterals:
(a) Rectangle (b) Square (c) Rhombus
(d) Kite (e) Trapezium

11.4 Unknown angles and sides of quadrilaterals

finding unknown angles and sides

Find the length of all the unknown sides and angles in the following quadrilaterals.
Give reasons to justify your statements. (Also recall that the sum of the angles of a
quadrilateral is 360°.)
1. 7 cm C
D
100°
4 cm

80° B
A

2. 6 cm
J M
78° 102°

K L

3. ABCD is a kite. D

7 cm

105° C
A 55°
4 cm

4. The perimeter of RSTU is 23 cm.

7 cm
R U
105°
4 cm
3 cm
75° 120°
S T

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 5. PQRS is a rectangle and has a perimeter of 40 cm.

(3x) cm
P S

(x) cm

Q R

11.5 Congruency
what is congruency?

1. ∆ABC is reflected in the vertical A K

line (mirror) to give ∆KLM.
Are the sizes and shapes of the
two triangles exactly the same?
B C L M

Mirror

2. ∆MON is rotated 90° around T

point F to give you ∆TUE.
E
Are the sizes and shapes of M
∆MON and ∆TUE exactly the
N
same? O
F U

A six units right

3. Quadrilateral ABCD is translated
one unit down
six units to the right and one unit D X
down to give quadrilateral XRZY. Y

Are ABCD and XRZY exactly the C

same? B Z
R

In the previous activity, each of the figures was transformed (reflected, rotated or
translated) to produce a second figure. The second figure in each pair has the same
angles, side lengths, size and area as the first figure. The second figure is therefore
an accurate copy of the first figure.

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 When one figure is an image of another figure, The word congruent comes
we say that the two figures are congruent. from the Latin word congruere,
The symbol for congruency is: ≡ which means “to agree”.
Figures are congruent if they
Notation of congruent figures match up perfectly when laid
When we name shapes that are congruent, we name them on top of each other.
so that the matching, or corresponding, angles are in the
same order. For example, in ∆ABC and ∆KLM on the previous page:
 is congruent to (matches and is equal to) K
A .
We cannot assume that,
 is congruent to M
B .
when the angles of polygons
 is congruent to L .
C are equal, the polygons are
We therefore use this notation: ∆ABC ≡ ∆KML. congruent. You will learn
about the conditions of
Similarly, for the other pairs of figures on the previous page: congruence in Grade 9.
∆MON ≡ ∆TUE and ABCD ≡ XRZY.
The notation of congruent figures also shows which sides of the two figures correspond
and are equal. For example, ∆ABC ≡ ∆KML shows that:
AB = KM, BC = ML and AC = KL.
The incorrect notation ∆ABC ≡ ∆KLM would show the following incorrect information:
 = L , C
B  =M
 , AB = KL and AC = KM.

identifying congruent angles and sides

Copy the following table and write down which angles and sides are equal between each
pair of congruent figures:

1. ∆PQR ≡ ∆UCT 2. ∆KLM ≡ ∆UWC

3. ∆GHI ≡ ∆QRT 4. ∆KJL ≡ ∆POQ

11.6 Similarity
In Grade 7, you learnt that two figures are similar when they have the same shape
(their angles are equal) but they may be different sizes. The sides of one figure are
proportionally longer or shorter than the sides of the other figure; that is, the length
of each side is multiplied or divided by the same number. We say that one figure is an
enlargement or a reduction of the other figure.

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 checking for similarity

1. Look at the rectangles below and answer the questions that follow:

K M

A D G J Rectangle 2
Rectangle 1

B C F H I L

(a) Look at rectangle 1 and ABCD. How many times is FH longer than BC?
How many times is GF longer than AB?
(b) Look at rectangle 2 and ABCD. How many times is IL longer than BC?
How many times is LM longer than CD?
(c) Is rectangle 1 or rectangle 2 an enlargement of rectangle ABCD? Explain your
answer.

2. Look at the triangles below and answer the questions that follow:

A
J

B C F G I K

(a) How many times is:

• FG longer than BC? HF longer than AB?
• HG longer than AC? IK shorter than BC?
• JI shorter than AB? JK shorter than AC?
(b) Is ∆HFG an enlargement of ∆ABC? Explain your answer.
(c) Is ∆JIK a reduction of ∆ABC? Explain your answer.

In the previous activity, rectangle KILM is an enlargement When you enlarge or

of rectangle ABCD. Therefore, ABCD is similar to KILM. The reduce a polygon, you
symbol for “is similar to” is: ///. So we write: ABCD /// KILM. need to enlarge or
reduce all its sides
The triangles on the previous page are also similar. ∆HFG is
proportionally, or by
an enlargement of ∆ABC, and ∆JIK is a reduction of ∆ABC. the same ratio. This
In ∆ABC and ∆HFG, A  =H, B
 = F and C =G  . We therefore means that you multiply
write it like this: ∆ABC /// ∆HFG. or divide each length by
the same number.
In the same way, ∆ABC /// ∆JIK.

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 Similar figures are figures that have the same angles
(same shape) but are not necessarily the same size.

using properties of similar and congruent figures

1. Are the triangles in each pair similar? Give a reason for each answer.

F T
60°
C 8 J 10
8 6
4 60° 4 5
3
60° 60° 60° 60°
A 4 B D 8 E K 4 L R 8 S

2. Is ∆RTU /// ∆EFG? Give a reason for your answer.

E

12 13

R
5
3

T 4 U F 5 G

3. ∆PQR /// ∆XYZ. Determine the length of XZ and XY.

X

P
8 cm
5 cm
Q 4 cm R Z 8 cm Y

4. Are the following statements true or false? Explain your answers.

(a) Figures that are congruent are similar.
(b) Figures that are similar are congruent.
(c) All rectangles are similar.
(d) All squares are similar.

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 Worksheet

1. Study the triangles below and answer the following questions:

(a) Choose the correct answer and write it down.
∆ABC is: A D
acute and equilateral
obtuse and scalene
acute and isosceles
B C E F
right-angled and isosceles
(b) If AB = 40 mm, what is the length of AC?
(c) If B = 80°, what is the size of C and of A
?

(d) ∆ABC ≡ ∆FDE. Name all the sides in the two triangles that are equal to AB.
(e) Name the side that is equal to DE.
?
(f) If F is 40°, what is the size of B

2. Look at figures JKLM and PQRS. (Give reasons for your answers below.)
J 6 cm
M
115° P 2 cm S
3 cm 1 cm
65° Q R
K L

(a) What type of quadrilateral is JKLM?

(b) Is JKLM /// PQRS?
(c) What is the size of L ?
(d) What is the size of S ?

(e) What is the length of KL?

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 Chapter 12
Geometry of straight lines

12.1 Angles on a straight line

Sum of angles on a straight line

In the figures below, each angle is given a label from 1 to 5.

1. Use a protractor to measure the sizes of all the angles in each figure. Write down your
answers.

A

1 2

B 4
3 5

2. Use your answers to determine the following sums:

(a) 1 + 2 3 + 4
(b)  + 5

The sum of angles that are formed on a straight line is D

equal to 180°. (We can shorten this property as: ∠s
common side
on a straight line.)
Two angles whose sizes add up to 180° are also
called supplementary angles, for example 1 + 2 .
Angles that share a vertex and a common side are 1 2
said to be adjacent. So 1 + 2 are therefore also A C B
called supplementary adjacent angles. same vertex

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 When two lines are perpendicular, their adjacent D
supplementary angles are each equal to 90°.
 A and DC
In the drawing alongside, DC  B are
adjacent supplementary angles because they are
A C B
next to each other (adjacent) and they add up to
180° (supplementary).

Finding unknown angles on straight lines

Work out the sizes of the unknown angles below. Build an equation each time as you
solve these geometric problems. Always give a reason for every statement you make.

1. Calculate the size of a.

63°

2. Calculate the size of x.

29°

3. Calculate the size of y.

2y
48°
52°

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 Finding more unknown angles on straight lines

1. Calculate the size of:

(a) x
B
(b) EC E
D

x 3x 2x
A C B

2. Calculate the size of:

(a) m
T
R
(b) SQ

P 70° 80°
m + 10°
Q
R

3. Calculate the size of:

(a) x
(b) HE F G H

x + 40°

x + 30° 2x + 10°
D E F

4. Calculate the size of:

(a) k
P
(b) TY
T P

k + 65°
2k
X Y Z

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 5. Calculate the size of:
(a) p
R
(b) JK U
R

3p
2p – 55° 70°
J K L

12.2 Vertically opposite angles

What are vertically opposite angles?

1. Use a protractor to measure the sizes

of all the angles in the figure.
Write down your answers.

a c

2. Notice which angles are equal and how these equal angles are formed.

Vertically opposite angles (vert. opp. ∠s) are the

angles opposite each other when two lines intersect.
Vertically opposite angles are always equal.

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 Finding unknown angles

Calculate the sizes of the unknown angles in the following figures. Always give a reason
for every statement you make.

1. Calculate x, y and z.

y
x 105°
z

2. Calculate j, k and l.

j
l
k
64°

3. Calculate a, b, c and d.

d a
b 62°
88° c

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 equations using vertically opposite angles

Vertically opposite angles are always equal. We can use this property to build an
equation. Then we solve the equation to find the value of the unknown variable.

1. Calculate the value of m.

m + 20°

100°

2. Calculate the value of t.

3t + 12° 66°

3. Calculate the value of p.

108°

2p + 30°

4. Calculate the value of z.

2z – 10°
58°

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 5. Calculate the value of y.

102° – 2y 78°

6. Calculate the value of r.

180° – 3r

126°

12.3 Lines intersected by a transversal

pairs of angles formed by a transversal

A transversal is a line that crosses at least two other lines.

The blue line is the transversal.

When a transversal intersects two lines, we can compare the sets of angles on the two
lines by looking at their positions.

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 The angles that lie on the same side of the transversal and are in matching positions are
called corresponding angles (corr. ∠s). In the figure,
these are corresponding angles:
a b
• a and e
d c
• b and f
• d and h
e f
• c and g.
h g

1. In the figure, a and e are both left of the

transversal and above a line.
Write down the location of the following corresponding angles. The first one has
been done for you.
b and f: Right of the transversal and above the lines.
d and h c and g

Alternate angles (alt. ∠s) lie on opposite sides of the transversal, but are not adjacent
or vertically opposite. When the alternate angles lie between the two lines, they are
called alternate interior angles. In the figure, these are alternate interior angles:
• d and f
• c and e. a b
d c
When the alternate angles lie outside of
the two lines, they are called alternate
e f
exterior angles. In the figure, these are
alternate exterior angles: h g
• a and g
• b and h.
2. Write down the location of the following alternate angles:
d and f c and e a and g b and h

Co-interior angles (co-int. ∠s) lie on

the same side of the transversal and a b
between the two lines. In the figure, these d c
are co-interior angles:
• c and f e f
• d and e. h g

3. Write down the location of the following

co-interior angles:
d and e c and f

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 identifying types of angles

Two lines are intersected by a transversal, as shown below.

a d
b c

e h
f g

Write down the following pairs of angles:

1. two pairs of corresponding angles
2. two pairs of alternate interior angles
3. two pairs of alternate exterior angles
4. two pairs of co-interior angles
5. two pairs of vertically opposite angles

12.4 Parallel lines intersected by a transversal

investigating angle sizes

In the figure below on the left-hand side, EF is a transversal to AB and CD. In the figure
below on the right-hand side, PQ is a transversal to parallel lines JK and LM.
P
E

J 9 10 K
A 1 2 B
4 3 12 11

D 13 14
C 5 6 L M
8 7 16 15

F Q

1. Use a protractor to measure the sizes of all the angles in each figure. Write down the
measurements of each angle.

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 2. Copy the table and use your measurements to complete it.

Angles When two lines are not parallel When two lines are parallel

Corr. ∠s 1 = ; 5 = 9 =  =
; 13
 =
4 ; 8 =  =
12  =
; 16

2 = ; 6 =  =
10  =
; 14

3 = ; 7 =  =
11  =
; 15

Alt. int. ∠s  =
4 ; 6 =  =
12  =
; 14

3 = ; 5 =  =
11  =
; 13

Alt. ext. ∠s 1 = ; 7 = 9 =  =
; 15

2 = ; 8 =  =
10  =
; 16

Co-int. ∠s  + 5 =
4  + 13
12  =
 + 14
 =
3 + 6 = 11

3. Look at your completed table in question 2. What do you notice about the angles
formed when a transversal intersects parallel lines?

When lines are parallel:

• corresponding angles are equal
• alternate interior angles are equal
• alternate exterior angles are equal
• co-interior angles add up to 180°.

identifying angles on parallel lines

1. Copy these drawings and fill in the corresponding angles to those given:

120° 60° 80° 45°

100°
135°

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 2. Copy the following drawings and fill in the alternate exterior angles:

120° 60° 80°

100°

45° 135°

3. (a) Copy the drawings and fill in the alternate interior angles.
(b) Circle the two pairs of co-interior angles in each figure.

60° 120° 45°

80°
135°
100°

4. (a) Copy the drawings below. Without measuring, fill in all the angles in the
following figures that are equal to x and y.
(b) Explain your reasons for each x and y that you filled in to your partner.
A B

x y x y

y y

x x

5. Give the value of x and y below:

75° 75°
y y 165°165°
x x

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 12.5 Finding unknown angles on parallel lines
working out unknown angles

Work out the sizes of the unknown angles. Give reasons for your answers. (The first one
has been done as an example.)
1. Find the sizes of x, y and z. x = 74° [alt. ∠ with given 74°; AB // CD]
E
y y = 74° [corr. ∠ with x; AB // CD]
A B
74° z or y = 74° [vert. opp. ∠ with given 74°]

x z = 106° [co-int. ∠ with x; AB // CD]

C D or z = 106° [∠s on a straight line]
F

2. Work out the sizes of p, q and r.

r L
K p

q N
M 133°
H

3. Find the sizes of a, b, c and d.

H
a
140° K
S b c
d
T
4. Find the sizes of all the angles in
this figure.
A C
F
K
130°

SE B D

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 5. Find the sizes of all the angles.
(Can you see two transversals and
two sets of parallel lines?)
J R

95°
M P
A B

X Y
C D

K S

EXTENSION

Two angles in the following diagram are given as x and y. Copy the diagram and fill in all the
angles that are equal to x and y.

x y

sum of the angles in a quadrilateral

The diagram on the right is a section of

the previous diagram. x y x y
1. What kind of quadrilateral is in the y x y x
diagram? Give a reason for your answer.
2. Look at the top left intersection. x y x y
Complete the following equation: y x y x
Angles around a point = 360°
∴ x + y + + = 360°

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 3. Look at the interior angles of the quadrilateral on page 136. Copy and complete the
following equations:
Sum of angles in the quadrilateral = x + y + + Can you think of another way
to use the diagram on page
From question 2: x + y + + = 360° 136 to work out the sum of
the angles in a quadrilateral?
∴ Sum of angles in a quadrilateral = °

12.6 Solving more geometric problems

angle relationships on parallel lines

1. Calculate the sizes of 1 to 7 .

C
154° Y
1
X 2 3

5 W
4
Z 6 7

2. Calculate the sizes of x, y and z.

D
C y 33°

21° B
x z
E
A

3. Calculate the sizes of a, b, c and d.

48° S
a d
T
b R
154° c
P Q

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 4. Calculate the size of x.

3x Y
Z
2x

5. Calculate the size of x.

3x

124°

6. Calculate the size of x.

x + 50°

3x – 10°

7. Calculate the sizes of a and CE P.

C E
5a + 40°
D
A
a + 100°
F B
Q

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 including properties of triangles and quadrilaterals

1. Calculate the sizes of 1 to 6 .

D

132° 1
K 2
T
3 4

6 5
A B

 and R
2. RSTU is a trapezium. Calculate the sizes of T .

U T
143°

112°
R S

 L, M
3. JKLM is a rhombus. Calculate the sizes of J M  and K
 .
2 1

J M
1
2

1
2 102°
K L

 B, AB
4. ABCD is a parallelogram. Calculate the sizes of AD  D, C
 and DB
 C.

C
D
20°

82° B
A

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 Worksheet

1. Look at the drawing below. Name the items listed alongside it.
(a) a pair of vertically opposite angles
J B
A
(b) a pair of corresponding angles
K
(c) a pair of alternate interior angles
T
S L M (d) a pair of co-interior angles

 G, F , C and D . Give reasons for

2. In the diagram, AB // CD. Calculate the sizes of FH
your answers.
F

H G B
A
53° 110°

C D
I
85°
E

3. In the diagram, OK = ON, KN // LM, KL // MN and LK O = 160°.

Calculate the value of x. Give reasons for your answers.
O
x

K N
160°

L 140° M

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 Chapter 13
Common fractions

13.1 Equivalent fractions

sharing chocolate in different ways

1. (a) John eats three quarters of a chocolate slab like the one above. How many small
pieces of chocolate is that?
(b) How many small pieces are there in the whole slab of chocolate?
(c) Ratti eats six eighths of a chocolate slab like the one above. Who eats more, Ratti
or John, or do they eat the same amount of chocolate? Explain your answer.
2. A slab of chocolate like the above one has to be shared fairly between 16 people.
That means each person should get one sixteenth of the slab.
How many small pieces of chocolate should each person get?
3. What fraction of the whole slab is one of the small pieces?
4. (a) Is it true that each person in question 2 should get one sixteenth of the slab?
(b) Is it true that each person in question 2 should get three forty-eighths of the slab?
(c) Is one sixteenth of the slab of chocolate precisely the same amount of chocolate
as three forty-eighths of the slab?
5. How many forty-eighths of a slab will each person get in each of the following cases,
if the slab is equally shared among the number of people indicated?
(a) between two people (b) between three people
(c) between four people (d) between six people

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 (e) between eight people (f) between 12 people
(g) between 16 people (h) between 24 people

6. In each case below, state what the smaller parts of the grey strip may be called.
(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

(g)

(h)

(i)

(j)

(k)

(l)

(m)

7. (a) A whole slab of chocolate is divided equally between a number of people and
each person gets one eighth of the slab. How many people are there?
(b) How many people are there if each person gets one twelfth of the slab?
(c) How many people are there if each person gets one sixteenth of the slab?

8. If each small piece is one forty-eighth of a slab of chocolate, how many pieces are
there in each of the following?
(a) one twelfth of a slab (b) one eighth of a slab
(c) one third of a slab (d) one twenty-fourth of a slab
(e) one sixth of a slab (f) one sixteenth of a slab

9. If each small piece is one forty-eighth of a slab of chocolate, how many pieces are
there in each of the following?
(a) five twelfths of a slab (b) three eighths of a slab
(c) two thirds of a slab (d) 17 twenty-fourths of a slab
(e) five sixths of a slab (f) 13 sixteenths of a slab

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 10. In each of the following say which fraction of the slab gives you more chocolate, or
whether the two quantities are the same. How do you know this?
(a) five sixths of a slab or 13 sixteenths of a slab
(b) five twelfths of a slab or three eighths of a slab
(c) two thirds of a slab or 17 twenty-fourths of a slab
11. (a) How many forty-eighths of a slab is one third of a slab and one eighth of a slab
together?
(b) How much of a slab is one sixth of a slab and three eighths of a slab together?
(c) How much chocolate is five sixths of a slab and seven eighths of a slab together?
12. (a) How many eighths of a slab is 18 forty-eighths of a slab? How did you work
this out?
(b) How many sixths of a slab is 32 forty-eighths of a slab? How did you work this out?

Now, here is a different slab of chocolate:

13. What fraction of the whole slab is each one of the small pieces?
14. How many sixtieths of the yellow 60-piece slab is each of the following?
(a) one fifth of the slab
(b) one twelfth of the slab
15. To answer question 14, you may just have counted the small pieces on the diagram.
What calculations could you have done to find the answers for question 14?
16. How many sixtieths of the yellow 60-piece slab is each of the following?
(a) one twentieth of the slab
(b) one sixth of the slab
(c) nine twentieths of the slab
17. In each case below, state which is more chocolate, or whether the two fractions of the
slab are the same amount of chocolate. How do you know?
(a) 14 twentieths or seven tenths
(b) 13 twentieths or nine fifteenths
(c) three fifths or seven twelfths

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 18. In each case below, work out how much of a slab is made up of the two parts together:
(a) 14 twentieths and seven tenths. At the end, give your answer as a number of tenths.
(b) 13 twentieths and nine fifteenths. Give your final answer as wholes and quarters.
(c) three fifths and seven twelfths

using fraction notation

5
Instead of writing five forty-eighths, we may write .
48
This is called the common fraction notation.
The number 48 below the line is called the denominator
and it shows that the whole was divided into 48 equal pieces,
so each piece is one forty-eighth of the whole. The denominator
shows the unit in which the number is expressed.
The number 5 above the line is called the numerator and
it indicates the number of pieces.
A number that is made up of a whole number and a fraction,
3
like two and three fifths, can be written as a mixed number: 2 .
5

1. Write each of the following numbers in fraction notation:

(a) seven twentieths (b) three and five eighths
(c) two and seven ninths (d) one and seven tenths

2. Write each of the following numbers in words:

23 5 5 17
(a) (b) 3 (c) 2 (d)
100 30 18 25

3. (a) The strip below is divided into five equal parts.

What part of the whole strip is each of the five parts?

(b) If you divide each fifth into six smaller equal parts, how many smaller parts will
there be altogether?
(c) What fraction of the whole strip is each of these smaller parts?
4. (a) The strip below is divided into ten equal parts.
What part of the whole strip is each of the ten parts?

(b) If you divide each tenth into four smaller equal parts, how many smaller parts
will there be altogether?
(c) What fraction of the whole strip is each of these smaller parts?

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 (d) If you divide each tenth into five smaller equal parts, how many smaller parts
will there be altogether?
(e) What fraction of the whole strip is each of these smaller parts?
(f) If you divide each tenth into ten smaller equal parts, how many smaller parts
will there be altogether?
(g) What fraction of the whole strip is each of these smaller parts?

5. (a) How many tenths make up one fifth?

You may use the diagram on the right to
figure this out.
(b) How many fifteenths are there in one fifth?
(c) How many fifteenths are there in three fifths?
(d) How many twentieths are there in one fifth?
If you need help with this, draw a diagram
like those in question 5(a) and (b) to help
you. Your diagram need not be accurate.
(e) How many twentieths are there in one quarter?
(f) How many twentieths are there in three quarters?
(g) How many twentieths do you think will make up one tenth? If you need help,
make marks on the diagram in question 5(a) to help you.
Your answers for question 5 can also be written in fraction notation. For example, your
3 9
answer for question 5(c) can be written as = .
5 15
6. Write each of your other answers for question 5 in fraction notation.

7. In this question write the fractions in words. Decide whether each statement is true
or false and give reasons for your answers.
15 3
(a) of the red strip below is longer than of the strip
20 4

9 3
(b) is a bigger number than
15 5
2 7
(c) is a smaller number than
3 12
The same number can be expressed in different units.
3
For example, the number can be expressed in
4
6 15 45 Equivalent fractions let us
eighths as , in twentieths as , in sixtieths as
8 20 60 write the same number in
3 6 15 45
and in many other units. , , and are all different ways, for example:
4 8 20 60 15
3 6 45
different ways of expressing the same number. Hence = = =
4 8 20 60
they are called equivalent fractions.

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 8. Write your answers in words and in fraction notation, and explain your answers.
3
(a) Express in sixteenths and in fortieths.
8
3
(b) Express in tenths, twentieths, fortieths and hundredths.
5
7
(c) Express in fortieths, fiftieths and hundredths.
10
3
9. Consider the fraction three quarters. It can be written as .
4
(a) Multiply both the numerator and the denominator by 2 to form a “new” fraction.
3
Is the “new” fraction equivalent to ? You can check your answer on this diagram.
4

3
(b) Multiply both the numerator and the denominator of by 3 to form a “new”
4
3
fraction. Is the “new” fraction equivalent to ?
4
3
(c) Multiply both the numerator and the denominator of by 4 to form a “new”
4
3
fraction. Is the new fraction equivalent to ?
4
3
(d) Multiply both the numerator and the denominator of by 6 to form a “new”
4
3
fraction. Is the new fraction equivalent to ?
4

15 3
is equivalent to because there are five twentieths in one quarter, and so there are 15
20 4
9 3
twentieths in three quarters. is not equivalent to because there are four sixteenths
16 4
in one quarter. Therefore, three quarters is 12 sixteenths; not nine sixteenths.

10. Decide whether the two given numbers are equal or not. Explain your answer.
If they are not equal, state which one is bigger and explain why you say so. You may
first write the fractions in words if that helps you.
5 3
(a) and (Hint: express both numbers in fortieths)
8 5
7 5 4 7
(b) and (c) and
10 8 5 8

13.2 Adding and subtracting fractions

To add or subtract fractions, all the fractions must be expressed in the same unit.
1. Calculate each of the fractions on page 147. The work that you did in question 10
above may help you.

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 5 3
(a) +
8 5
7 5
(b) +
10 8

7 3
(c) +
10 8

5 3
(d) −
8 5

7 3
(e) −
10 8

5 5 5 5 5 5 5
(f) 6 × (which is + + + + + )
8 8 8 8 8 8 8

7
(g) 8 ×
10

5 3
To compare, add or subtract fractions, for example and , find a fraction unit in
8 5
which both fractions can be expressed so that you can compare them. We call this a
common denominator. The “product” of the two denominators is helpful to find
5
such a unit. In this case, 5 × 8 = 40. Since one eighth is five fortieths, is 25 fortieths or
8
25 3 24 5 3
. Since one fifth is eight fortieths, is 24 fortieths or . So, is bigger than .
40 5 40 8 5

2. In each question, explain why the two given numbers are equal or why they are not
equal. If they are not equal, state which one is bigger and explain why you say so.
You may first write the fractions in words if that will help you.
5 2 5 7 3 4
(a) and (b) and (c) and
8 3 6 8 4 5

5 2 7 3 9 4
(d) and (e) and (f) and
12 3 12 8 20 15

3 1 7 5 9 11
(g) and (h) and (i) and
10 4 10 8 13 17

3. Add the two fractions given in each part of question 2. Show how you work it out.
5 2 5 7 3 4
(a) + (b) + (c) +
8 3 6 8 4 5

5 2 7 3 9 4
(d) + (e) + (f) +
12 3 12 8 20 15

3 1 7 5 9 11
(g) + (h) + (i) +
10 4 10 8 13 17

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 4. Now subtract the smaller number from the bigger number in each part of question 2.
2 5 7 5 4 3
(a) − (b) − (c) −
3 8 8 6 5 4
2 5 7 3 9 4
(d) − (e) − (f) −
3 12 12 8 20 15
3 1 7 5 9 11
(g) − (h) − (i) −
10 4 10 8 13 17
5. Calculate each of the following:
2 5
(a) 3 −1
3 6
6 3
(b) 5 +
7 8
5 4
(c) 12 +7
8 9

5 3
(d) 4 −2
12 10

3 2
(e) 1 −
10 3
7 3
(f) 2 −1
15 8

7 7 7 7 7
(g) + + + +
8 8 8 8 8
7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7
(h) + + + + + + +
8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7
(i) + + + + + + + + + + + +
8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
(j) 2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2
12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12

13.3 Tenths, hundredths and thousandths

a useful family of fraction units

1. (a) Shade three tenths of the following strip:

(b) Into how many smaller parts is each tenth of the above strip divided?
(c) How many of these smaller parts are there in the whole strip?
(d) What is each of these smaller parts called?

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 (e) How many hundredths make up two fifths of the strip?
(f) How many hundredths make up one quarter of the strip?
(g) Shade 37 hundredths of the following strip:

2. Express each of the following numbers as a number of hundredths, and write your
answers in fraction notation:
(a) four fifths (b) one twentieth
(c) seven twentieths (d) one twenty-fifth
(e) 17 twenty-fifths (f) seven fiftieths

Because one twentieth is five hundredths, seven twentieths is 35 hundredths.
35 7
This can also be expressed in fraction notation: = .
100 20
7 35 35
is called the simplest form of because cannot be expressed with a smaller
20 100 100
numerator than 7.

3. Express each of the following fractions in its simplest form:

75 60
(a)  (b)   
100 100
65 90
(c)  (d) 
100 100

4. Calculate each of the following, and express your answer in its simplest form:
3 4 6 6 7 9
(a) + (b) + (c) +  
25 20 25 20 100 200
1
5. (a) How much is of R400?
100
7
(b) How much is of R250? 
100
25
(c) How much is of R600? 
100
1
(d) How much is of R600? 
4
40
(e) How much is of R700? 
100
2
(f) How much is of R700? 
5

40
Instead of writing of R700, we may write
40 100
× R700.
100

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 6. Explain why your answers for question 5(e) and (f) are the same.

Another word for hundredth is per cent.

Instead of saying:
Miriam received 32 hundredths of the prize money,
we can say:
Miriam received 32 per cent of the prize money.
The symbol for per cent is % (percentage).

7. How much is 80% of each of the following?

(a) R900 (b)  R650
(c) R250 (d)  R3 400

8. How much is 8% of each of the amounts in 7(a), (b), (c) and (d)?

9. How much is 15% of each of the amounts in 7(a), (b), (c) and (d)?

The above strip is divided into hundredths. Imagine that each of the hundredths is
divided into ten equal parts (they will be almost impossible to see).

10. (a) How many of these very small parts will there be in the whole strip?
(b) What could each of these very small parts be called?

11. How much is each of the following?

(a) one tenth of R6 000 (b) one hundredth of R6 000
(c) one thousandth of R6 000 (d) ten hundredths of R6 000
(e) 100 thousandths of R6 000 (f) seven hundredths of R6 000
(g) 70 thousandths of R6 000 (h) one ten thousandth of R6 000

12. Calculate each of the following:

3 5 3 4
(a) + (b) 3 +2
10 8 10 5
3 7 3 70
(c) + (d) +
10 100 10 100
3 7 3 70
(e) + (f) +
10 1 000 10 1 000
13. Calculate each of the following:
3 7 4 3 70 400
(a) + + (b)  + +
10 100 1 000 10 100 1 000
6 20 700 2 5 4
(c) + + (d)  + +
10 100 1 000 10 100 1 000

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 14. In each case investigate whether the statement is true or not, and give reasons for
your decision.
1 23 346 6 3 46
(a) + + = + +
10 100 1 000 10 100 1 000
1 23 346 7 2 46
(b) + + = + +
10 100 1 000 10 100 1 000
1 23 346 6 7 6
(c) + + = + +
10 100 1 000 10 100 1 000
676 6 7 6
(d) = + +
1 000 10 100 1 000

13.4 Fraction of a fraction

calculate parts of wholes and parts of parts
7
To calculate (seven twentieths) of R500 you can first calculate one twentieth, and then
20
multiply by 7:
7
one twentieth of R500 is R500 ÷ 20 = R25, so of R500 is 7 × R25 = R175.
20

7 7
This means that to calculate of R500, you work of 500 is the same as
20 20
out (500 ÷ 20) × 7. You divide by the denominator 7
× 500.
and then multiply by the numerator. 20

1. Calculate each of the following:

9
(a) of R500
25
9
(b) of R500
20
9
(c) of R500
125
2. A small choir of eight members won the second prize in a competition and they
received two fifths of the total prize money. They shared the money equally between
themselves. The total prize money was R1 000. How much prize money did each
member of the choir get?
7
3. (a) How much is of 400?
8
2
(b) How much is of your answer for (a)?
5
7
(c) How much is of 400?
20

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 4. Here is Nathi’s answer to question 2 on page 151:
One fifth of R1 000 is R200, so two fifths is R400. So the choir team received R400 in total.
Each member received one eighth of the R400, which is R400 ÷ 8 = R50.
(a) Compare your own answer to Nathi’s answer. If they are different, work them
out again and find out who is right.
1
(b) Do you agree that of R1 000 is R50?
20
1
(c) Explain why the answer for question 2 is the same as of R1 000.
20
5. Copy the table below and write your answers in it. For each of the following numbers,
80, 180, 260, 360 and 2 400, work out:
2
(a) How much is of each of the numbers?
5
3
(b) How much is of each of your answers for (a)?
4
6
(c) How much is of each of the numbers?
20

Number 80 180 260 360 2 400

2
of the number
5

3
of the answer
4

6
of the number
20

6. Use your answers for question 5 to answer the following questions:

3 2
(a) How much is of of R80?
4 5
3 2
(b) How much is of of R180?
4 5
3 2
(c) How much is of of R260?
4 5
3 2
(d) How much is of of R360?
4 5
3 2
(e) How much is of of R2 400?
4 5
3 2
7. To calculate of of a number you did this: the number ÷ 4 × 3 ÷ 5 × 2.
4 5
(a) Investigate whether the number × 3 × 2 ÷ 5 ÷ 4 will give the same results as
the number ÷ 4 × 3 ÷ 5 × 2, for the numbers in question 5 or any other numbers
you may choose.

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 (b) Investigate whether or not the number × 6 ÷ 20 will give the same results as
the number × 3 × 2 ÷ 5 ÷ 4.
(c) Investigate whether or not the number × 3 ÷ 10 will give the same results as
the number × 6 ÷ 20.

3 2 3 2
Instead of of we may write × .
4 5 4 5
3 2 3×2
× =
4 5 4×5

7
To multiply by a mixed number like 2 , it is good practice to express the whole number
8
part in the same fraction units as the fraction part, for example:
7 16 7 23
two wholes is 16 eighths, so 2 is + = .
8 8 8 8

8. Calculate each of the following:

3 12 5 4
(a)  × (b)  ×
10 25 18 35
�1 1� 6 2 1 3
(c) � � � × (d)  × ×
3 2 � � 7 3 2 4
3 5 3 2
(e) 2 × (f) 2 ×3
5 6 4 5
2 2 2 1
(g) 2 ×2 (h) 8 ×3
3 3 5 3
6 �1 1� 6 1 6 1
(i)  × � � � (j) × + ×
7 �3 2� 7 3 7 2
6 �1 1� 6 1 6 1
(k)  × � � � (l) × − ×
7 �2 3� 7 2 7 3
�5 2� 1 5 1 2 1
(m) � � � × (n) × + ×
�6 3� 5 6 5 3 5
3 2 5 7 �4 2�
(o)  − × (p) ×� � �
4 5 6 8 �7 5�

squares and cubes and roots of fractions

1. Calculate each of the following:

3 3 3 3 3
(a) × (b) × ×
10 10 10 10 10
2 2
�3� �5�
(c) � � (d) � �
�5� �9�
3 2
�3� �1�
(e) � � (f) � �
5 � � �4�

CHAPTER 13: COMMON FRACTIONS 153

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 3 2
�1� �4�
(g) � � (h)
� �
4 7� � � �
3 2
�5� �5�
(i) � � (j)
� �
8 8� � � �
3 2
� 5 � � 5 �
(k) � � (l) � �
12 � � � 12 �
9
2. What number multiplied by itself will give ?
16
9 9
This number is called the square root of . It can be written as .
16 16

3. Find each of the following. In some cases, your answers to question 1 will help you.
(a)  4 (b)  3 27
9 64

(c)  25 (d)  3 125

81 343

(e)  25 (f)  3 125

36 216

(g)  9 (h)  3
27
100 1 000

13.5 Division by a fraction

serving juice

Jamie pours juice from bottles into glasses.

He uses three quarters of a bottle of juice to fill one glass.

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 1. How many bottles will Jamie need to fill ten glasses?

2. How many bottles will Jamie need to fill 30 glasses?

3. How many bottles will Jamie need to fill 100 glasses?

4. How many bottles will Jamie need to fill 180 glasses?

5. How many bottles will Jamie need to fill 37 glasses?

6. How many glasses can Jamie fill from 20 full bottles of juice?

7. How many glasses can Jamie fill from 36 full bottles of juice?

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 On another day Jamie uses different size glasses. He needs five eighths of a bottle of juice
to fill one of these glasses.

8. How many bottles of juice does Jamie need to fill 50 of these glasses?

9. How many of these glasses can Jamie fill from 25 full bottles of juice?
7
Jamie changes glasses again. For the new glasses, he needs of a full bottle of juice to
10
fill one glass.

10. How many bottles of juice does Jamie need to fill 44 of these glasses?

11. How many of these glasses can Jamie fill from 25 full bottles of juice?

12. How many glasses can Jamie fill from 36 full bottles of juice if he needs three quarters
of a bottle to fill one glass?

doing the juice calculations more quickly

1. Ria has R850 and chickens cost R67 each. What operation does she need to do to
work out how many chickens she can buy?

2. Jamie has 16 bottles of juice and needs three quarters of a bottle to fill one glass.
(a) How many quarters of a bottle of juice are there in 16 full bottles?
(b) How many glasses can he fill with these quarters?
3
In question 2 you have worked out how many glasses, each taking of a bottle, can be
4
filled from 16 bottles. You did this by first working out the total number of quarters in
16 bottles, and then dividing by 3 to find out how many glasses can be filled.
Do questions 3 and 4 in the same way.

3. Jamie has 20 bottles of juice and needs five eighths of a bottle to fill one glass. To work
5
out how many glasses he can fill, he needs to work out 20 divided by . Work in the
8
same way you did for question 2 to find out.
3
4. Jamie has 25 bottles of juice and needs of a bottle to fill one glass. How many
5
glasses can he fill?

In questions 2, 3 and 4 you have actually done the following calculations:

3
In question 2 you have calculated 16 ÷ , by doing 16 × 4 ÷ 3.
4
5
In question 3 you have calculated 20 ÷ , by doing 20 × 8 ÷ 5.
8
3
In question 4 you have calculated 25 ÷ , by doing 25 × 5 ÷ 3.
5

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 To divide by a fraction, you multiply by the
denominator and divide by the numerator.

5. Calculate each of the following:

2 3
(a) 9 ÷ (b) 12 ÷
3 8
7 3
(c) 15 ÷ (d) 2 ÷
10 20
7 3
(e) 20 ÷ (f) 120 ÷ 3
12 5
6. Calculate each of the following:
3 8
(a) 9 × (b) 12 ×
2 3
10 20
(c) 15 × (d) 2 ×
7 3
12 5
(e) 20 × (f) 120 ×
7 18
7. What do you notice about your answers for questions 5 and 6?

To divide by a fraction, we may turn the fraction around and multiply!

7 10
For example, 15 ÷ = 15 × .
10 10 7 7
is the reciprocal (also called the multiplicative inverse) of .
7 10

Division is the inverse of multiplication.

The method of dividing by multiplying by the reciprocal also works when a fraction is
5 7 5 10
divided by a fraction. For example ÷ can be calculated by doing × .
18 10 18 7

8. Calculate each of the following:

7 3 9 3
(a)  ÷ (b)  ÷
10 20 10 18
17 2 7 3
(c)  ÷ (d)  2 ÷
20 7 10 5
7 2 7 3
(e) 4 ÷ (f) 5 ÷2
8 3 8 5

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 Chapter 14
Fractions in decimal
notation
14.1 Equivalent forms
fractions in decimal notation

1. What fraction of each rectangle is coloured in? Copy the table and write your answers
in it.
(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Coloured in Fraction notation Decimal notation

(a) Red

(b) Blue

Yellow

(c) Blue

Yellow

(d) Yellow

Blue

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 2. Now find out what fraction in each rectangle in question 1 is not coloured in.
Copy the table and fill in yours answers.

Not coloured in Fraction notation Decimal notation

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Decimal fractions and common fractions are simply

different ways of expressing the same number. We
call them different notations.
To write a common fraction as a decimal
fraction, we must first express the common fraction
with a power of ten (10, 100, 1 000, etc.) as the
denominator.
9 9 5 45
For example: = × = = 0,45
20 20 5 100

If you have a calculator, you can also divide the numerator by the denominator to get
9
the decimal form of a fraction, for example: = 9 ÷ 20 = 0,45.
20
To write a decimal fraction as a common
fraction, we must first express it as a common
fraction with a power of ten as the denominator
and then simplify if necessary.
65 65 ÷ 5 13
For example: 0,65 = = =
100 100 ÷ 5 20

3. Give the decimal form of each of the following numbers:

1 3 4 7 7 65
                             
2 4 5 5 2 100

4. Write the following as decimal fractions:

3 1
(a) 2 × 10 + 1 × 1 + (b) 3 × 1 + 6 ×
10 100
1
(c) three hundredths (d) 7 ×
1 000
5. Write each of the following numbers as fractions in their simplest form:
0,2     0,85     0,07     12,04     40,006

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 6. Write each of the following in the decimal notation:
(a) five + 12 tenths (b) two + three tenths + 17 hundredths
(c) 13 hundredths + 15 thousandths (d) seven hundredths + 154 hundredths

hundredths, percentages and decimals

It is often difficult to compare fractions with different denominators. Fractions with the
same denominator are easier to compare. For this and other reasons, fractions are often
expressed as hundredths. A fraction expressed as hundredths is called a percentage.
6
Instead of six hundredths we can say 6 per cent, or 0,06.
6 100
6 per cent, and 0,06 are just three different ways of writing the same number.
100

The symbol % is used for per cent.

Instead of writing “17 per cent”, we may write 17%.

1. Write each of the following in three ways: in decimal notation, in percentage

notation and in common fraction notation. Leave your answers in hundredths.
(a) 80 hundredths (b) five hundredths
(c) 60 hundredths (d) 35 hundredths

2. Copy and complete the following table:

Common fraction Decimal fraction Percentage

0,3
1
4

15%
1
8

0,55

1%

14.2 Ordering and comparing decimal fractions

bigger, smaller or the same?

1. Copy the number lines. Write the values of the marked points (A to D) in as accurately
as possible in decimal notation. Write the values beneath the letters A to D.
(a)
A 7 B 8 C D

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 (b)
14 A B C D 15

(c)
40 50
A B C D
100 100

(d)
6,4 A B 6,5 C D

(e)
110 120
A B C D
1000 1000

(f)
2,11 A B 2,12 C D

(g)
6,34 A B 6,35 C D

(h)
A 17,4 B 17,3 C D

(i)
90,09 A B 90,08 C D

2. Order the following numbers from biggest to smallest. Explain your thinking.
5 267  1 263  1 300  12 689  635  1 267  125  126  12

3. Order the following numbers from biggest to smallest. Explain your method.
0,8 0,05 0,901 0,15 0,465 0,55 0,75 0,4 0,62
0,901 0,8 0,75 0,62 0,55 0,465 0,4 0,15 0,05

4. Write down three different numbers that are bigger than the first number and smaller
than the second number:
(a) 5 and 5,1 (b) 5,1 and 5,11 (c) 5,11 and 5,12
1
(d) 5,111 and 5,116 (e) 0 and 0,001 (f) and 1
2
5. Write down the bigger of the two numbers:
(a) 2,399 and 2,6 (b) 5,604 and 5,64 (c) 0,11 and 0,087

3 75 50
(d) and 50% (e) and (f) 0,125 and 0,25
4 100 100

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 6. The table gives information about two world-champion heavyweight boxers. If they
fight against one another, who would you expect to have the advantage, and why?

Wladimir Klitschko Alexander Povetkin

Height (m) 1,98 1,88
Weight (kg) 112 103,3
Reach (m) 2,03 1,91

7. Copy and fill in <, > or = :

(a) 3,09   3,9 (b) 3,9    3,90 (c) 2,31    3,30

(d) 3,197    3,2 (e) 4,876    5,987 (f) 123,321    123,3

8. How many numbers are there between 3,1 and 3,2?

14.3 Rounding off decimal fractions

Decimal fractions can be rounded in the same way as whole numbers. They can be
rounded to the nearest whole number or to one, two, three, etc. figures after the comma.
If the last digit of the number is 5 or bigger, it is rounded up to the next number. For
example: 13,5 rounded to the nearest whole number is 14; 13,526 rounded to two figures
after the comma is 13,53. If the last digit is 4 or less, it is rounded down to the previous
number. For example: 13,4 rounded to the nearest whole number is 13.

let’s round off

1. Round each of the following numbers off to the nearest whole number:
29,34 3,65 14,452 3,299 39,1 564,85 1,768

2. Round each of the following numbers off to one decimal place:

19,47 421,34 489,99 24,37 6,77

3. Round each of the following numbers off to two decimal places:

8,345 6,632 5,555 34,239 21,899

4. Mr Peters buys a radio for R206,50. The shop allows him to pay it off over six months.
How must he pay back the money?

5. (a) Mrs Smith buys a box of 10 kg grapes at the market for R24,77. She must
divide it between herself and two friends. How much does each person get?
(b) How much must each person pay Mrs Smith for the grapes?

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 6. Estimate the answers for each of the following by rounding off the numbers:
(a) 1,43 × 1,62 (b) 3,89 × 4,21

14.4 Calculations with decimal fractions

To add and subtract decimal fractions:
• tenths may be added to tenths
• tenths may be subtracted from tenths
• hundredths may be added to hundredths
• hundredths may be subtracted from hundredths, etc.

let’s do calculations!

1. Four consecutive stages in a cycling race are 21,4 km, 14,7 km, 31 km and 18,6 km
long. How long is the whole race?

2. Calculate each of the following:
(a) 16,52 + 2,35 (b) 16,52 + 9,38 (c) 16,52 + 9,78
(d) 30,08 + 2,9 (e) 0,042 + 0,103 (f) 9,99 + 0,99

3. Calculate each of the following:

(a) 45,67 − 23,25 (b) 45,67 − 23,80 (c) 187,6 − 98,45
(d) 1,009 − 0,998 (e) 0,9 − 0,045 (f) 65,7 − 37,6

4. The following set of measurements (in cm) was recorded during an experiment:
56,8; 55,4; 78,9; 57,8; 34,2; 67,6; 45,5; 34,5; 64,5; 88

(a) Find the sum of the measurements and round it off to the nearest whole number.
(b) First round off each measurement to the nearest whole number and then find
the sum.
(c) Which of your answers in 4(a) and (b) is closest to the actual sum? Explain why.

5. By how much is 0,7 greater than 0,07?

6. The difference between two numbers is 0,75. The bigger number is 18,4. What is the
other number?

To multiply fractions written as decimals, convert the fractions to whole numbers by

multiplying by powers of 10 (for example, 0,3 × 10 = 3), do your calculations with the
whole numbers, and then convert back to decimals again.

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 For example: 13,1 × 1,01
13,1 × 10 × 1,01 × 100 = 131 × 101 = 13 231; 13 231 ÷ 10 ÷ 100 = 13,231

When you do division you can first multiply the number and the divisor by the same
number to make the working easier.
For example: 21,7 ÷ 0,7 = (21,7 × 10) ÷ (0,7 × 10) = 217 ÷ 7 = 31
7. Calculate each of the following. You may use fraction notation if you wish.
(a) 0,12 × 0,3 (b) 0,12 × 0,03 (c) 1,2 × 0,3
(d) 350 × 0,043 (e) 0,035 × 0,043 (f) 0,13 × 0,16
(g) 1,3 × 1,6 (h) 0,13 × 1,6

8. 30,5 × 1,3 = 39,65. Use this answer to work out each of the following:
(a) 3,05 × 1,3 (b) 305 × 1,3 (c) 0,305 × 0,13
(d) 305 × 13 (e) 39,65 ÷ 30,5 (f) 39,65 ÷ 0,305
(g) 39,65 ÷ 0,13 (h) 3,965 ÷ 130

9. 3,5 × 4,3 = 15,05. Use this answer to work out each of the following:
(a) 3,5 × 43 (b) 0,35 × 43 (c) 3,5 × 0,043
(d) 0,35 × 0,43 (e) 15,05 ÷ 0,35 (f) 15,05 ÷ 0,043

10. Calculate each of the following. You may convert to whole numbers to make it easier.
(a) 62,5 ÷ 2,5 (b) 6,25 ÷ 2,5
(c) 6,25 ÷ 0,25 (d) 0,625 ÷ 2,5

14.5 Solving problems

1. (a) Divide R44,45 between seven people so that each one receives the same amount.
(b) John saves R15,25 every week. He now has R106,75 saved up. For how many
weeks has he been saving?

2. (a) Calculate 14,5 ÷ 6, correct to two decimal places.

(b) Calculate 7,41 ÷ 5, correct to one decimal place.

3. Determine the value of x. (Give answers rounded to two decimal places.)

(a) 7,1 ÷ x = 4,2 (b) x ÷ 0,7 = 6,2 (c) 12 ÷ x = 6,4
(d) x ÷ 3,5 = 7 (e) 2,3 × x = 6 (f) 0,023 × x = 8

4. (a) 1 ℓ of water weighs almost 0,995 kg. What will 50 ℓ of water weigh? What will 0,5 ℓ
of water weigh?
(b) Mince meat costs R36,65 per kilogram (kg). What will 3,125 kg of mince meat
cost? What will 0,782 kg of mince meat cost?

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 Chapter 15
The theorem of Pythagoras

15.1 The lengths of sides of right-angled triangles

what do you remember about triangles?

Right-angled triangle (∆): Obtuse-angled triangle (∆): Acute-angled triangle (∆):

one angle is 90°. one angle is obtuse all angles are acute
A Hypotenuse (between 90° and 180°). (less than 90°).
(longest side of A
Right-angled side

A
right-angled ∆) Longest side Longest side
of this ∆ of this ∆
b c c
b
b c
a a
C B a C B
Right-angled side C B

If the vertices of a triangle are labelled A, B and C, the sides opposite these vertices are
often labelled as a, b and c, as shown in the above diagrams.
We use the word hypotenuse to indicate the side opposite the 90° angle of a
right-angled triangle. The hypotenuse is always the longest side of a right-angled
triangle. A triangle with no right angle, therefore, does not have a hypotenuse.

investigating the relationship between the lengths of sides

1. Study the figures below. Each triangle in the following four figures has a square drawn
on each of its sides. So, in figure (a), a = three units, b = four units and c = five units long.
(a) (b)
A
A

c b
b
c
a C
a
B B
C

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 (c) (d)

A
b
c
c b

a a
C B B C

2. Copy the following table. Refer to the four figures from question 1(a) to (d) to
complete the table.

Figure Type of triangle Length of Length of Length of a2 b2 c2

side a side b side c
(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

3. Look at your completed table and then copy the statements below and insert =, > or <.

a2 + b2   
c2 when ∆ABC is an acute-angled triangle.
a2 + b2   
c2 when ∆ABC is an obtuse-angled triangle.
a2 + b2   
c2 when ∆ABC is a right-angled triangle.

4. Which of the following statements are correct?

A. In any right-angled triangle, the area of the square on the hypotenuse is equal to
   the sum of the areas of the squares on the other two sides.
B. If a triangle is acute-angled, then the square of the length of the longest side is
   equal to the sum of the squares of the lengths of the other two sides.
C. If a triangle is right-angled, then the square of the length of the hypotenuse is
   equal to the sum of the squares of the lengths of the other two sides.
D. In any obtuse-angled triangle, the area of the square on the longest side is equal
   to the sum of the area of the squares on the other two sides.

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 5. The following table gives the side lengths a, b and c of ten triangles. Copy and
complete the table to decide what type of triangle each triangle is (acute-angled,
obtuse-angled or right-angled).

a b c a2 + b2 c2 Fill in =, < or > Type of triangle

7 8 10 72 + 82 = 113 102 = 100 a2 + b2 > c2 Acute-angled

4 5 8 42 + 52 = 41 82 = 64 a2 + b2 < c2 Obtuse-angled

6 8 10 62 + 82 = 100 a2 + b2 = c2 Right-angled

8 13 17 a2 + b2 c2

3 4 5 a2 + b2 c2

5 6 7 a2 + b2 c2

5 12 13 a2 + b2 c2

15 8 17 a2 + b2 c2

11 60 61 a2 + b2 c2

12 35 37 a2 + b2 c2

6. Two pieces of wood, one red and one blue, are loosely tied at one end.
The two free ends are linked by a spring.

The angle between the two wooden rods

can be changed.

Describe how this angle affects the length of the spring.

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 15.2 Working with the theorem of Pythagoras
The special relationship between the lengths of the     A note about Pythagoras
sides of a right-angled triangle is known as the Pythagoras lived in about
theorem of Pythagoras. It can be stated in terms 500 BCE. The theorem is
of area as follows: named after Pythagoras
because he may have been
If a triangle has a right angle, then the area of the the first person to prove it.
square with a side on the hypotenuse is equal to the However, the theorem was
known and used in other
sum of the areas of the squares on the other two
parts of the world such as
sides. Egypt 1 200 years before
Pythagoras was born.
The reference to area can be left out.

If a triangle is a right-angled triangle, then the square

A
of the length of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of
the squares of the lengths of the other two sides.

b c
We can express the relationship between the lengths of the
sides of the triangle by means of the equation c2 = a2 + b2;
where c represents the length of the hypotenuse and a and b
represent the lengths of the other two sides. C B
a

working with the formula

1. Write a Pythagorean equation for each of the following triangles. Explain what each
letter symbol represents.

p
q e
z
y
f

x
d

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 2. Study the following worked example:
Example
Consider the triangle below. Side a is three units long and side b is four units long.
What is the length of side c?
If side a is three units long, and side b
is four units long, then, according to
A Pythagoras’ theorem:
  c2 = a2 + b2
  c2 = 32 + 42
16 b
c   c2 = 9 + 16
a   c2 = 25
C B
c 2 = 25
9 c = five units

3. The areas of some of the following squares are given. Calculate the areas of each of
the squares that are not given and the lengths of all the sides.
(a)

c b 25
a
B C

144

(b)

576

C B
a
b c

A 676

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 4. The following table gives information about the sides of A
five right-angled triangles. The letter symbol c represents
the length of the hypotenuse in all cases. Use Pythagoras’
theorem to complete the table, leaving answers in surd c
b
form if necessary.

C a B

a b c a2 b2 a2 + b2 c2

7 24

16 34

10 576

16 49

1 1

15.3 Finding the missing sides in right-angled triangles

We can use the theorem of Pythagoras to calculate the length of the third side of a
right-angled triangle if we know the lengths of the other two sides.

Example 1 Example 2
A right-angled triangle has side A right-angled triangle has side
a = six units and side b = eight units. a = five units and side b = three units.
Calculate the length of side c. Calculate the length of side c.

c2 = a2 + b2 c2 = a2 + b2
= 62 + 82 = 52 + 32
= 36 + 64 = 25 + 9
= 100 = 34
  c 2 = 100   c 2 = 34
c = 10 c = 34 (leave in surd form)
∴ c = 10 units
∴ c = 34 units

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 calculating the length of the hypotenuse

Use the formula for the theorem of Pythagoras to calculate the length of the hypotenuse.
Leave answers in surd form if necessary.
1. A  

3 cm

B 4 cm C

2. A

8 cm

B 15 cm C

3. P   

q
12 cm

Q 5 cm R

4.   

f
4 cm

10 cm

5. A right-angled triangle with hypotenuse c and sides of the following lengths:

a = 9 cm and b = 40 cm.

  

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 calculating the length of any side in a right-angled triangle

Calculate the missing sides in the following triangles. Do not use a calculator and leave
the answers in the simplest surd form where necessary.

1.    

10 cm
6 cm

2.     
15 cm
y

12 cm

3.    
13 m
5m

4.   
p
7

24

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 5. 8   

16
x

15.4 Are the triangles right-angled?

You learnt in Sections 15.1 and 15.2 that in a right-angled triangle the area of the square
on the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the areas of the squares on the other two sides.
How can we tell whether a triangle is right-angled if we are given the lengths of the
sides? One way is to use the “converse” of the Pythagoras theorem.

The converse states that if the sum of the squares A converse is a statement that
of the lengths of two sides equals the square of the swaps around what is given in
length of the longest side, then the triangle is a a theorem and what must be
right-angled triangle. determined.

We can also state the converse as follows:

If a triangle has side lengths a, b and c such that

c2 = a2 + b2, then the triangle is a right-angled triangle.

In the questions that follow, you have to determine whether triangles are right-angled
or not. Study the following example first:

Example: Determine whether the triangle is right-angled or not.

          (Length of longest side)2 = (15)2 = 225

          Sum of the squares of the lengths of the other two sides
         = 92 + 122
         =
15 12 81 + 144
         = 225
         (Longest side length)2 = Sum of squares of other two sides lengths
         And this can be written as 152 = 92 + 122
9
         ∴ The triangle is right-angled.

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 right-angled or not?

Determine whether the triangles are right-angled or not.

1.
10

6 8

2.

12
13

3. A triangle has sides measuring six, nine and 15 units.

4. Which of the following lengths of sides of a triangle will form a right-angled triangle?
Answer without doing any calculations and explain your answer.
(a) 4, 2, 2 (b) 6, 8, 10 (c) 9, 12, 15
(d) 3, 4, 6 (e) 3x, 4x, 5x (f) 30, 40, 50

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 Chapter 16
Perimeter and area
of 2D shapes
16.1 Perimeter of squares and rectangles
The perimeter (P) of a flat shape is the distance around a shape. We measure it in units
such as millimetres (mm), centimetres (cm), metres (m) and kilometres (km).

explaining the formulae for perimeter

1. Each block in the grid below measures 1 cm × 1 cm. Calculate the perimeter of each
shape by adding up the lengths and breadths.

A
B
C

E
F

Copy and complete the table based on shapes A to F above.

Shape A B C D E F
Length
Breadth
Perimeter

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 2. Explain to a partner why the following formulae for perimeter are correct:
Perimeter of a square = 4s or (4 × length of a side)
Perimeter of a rectangle = 2(l + b) or 2l + 2b (l is the length and b is the breadth)

3. Use the formulae in question 2 to calculate the perimeters of shapes A to F above.

calculating perimeters using formulae

Use formulae to calculate the perimeters of the following shapes.

1. 2.
4 cm 5 cm

4 cm 3 cm

3. 4,5 cm 4.  7 cm

6 cm 7 cm

5. 6. 
1,5 cm 12 cm

1,5 cm
8 cm

16.2 Area of polygons

We use square units such as mm2, cm2, m2 and km2 to measure the area (A), or the size
of a flat surface of a shape.

area of squares and rectangles

1. How many square units make up the area of the shapes on page 177?

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 A
B
C

D
F
E

2. Each square on the grid above measures 1 cm × 1 cm (or 1 cm2). Write down the area
of each shape above in square centimetres (cm2).

Below are formulae for calculating area:

Area of a square = s2
Area of a rectangle = l × b

3. Calculate the areas of shapes C, E and F in question 1 using the formulae.

solving more perimeter and area problems

1. The perimeter of a square is 8 cm. What is the length of each side?

2. The area of a rectangle is 40 cm2 and its length is 8 cm. What is its breadth?

3. The perimeter of a square is 32 cm. What is its length and area?

4. The area of a rectangle is 60 cm2 and its length is 12 cm. What is its breadth and
perimeter?

5. A rectangular yard has an area of 600 m2. If the breadth is 20 m, find the length and
the perimeter.

6. A square has an area of 10 000 m2. What is the perimeter?

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 area of triangles

In Grade 7 you learnt how to calculate the area of a triangle with the following formula:

1 1
Area of a triangle = (base × perpendicular height) = (b × h)
2 2

Any of the three sides of a triangle can be regarded as the base. J

The shortest distance from the vertex opposite the chosen base
to the base is called the height of the triangle with respect to h
the chosen base. If the triangle is obtuse angled, the line
showing the height is outside the triangle. For example, in M L
K b
∆JKL, JM is the height with respect to the base KL.
To calculate the area of a triangle with the above formula, the height with respect to
the chosen base must be used.

problems involving the area of triangles

1. Copy and complete the table below by writing down the name of each base and its
matching height in ∆ABC and ∆DEF:
A F
K M
R

B C D
L E Q

Base
Height

2. Calculate the area of the following triangles:

(a) (b) (c) 3 cm
10 cm 10 cm
6 cm 17 cm 19 cm
11cm 12 cm
13 cm
8 cm
20 cm 5 cm 10 cm

area of composite shapes

A composite shape is made up of a number of other shapes. Often, we can break up

the shape into rectangles, squares or triangles to help us work out the area of the shape.

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 1. Trace the following shapes. Use a ruler and pencil to divide each of the shapes into
rectangles, squares and/or triangles. The first one has been done for you.
2. Work out the length of the sides you need and then calculate the area of the shapes.
Round off your answers to two decimal places where necessary.

(a) (b) 
6 cm

4 cm h
2,5 cm
9 cm

(c) (d) 
25 cm 20 cm
a
10 cm

a b = 20 cm 5 cm
26 cm
15 cm

16.3 Perimeter of circles

parts of a circle

In Grade 7, you learnt about the different parts of a circle, including the following:

The centre of a circle is the point in the middle

(centre) of the circle.
The circumference (C) is the distance around
the circle. It is the length of the curved line that r
forms the circle. r
centre
The radius (r) is the line segment drawn from
the centre of the circle to any point on the circle.
The diameter (d) is the line segment passing d
through the centre of the circle and joining any
two points on the circle.
The length of the radius is always half the length
1
of the diameter: r = d
2 circle
The length of the diameter is always twice the
length of the radius: d = 2r

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 1. Use a ruler to measure the radii (plural of radius) given below. Then copy the table
and write down the lengths of both the radii and diameters of the circles in the table.

A B C

Circle A B C
Radius (mm)
Diameter (mm)

2. Write down the diameters of circles with the following radii:

(a) r = 8 cm    (b)  r = 1 m    (c)  r = 4,5 cm    (d)  r = 6,2 m

relationship between a circle’s circumference and diameter

If you do not know where the centre of a circle is, you can
determine it by measuring the diameter as follows:
• Mark a point on the circle from which to measure.
• Keeping the ‘0’ of the ruler in place, move the other end
of the ruler until you find the longest distance. This is
the diameter.
You can get a rough measurement of the circumference
of a circle as follows:
• Use a string and lay it around the edge of the circle as accurately as possible.
• Mark the string when you reach the point where you first started measuring.
• Straighten the string and measure the length using a ruler.

mark here

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 Circles of different sizes are given below. The circumferences are shown in the table in
question 2, rounded off to two decimal places. Copy the table.
1. Measure the diameter of each circle and write it in the table.

B E

2. Use a calculator to work out the answers in the last column. (Round off to two
decimal places.)

Circle Diameter Circumference Circumference ÷ diameter

(cm) (cm)
A 15,71
B 9,42
C 7,85
D 12,57
E 21,99

3. What do you notice?

pi (π) and the formula for the circumference of a circle

In the previous activity, you should have found that the circumference of a circle divided
by its diameter is always equal to the same number. This number is a constant value and
is called pi. Pi is a Greek letter and its symbol is π.

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 You also worked with values rounded off to two decimal places (hundredths). However,
π is an irrational number. This means that the numbers after the decimal comma go
on and on without ending and without repeating. On a calculator, you will find that the
value for π is given as 3,141592654 (correct to nine decimal places).

When we use π in our calculations, we usually round

22
it off as π ≈ or 3,14.
7
C
In the previous activity, you found that, for any circle, = π (the circumference divided
d
by its diameter is equal to the constant, π). Therefore, if we multiply the diameter of a
circle by π, we should get the circumference of the circle:

Circumference of a circle (C) = πd

= π(2r)
= 2πr

using the formula for the circumference of a circle

In the following calculations, use π = 3,14 and round off your answers to two decimal
places where necessary.

1. Calculate the circumference of a circle with:

(a) a radius of 2 cm (b) a radius of 10 mm
(c) a diameter of 8 cm (d) a diameter of 25 mm
(e) a radius of 40 m (f) a diameter of 100 m

2. Calculate the radius and circumference of a circle with a diameter of:

(a) 125 mm (b) 70 cm

3. Calculate the radius of a circle with a circumference of:

(a) 110 cm (b) 200 m

16.4 Area of circles

investigating the formula for the area of a circle

1. Each square in the grid on the following page measures 1 cm by 1 cm (1 cm2).

(a) Count the number of squares inside the circle. Estimate what the parts of
squares add up to. What is the area inside the circle?
(b) What is the radius (r) of the circle?
(c) How accurate is the above method for finding the area of a circle?
(d) How can we improve on this method of using squares to approximate the area
of a circle?

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(e) Suppose instead of using 1 cm by 1 cm squares we use 0,5 cm by 0,5 cm squares
to measure the area of the circle above. Which of the two measurements of area
will be more accurate? Explain.
(f) Now suppose we use squares that are 0,25 cm by 0,25 cm. Which measurement
will be the best estimate of the three?

We can estimate area by placing a square grid over In this activity we are going
the surface of which we want to estimate. to develop a formula for
We can then count approximately how many calculating the area of a
squares are needed to cover the surface we wish to circle.
measure.
In the case of a curved surface like a circle, the area
cannot be accurately determined in this way; it can
only be estimated. The accuracy of the estimate
depends on the size of the squares used.

Consider the circle alongside. It has been divided into

16 identical sectors. We will use a technique that
mathematicians sometimes use to transform a shape
into one that they know something about in order to
solve a problem.

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 The challenge here is that we want to find a way to calculate the area of a circle. We know
how to find the area of a rectangle. Is there a way that we can redraw a circle so that it
looks something like a rectangle? One way to go about this is to divide the circle into 16
identical sectors. We then cut the circle into 16 different pieces as shown below:

We then re-arrange the sectors like this:

height

base

2. We have transformed the circle by cutting it into identical sectors and re-arranging
them. What does this shape look like?

3. What does the:

(a) height of the shape above match in the original circle?
(b) base of the shape match in the original circle?

4. Is there a way in which we can make the challenge easier for ourselves?

5. The last sector in the arrangement below is further divided in half.

(a) What shapes are formed from dividing the sector?

(b) What new shape will be formed by placing each half of the sector on either side
of the shape above?

6. To what does the:

(a) height of the new shape correspond in the original circle?
(b) base of the new shape correspond in the original circle?

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 You have probably noticed that when we divide a circle into many sectors and then
re-arrange the sectors, they form a rectangular shape. Try to make sense of the argument
presented below.

1
length = circumference
2

height = radius

     C = 2πr Area = l × b

1
Area = ×2×π×r×r
2
Area = πr2

7. (a) Use the formula A = πr2 to calculate the area of a circle with a radius of 4 cm.
Use π = 3,14.
(b) How close is this answer to the number of squares you calculated inside the
circle in question 1 on page 182?

From now onwards we will use the formula A = πr2 to

calculate the area of a circle, where r is the length of
the radius. You will be given the value of π to use in the
calculations. The value of π is usually given correct to
two decimal places as 3,14. 3 cm
8. How can we interpret r2 in the formula A = πr2? Use the
figure on the right to answer the following questions:
3 cm
(a) What is the radius of the circle?
(b) The length of the blue square is 1,5 cm. What is its area?
(c) What is the value of r2?
(d) If r is the radius of a circle, then r2 is ...

using the formula for the area of a circle

In the following calculations, use 3,14 as an approximation for π and round your answers
off to two decimal places. Use a calculator where necessary.

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 1. Calculate the area of a circle with a radius of:
(a) r = 8 cm (b) r = 4,5 cm

2. Calculate the radius of a circle with the following area:

(a) 100 m2 (b) 76 m2

3. Work out the area of the shaded parts of the following shapes:
(a) (b)

r = 10 cm

r = 7 cm
r=
6 cm

r = 12 cm

16.5 Converting between square units

You already know how to convert between units we use to measure lengths or distances,
for example mm, cm, m and km:

To convert Do this To convert Do this

cm to mm × 10 mm to cm ÷ 10
m to cm × 100 cm to m ÷ 100
km to m × 1 000 m to km ÷ 1 000

Use this knowledge to work out how to convert between square units (mm2, cm2, m2
and km2). Copy and complete the following conversion:

1. Convert cm2 to mm2 2.  Convert m2 to cm2

1 cm2 = 1 cm × 1 cm 1 m2 = 1 m × 1 m
= 10 mm × 10 mm = cm × cm
=
=

3. Convert km2 to m2 4. Convert mm2 to cm2

1 km2 = km × km 1 mm2 = 1 mm × 1 mm
= = 0,1 cm × 0,1 cm
= =

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 5. Convert cm2 to m2 6. Convert m2 to km2
1 cm2 = cm × cm 1 m2 = m× m
= =
= =

7. Copy and complete the following table:

To convert Do this To convert Do this

cm2 to mm2 mm2 to cm2
m2 to cm2 cm2 to m2
km2 to m2 m2 to km2

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 Chapter 17
Surface area and volume
of 3D objects
17.1 From 2D to 3D measurements
Remember that 2D shapes have only length and breadth, while 3D objects have length,
breadth and height.

height

breadth
breadth

length
length
2D shape 3D object

A 2D shape has only one surface. We call the size of this flat surface the area of the
shape.
A 3D object has more than one surface. For example, a cube has six surfaces, or faces.
The sizes of these surfaces on the outside of the 3D object are called its surface area.
A 2D shape is flat, so it takes up space in only two directions. But a 3D object has
height as well, so it takes up space in a third direction also. The space that a 3D object
takes up is called its volume.

investigating the surface area and volume of a book

Work with a partner. Choose a book each. The books must be different sizes.

1. Run your hand over all the outside surfaces of your book.
How many surfaces (or faces) does your book have?

2. Estimate whether the surface area of your book is bigger or

smaller than that of your partner’s book.

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 3. If you were to cover the book with wrapping paper, explain how you would calculate
the minimum size of paper you would need.

4. Estimate whose book takes up the most space. How could you calculate which book
really takes up the most space?

17.2 Surface area of 3D objects

using nets to explore surface area

The surface area of an object is equal to the sum of A net is a flat shape that can be
the areas of all its faces. So we can use the net of an folded to make a 3D object.
object to investigate its surface area.

The following diagrams show 3D objects with their matching nets:

1. Use the measurements given to calculate the area of each face shown by the net.
(Use your calculator if necessary and round off to two decimal places.)
2. Add up the areas to calculate the surface area of each object.
A
3 cm

Cube
Cube

7 cm

4 cm

2 cm
Rectangular prism

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 C
7 cm

4 cm 5 cm

Triangular prism

deducing formulae for surface areas

The surface area of a prism = the sum of the areas
of all its faces

1. (a) Use the general formula above and the work you did on the cube on page 189 to
determine which of the following formulae are correct. Write down the correct
one(s).
• Surface area of a cube = 4 × s
• Surface area of a cube = s × s × s × s 8 mm
• Surface area of a cube = 6 × s2
• Surface area of a cube = s6
(b) Explain your choice above.

2. (a) Write a formula for the surface area of any 30 mm

rectangular prism. 12 mm
(b) Explain your formula.
10 mm

3. (a) Write a formula for the surface area of any

triangular prism. 15 mm
(b) Explain your formula. 9 mm

4. Use the formulae in questions 1 to 3 to calculate 14 mm

the surface areas of the cube, rectangular prism 12 mm
and triangular prism shown in questions 1 to 3.
Surface area of cube: ...
Surface area of rectangular prism: ...
Surface area of triangular prism: ...

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 surface area calculations

Work out the surface areas of the Remember:

following four objects. 1 cm2 = 100 mm2 1 mm2 = 0,01 cm2
Give all answers in cm2. 1 m2 = 10 000 cm2 1 cm2 = 0,0001 m2
1 km2 = 1 000 000 m2 1 m2 = 0,000001 km2

It may be a good idea to sketch the net for each object before doing the calculations.

1. 40 mm

10 mm
2 mm

2.
A cube and
rectangular prism are
glued together. 4m
4m

5m

8m

3. 30 mm

50 mm

h = 48 mm

28 mm

4. 5 cm

8 cm

6 cm

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 17.3 Volume of 3D objects
deriving formulae to calculate volume

Think of a prism and its base. If you were to move the Lateral faces are faces that
base up to the top, between the lateral faces of the prism, are not bases.
the area of the base would remain exactly the same.

top = area
of base

= area
h h of base h

area of
base

The volume of a prism = area of base × height Volume is the amount of

space that an object takes up.
Use this general formula above to write the formula
for the volume of a cube, a rectangular prism and a
triangular prism.

A.
Cube B.
Rectangular prism Note about triangular
l prism
Do not get confused between:
s
h • the base of the prism and
the base of the triangular
b face of the prism
• the height of the prism and
the height of the triangular

face of the prism.

C. Triangular prism

Triangular prism h of triangle
h of prism
(base in front)
Same triangular prism
h of triangle (base at bottom)
h of prism
base of triangle
base of triangle

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 You should have found the following volume formulae:
Volume of a cube = s3 or s × s × s Because we multiply three
Volume of a rectangular prism = l × b × h dimensions, the units used
Volume of a triangular prism = are cubic units, such as mm3,
1 cm3 or m3.
(base × h) × height of prism
2

Volume calculations

Calculate the volume of the following objects using the formulae given above:

1. A cube and
rectangular prism
are glued together. 5m

5m

9m

12 m

2.
10 cm

4 cm

6 cm

3.
5m

12 m 16 m

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 17.4 Relationship between surface area and volume
Do objects with the same volume always have the same surface area? Do the
investigation below in order to find out.
1. (a) Calculate the surface area and volume of the following five rectangular prisms by
copying and completing the table below:

2m 3m
8m
1m 12 m 1m

2m 2m

4m 3m
6m 4m
1m 6m
2m

Length (m) Breadth (m) Height (m) Surface area Volume (m3)
(m2)
12 2 1
8 3 1
6 4 1
4 3 2
2 2 6

(b) In the last row of the table, write another set of dimensions (l, b and h) that will
give the same volume but a different surface area as the ones already recorded.

2. Look at the completed table. What can you conclude about the surface area and
volume of objects?

3. A rectangular prism has a volume of 8 m3. Write down two possible sets of
dimensions. Draw the prisms below with their dimensions written on the drawings.

4. The table on the following page shows surface area and volume calculations for cubes
with different side lengths.

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 Side length of cube (m) Surface area (m2) Volume (m3)
1 6 1
2 24 8
3 54 27
5 150 125
8 384 512
10 600 1 000

(a) Look at the surface area column. Does the surface area increase or decrease as the
side length of the cube increases?
(b) Look at the volume column. Does the volume increase or decrease as the side
length of the cube increases?
(c) Does volume or surface area increase
more rapidly when the side length
of the cube increases?
(d) Sketch a global graph of the volume
of a cube versus its surface area.

17.5 Converting between cubic units

how many cubes?
10 cm
1 cm

1 cm
1 cm3
1 cm

10 cm

10 cm

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 1. The small cube has the dimensions of 1 cm × 1 cm × 1 cm and a volume of 1 cm3.
How many 1 cm3 cubes will you need to form a large cube with dimensions
10 cm × 10 cm × 10 cm like the one shown on the previous page?
2. How many 10 cm × 10 cm × 10 cm cubes will form a 100 cm × 100 cm × 100 cm cube?
3. (a) To form a 1 000 cm3 cube you need 1 000 cubes with a volume of 1 cm3.
If cubes of 1 000 cm3 (10 cm × 10 cm × 10 cm) are then used to form a cube of
100 cm × 100 cm × 100 cm, how many 1 000 cm3 cubes will there be?
(b) What is the volume of this new cube?
(c) How many cubes of 1 cm3 will form a cube with a volume of 1 000 000 cm3?
4. Which of the cubes given below has a bigger volume? Explain.
A. A cube with a volume of 1 m3
B. A cube with a volume of 1 000 000 cm3
5. (a) How many 1 mm × 1 mm × 1 mm cubes (1 mm3) are needed to form a
1 cm × 1 cm × 1 cm cube?
(b) What is the total volume of the 1 mm3 cubes forming the 1 cm3 cube?

practise converting between units

When working with volume, you often have to convert between different cubic units.
Here are two examples of how you can work out equivalent units.
Converting cm3 to mm3: Converting cm3 to m3:
1 cm3 =  1 cm × 1 cm × 1 cm 1 cm3 = 1 cm × 1 cm × 1 cm
= 10 mm × 10 mm × 10 mm = 0,01 m × 0,01 m × 0,01 m
= 1 000 mm =
3
0,000001 m3
∴ multiply by 1 000 ∴ multiply by 0,000001 or divide by
1 000 000
1. Write the following volumes in cm3:
(a) 3 mm3 (b) 45 mm3 (c) 0,6 m3 (d) 1,22 m3
2. Write the following volumes in mm3:
(a) 20 cm3 (b) 151 cm3 (c) 4,7 cm3 (d) 89,5 cm3
3. Write the following volumes in m3:
(a) 9 cm3 (b) 50 cm3 (c) 643 cm3 (d) 1 967 cm3
4. Write the following answers in cm3:
(a) 4 m3 + 68 cm3 (b) 12 m3 + 143 cm3

17.6 Capacity of 3D objects

difference between capacity and volume

Capacity is the amount of space available Volume is the amount of space that
inside an object. the object itself takes up.

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 1. A solid block of wood measures 30 cm × 20 cm × 10 cm. 30 cm
(a) What is its volume? 20 cm
The same solid block of wood is carved out to
make a hollow container. The measurements
10 cm
inside the container are 25 cm × 15 cm × 8 cm.
(b) How thick are the walls of the container?
(c) What is the capacity of the container? 30 cm
(d) If you filled the container with water, what 25 cm
20 cm
volume of water would the container hold? 15 cm

2. More of the wood is carved out of the container 10 cm 8 cm

to make walls 1 cm thick at the sides and the bottom.
Calculate the capacity of the container in litres.

displacement and more capacity calculations

Consider a glass vase half full of water. As soon as
you place marbles into the water, the level of the
water rises. This is not because the amount of water
has changed, but rather because the marbles have
taken the place of the water and have pushed the
water higher up in the vase.
If one of the marbles has a volume of
1 cm3, it would displace 1 ml of water.
∴ We know that:

1 cm3 = 1 ml To displace means to move

1 m3 = 1 kl something out of its place.

1. Calculate the capacities of the following containers. The inside measurements are
given. Write your answers in ml or kl.
(a) (b) 17 m

10 m
8 cm 8m

2 cm

5 cm

2. Work out a possible set of inside measurements for a container with a capacity of
12 kl. Draw a sketch and write the measurements on it.

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 Chapter 18
Collect, organise and
summarise data
The term data handling is used to describe certain ways of trying to make sense of
large collections of observations (data) about things in the real world. Data can be about
many different things, for example people’s opinions on politics or the success rates of
treating people with a certain kind of medicine. We use data to help us make decisions
and solve problems about the world around us.

18.1 Collecting data

To find out more about any situation, we need to start by asking questions and collecting
data. When you collect data, you need to consider:
• what you want to find out or the questions that you want to answer
• where you will find the data to answer the questions (for example, from people such
as learners in your school, your family and community; or from published sources
such as newspapers, books or magazines)
• who you will collect the data from (all of the people or a sample)
• how you will collect the data (such as using questionnaires or interviews).

sources of data collection

In some cases you can use data that has already been collected by another person or
organisation.

Example 1
Your question is:
What is the most common form of transport that learners in South Africa use to travel to school?
For this question, you will find that this data already exists in a publication called
Census @ School 2009, published by Statistics South Africa. You can then present and
interpret the existing data.

Example 2
Your question is:
What is the most common form of transport that learners at my school use to travel to school?

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 Check with the principal whether such data has already been collected by the school.
If the data does not exist, or is very old, you need to decide where to get the data from.
You could then decide to collect the data yourself from your peers.
Copy the following table. For each of the following investigation questions, write down
what or who would most likely be an appropriate source of information.

Question Appropriate source of data collection

1. What is the favourite type of music
amongst teenagers in my community?
2. How much money do workers at Dress
Factory earn per week?
3. To what height do baobab trees usually
grow?
4. What are the ages of learners in Grades
R to 7 in South Africa?
5. How many people in South Africa have
access to electricity?
6. How many people in different African
countries had malaria during the last
five years?
7. Has my school recycled more or fewer
glass bottles this year than last year?

8. What kind of household chores do seven-

to ten-year-olds in my neighbourhood
usually do?
9. How many children in South Africa
under the age of ten have been
vaccinated to protect them from
childhood diseases?

populations and samples

The whole group of people (or things) that you want to find out about is usually referred
to as the population.
A population is often quite large. The size of the population depends on what you
need to find out. The larger your population, the more difficult it becomes to ask each
member of that population the questions you want to ask.

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 You could choose a smaller group of individuals from the population. Such a group, that
is used to represent the whole population, is called a sample.
Examples
1. You may want to find out how much time the learners in a school spend on doing
homework. If there are many learners in the school, you may be unable to ask them
all about it. What you can do in this case is to talk to some learners in each class in
the school. You may, for instance, speak to five learners from each class.
2. Health researchers may collect information about children by doing a survey of
households selected randomly in each community.

random samples

A sample has to be chosen carefully to make sure that it represents the population.
To understand what this means, think about what happens if you choose some beans
from a jar in which the different kinds of beans are in separate layers. If you take a sample
of the beans at the top, the sample is not representative. If the beans are all mixed up,
then each bean has an equal chance of being chosen. The sample will be representative.

Sample Sample

Example
You could select a random sample of learners from your school in the following two ways:
1. You may write the names of all the learners on separate paper strips. You then put
all the strips in a plastic bag, mix them up, and draw 30 strips without looking at the
names before you have finished.
2. You could select every fifth name from each of the class lists.
Look at the investigation questions. Which of the samples given do you think will reflect
the whole population more appropriately? Copy the following table. Tick your choice
and give a reason.

Sample 1 Sample 2 Reason

1. What is the type of music liked by most teenagers in my community?
50 teenagers at a local 25 teenagers each from
school two different local
schools

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 2. How much money do the 200 workers at Dress Factory earn per week?
The workers at every The 50 workers that gather
fourth workstation in outside during lunch break
the factory
3. To what height do baobab trees usually grow?
All baobab trees in a Every second baobab tree
marked-off area in a marked-off area
4. What are the ages of learners in Grades R to 7 in South Africa?
All the Grade R to 7 Ten learners in each grade
learners in my school from Grade R to 7 at three
different schools
5. Has my school recycled more or fewer glass bottles this year than last year?
All the glass bottles The glass bottles recycled
recycled in one month in one month this year
this year and in the and in any other month
same month last year last year

questionnaires

We can use different methods to collect data, for example questionnaires, face-to-face
interviews or telephonic interviews. In this section, you will work with questionnaire
questions that have multiple-choice responses.

Here are two questions with multiple-choice A respondent is a person who

responses from which a respondent will choose. responds to the questions.

How satisfied are you with our level of What is the colour of your eyes?
service?  Brown
  Not satisfied at all  Green
  Fairly satisfied  Blue
  Very satisfied  Other

1. Write a suitable question with multiple-choice responses to find out the following
information:
(a) What do teenagers spend their money on?
(b) How much time do Grade 8s spend on homework every day?

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 2. Choose one of the questions from question 1 on page 201. Write down what you
think would be the best sample to use if you had to conduct this investigation.

3. Use the multiple-choice question that you chose in question 2 to collect the data.
Keep the results for the next section.

18.2 Organising data

The way we organise and summarise data depends on the kind of data that we have.
It also depends on what we want to find out from the data. Work in groups to explore
this. Do not worry about getting the answers right at this stage. You will learn about the
different ways in which to organise and summarise data in this chapter.
Look at the following sets of data. For each one, discuss with your group and write
down what you want to find out and what you think you would need to do to the data.

1. Data collected to find out which day would be best to have a soccer club practice:
Twenty-five learners’ preferred day for soccer practice
Tuesday Tuesday Tuesday Wednesday Monday Thursday Tuesday Friday Friday Friday
Tuesday Thursday Wednesday Wednesday Tuesday Tuesday Wednesday Monday
Thursday Tuesday Tuesday Wednesday Monday Thursday Tuesday

2. Data collected to find out whether five-year-old children in a certain village have
healthy body weights:
Body weights of twenty-five children in kilograms, rounded off to the nearest 0,5 kg

17 kg 16,5 kg 13,5 kg 14 kg 18 kg 18 kg 14 kg 21 kg 13,5 kg 15 kg 15 kg 14,5 kg

15,5 kg 19,5 kg 17 kg 17,5 kg 14 kg 14 kg 20 kg 14,5 kg 16 kg 18 kg 12 kg 16 kg 19 kg

3. Data collected to find out how many learners answer a certain type of question in less
than 20 seconds:
Time taken (in seconds) by a group of learners to answer a question

20 25 24 33 13 26 10 19 39 31 11 16 21 17 11 34 14 15 21 18 17 38 16 21 25

4. Data collected to analyse the monthly salaries of employees of a small business:

The monthly salaries of ten employees

R8 000 R2 500 R75 000 R6 000 R7 500 R5 200 R4 800 R10 300 R15 000 R9 500

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 tally marks, tables and stem-and-leaf displays

In Grade 7, you learnt about using tally tables and stem-and-leaf displays. We revise these
two ways of organising data here.
Examples of tally marks:
We can use tally tables to record data in different A count of three = |||
categories. We draw a tally mark ( | ) for each item A count of five = ||||
we count. We group tally marks in groups of five to A count of seven = |||| ||
count them quickly.
If the numbers in a data set
A stem-and-leaf display is a way of listing consist of three digits (such
numerical data. If the numbers in a set of data as 324, 428, 526), both the
consist of digits for tens and units (such as 23, 25, hundreds and tens digits are
34), the column on the right (the leaf column) written in the stem column
and the units digits are written
shows the units digits of the numbers, and the
in the leaf column, for example:
column on the left (the stem column) shows the
32 | 4 would show 324.
tens digits of the numbers.

Let’s see how to display these numbers using the stem-and-leaf method:
12, 13, 20, 34, 35, 47, 49, 51, 53, 53, 53, 56, 59
The numbers range from 12 to 59, so the first digits represent the numbers 10 to 50.

       stem leaves

Values with the same stem
Key: 1 | 2 means 12 are written in the same row.
Different leaves with the same
1 2, 3 stem are separated by a space
or a comma.
2 0
In the first row, 1 | 2, 3 shows
3 4, 5 12 and 13.
4 7, 9
5 1, 3, 3, 3, 6, 9 Notice that the stem-and-leaf
display also shows us what
the data set looks like. We
can quickly see that most
The stem column The leaf column
numbers are in the 50s
shows the tens digit shows the units digit
of each value. of each value. and that there is only one
number in the 20s.

1. Look back at the three sets of data on page 202. Copy and fill in the table on page 204
to show which form of data organisation you can use for each of these. Write a short
explanation.

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 Tally table Stem-and-leaf display
A. Preferred day for soccer
practice

B. Body weight of children

C. Time taken to answer a

question

2. Use the data set about preferred days for soccer practice:
Twenty-five learners’ preferred day for soccer practice

Tuesday Tuesday Tuesday Wednesday Monday Thursday Tuesday Friday Tuesday
Friday Tuesday Thursday Wednesday Wednesday Tuesday Tuesday Wednesday

Monday Thursday Tuesday Tuesday Wednesday Monday Thursday Tuesday

(a) Copy the following tally table. Organise the data using the tally table.

Preferred day Tally Frequency

(b) Which day should they choose to have soccer practice? Why?
(c) Which day would be the worst day for soccer practice? Why?

3. Zandile collected data about the number of garments that each of her workers
produced per day. The answers were as follows:
61, 58, 48, 59, 49, 51, 54, 67, 55, 70, 59, 60, 62, 59, 62, 63, 64, 48, 64, 55

(a) Record the data in the form of a stem-and-leaf display.

Key:

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 (b) Complete: Most values occur in the ...
(c) How many garments do the fastest and slowest workers make?

4. Use the data you collected in the investigation in question 3 at the top of page 202.
(a) Decide whether a tally table or a stem-and-leaf display will organise the data best,
and record the data.
(b) What does your tally table or stem-and-leaf display show about your data?

grouping data in intervals

When there are many values in a data set, it is often useful to group the data items into
class intervals.
Example

Height in centimetres Frequency

130–140 6 The class interval does not
140–150 13 include the highest number in
each case. So, the height of
150–160 31 150 cm falls into the interval
160–170 30 150–160 cm; not into the
170–180 10 interval 140–150 cm.

This is a grouped frequency table. It represents 90 data values, but the values themselves
are not shown. Instead, we show the frequency or the number of values falling into that
interval.
1. The table shows the body weights (in kilograms) of athletes competing in a tournament.

55,2 56,1 58,4 59,3 60,6 61,2 61,7 63,4

63,2 64,2 65,9 66,5 66,7 67,3 67,8 68,0
70,5 72,9 73,4 74,1 74,8 75,9 76,7 78,7

(a) Group the weights into 5 kg intervals. List the intervals.

(b) Use a table to show the frequency of each class interval. It is useful to fill in the
tallies first and then count up the frequencies, so that you do not leave any data
items out.

Body weights of athletes Tally Frequency

(c) In which intervals are the highest numbers of athletes?

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 2. The following data shows the time taken (in minutes and seconds) by runners to
complete a race:
34:30 34:59 35:36 36:58 40:08 40:55 41:33 43:18
44:26 45:40 48:13 48:49 49:15 50:08 52:09 53:36

(a) Group the times into suitable intervals. List the intervals.
(b) Record the grouped data in the form of a table.

(c) How long did the highest number of runners take to finish the race?
3. Take another look at the data about the time (in seconds) that learners took to answer
a certain question:
20 25 24 33 13 26 10 19 39 31 11 16 21 17 11 34 14 15 21 18 17
38 16 21 25
(a) Group the data into three intervals of ten seconds. Copy and fill in the following
table to show the grouped data:

(b) Do you think that learners will need at least 40 seconds to answer this type of
question? Explain.
(c) Were there more learners who took at least 20 seconds or more to answer the
question than learners who took less than 20 seconds? Explain.

18.3 Summarising data: measures of central tendency

and dispersion
one number speaks for many: the mode and the median

1. A farmer wants to know whether he used good quality seed when he planted
pumpkins. So he counts the number of pumpkins on each of a sample of 20 pumpkin
plants. The numbers of pumpkins are given below:
    6 7 3 7 4 7 7 8 7 5 7 7 6 7 8 5 4 7 6 7

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 (a) Arrange the data values from smallest to biggest, to get a clearer picture.
(b) The farmer says to his wife: Most of the plants have seven pumpkins, so it is not too
bad. Do you think this is a good summary of the data, or should the farmer give
some more information?

In some data sets some values or items are repeated Instead of “most often”
often. The value or item that occurs most often is we can also say “most
called the mode. Some data sets have more than one frequently”.
mode, and many data sets have none.
(c) Do you think that if the farmer had said the following, his wife would be
somewhat better informed about the pumpkin plants?
The number of pumpkins varies from three to eight, but there are seven pumpkins on
most of the plants.

2. Look at the Mathematics test results, out of 30, of a small class of 21 learners:
15  7  11  7  13  4  8  9  3  7  25  
7  6  10  8   9  23  19  7  5  7

Bongile scored 9 out of 30 in the test, which is poor. Can he claim that his mark is in
the top half of the class? Explain your answer well.

A set of data can be separated into a top half and a bottom half by arranging the data
items from smallest to largest and finding the number between the two halves.
For example, the following data set:
23  35  44  21  28  32  38  41  39  42  24  27
... can be rearranged like this:

21  23  24  27  28  32 35  38  39  41  42  44
bottom half top half

The number that sits halfway between the upper item in the bottom half and the lower
item in the top half in this case is 33,5 (calculation: [32 + 35] ÷ 2 = 33,5).
The number that separates a set of data into an upper
half and a lower half is called the median.
Half of the items are above the median and half of the items are below the median.
To find the median, the data items need to be arranged from smallest to largest.
If a numerical data set has an odd number of items, the median is equal to the number
in the middle of the set, when the items are arranged from smallest to largest:
3 4 5 6 7 7 7 7 7 7  8  8 9 9 10 11 13 15 19 23 25

3. Write down any 11 different numbers so that the median is 24.

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 4. The body weights of 25 children are given below, all rounded off to the nearest 0,5 kg.
This data was collected to find out whether five-year-old children in a certain village
have healthy body weights or not.
17 16,5 13,5 14 18 18 14 21 13,5
15 15 14,5 15,5 19,5 17 17,5 14
14 20 14,5 16 18 12 16 19
Rearrange these data items into a bottom half and a top half, and state what the
median body weight is.

5. (a) Does the data set shown above question 2 on page 207 have a mode, and if it has
what is it?
(b) What is the mode of the data set in question 2 on page 204?

if they were all equal ... but they are not

1. Five chickens are placed on a scale and

the scale shows 6,500 kg, which is the
same as 6 500 g. What can you say if
someone asks you:
What does each of the chickens weigh?

2. A roadside stall owner has ten

watermelons to sell. They are not all
of the same size and he did not pay
the farmer the same price for each
watermelon. So the stall owner
weighs the watermelons and decides
to sell them at the following prices:
R16  R16  R18  R15  R14  R14  R16  R14  R13  R14
(a) Check whether you agree that he will get R150 for the ten watermelons together.
(b) The stall owner now decides to make the prices of all the watermelons the same,
to simplify advertising and selling. What should he make the price of each
watermelon, if he still wants to receive R150 for all of them together?
3. Susan bought six pumpkins at the market. Her husband, Abraham, asks her what she
paid for each pumpkin. Susan says:
They actually came at different prices, and I have forgotten the prices now. But I know I paid
R72 in total so it would have been the same if I paid R12 each. So you can say that on average
I paid R12 each.

(a) Check if Susan’s answer to her husband is correct. The actual prices she paid for
the different pumpkins are given below:
R7 R15 R10 R16 R9 R15

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 (b) How do you think Susan came to the R12 she used when she answered her
hus band’s question?
(c) Check if Susan’s answer would have been correct if the actual prices of the
pumpkins were as follows:
R11 R12 R13 R11 R12 R13
When she gave an answer to her husband’s question, Susan used the number 12 as a
“summary” to represent the six different numbers 7; 15; 10; 16; 9 and 15. The number
12 is a good representation of 7; 15; 10; 16; 9 and 15 together because:
7 + 15 + 10 + 16 + 9 + 15
= 12 + 12 + 12 + 12 + 12 + 12

If each value in a data set is replaced by the same

number and the total remains the same, the
“replacement number” is called the mean or average.
It can be calculated by dividing the total (sum) of the
values by the number of values in the data set:
Mean = sum of values ÷ number of values. (In the
example above, the mean is 72 ÷ 6 = 12.)
Like the median, the mean (average) may not be equal
to any of the actual values in the data set.
4. Look again at question 1 on page 208 about the five chickens. If you want to now give
a different answer than before, write it down.
5. A journalist investigated the price of white bread at different stores in two large cities.
The prices are given in cents at ten different shops in each city:
City A: 927 885 937 889 861 904 899 888 839 880
City B: 890 872 908 910 942 924 900 872 933 948
(a) If you just look at the above data, do you think one can say that white bread is cheaper
in the one city than in the other? Look carefully, and give reasons for your answer.
(b) Calculate the mean price of white bread for the sample in each of the two cities.
(c) Find the median bread price in the sample for each of the two cities.
6. Geoffrey is a stock famer. He buys 21 goats at a mean price of R830 each.
(a) How much do the 21 goats cost, in total?
(b) One of the goats was a stud goat for which Geoffrey paid R4 800.
What was the mean price of the other 20 goats?
7. (a) Find the mean and the median of the following data set:
1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  2  2  2  2  2  2  130
(b) Write ten numbers so that the mean is much smaller than the median.
(c) Write ten numbers so that the mean is much bigger than the median.
(d) Write ten different numbers so that the mean is equal to the median.

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 8. Look at the times taken by the different learners in Grade 8A in a certain school, in
seconds, to do question 7(b) on page 209:

20 30 36 14 20 14 29 39 15 37 35 24
29 29 18 16 38 13 24 27 22 38 29 11 38

Look at the times taken by the different learners in Grade 8B in the same school, in
seconds, to do question 7(b) on page 209:

20 22 39 22 16 37 36 15 14 13 16 10 14
26 11 14 31 17 11 28 39 20 35 26 20

Which class works the fastest, Grade 8A or Grade 8B? Explain your answer very well. 

how wide is the data spread?

1. Two samples were taken from the eggs produced on two different egg farms, to
investigate the masses of the eggs coming from the two farms.
The mean mass of the eggs from farm A is 50,6 g and the median mass is 52,0 g.
The mean mass of the eggs from farm B is 50,3 g and the median mass is 52,0 g.
(a) Do these figures indicate that the eggs from the two farms are similar, or that
they differ?
(b) The actual masses of the eggs in the two samples are given below. Check whether
the mean and median masses given above are correct.
Masses of the sample of eggs from farm A, in grams:
51 54 45 53 49 54 55 46 54 45
Masses of the sample of eggs from farm B, in grams:
53 52 55 44 57 41 59 43 47 52
(c) In what way do the masses of the eggs from the two farms differ?
The range of a set of data is the difference between
the maximum (highest or top value) and the
minimum (lowest or bottom value).
The values in the data set below vary from 36 to 60, hence the range is 60 − 36 = 24:
36 36 39 39 43 45 46 47 52 52 53 55 57 60
2. The following data shows the exam marks of two groups of learners:
Group 1: 30 31 35 50 55 58 60 70 78 80 88 88 90 90
Group 2: 55 55 56 57 59 59 59 67 69 75 80 80 80 81
Compare the two groups by copying and completing the following statements:
(a) In group 1 the marks vary from to , a range of .
(b) In group 2 the marks vary from to , a range of .

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 3. These two sets of data show the prices of houses that have been sold in Towns A and B
in one month:
Town A: R321 000 R199 000 R181 000 R303 000
R299 000 R248 000 R283 000 R315 000
R405 000 R380 000 R322 000

Town B: R88 000 R122 000 R175 000 R166 000

R107 000 R105 000 R1 114 000 R100 000
R151 000 R1 199 000 R146 000

(a) Read through the prices in each list and write down anything that comes to your
mind when you look at the two sets of figures.
(b) You have been asked by the local newspaper to write a short paragraph on the
prices of houses in the two towns. You want to make it quick and easy for the
readers to get some sense of the prices in the two towns. Write your newspaper
paragraph neatly.

The mean price for houses in the list for Town A is R296 000. This is very close to the
median of R303 000. All the prices in Town A are within R115 000 of the mean.
The mean price for houses in the list for Town B is R315 727, which is more than double
the median price of R146 000. Nine of the 11 houses in Town B cost far less than the
mean, while the prices in Town A are more evenly spread on both sides of the mean.

4. Someone asks you about the house prices in Towns A and B, and you say: The mean
house price in Town A is R296 000, and the mean house price in Town B is R315 727.
(a) Does this statement provide good information about the difference in pricing of
houses in the two towns? In what way may it actually be misleading?
(b) What causes the mean to be a misleading way of describing the data for the
house prices in Town B?

Data items like the house prices of R1 114 000 and R1 199 000 in the list for Town B in
question 3 are called outliers (or extreme values). Outliers are data values that are much
lower or much higher than any other values in the data set. The mean is not a good way
to summarise a set of data with outliers.

5. (a) Is there an outlier in this set of monthly salaries of the employees at a small
business?
R8 000  R2 500  R75 000  R6 000  R7 500
R5 200   R4 800   R10 300   R15 000 R9 500
(b) Would the median prices of the two data sets be a good way to indicate the
main difference between house prices in Towns A and B in question 3?
Explain your answer.

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 Chapter 19
Represent data

19.1 Bar graphs and double bar graphs

revising bar graphs and double bar graphs

A bar graph usually shows categories (or classes) of data along the horizontal axis, and
the frequency of each category along the vertical axis, for example:
Sports played by learners at my school Title of graph
50

40 Height of bar
Number of learners

indicating the
frequency of each
30
category

20

10

0
Soccer Hockey Basketball Cricket Other Categories (or
Possible frequencies Sports classes) of data

Percentage of households Two bars are shown in each category. The

with access to internet blue bars show the data for “anywhere” and
the yellow bars show the data for “at home”.
60

50

40
Percentage

30

20

10

0
Western Eastern Northern Free KwaZulu- North- Gauteng Mpuma- Limpopo South
Cape Cape Cape State Natal West langa Africa
Anywhere 54,3 25,5 30,2 42,1 33,4 31,5 54,7 39,8 21,3 40,6
At home 20,3 5,3 7,4 6,9 6,5 3,5 15,3 6,3 2,7 9,8

A key explains the colours used to distinguish the two sets of data.
Provinces

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 A double bar graph shows two sets of data in the same categories on the same set of
axes. The graph at the bottom of the previous page shows the percentage of households
with access to the internet at home, or for which at least one member has access else-
where, by province in 2012.

representing data in bar graphs and double bar graphs

1. Road accidents are a big problem in South Africa, especially during the holiday
season. Statistics about road accidents are published to make people aware of this
problem.
(a) Copy the table. Round off the numbers in the second column to the nearest
hundred and write the result in the third column.

Number of road
Year Rounded-off number
accident deaths
2002 3 661
2003 4 445
2004 5 234
2005 5 443
2006 5 639

(b) Draw a bar graph of the rounded-off numbers.
(c) What trend do you notice in this data?
(d) For this form of representation, do you think it makes a difference that you have
rounded the data off? Explain.

2. Road accident data can be analysed in different ways. The table below shows the
kinds of vehicles and the number of accidents that they were involved in, for 2011.
The data is from the “Arrive Alive” campaign. Copy the table:

Vehicle type Number of accidents Rounded-off number

Cars 6 381
Minibuses 1 737
Buses 406
Motorcycles 289
LDVs and Bakkies 2 934
Trucks 861
Other and unknown 1 161
Total 13 769

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 (a) A large proportion of the data involves “other and unknown” vehicle types.
What could the reason be for this?
(b) What information is missing from the table? What would we need to know to get
a better picture of these accidents?
(c) Which vehicle was involved in the highest number of accidents? Does this mean
that this vehicle is the least safe? Explain.
(d) Round off the data in the table to the nearest 100. Then draw a bar graph of the
rounded-off data.

3. Statistics South Africa released the data below in their 2012 General Household
Survey (GHS):
Percentage of people 20 years and older with no formal schooling
WC EC NC FS KZN NW GAU MPU LIM
2002 4,4 12,5 16,5 10,0 11,8 14,6 4,5 17,1 20,1
2012 1,5 6,4 8,5 4,8 7,8 8,8 1,9 10,6 11,6

(a) Why do you think the data from 2012 is compared to 2002?
(b) Plot a double bar graph of this data.
(c) Explain the data for Limpopo, by copying the sentences below and filling in the
missing percentages:
The percentage of people over 20 who had no formal schooling in Limpopo in
2002 was . In 2012, the survey showed that the percentage of people with
no formal schooling was . The difference in the percentages is .
(d) From the graph, which provinces showed the least change in the percentage
of people with no formal schooling? Explain how you know this and give a
suggestion about why this could be so.

19.2 Histograms
what histograms represent
A histogram is a graph of the frequencies of data in different class intervals, as shown
in the example on the following page. Each class interval is used for a range of values.
The different class intervals are consecutive and cannot have values that overlap. The
data may result from counting or from measurement.
A histogram looks somewhat like a bar graph, but histograms are normally drawn
without gaps between the bars.

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 Example
Look at the following numbers of oranges harvested from 60 trees in an orchard:

830 102 57 726 400 710 333 361 295 674 927 945

276 792 787 765 540 785 305 104 88 203 224 974

852 716 790 145 755 661 728 637 319 221 766 764

397 734 856 775 330 659 211 918 345 360 518 822

818 727 346 279 804 478 626 324 478 471 69 462

The frequencies of trees with numbers of oranges in specific class intervals are shown in
the following table:

Number of oranges Number of trees

We follow the convention
0–200 6 that the top value (also called
the upper boundary) of
200–400 17
each class interval is not
400–600 7 included in the interval.
The value of 400 is therefore
600–800 20 included in the interval
400–600 and not in the
800–1 000 10 interval 200–400.

Lets look at how this data is then represented in the form of a histogram:

The frequencies of trees bearing oranges in class intervals

20
Number of trees

15

10

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1 000
Number of oranges from a tree

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 representing data in histograms

1. In the 2009 Census@School, the learners from Grades 3 to 7 at a certain school were
asked how long (in minutes) it takes them to travel to school. The following table
shows the results from a sample of 120 learners:

Time in minutes Frequency

0–10 15
10–20 48
20–30 34
30–40 14
40–50 6
50–60 1
60–70 2

(a) In which interval is a travel time of 30 minutes counted?

(b) Draw a histogram to illustrate this data.
(c) Describe in your own words what the histogram shows.
(d) What would you expect this data to look like for a school in a farming area?

2. Company A manufactures light bulbs. They want to see how many hours (h) their
light bulbs last, as they would like to use that data to promote their light bulbs. They
investigate a sample of 200 light bulbs straight from the factory. Look at the following
data they collect:

Lifetime (h) 300–350 350–400 400–450 450–500 500–550

Frequency 15 25 70 50 40

(a) Draw a histogram to represent this data.

(b) Company B, which makes similar light bulbs, carries out a similar experiment
and gets the following results. Draw a histogram to represent this data:

Lifetime (h) 300–350 350–400 400–450 450–500 500–550

Frequency 7 11 24 18 0

(c) Comment on the differences between the two histograms.

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 19.3 Pie charts
A pie chart consists of a circle divided into sectors (slices). Each sector shows one
category of data. Bigger categories of data have bigger slices of the circle. The whole
graph shows how much each category contributes to the whole.

Star High School learners’ most popular This pie chart shows five
types of movies categories of data.

1 1
33% or 25% or The size of each slice is
3 4
equal to the fraction or
percentage of the whole
that the category forms.

3
15% or
7 20
7% or The key (or legend)
100
1 shows the category that
20% or each colour represents.
5
Comedy Action Drama Adventure Other

estimating the size of slices in a pie chart

In Grade 7, you learnt how to estimate the fractions or

percentages of a circle in order to draw pie charts.
1. (a) Copy and complete the following pie chart to
1 1
show that of the class walk to school, travel
2 1 4
by train and travel by car.
4
(b) Determine what percentage of learners:
• walk
• travel by train
• travel by car.
(c) There are 40 learners in the class. Determine how many:
• walk
• travel by train
• travel by car.

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 2. The following data shows the highest level of schooling completed by a group of
people:

Highest level of schooling Number of Fraction of Percentage of

completed people whole whole
Some primary school grades 36

All primary school grades 54

Some high school grades 72

All high school grades 18

Total 180

(a) How many people make up the whole group?
(b) Copy the table. Complete the third column by working out the fraction of the
whole group that each category makes up.
(c) Complete the fourth column by working out the percentage of the whole group
that each category makes up.
(d) Draw a pie chart showing the data in the completed table. (Estimate the size of
the slices.)

19.4 Broken-line graphs

plotting data points

The following table shows the average temperature in Bethal recorded every day for one
week:

Day Mon Tues Wed Thurs Fri Sat Sun

Temperature (°C) 4 10 12 9 13 13 11

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 1. Copy the axes below. Plot the data on the set of axes given. Make a dot for every point
that you plot.

Temperatures for the week

14

12

10
Temperature (°C)

0
Mon Tues Wed Thurs Fri Sat Sun
Days of the week

2. Use a ruler to join the dots in order.

You now have drawn a broken-line graph!

A broken-line graph is a line that joins

consecutive data points plotted on a set of axes.
Broken-line graphs are useful to show how something
has changed or stayed the same over time.

drawing broken-line graphs

The following table shows the income of Pam’s small business and Luthando’s small
business over six months:

Month January February March April May June

Pam’s
12 000 12 000 9 000 6 000 7 000 9 000
income (R)
Luthando’s
6 000 7 000 8 000 8 000 9 000 9 000
income (R)

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 1. Copy the axes below and draw a broken-line graph showing Pam’s income:

Pam’s income (R)

14 000

12 000

10 000
Income (in rands)

8 000

6 000

4 000

2 000

0
January February March April May June
Months

2. Copy the axes below and draw a broken-line graph showing Luthando’s income:

Luthando’s income (R)

10 000

9 000

8 000

7 000
Income (in rands)

6 000

5 000

4 000

3 000

2 000

1 000

0
January February March April May June
Months

3. Whose income seems to be increasing steadily per month?

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 comparing different ways of representing data

The following table shows data from the 2012 GHS (Statistics South Africa).

1. Is it possible to find the mean, median and mode of this data? Explain.

Mode of school transport for learners in numbers and percentages

Mode of transport Statistic (numbers in Usual transport to

thousands) school
Walking Number 10 549
Percentage 68,9
Bicycle/motorcycle Number 90
Percentage 0,6
Minibus taxi/sedan taxi/bakkie taxi Number 1 129
Percentage 7,4
Bus Number 434
Percentage 2,8
Train Number 94
Percentage 0,6
Minibus/bus provided by Number 209
institution/government and not Percentage 1,4
paid for
Minibus/bus provided and paid for Number 88
by the institution
Percentage 0,6
Vehicle hired by a group of parents Number 1 344
Percentage 8,8
Own car or other private vehicle Number 1 371
Percentage 8,9
Subtotal Number 15 308
Percentage 100

2. What are two good graphs you could use to represent this data? Explain your answer.

3. Describe the advantages of each of these ways (the two graphs and the table) for this
particular set of data.

4. Draw the two graphs that you named in question 2.

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 Chapter 20
Interpret, analyse and
report on data
20.1 Critically analysing how data is collected
Data collection methods can sometimes result in bias and misleading data. This is not
always intended by the researcher – it often happens when the source of the data was not
carefully checked, or the method of collecting data has not been planned carefully.
In Chapter 18 you learnt that a sample must be large enough to be representative and
must be randomly selected from the population. If data is collected from only one part
of a population, it could be biased towards that part. The researcher has to be aware of all
the places where bias could occur, and should design the data-handling process so that it
does not happen.
When you read reported statistics, always be aware that you need information about
how the data was collected, when it was collected and how the sample was chosen.
Data can change over time, so you should also be aware of when it was collected.
This information should be given in any report on data.

data sources and collection methods

1. Read the following paragraph and answer the questions that follow:
A recent study revealed that 50% of high school learners smoke cigarettes, 45% drink alcohol
and 60% abuse drugs. This is an indication of the general poor health and social problems of
the teenage population in our country.
(a) Do you agree that the figures are high enough to conclude that the habits of
these teenagers are unhealthy?
(b) Can we tell the following from the data above?
• What was the sample of this study?
• Where was the data collected?
• When was the data collected?
(c) If the sample consisted of ten teenagers all located in an area known for drug
and alcohol abuse, would the data be a good reflection of all teenagers in the
country?

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 (d) Describe what you think would be a better sample.
(e) Why is it important to know the date of when this data set was collected?

2. The following pie charts show the toilet facilities in households in South Africa.

Toilet facilities used by South African Toilet facilities used by South African
households households

Other toilet Other toilet

6% 16%
No toilet Pit toilet No toilet
3% 30% 12%
Flush toilet Pit toilet
90% 1%

Flush toilet
42%

Pie chart A Pie chart B

(a) According to Pie chart A, what type of toilet facility do most people have and
what percentage of households is this?
(b) How will your answer for (a) be different if you use Pie chart B to answer the
question?
(c) Write a short report in one paragraph about the data in the pie charts.

Toilet facilities used by South

African households
100
Percentage of households

80
Data set A
60
Data set B
40

20

0
Flush Pit Other No
toilet toilet toilet toilet
Toilet facility

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 (d) What can you conclude from the data in Pie chart A?
(e) What can you conclude from the data in Pie chart B?
(f) How could the year of data collection account for the differences in the data?
(g) The graph at the bottom of the previous page shows the same data as the two pie
charts. Does the diagram of the pie charts or the double bar graph allow us to
compare the two sets of data more easily?
(h) Do the pie charts or the double bar graph show the percentage of types of toilet
facilities used in South Africa better?

20.2 Critically analysing how data is represented

Graphs do not always show what they seem to show at first glance! If you look a bit
closer, you might see that they are misleading you into drawing an incorrect conclusion.
Work through the following activity to see how this can happen.

manipulation in data presentation

These graphs show the average temperatures recorded in the same place, at the same time.

Graph A: Average temperature Graph B: Average temperature

over seven years over seven years
25 20,5 20 20
Average temperature (°C)

Average temperature (°C)

20
20 20 19,5
20
17 18 19 17 19
19
16
15 18,5 18
18
10 17,5 17
17
16,5 17
5
16
15,5 16
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 15
Year 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Year

1. Do both graphs show exactly the same data?

2. Why do the graphs look so different?

3. Which of the graphs would people use to emphasise that there are big differences in
the temperatures over the years? Explain your answer.

4. Suggest a way to change the vertical scale of Graph A to emphasise even more that
there are no big differences between the temperatures over the years.

5. Write a short report on Graph A. Also include a prediction of the temperatures in

Years 8 and 9.

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 20.3 Critically analysing summary statistics
It is sometimes necessary to inform another person about a set of data that you have
worked on. In doing that, you may want to save the other person from having to look at
all the values in the data set. You also want to emphasise some aspects of the data. It is
for these purposes that we use summary statistics like the following:
• measures of central tendency (typical values): mode, median and mean
• measures of dispersion (values indicating the spread of data): the smallest and largest
values and the difference between them (the range)
Summary statistics do not provide full information on data. Some information is
always lost and so summary statistics can be misleading, especially if there are
outliers; in other words, values that differ a lot from the majority of the values.

how summary statistics can be misleading

1. The manager of a small business is asked what monthly salaries his employees get.
His answer: The mean of the salaries is R13 731.
(a) Do you think the manager’s answer is a good description of the salaries?
(b) In order to have some sense of the salaries paid at the firm, which one of the
following would you prefer to know: the median, the mode, the range or the
lowest and highest salaries?

2. The actual monthly salaries of the 13 staff members in the small business from
question 1 are given below:
R3 500 R3 500 R3 500 R3 500 R3 500
R4 200 R4 200 R4 200 R4 400 R12 000
R28 000 R44 000 R60 000
In what ways may you be misinformed if you do not know the above figures, but only
know that the mean salary is R13 731?

3. If only one summary statistic is used to provide information about the salaries at the
firm, which of the following do you think would be the best to give? Give reasons for
your choice.
A. the mode
B. the range
C. the median
D. the lowest and highest salaries

4. Look at the different monthly salaries of employees at another small business:

R34 000   R35 000   R3 400   R31 000   R32 000

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 (a) Why would the mean not be a good way to summarise this data?
(b) Calculate the mean salary.

5. The following data shows the number of boxes of chocolates sold by a store in ten
consecutive months:
42 38 179 40 43 40 48 39 41 42
(a) Which would be the better summary description of the data, the mean or the
median? Explain your answer.
(b) Write a good summary description of the data without using the median.
(c) Would it make sense to leave out the outlier, 179, when calculating the mean of
the monthly sales? Explain your answer.

manipulation in summary reports on data

The mode, median and mean each highlight different bits of information about the
same set of data. They can be very different from one another, depending on the kind of
data set you have.
Sometimes people choose the statistic that does not show the typical values, but rather
the value that works best for them.

1. Thivha sells restored furniture. He reports that he usually sells seven items per week,
and that he has the data to prove it. The receipts show that he made 52 sales over a
period of eight weeks.
(a) Can you tell from the data above whether Thivha is truthful or not about the sales?
(b) You examined the receipts for the eight weeks closely, and find the following
number of sales per week:
  3, 4, 4, 4, 4, 5, 6, 22
Determine the mode and median of the data set.
(c) Do you think the mode, median or mean is a better reflection of Thivha’s typical
sales figures per week? Explain your answer.

2. The following data shows the amount of pocket money that a group of learners
receives per week:

R0 R0 R5 R10 R10 R10 R10 R20 R20 R50

(a) Determine the mode, median, mean and range of the data set.
(b) The teenager who receives R5 a week wants to convince her parents to give
her more money. Which of the summary statistics would she use? Explain
your answer.
(c) Which summary statistic do you think best represents the weekly pocket money
in this group of learners? Explain your answer.

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 Chapter 21
Functions and relationships

21.1 Calculating output values

formulae and tables

The statement y = 2x + 6 can be true for any value A formula is a description

of x, provided one chooses the appropriate value of how the values of a
of y. The statement is true for certain combinations dependent variable can be
of values of x and y. Such a statement is called a calculated for any given
formula. values of the other variable(s)
on which it depends.

1. Which of the following are formulae for the function illustrated in the table?
A. y = 15x   B. y = −5x + 20   C. y = 5(20 − x)   D. y = 5x + 10
x 1 2 3 4 5 6
y 15 10 5 0 −5 −10

2. For each of the tables that follow, determine which of the following formulae could
have been used to complete the table. The letter symbol x is used to represent the
input numbers and the symbol y represents the output numbers.
A. y = x2 B. y = 10x C. y = 10x − 1
D. y = x + 2
2
E. y = 5x + 2 F. y = −5x + 2
G. y = 3 H.
x
y=3 x+1

(a) Input value 1 4 11 30 40 60

Output value 7 22 57 152 202 302

(b) Input value 1 6 9 12 18 20

Output value 1 36 81 144 324 400

(c) Input value 1 6 9 12 18 20

Output value 3 38 83 146 326 402

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 (d) Input value 3 11 19 27 45 70
Output value 30 110 190 270 450 700

(e) Input value 3 11 19 27 45 70

Output value 29 109 189 269 449 699

(f) Input value 1 2 3 4 5 6

Output value 3 9 27 81 243 729

21.2 Different forms of representation

flow diagrams, tables, words and formulae

1. This question is about the relationship between two variables. Some information
about the relationship is given in the following flow diagram:

input number ×3 +2   output number

(a) Copy the table. Use the instructions in the flow diagram to complete the table:

Input value 1 2 3 4 5 10 23 50 86
Output value

(b) Describe by means of a formula how to calculate the output number for any
input number. (Let x represent the input numbers and y the output numbers.)
(c) Describe verbally how to calculate the output
   number for any input number. When there is only one
(d) What input number will make the statement output number for any input
3x + 2 = 71 true? number, the relationship
between the two variables is
(e) What input number will make the statement
called a function.
3x + 2 = 260 true?

2. Some information about the relation between output and input values in a certain
function is given in the flow diagram:

  input number +2 ×3   output number

(a) Copy the table. Use the flow diagram to complete the following table:

Input value 1 2 3 4 5 50 86
Output value 36 75

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 (b) Describe by means of a formula how the input and output numbers are related.
Use the letter y for the output numbers and x for the input numbers.
(c) Give a verbal description of how the input and output numbers are related.
(d) Themba wrote the formula y = (x + 2)3 to describe how the input and output
numbers are related. Is Themba correct? Explain.

3. A certain function g is represented by means of the formula y = 2(x − 4).

(a) Copy and complete the table for g:

Input value 1 2 3 4 5 6 14 44 54
Output value 0 2 4 20 80 100

(b) Copy and complete the flow diagram for g (fill in the operators):

  input value   output value

4. (a) Copy and complete the table for the relation given by the formula y = 2x − 4:

Input value 1 2 3 4 5 6 14 44 54
Output value

(b) Copy and complete the flow diagram (fill in the operators):

input value   output value

(c) Give a verbal description of how to complete the table.

5. Copy and complete the following table:

Formula Flow diagram Table Verbal description

x 0 3,5 7 0,3
y = 4x
y 0 14

x 2 3 4 5
y 1 2 3 4

x 2 3 4 5 Multiply the input

number by 4 then
y 7 11 15 19 subtract 1.

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 x −2 −1 0 1
y = 2(x + 1) +1 ×2
y −2 0 2 4

x −2 −1 0 1 Multiply the input

y = 2x + 2 ×2 +2 number by 2 and then
y
add 2.

Multiply the input

x −2 −1 0 1
y = 2x + 1 number by 2 and then
y add 1.

In Sections 21.1 and 21.2, you have used four different ways to represent functions, namely:
• a formula
• a table
• a flow diagram
• a verbal representation.

Later in this term you will represent functions by using coordinate graphs.

21.3 Completing more tables

looking at different formulae at the same time
1. Copy the table. Use the given formulae in each column to complete the table.
Some rows have been completed for you. You may use a calculator.

x y = 10x y = 10x2 y = 10x

−7 −70 490 0,0000001
−6 360 0,000001
−5 250 0,00001
−4 160 0,0001
−3 90 0,001
−2 40 0,01
−1 10 0,1

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 x y = 10x y = 10x2 y = 10x
0 0 0 1
1 10 10 10
2 20 40 100
3 30 1 000
4 40 10 000
5 50 100 000
6 60 360 1 000 000
7 70 490 10 000 000

2. In each case, choose the correct answer from those given in brackets.
As the input value increases by equal amounts (say from 1 to 2, 2 to 3, 3 to 4, and so
on), the output value for:
(a) y = 10x (increases by equal amounts/increases by greater and greater amounts)
(b) y = 10x2 (increases by equal amounts/increases by greater amounts)
(c) y = 10x (increases by equal amounts/increases by greater and greater amounts)

3. (a) Copy and complete the table below. Some examples have been done for you.

x y = −2x − 1 y = −2x y = −2x + 1

−4 −2 × −4 − 1 = 7 −2 × −4 = 8 −2 × −4 + 1 = 9
−3 −2 × −3 − 1 = 5 −2 × −3 = 6 −2 × −3 + 1 = 7
−2
−1
0
1 −2 × 1 − 1 = −3 −2 × 1 = −2 −2 × 1 + 1 = −1
2
3
4

(b) Describe the relationships between the corresponding output numbers in the
three columns.

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 4. (a) Copy and complete the following table:

x y = 2x − 1 y = 2x y = 2x + 1
1 1
−1 2−2 = 2−1 = 20 = 1
4 2
1
0 2−1 = 20 = 1 21 = 2
2

1
2
3
4
5
6

(b) Describe the relationships between the corresponding output numbers in the
three columns.

21.4 Solving some problems

looking at some situations

1. The formula y = 38 − 2x describes the relationship between y and x in a certain

situation.
(a) Copy and complete the following table for this situation:

x 10 5 15 8
y 36 2

(b) What is the output value if the input value is 8?

(c) For what input value is the output value equal to 28?
(d) Which input value makes the statement 36 = 38 − 2x true?

2. Consider rectangles which each have an area of 24 square units. The breadth of the
rectangles (y) varies in relation to the length (x) according to the formula xy = 24.
Copy and complete the following table to represent this situation:

Length (x) 6 8 12 24
Breadth (y) 24 12 8 6

3. Consider rectangles with a fixed perimeter of 24 units. The breadth of the rectangles
(y) varies in relation to the length (x) according to the formula 2(x + y) = 24.

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 Copy and complete the following table to represent this situation:

x 1 2 3 4 6
y 5 4 3 2 1
360°
4. The formula b = 180° − gives the size b of each interior angle in degrees for a
n
regular polygon with n sides (an n-gon).
(a) Copy and complete the following table:

Number of sides (n) 3 4 5 6 10 12

Angle size (b)

(b) What is the size of each interior angle of a regular polygon with 20 sides, and a
regular polygon with 120 sides?
(c) If each interior angle of a polygon is 150°, how many sides does it have?

5. As you may know, metals contract when temperatures are low and expand when
temperatures are high. So, when engineers build bridges they always leave small
gaps in the road between sections to allow for heat expansion.
For a certain bridge, engineers use the formula y = 2,5 − 0,05x to determine the size
of the gap for each 1 °C rise in temperature, where x is the temperature in °C.

(a) Copy and complete the following table to show the size of the gap at different
temperatures:

Temperature (°C) 3 4 10 15 25 30 35
Gap size (cm)

(b) What is the size of the gap at each of the temperatures shown below?
0 °C 18 °C −2 °C 50 °C
(c) At what temperature will the gap close completely?

6. The formula y = 0,0075x2, where x is the speed in The braking distance is the
kilometres per hour and y is the distance in metres, distance required for
is used to calculate the braking distance of a car a vehicle travelling at a
travelling at a particular speed. Use a calculator certain speed to come to
for this question. a complete stop after the
brakes have been applied.
Example
What is the braking distance if someone drives at 80 kilometres per hour?
On your scientific calculator you must punch in 0,0075 followed by × sign followed
by (80) followed by x2. The calculator will do the following:
y = [0,0075 × (80)2] = (0,0075 × 6 400) = 48
∴ The braking distance is 48 m.

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 (a) What is the braking distance at a speed of 100 kilometres per hour?
(b) Calculate the braking distance at a speed of 60 kilometres per hour.
(c) Copy and complete the table below. Give answers to two decimal places where
necessary.

Speed in km/h 10 20 30 40 50 60 100

Braking distance in m

Refer to the table in question (c) to answer question (d) below.

(d) A car travels at a speed of 40 kilometres per hour. A sheep, 7 m away on the side of
the road, suddenly runs onto the road. Will the car hit the sheep or will the driver
be able to stop the car before it hits the sheep? Explain.
(e) A car travels at a speed of 90 km/h in an area that has school children crossing
the road. What distance does the driver need to stop the car so that it does not
hit the children?

7. (a) Copy the table below. Use the formula y = 1,06x to complete the table:

x 100 200 300 400 500 1 000 5 000 10 000

y

(b) What is the value of y if x = 750?

(c) What is the value of y if x = 2 500?
(d) Represent the formula y = 1,06x by means of a flow diagram.

  

(e) If y = 583, what is the value of x?

(f) If y = 954, what is the value of x?
(g) The statement 1 060 = 1,06x is given. For what value of x is the statement true?
(h) The statement 530 = 1,06x is given. For what value of x is the statement true?

8. The formula y = 0,1x + 5 000 is given. What is the value of y in each case below?
(a) x = 10
(b)
x = 100
(c) x = 1 000
(d)
x = 10 000

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 9. The formula y = 1,14x is used to calculate the price y of goods including VAT in rands,
where x is the price in rands before VAT.
(a) How much will you pay at the counter for goods that cost R38 without VAT,
and for goods that cost R50 without VAT? You may use a calculator.
(b) Copy and complete the following table for the prices of goods with VAT:

x 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
y

10. Use your answers for question 9(b) to find the prices with VAT for goods with the
prices before VAT was added (below). Do not use a calculator at all in this question.
(a) R40 (b) R400
(c) R70 (d) R470

11. (a) An article costs R11,40 with VAT included. What is the price before VAT was added?
(b) An article costs R342 with VAT included. What is the price before VAT was added?

12. Consider the function represented by y = 75 − 0,1x. What is the value of y if:
(a) x = 0? (b) x = 750?
(c) Copy and complete the following table for the function represented by y = 75 − 0,1x:

x 0 10 20 50 100 200 500 700 800

y

(d) For what value of x is 75 − 0,1x = 0?

(e) For what value of x is 75 − 0,1x = 100?

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 Chapter 22
Algebraic equations

22.1 Revision
setting up equations to describe problem situations

1. Farmer Moola has already planted 100 apple trees and 250 orange trees on his
fruit farm. He decides to plant 20 more apple trees every day, as can be seen in the
following table:
Number of days (x) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Number of trees (y) 100 120 140 160

He also decides to plant ten orange trees a day, as shown below:

Number of days (x) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Number of trees (y) 250 260 270 280

(a) Write a rule for calculating the number of apple trees after x days. Write the rule
in the form of a formula. Represent the number of trees with the letter symbol y.
(b) Write a formula for finding the number of orange trees after x days.
(c) How many orange trees are there on the fourteenth day?
(d) After how many days will Farmer Moola have 260 apple trees?

After how many days will farmer Moola have 1 000 apple trees in his orchard?
It will take some time to work this out by counting in twenties. You can easily make a
mistake and not even be aware of it. Another way to find the information is to figure out
for which value of x it will be true that 100 + 20x = 1 000. To do this you may try different
values for x until you find the value that makes 100 + 20x equal to 1 000. It is convenient
to enter the results in a table as shown below. Anna first tried x = 10 and saw that 10 is far
too small. She next tried x = 100 and it was far too big. She then tried 50.

Number of days (x) 10 100 50

Number of apple trees (y) 300 2 100 1 100

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 2. What number do you think Anna should try next, in her attempt to solve the
equation 100 + 20x = 1 000?

3. How many days after he had 250 orange trees, will farmer Moola have 900 orange
trees on his farm?

4. In 2004, there were 40 children at Lekker Dag Crèche. From 2005 onwards, the
number of children dropped by about five children per year. Explain what each
number and letter symbol in the formula y = 40 − 5x may stand for.

5. Cool Crèche started with 20 children when it was opened in 2008. The number of
children in Cool Crèche increases by three children every year. Explain what each
letter symbol and number in the formula y = 20 + 3x stands for.

6. Farmer Thuni already has 67 naartjie trees and 128 lemon trees on his fruit farm.
He decides to plant 23 new naartjie trees and 17 new lemon trees every day during
the planting season.
Quantities that change
(a) Which quantities in this situation change as
are called variables, and
time goes by, and which quantities remain are represented with letter
the same? symbols in formulae and
(b) How many naartjie trees and how many lemon equations. Quantities that
trees will he have in total, ten days after the do not change are called
planting season has started? constants, and are
represented by numbers in
(c) Write formulae that can be used to calculate the
formulae and equations.
total numbers of naartjie and lemon trees after
any number of days during the planting season.
Use letter symbols of your own choice to represent
the variables.
(d) What information about the situation on farmer Thuni’s farm can be obtained
by solving the equation 67 + 23x = 500?
(e) Set up an equation that can be used to find out how many days into the planting
season it will be when farmer Thuni has 500 lemon trees. Use a letter symbol of
your own choice to represent the unknown number of days.

solving equations by inspection

To solve an equation means to find the value(s) of the

unknown for which an expression has a given value.
One method of solving an equation is to try
different values of the variable until you find a value
for which the expression is equal to the given value,
or for which the two expressions have the same
value. This is called solving by inspection.

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 The value of the variable for which an expression is
equal to a given value, or for which two expressions
have the same value, is called the solution or the
root of the equation.
1. In each case, determine whether the value of x given in brackets is a root or solution
of the equation or not. Justify your answer, in other words, say why you think the
number is or is not a root of the equation. In cases where the given number is not a
root or solution, find the solution by trying other values.
(a) 3x + 1 = 16 (x = 5) (b) 7x = 91 (x = 13)
(c) 10x + 9 = 7x + 30 (x = 6) (d) −10x − 1 = 29 (x = 3)
(e) 7 + 2x = 9 (x = 1)

2. Find the solution of each equation by inspection:

(a) x − 1 = 0  (b) x + 1 = 0 
(c) 1 + x = 0  (d) 1 − x = 0 

3. In each case, check if the number in brackets makes the equation true.
Explain your answer.
(a) 8 + x = 3 (x = 5)
(b) 8 + x = 3 (x = −5)
(c) 8 − x = 3 (x = 5)
(d) 8 − x = 3 (x = −5)
(e) 8 − x = 13 (x = −5)
(f) 8 − x = 13 (x = 5)

22.2 Solving equations

additive and multiplicative inverses

One way of thinking about the additive inverse of

a number is to ask the question: What do I need to add
to the given number to get 0?

1. What is the additive inverse of each of the following? Explain your answers.
(a) 5  (b) −5 
(c) 17  (d) 0,1 
5 1
(e)   (f) −2  
6 4

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 We can think of the multiplicative inverse of a
number by asking the question: What do I need to
multiply the number by to get 1?

2. What is the multiplicative inverse of each of the following? Explain.

(a) 5  (b) −5 
5 1
(c)   (d)  
6 8

You can solve the equation 2x + 5 = 45 in the following way:

2x + 5 = 45
2x + 5 − 5 = 45 − 5 Subtract 5 from both sides This step can also be
to have only the term in x understood as 5 + (−5) = 0
2x + 0 = 40
2x 40 Divide both sides by 2 to This step can also be
= 1
2 2 have x only understood as 2 × = 1
2
x = 20

3. Solve the equations below. Check that the value of x that you get is the solution.
(a) 5x + 2 = 32 (b) 3x − 5 = −11 (c) 5x = 40
3
(d) 5x − 12 = 28 (e) x = 15
5

exponential equations

Example 1: Solve the equation 2x = 8.

Solution: 2x = 23 [Write 8 in terms of base 2, i.e. as a power of 2]
x = 3 [2 raised to the power of 3 is 8]
Solving exponential equations is the same as
asking the question: To which power must the base be
raised for the equation to be true?
1. Solve for x:
(a) 4x = 64 (b) 3x = 27 (c) 6x = 216
(d) 5x = 125 (e) 2x = 32 (f) 12x = 144

Example 2: Solve the equation 2x + 1 = 8.

Solution: 2x + 1 = 23
x + 1 = 3
x = 2
2. Solve for x:
(a) 4x + 1 = 64 (b) 3x − 1 = 27 (c) 2x + 5 = 32

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 22.3 Generating tables of ordered pairs
preliminary activity

1. Copy and complete the following table for the given values of x:

x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 6 10
−3x + 2

2. What is the value of 15x + 3 for:

(a) x = 2? (b) x = multiplicative inverse of 15?
3. For what values of x are the following equations true?
(a) 15x + 3 = 33 (b) 15x + 3 = 4

In questions 1 and 2 you evaluated an expression In completing a table of values

for given values of x. you may be confronted with
In question 3 you determined a value of x that questions similar to questions 1,
makes the equation true. In other words, you 2 and 3.
solved for x.

from a formula to a table of values

1. Copy and complete each of the tables below for the given formula.
(a) y=x

x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 10
y −9 8 15
(b)
y=x+2

x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 10
y −5 8 15
(c) y = x3

x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 6
y −216 125 1 000

2. Use the table in question 1(c) to solve for x in each case:

(a) x3 = −1   (b)  x3 = 8   (c)  x3 = 0  

3. Copy and complete the table for y = 2x:

x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 10
y −14 8 26

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 4. Use the table in question 3 to answer the following questions:
(a) What value of x makes the equation 2x = 20 true?
(b) For what value of x is 2x = 0?

5. Copy and complete the table for y = −x − 2:

x −3,5 −2 −1 0 1,2 2 6,9

y 5 −8 −15

6. For what values of x are the following equations true?

(a) −x − 2 = 0 (b) −x − 2 = 5 (c) −x − 2 = −4

7. Copy and complete the table for y = x2:

x −4 −3 −2 −1 1 3 4 13
y 0 4 169

8. Refer to the table in question 7 to answer the questions that follow:

(a) Which different values of x make the equation x2 = 16 true?
(b) Solve for x2 = 9.
(c)  Solve for x2 = 169.
(d) What is the solution of x2 − 1 = 3?

9. Some tables of ordered pairs are given below. For each table, find out which of the
following formulae was used to make the table. Write the number of the question and
the correct formula.
y = −5x − 2     y = 5x + 2     y = 2x + 5      y = 2x − 5
y = 2x − 5      y = −5x + 2     y = −3x + 2     y = 3x + 2

(a) x −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5
y −3 −1 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15

(b) x −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5
y −18 −13 −8 −3 2 7 12 17 22 27

(c) x −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5
y −10 −7 −4 −1 2 5 8 11 14 17

(d) x −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5
y 18 13 8 3 −2 −7 −12 −17 −22 −27

(e) x −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5
y −13 −11 −9 −7 −5 −3 −1 1 3 5

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 Chapter 23
Graphs

23.1 What we can tell with graphs

interpreting graphs

1. Mrs Maleka is a dairy farmer. She cares for her cows and weighs all of them daily.
Here is a graph of one cow’s mass in kilograms over a period of six months. At the end
of February, the mass of the cow was 450 kg, as shown by the red dot.
The mass of a cow over six months

460

450
Mass (in kg)

440

430

420

410

400
January February March April May June
Months
(a) The cow’s mass reached a maximum a few days after the middle of February, as
shown by the red arrow on the graph. When, in the period shown on the graph,
did the cow’s mass reach a minimum?
(b) During most of February the cow weighed slightly more than 450 kg. During
which month did the cow weigh less than 430 kg, for the whole month?
(c) Throughout the month of June, the mass of the cow increased. During which
other month did the mass of the cow also increase, right through the month?
(d) During which months did the mass of the cow decrease right through the month?

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 2. The blue and red curves below are graphs that show how the mass of two cows varied
over the same period of time.
The mass of two cows over six months

460 mass of cow A

mass of cow B
450
Mass (in kg)

440

430

420

410

400
January February March April May June
Months
(a) Which cow was the heaviest at the end of February?
(b) When was cow B heavier than cow A?
(c) During which months did the mass of cow A decrease for the whole month?
(d) When did cow A’s mass start to increase again?
(e) During which month did cow B’s mass begin to decrease while cow A’s mass
increased for that whole month?
(f) When did cow A’s mass catch up with cow B’s mass again?
(g) When did cow A stop gaining weight and start losing weight again?
(h) When did cow B’s mass catch up with cow A’s mass again?
3. A traffic department keeps track of the traffic density on different roads. Two traffic
officers are posted somewhere along each main road and they count and record the
number of cars that pass in each direction during each 15-minute interval. They use
tally marks to do this, as you can see in the example below:
/
//// ////
//// //// //// ////
//// //// //// //// //// ///
//// // //// //// //// //// //// ////
/// //// //// //// //// //// //// //// ////
//// //// //// //// //// //// //// //// //// //// ////
//// //// //// //// //// //// //// //// //// //// //// ////
06:00 to 06:15 to 06:30 to 06:45 to 07:00 to 07:15 to
Time
06:15 06:30 06:45 07:00 07:15 07:30
Cars 14 23 37 59 71 48

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 Which of the graphs below do you think is the best representation of the data at the
bottom of page 243, on traffic flow?

A B C

D E F

G H I

4. Which of the graphs above is the best representation of each of these traffic flow
reports?

(a) 06:00 to 06:15 to 06:30 to 06:45 to 07:00 to 07:15 to

Time
06:15 06:30 06:45 07:00 07:15 07:30
Cars 42 53 64 75 86 75

(b) 06:00 to 06:15 to 06:30 to 06:45 to 07:00 to 07:15 to

Time
06:15 06:30 06:45 07:00 07:15 07:30
Cars 42 123 158 147 136 124

5. Study the graph for another cow on the following page:

(a) During which periods did the cow lose weight?
(b) During which of these periods did the cow lose weight more slowly?
(c) During which of the periods did the cow lose weight most rapidly?
(d) Compare the two periods when the cow gained weight.
(e) Is there anything else about the graph that may indicate that this cow has health
problems?

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 The mass of a cow over six months

460

450
Mass (in kg)

440

430

420

410

400
January February March April May June
Months

how graphs show increases and decreases

A graph on a system of coordinates shows the way in which one quantity (called the
dependent variable) changes when another quantity (called the independent
variable) increases. A quantity can change in the following ways:
• It can increase or decrease.
• It can increase at a constant rate, for example the total amount saved if the same
amount is saved every week or month.
• It can decrease at a constant rate, for example the length of a burning candle.
• It can increase (or decrease) at a varying rate, for example the increase in the area of a
square as the side length increases.
When a quantity increases or decreases at a
constant rate, it is called linear change or
variation, and the graph is a straight line. When
the rate of change is not constant, it is called non-
linear change, and the graph is curved. If there
is no change in the output variable, the graph is a
horizontal straight line.

1. Draw a graph to match each of the following descriptions:

(a) The quantity increases, and increases more rapidly as time progresses.
(b) The quantity first increases slowly at a constant rate, and then increases at a
faster, constant rate.
(c) The quantity decreases faster and faster.
(d) The quantity increases, and the rate of increase gradually diminishes.

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 2. Look at the statements and graphs about patterns of change in the petrol price per
litre over a period. Match each statement with the appropriate graph given below.
Time is represented on the horizontal axis in all these graphs, and petrol price on the
vertical axis.
(a) The price did not change. 
(b) The price rose at a constant rate. 
(c) The price decreased at a constant rate. 
(d) The price dropped very fast at first and then at a slower rate. 
(e) The price rose at a decreasing rate up to a point and then started to drop at an
increasing rate. 

A B C D E

3. Copy and complete the following table in respect of the graphs in question 2:

Represents a linear or non-linear

Graph Reason
relation
A
B
C
D
E

4. (a) Which graph represents a quantity that decreases at a constant rate?

(b) Which graph represents a quantity that decreases at an increasing rate?
(c) Which graph represents a quantity that decreases at a decreasing rate?

A B C

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 23.2 More features of graphs
local maximum and minimum values

A graph has a maximum value when it changes

from increasing to decreasing.
A graph has a minimum value when it changes
from decreasing to increasing.
A graph can have more than one minimum or
maximum value.

1. Consider the graphs below. Describe how the dependent variable behaves in each
case by indicating which graph corresponds to which description.
(a) The variable has a maximum value because it changes from increasing to
decreasing.
(b) The variable has a minimum value because it changes from decreasing to increasing.
(c) The variable has a maximum value as well as a minimum value because it
changes from increasing to decreasing and then from decreasing to increasing.

Graph 1 Graph 2 Graph 3

2. Draw graphs that match the following descriptions:

(a) A quantity changes in a non-linear fashion, at one stage switching from decreasing
to increasing and then to decreasing again.
(b) A quantity changes from increasing at a constant rate to decreasing at a constant
rate and then becomes constant.

discrete or “continuous”

1. Which of the items in the list provided can you Quantities can be counted,
count, and which quantities need to be measured? measured or calculated.
(a) The number of cement bags sold
(b) Heights of learners in Grade 8
(c) Times taken for athletes to complete a 400 m hurdles race during the Olympic
Games

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 (d) The number of sweets in various 500 g bags
(e) The distance travelled by learners to school
(f) Cars passing at a scholar patrol crossing
(g) The cost of an exercise book in rands and cents
(h) Temperature

Copy the following table and write your answers in it:

Can only be counted Can only be measured

2. Say if the following make sense or not. Explain.

(a) 501,3 learners attended a rugby match played by the senior team.
(b) The distance from school to the nearest shopping mall is 10,75 km.
(c) 2 004,75 cans of cola were sold during a fundraising event.

Quantitative data is numerical data such as a person’s The terms “discrete” and
marks in a Mathematics test. Quantities that can be “continuous” are used in
counted are sometimes said to be discrete: they do different meanings than
not allow values in between any two consecutive these in formal mathematics.
values. You cannot have 2,6 people for example.
Quantities that allow many values between any two
values are sometimes said to be continuous.

23.3 Drawing graphs

drawing global graphs

When we draw a graph of continuous data, it is a

solid line or curve.
The graph of discrete data is a set of distinct points.

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 Consider the situations below.

Situation 1
Pies bought by learners during a school week

Number of pies

Number of learners

Situation 2
Height of a learner over a period of time
Height of learner

Time in years

1. (a) What type of data is graphed in situation 1?

(b) What type of data is graphed in situation 2?
(c) Why do you think the graph in situation 2 is a solid line?
(d) Why are the points in situation 1 not joined?

2. Draw a rough graph for each of the following situations:

(a) The height of a young tree and its age
(b) The level of water in a dam, over a period without any rain
(c) The temperature under a tree over a period of 24 hours

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 graphs of ordered pairs

Input and output values can be written as a pair.

The first number in a pair represents the input number
and the second number represents the output number.
We therefore say that the pair of numbers is ordered.
Making a graph of ordered pairs is another way to
show how the input and output values are related.

When drawing a graph of ordered pairs, work as follows:

• First identify the input values (x) and output values (y). In most cases the input values
will be given and the output values are calculated using the formula given.
• The output values are written on the y-axis (the vertical axis) and the input values are
written on the x-axis (the horizontal axis).
• Plot the ordered pair. Suppose the ordered pair is (3; 6). To plot this pair, put your
finger on the number 3 on the x-axis and another finger on the number 6 on the
y-axis. Move your finger on the number 3 in a line straight up and move your finger
on the number 6 straight across. Where your two fingers meet, make a point. You can
describe this point with the ordered pair (3; 6).
1. On graph paper plot the ordered pairs given below:
(a) A(0; 3) y
7
(b) B(3; 0) 6
5
(c) C(−2; 1)
4
(d) D(4; −4) 3
2
(e) E(−3; −2)
1
x
—6 —5 —4 —3 —2 —1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
—1
—2
—3
—4
—5
—6

2. (a) Copy and complete the table below for y = x + 3:

x y (x; y)
−4

−3

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 −2 1 (−2; 1) y
7
6
−1 5
4
0
3

1 4 (1; 4) 2
1
x
2
—6 —5 —4 —3 —2 —1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
—1
3 —2
—3
4
—4
—5
(b) Copy the coordinates onto graph paper. —6
Plot the ordered pairs on the given
coordinate system.
(c) Join the points to form a graph.
(d) The ordered pair (1; 6) is not on the graph because when we substitute the value
of x (x = 1) in the formula y = x + 3, we get 4 instead of 6 [y = 1 + 3 = 4].
Is the ordered pair (100; 103) on the graph? Explain.

3. (a) Copy and complete the table below y

20
for the formula y = x2 + 3:
19

x y (x; y) 18
17
−4 16
−3 15
14
−2 7 (−2; 7)
13
−1 12

0 11
10
1 4 (1; 4)
9
2 8
7
3
6
4 5
4
(b) On graph paper, copy the axis 3

system. Then plot the coordinates 2

on the axis system. Join the points 1

x
to form a graph. —6 —5 —4 —3 —2 —1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
(c) Is the point (10; 103) on the graph?
Explain.

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 4. (a) Copy and complete the table below for the formula y = −x + 3:

x y (x; y) y
7
6
−4
5
−3 4
−2 5 (−2; 5) 3
2
−1
1
0 x
—6 —5 —4 —3 —2 —1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 (1; 2) —1
—2
A
2
—3
3 —4
—5
4
—6
(b) On graph paper, copy the axis system.
Then plot the ordered pairs on the axis
system.
(c) Join the points to form a graph.
(d) What are the values of the ordered pair A on the graph?

5. (a) Copy and complete the table below for the formula y = −x2 + 3:
y
x y (x; y) 4
3
−4
2
−3 1
x
−2 −1 (−2; −1) —6 —5 —4 —3 —2 —1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
—1
−1
—2
0 —3

1 2 (1; 2) —4
—5
2 —6
3 —7
—8
4
—9
—10
(b) On graph paper, copy the axis
—11
system and then plot the ordered —12
pairs on the axis system. —13
(c) Join the points to form a graph. —14
—15

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 6. (a) Copy and complete the table below for the formula y = x:
y
x y (x; y) 7
6
−4 A
5
−3 4
−2 −2 (−2; −2) 3
2
−1
1
0 x
—6 —5 —4 —3 —2 —1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 1 (1; 1) —1
—2
2
—3
3 —4
B —5
4
—6
(b) On graph paper, copy the axis
system. Then plot the ordered
pairs on the axis system.
(c) Join the points to form a graph.
(d) Write down the values of the ordered pairs A and B on the graph.

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 Chapter 24
Transformation geometry

24.1 Transformations and coordinate systems

what are transformations?

A figure can be moved from one position to another on a flat surface by sliding
(translating), turning (rotating) or flipping it over (reflecting), or by a combination
of such movements. These and other kinds of movements are also called
transformations.

A
A slide is also called a
translation.
B C
A slide can also be
performed in steps, as A'
indicated by the green
arrows.
B' C'

A flip-over is also
called a reflection. A A'
You may also think of
folding the paper over B C C' B'
on the dotted line.

A swing or turn is also

called a rotation. B'

The object is swung

A
(rotated) clockwise or A'
anticlockwise around
a point called the B
C C'
centre of rotation.
(It is as if you hold the
object on a string.)

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 In its new position, the figure is called the image of the original figure. In the diagrams
on page 254, the original figures are blue and the images are yellow. Slides, turns and
flips do not change the shape or size of a figure. Hence, in these transformations, the
original figure and its image are always congruent.
To name the image, we use the same letters as in the original figure, but we add the
prime symbol (') after each letter. For example, the image of ∆ABC is ∆A'B'C'. If there is a
second image, we add two prime symbols, for example ∆A''B''C''. If there is a third image,
we use three prime symbols, for example ∆A'''B'''C''', and so on.

A''
A
B'' C''
A'''
B C
A'
B''' C'''
B' C'

The grid in the background makes it possible to A coordinate system consists

describe the different positions of the figure clearly. of numbered horizontal and
To do that, a system of axes can be drawn on the vertical lines that are used to
grid to form a coordinate system, as you will see describe position.
on the next page. But first, answer the question below.

In each case, state whether the triangle was translated, reflected or rotated:

1. 2.

3. 4.

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 5. 6.

coordinate systems

The position of any point on a system of coordinates can be described by two numbers,
as demonstrated below for the points A, B, C and D.

I y-axis
4
D(−4; 3) A(4; 3) In honour of the French
3
G mathematician, Descartes,
2
origin who invented it, a coordinate
1
H x-axis system is also called a system
−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 of Cartesian coordinates.
−1
J
−2
−3
C(−4; −3) B(4; −3)
−4
E F
−5

The horizontal axis on the coordinate system is called the x-axis and the vertical axis is
called the y-axis. The ordered pair (4; 3) indicates that the value of the x-coordinate is 4
and the value of the y-coordinate is 3. A coordinate system is divided into four sections
called quadrants.

1. For the coordinate system above, give the actual coordinates of points E, F, G, H, I and J.

The first quadrant is coloured yellow on y

4
the system on the right, the second 3
quadrant green, the third quadrant blue 2
and the fourth quadrant red. 1
x
2. Copy the coordinate system onto grid –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
–1
paper. Mark the following points on –2
the coordinate system: –3
A(5; 2) B(−4; 3) –4
–5
C(−5; 1) D(−3; −3)
E(−6; −2) F(2; −3)
G(5; −2) H(4; −6)

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 3. (a) In which quadrant are both coordinates positive?
(b) In which quadrant are both coordinates negative?
(c) In which quadrant is only the x-coordinate negative?
(d) In which quadrant is only the y-coordinate negative?

24.2 Translation on the coordinate system

Revise the properties of translation from Grade 7: Q'
• The line segments that connect any point in the
original figure to its image are all equal in length. Q
In the diagram: PP' = RR' = QQ' P' image
• The line segments that connect any original point R'
in the figure to its image are all parallel. In the P original

diagram: PP'||RR'||QQ' R
• When a figure is translated, its shape and size do
not change. The original and its image are congruent.

translating points on the coordinate system

1. Copy the coordinate system onto grid paper. R y

4
Plot the image of each of the following
3
translations: 2
(a) R is translated three units down to R'. 1
x
(b) R' is translated four units to the left,
—6 —5 —4 —3 —2 —1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
to R''. —1

(c) W is translated five units to the right, W

—2
—3
to W'.
—4
(d) W' is translated six units up, to W''.
—5

2. (a) Copy the coordinate system onto grid y

6
paper. Write down the coordinates of
5
points A, B and C. 4
(b) Translate A, B and C six units to the 3
left and four units up. A
2
C
(c) Write down the coordinates of 1
x
points A', B' and C'.
—7 —6 —5 —4 —3 —2 —1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
(d) Join points A, B and C to form a —1
—2
triangle. Do the same with points
—3
A', B' and C'.
—4
(e) Are ∆ABC and ∆A'B'C' congruent? B

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 translating triangles on the coordinate system

When you plot the transformation of a shape, first plot the images of the vertices of the
shape and then join the image points to create the shape.

1. (a) Copy the coordinate system y

7
onto grid paper. Translate
6
∆PQR six units to the right 5
and two units down. What P
4
are the coordinates of the 3
vertices of ∆P'Q'R'? R 2
(b) Translate ∆PQR four units Q 1
x
to the left and three units up. —11—10 —9 —8 —7 —6 —5 —4 —3 —2 —1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
What are the coordinates —1
—2
of the vertices of ∆P''Q''R''?
—3
—4

2. (a) Copy the coordinate system y

4
onto grid paper. Translate ∆DEF 3
four units to the left and two 2
units down. What are the 1
x
coordinates of the vertices
—6 —5 —4 —3 —2 —1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
of ∆D'E'F'? —1
F
(b) Translate ∆DEF three units to —2
—3
D
the right and four units up.
—4
What are the coordinates
—5
of the vertices of ∆D''E''F''? E
—6
—7
—8

3. Copy the table and write down the coordinates of the vertices of ∆KLM after each
translation described in the following table:

Translated five units Translated four units Translated two units

Vertices of
to the right and two to the left and three to the right and three
triangle
units down units down units up
K(−1; 3)
L(−2; −3)
M(4; 0)

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 24.3 Reflection on the coordinate system
Revise the properties of reflection from Grade 7:
• The image of ∆FGH lies on the opposite side
of the line of reflection (mirror line). line of reflection
F G
• The distance from the original point to the
line of reflection is the same as the distance E
from the image point to the line of reflection. H G'
C
In the diagram: GE = G'E; FC = F'C and HD = H'D.
• The line that connects the original point to D
its image point is always perpendicular (⊥) to
F'
the line of reflection. In the diagram: H'
HH' ⊥ line of reflection, FF' ⊥ line of reflection
and GG' ⊥ line of reflection.
• When a figure is reflected, the figure and its image
are congruent.

A line of reflection can run in any direction. This year, you will learn about reflections in
the x-axis or in the y-axis only.

reflecting points in the x-axis or in the y-axis

Reflecting a point in the x-axis means that y

6
the x-axis is the line of reflection.
5
Reflecting a point in the y-axis means that A(5; 4)
4
the y-axis is the line of reflection. 3
2

1. The points A(5; 4) and B(−3; −2) are 1

x
plotted on a coordinate system. —6 —5 —4 —3 —2 —1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
—1
(a) Copy the coordinate system onto grid —2
B(—3; —2)
paper. Reflect points A and B in the —3
—4
x-axis (horizontal mirror) and then in
the y-axis (vertical mirror).
(b) What are the coordinates of the
images of point A and B when reflected in the x-axis?
(c) What are the coordinates of the images of point A and B when reflected in the
y-axis?
(d) Compare the coordinates of points A and B with the coordinates of their images.
What do you notice?

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 2. The points K, M and T are plotted on the coordinate system.
(a) Write down the coordinates of points y
6
K, M and T. 5
(b) Copy the coordinate system onto grid 4
paper. Reflect each point in the x-axis K
3
and write down the coordinates of 2
K', M' and T'. 1
M x
(c) Reflect points K, M and T in the y-axis —6 —5 —4 —3 —2 —1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
—1
and write down the coordinates of
—2
K'', M'' and T''.
—3
(d) Join points K, M and T to form a triangle. T
—4
Do the same with points K', M' and T',
and with points K'', M'' and T''.
(e) Are all three triangles congruent?

reflecting triangles in the x-axis or in the y-axis

When you reflect a triangle, first y

6
reflect the vertices of the triangle and
5
then join the reflected points. P 4
3
1. (a) Copy the coordinate system onto R 2
grid paper. Reflect ∆PQR in the
1
x-axis. Q x
(b) Reflect ∆PQR in the y-axis. —8 —7 —6 —5 —4 —3 —2 —1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
—1
—2
—3
—4

2. (a) Copy the coordinate system onto grid paper. Reflect ∆DEF in the x-axis.
(b) Reflect ∆DEF in the y-axis.
y
5
4
3
2
1
x
—7 —6 —5 —4 —3 —2 —1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
—1
—2
F
—3
D
—4
—5
E

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 3. The coordinates of the vertices of three triangles are given in the tables below.
Copy the tables. For each vertex, write down the coordinates of its reflection in the
x-axis or in the y-axis as required.

(a) (b) 
Vertices of Reflection in Vertices of Reflection in the
triangle the x-axis triangle y-axis
K(−4; 5) X(−1; 3)

L(2; −5) Y(−2; −3)

M(−5; −3) Z(4; 1)

(c)
Vertices of triangle Reflection in the y-axis Reflection in the x-axis

D(−2; 5)

E(0; −3)

G(2; 0)

24.4 Rotation on the coordinate system

The distance from the centre of rotation to any point on the original image is equal to
the distance from the centre of rotation to its corresponding point on the image. In the
diagrams below: SA = S'A, PA = P'A and RA = R'A.
The angle that is formed between the line connecting an original point (S or P or R) to
the centre of rotation A and the line connecting the image point (S', P', R') to the centre
of rotation is equal to the angle of rotation. In the diagrams, the triangle was rotated
through 90°, so SÂS' = 90°, PÂP' = 90° and RÂR' = 90°.

P P P

original S original S original S

R A R A R A
S' centre of S' centre of S' centre of
rotation rotation rotation

P' image P' image P' image

R' R' R'

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 On the coordinate system, the centre of rotation can be any point. This year, you will
focus on rotations about the point (0; 0), which is called the origin. A point, line
segment or figure can be rotated clockwise or anticlockwise through any number of
degrees about the centre of rotation.

rotating points and figures about the origin

1. In the diagram, point C has been rotated 90° y A(2; 6)

6
clockwise about the origin. Copy the coordinate
5
systems onto grid paper. 4
(a) Rotate points A and B 90° clockwise about 3
the origin. 2
C(1; 2)

(b) Write down the coordinates of points A' 1

B(5; 1) x
and B'. —4 —3 —2 —1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
(c) Join points A, B and C to form a triangle. —1
C' (2; —1)
—2
Do the same with points A', B' and C'.
—3
(d) Are the triangle and its image congruent?
—4
(e) Compare the coordinates of points A, B
—5
and C with the coordinates of their images.
What do you notice?

2. (a) Write down the coordinates of K y

7
points K, L and M.
6
(b) Rotate points K, L and M 5
90° anticlockwise about the 4
M
origin. L
3
2
(c) Write down the coordinates of
1
the image points. x
—7 —6 —5 —4 —3 —2 —1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
(d) Rotate points K, L and M 180° —1
about the origin. —2

(e) Write down the coordinates —3

—4
of K'', L'' and M''.
—5
(f) Can you explain why there was
—6
no need to say “clockwise” or
—7
“anticlockwise” in question (d)?

3. Copy the coordinate systems on the following page onto grid paper. Rotate the
following triangles and write down the coordinates of the vertices of each triangle
after the required rotation.

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 (a) 180° about the origin (b) 90° clockwise about the origin
y Y
y
7 7
6 6
K
5 5
4 4
Z
3 3
2 2
X H
1 1
x x
—6 —5 —4 —3 —2 —1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 —6 —5 —4 —3 —2 —1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
—1 —1
—2 —2
J
—3 —3
—4 —4
—5 —5
—6 —6
—7 —7

(c) 90° anticlockwise about the origin (d) 180° about the origin
y y
6 7
5 6
4 5
3 4
T
2 3
D 1 2
x
1
—8 —7 —6 —5 —4 —3 —2 —1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
—1
—6 —5 —4 —3 —2 —1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
—2 —1
—3 —2
F
—4 —3
E R
—5 —4
—6 —5
S
—7 —6
—8 —7
 

4. Write down the coordinates of each image point after these transformations:
(a) Rotation 180° about the origin: K(−1; 0); C(1; 1); N(3; −2)
(b) Rotation 90° clockwise about the origin: L(1; 3); Z(5; 5); F(4; 2)
(c) Rotation 90° anticlockwise about the origin: S(1; −4); W(1; 0); J(3; −4)
(d) Rotation 180° about the origin: V(−5; −3); A(−3; 1); G(0; −3)

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 24.5 Enlargements and reductions
calculate and use scale factors

A figure may be made bigger or smaller without changing its shape.

The yellow figure is The green figure is

a reduction of the an enlargement
blue quadrilateral. of the blue quadrilateral.

A figure is only called an enlargement or reduction of another figure if the two figures
have the same shape. The shapes can only be the same if all the corresponding angles
are equal.

Even if the angles are equal, two figures may have different shapes. When the
corresponding angles are equal, one figure is not necessarily an enlargement or
reduction of the other.

Although the angles are equal, the yellow and green figures above are not enlargements
of the blue figure.

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 When a figure with straight sides is enlarged or reduced,
the lengths of the sides are increased or decreased.
To find the lengths of the sides of the new figure, The scale factor for an
the lengths of the sides of the original figure are all enlargement is bigger
than 1. The scale factor for a
multiplied by the same number. This number is called
reduction is smaller than 1.
the scale factor of the enlargement or reduction.

1. On grid paper, draw a bigger rectangle ABCD, with each side five times as long as the
blue rectangle. Also draw another bigger rectangle PQRS, with each side five units
longer than the blue rectangle.

One figure is only called an enlargement or reduction of another figure if the
corresponding angles are equal and the ratio between the lengths of the
corresponding sides is the same, for all pairs of corresponding angles and sides in
the two figures. This is demonstrated below.
The green rectangle on the right is an enlargement
of the blue rectangle. The orange rectangle is a
reduction of the blue rectangle.
In the following two diagrams, the same rectangles
are shown on grids so that it is easy to compare the
lengths of the corresponding sides and calculate the
ratio between the lengths of the sides.

K L

E F
A B

D C
H G

N M

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 K L

E F
A B

D C
H G

N M

KLMN is an enlargement of EFGH.

LM MN NK KL
Note that = 8 : 4 = 2, = 12 : 6 = 2, = 8 : 4 = 2 and = 12 : 6 = 2.
FG GH HE EF
The ratio between the lengths of corresponding sides is 2, for all four pairs of
corresponding sides.
To avoid confusion,
We say: The scale factor of the mathematicians normally state
enlargement from EFGH to KLMN is 2. the dimensions of the image
first when forming ratios.
ABCD is a reduction of EFGH.
BC 1 CD 1 DA 1 AB 1
Note that = 2: 4 = , = 3: 6 = , = 2 : 4 = and = 3: 6 = .
FG 2 GH 2 HE 2 EF 2
1
The ratio between the lengths of corresponding sides is , for all four pairs of
2 1
corresponding sides. The scale factor of the reduction from EFGH to ABCD is .
2
2. (a) What is the scale factor of the enlargement from ABCD to KLMN?
(b) What is the scale factor of the reduction from KLMN to EFGH?
3. A rectangular shape on a photograph is 3 mm wide and 4 mm long. The photograph
is enlarged with a scale factor of 5. What is the width and length of the rectangular
shape on the enlarged photograph?

We work out the scale factor by calculating the ratios of the lengths of corresponding
sides of the two figures. If the ratios are equal, we say that the corresponding sides are
in proportion. This means that the second figure (the image) is a reduction or an
enlargement of the first figure (the original).

4. Determine whether the second figure in each of the following pairs is an

enlargement, a reduction, or neither of the two. Also work out the perimeters of
both figures.
E 18 cm H
(a)

6 cm
A 6 cm D
2 cm
B C F G

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 (b) T

10 cm 12 cm X
5 cm 7 cm
U V Y Z
15 cm 9 cm

(c) J M

20 cm
P S

5 cm
K L Q R
28 cm 7 cm

5. Take measurements and do calculations to establish whether the blue figure below is
an enlargement of the green figure.

effect of enlargements or reductions on perimeter and area

Consider the following rectangles:

E F P Q

S R
M J A B

L K
H G D C

1. (a) Do you think EFGH is an enlargement of MJKL?

(b) Do you think PQRS is a reduction of EFGH?
(c) Do you think EFGH is an enlargement of ABCD?

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 EF FG GH HE
2. (a) Calculate , , and .
MJ JK KL LM
(b) Is rectangle EFGH an enlargement of rectangle MJKL?
(c) If EFGH is an enlargement of MJKL, what is the scale factor?
PQ QR RS SP
3. (a) Calculate , , and .
EF FG GH HE
(b) Is rectangle PQRS a reduction of rectangle EFGH?
(c) If PQRS is a reduction of EFGH, what is the scale factor?
EF FG GH HE
4. (a) Calculate , , and .
AB BC CD DA
(b) Is rectangle EFGH an enlargement of rectangle ABCD?
(c) If EFGH is an enlargement of ABCD, what is the scale factor?

5. Do you agree or disagree with the following statements?

(a) Perimeter of enlargement/reduction = perimeter of original × scale factor
(b) Area of enlargement/reduction = area of original × (scale factor)2

calculating perimeters and areas of enlarged or reduced figures

1. The perimeter of rectangle DEFG = 20 cm and its area = 16 cm2. Find the perimeter
and area of the enlarged rectangle D'E'F'G' if the scale factor is 3.

2. The perimeter of ∆JKL = 120 cm and its area = 600 cm2. Determine the perimeter and
area of the reduced ∆J'K'L' if the scale factor is 0,5.

3. The perimeter of quadrilateral PQRS = 30 mm and its area is 50 mm2. Find the
1
perimeter and area of quadrilateral P'Q'R'S' if the scale factor is .
5
4. The perimeter of ∆STU = 51 cm and its area is 12 cm2. Calculate the perimeter and
1
area of ∆S'T'U' if the scale factor is .
3
5. The perimeter of a square = 48 m.
(a) Write down the perimeter of the square if the length of each side is doubled.
(b) Will the area of the enlarged square be twice or four times that of the original
square?

6. The perimeter of ∆DEF = 7 cm and ∆D'E'F' = 21 cm. What is the scale factor of
enlargement? How many times larger is the area of ∆D'E'F' than the area of ∆DEF?

7. The perimeter of quadrilateral ADFS = 26 cm and the perimeter of quadrilateral

A'D'F'S' = 13 cm. How many times larger is the area of quadrilateral A'D'F'S' than the
area of quadrilateral ADFS?

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 Chapter 25
Geometry of 3D objects

25.1 Revision: 3D objects

think of space while you look at pictures and drawings

Most objects we see around us, like fruit, animals, trees, people and
motor cars, have curved or round surfaces. Some objects, like a
saucepan or other cooking vessel, have both round and flat
surfaces. The circular bottom of a saucepan must be flat so that it
makes good contact with the stove plate.

1. (a) Should the top of a table or desk be a flat or curved surface?

(b) We eat with knives, forks and spoons. Which of these objects normally have
curved surfaces?

This chapter is about objects that only have flat surfaces, like those shown below.

The front, right and top faces in the above

drawing are made of clear plastic so that you
can see the faces behind them.
Note this strange box with different
colours on its different faces.

2. Do you think there is enough space for all the birds

in the tent shown on the right-hand side?

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 3. The unusual box, shown on the previous page, with flat faces (surfaces) only is shown
again below. In the drawing of the same box on the right, dotted lines are used to
indicate edges and surfaces that are hidden in the coloured drawing.

(a) How many faces (different flat surfaces) does this object have altogether?
(b) How many faces cannot be seen in the coloured drawing on the left?
(c) How many of the faces are rectangles?
(d) How many of the faces are pentagons?

A 3D object with flat faces (surfaces) only is The word polyhedron

called a polyhedron (plural: polyhedra). means “many-seated” and
A straight edge is formed where two flat surfaces describes the shape of such
meet. The point where two or more edges meet is an object with many flat
faces.
called a vertex (plural: vertices).

4. (a) How many edges does the coloured polyhedron in question 3 have?
(b) How many vertices does it have?

5. Which of the objects below are polyhedra?

A B C

E F G

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 two special types of polyhedra

Polyhedra like C and E at the bottom of the previous page are called prisms.
Polyhedra like B and G are called pyramids.

1. Describe the differences between prisms and pyramids.

Here are some more pictures of prisms:

A B C

D E F

The objects shown by the four pictures below are polyhedra but they are not prisms or
pyramids.
G H I J

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 Here are some pictures of pyramids. More pictures of pyramids are shown at the
bottom of this page and also on the next page.

K L M N

A prism has two identical, parallel faces (called

bases) that are connected by parallelograms (called
lateral faces). In the case of right prisms, the lateral
faces are perpendicular to the bases and the lateral
faces are rectangles.

A prism with pentagonal bases like this one is called

a pentagonal prism because the base is a pentagon.

2. (a) Which pictures on the previous page also show pentagonal prisms?
(b) Which picture on the previous page shows a hexagonal prism?
(c) Which picture on the previous page shows an octagonal prism?

A pyramid has only one base. The lateral faces of a

pyramid are triangles that meet at the apex.

The pyramid on the right is called a hexagonal-based pyramid.

The two pyramids below have quadrilaterals as bases and are
called quadrilateral-based pyramids.

A triangular-based pyramid
is also called a triangular
pyramid; a square-based
pyramid is also called
a square pyramid; a
hexagonal-based pyramid
is also called a hexagonal
pyramid, etc.

3. Which picture at the top of this page shows a hexagonal pyramid?

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 Pictures of different square-based pyramids are shown below.

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 You can make a square-based pyramid by drawing and cutting out a diagram like the one
on the left below, and folding the triangles up on the dotted lines, as shown on the right.

These men are building a triangular-based pyramid:

A triangular-based pyramid is also called a

tetrahedron, which literally means “four-face”.
A tetrahedron with four identical faces that
are equilateral triangles is called a regular
tetrahedron.

If you copy and cut out a figure like the one on the
right, and fold the triangles up on the dotted lines, A regular polyhedron has
you can make a regular tetrahedron. A diagram like identical faces that are regular
polygons; that is, with all
this, that can be cut out and folded to make a model
sides and angles equal.
of a polyhedron, is called a net.

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 A rectangular prism is also called a cuboid.

A cuboid with square faces

is also called a cube.

An object with two identical circular bases

and one curved surface is called a cylinder.

A “pyramid” with a round base is called a cone.

An object with the shape of a ball, in other words one

curved surface with every point on its surface the same
distance from its centre, is called a sphere.

Cylinders, cones and spheres are not polyhedra since they have curved surfaces.
Remember, a polyhedron has faces, edges and vertices. The faces are the flat surfaces.
An edge is a line along which two faces of a 3D object meet, and connects two vertices.
A vertex is the point where the edges meet.

4. Write down and name the labels for parts (a) to (f) on the following figure:
(f)

(e)
(a)

(d)

(b)
(c)
Triangular prism

5. Grade 8 learners made 3D objects from cardboard. Can you say which kind of figure
the following three learners made?
(a) Adam’s object had eight vertices and 12 edges.
(b) Lea’s object had four vertices and four faces.
(c) Mary’s object had 12 edges and six congruent faces.

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 6. Copy and complete the table for prisms. Count the bases as faces too. If you find this
difficult, it may help you to make quick rough sketches of nets for some prisms, like
the sketches given below the table.

Number of sides in Number of Number of Number of Faces + Edges

each base faces vertices edges vertices +2
3 5 6 9
4 6 12
5
6
8
10

7. Copy and complete the table for pyramids. Count the bases as faces too.

Number of sides Number of Number of Number of Faces + Edges

in each base faces vertices edges vertices +2
3 4 4 6
4
5
6
7
9

8. Consider your answers for questions 6 and 7. This statement is called Euler’s
Is the following statement true for both prisms formula for polyhedra.
and pyramids?
Statement: The number of faces + the number of vertices = 2 + the number of edges

9. Is Euler’s formula true for the polyhedra G, H, I and J on page 271?

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 25.2 Nets and models of prisms and pyramids
a quick way to make prisms and pyramids

Fold sections about two fingers wide on a sheet of

A4 paper, more or less as shown by the dotted lines
in the sketch on the right.
Fold the sheet into a “tube” with five or six faces
along its length, as shown below.

With a little extra work, you can now make a

paper prism. You need to cut out two bases so
that they fit well.
You can make prisms with triangular, square,
rectangular, hexagonal and other shaped bases
in this way.

You can make a pyramid in the same way, but it

is more difficult. Draw dotted lines on a sheet of
A4 paper, as shown in the sketch on the right.
Fold the paper along the dotted lines. It is quite
difficult to know where and how to cut so that
the base is a flat surface.

Apart from the difficulty of getting the base

of the pyramid flat, the above method has the
disadvantage that you have to use separate
pieces of paper or other material to make one
object. It would be better to make the whole
object by folding one piece of paper. For
example, a prism with a pentagonal base can be
made by drawing, cutting out and folding a
sheet of paper, as shown on the left. This
diagram is called a net of a prism with a regular
pentagonal base.

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 nets for different polyhedra

1. Name the polyhedron that can be made from each of the following nets:
(a) (b)

(c) (d)

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 2. (a) Name the polyhedron that can be formed by cutting out the diagram below on
the solid lines and folding it on the dotted lines.
(b) When this net is folded to make a polyhedron, the red line segment will fall on
AB to form an edge.

B C

E D

On which line segments

will the blue, green and
orange segments fall?

3. (a) Name the polyhedron that can be formed by cutting out the diagram below on
the solid lines and folding it on the dotted lines.
(b) On which segments will the red, blue and green segments fall to form edges of
this polyhedron?

B C

A
D

F E

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 4. Some of the diagrams below and on the next page are the nets for the following
objects:
• a square-based pyramid   a triangular prism
• a hexagonal pyramid   a hexagonal prism
•
a cuboid   a cube

Under each diagram, write the name of the object A diagram is only called a
for which the diagram is a net. There may be more net of an object if the cut-
than one net for some of the objects. Write out diagram can be folded
“none” if the diagram is not a net for any prism to form all the faces of the
or pyramid. object.

(a) (b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

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 (f) (g)

(i)
(h)

(j) (k)

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 5. Draw a net for each of the following objects. Be accurate in your measurements.

(a) Cube

2 cm

(b) Rectangular prism

2 cm

5 cm

3 cm

(c) Triangular prism

3 cm

4 cm
3 cm

6. (a) Copy the nets in question 5 onto cardboard, but multiply the length of each side
by 2. Be accurate in your constructions.
(b) Cut out, fold and use sticky tape to paste the nets to build the 3D models.

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 7. The first diagram below is a net for a prism with quadrilateral bases. Which of the
diagrams (a), (b), (c) and (d) are nets for the same prism, and which diagrams are not
nets for the prism?

(a)

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 (b)

(c)

(d)

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 8. Which of these diagrams will work as nets for a cube?
(a) (b) (c) (d) 

         
   

(e) (f) (g) (h) 

          
   

(i) (j) (k) (l) 

         
   

(m) (n) (o) (p) 

    
   

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 9. In each case below, state whether the diagram will work or not work as a net for
making a pentagonal prism. The base need not be a regular pentagon. In the cases
where the diagram will not work, explain why.
(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

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 drawing nets and constructing 3D models of pyramids

1. Trace the net and write the measurements on the sides of the net.

3 cm

3 cm 1 cm

2. Draw accurate nets of the following pyramids:

(a) Square-based pyramid

4 cm

2 cm

(b) Triangular pyramid

5 cm

3 cm

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 3. (a) Copy the nets you have drawn in question 2 onto cardboard or paper, but
multiply the measurements by 2.
(b) Then cut out, fold and paste the net to make a model of each 3D object.

what makes a net work?

Which of the diagrams below will not work as nets to make a rectangular pyramid?
You may have to take measurements to be sure in some cases, or make a copy and cut
the diagram out and fold it. In each case where you say no, explain why you think it
will not work.

1.

2.

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 3.

4.

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 circles and pyramids

In order to meet at the apex, one side of each triangular face

of a pyramid must be the same length as the closest side of
the triangle next to it.
This means that certain line segments in the net of a
pyramid must be equal.

1. Trace the diagram below. Mark the line segments that should be equal in the diagram,
so that a pyramid can be made by folding a cut-out of the diagram on the dotted lines.

2. Make an accurate copy of the above diagram on stiff paper or cardboard. Cut it out
and fold along the dotted lines. See if you can make a pyramid in this way.

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 Any polygon can form the base of a pyramid.

If you want to draw a net for a pyramid,

you can start by drawing a polygon.
Then draw any triangle
on one side of the polygon.

The triangles that will be adjacent to the first one

must each have one side equal to the matching side
of the first triangle, as indicated with the solid and
dotted red and blue line segments in the
sketch on the right.
The dotted line segments can be in other
positions too, as long as they have the same
lengths as the coloured sides of the first triangle.
This means that once the first triangular face is drawn,
there are many different possibilities for each of the
two triangles that will be adjacent to it on the pyramid.
The circle with the red dot as midpoint, on the
sketch on the right, shows the possibilities for
one triangular face.

Once a triangle on the upper edge

of the base is chosen, a circle can be
drawn around the green vertex to
indicate the possibilities for the
third triangular face. The radius of
this circle is the length of the second
leg of the second triangle, shown in
solid green on the sketch.
Any line segment drawn from the
green circle to the green vertex can be
a side of the third triangular face.

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 Only one triangular face remains to be
drawn now. We will refer to it as the blue
triangle.
The black and blue dots on the sketch
show where two vertices of the blue
triangle should be.

3. Copy the above sketch into your book and roughly draw the fourth triangular face
for a pyramid. Think how long the sides should be so that the diagram will work
precisely as a net to make a pyramid.
4. (a) How can the black dot and the green triangle help you to get some idea as to
where the third vertex of the blue triangle should be?
(b) How can the blue dot and the yellow triangle help you to get some idea as to
where the third vertex of the blue triangle should be?
5. An enlargement of the sketch given at the top of this page is given below. Copy the
enlargement into your book and use your pair of compasses to find the third vertex
of the face that is not yet drawn, and complete the net for the pyramid. Then make a
copy of the diagram on stiff paper or cardboard, cut it out and fold it to see if it forms
a pyramid.

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 6. Join points on this sketch
to draw a net for a pyramid.

25.3 Platonic solids

making polyhedra with identical faces and equal edges

A cube is a special type of polyhedron. It has six identical faces,

and its 12 edges are all equal in length.
1. How many vertices does a cube have?
2. Can you think of an object which has faces that are identical
triangles, and all its edges are equal? Try draw a rough sketch
of the net for such an object.
3. (a) Make a copy of the diagram below. Cut it out and fold it along the dotted lines.
Attach the faces with sticky tape to make an open container with pentagonal faces.

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 (b) Make another copy of the pentagon diagram, and make a second container.

(c) Turn one of your containers upside down and put the two together to form a
polyhedron.

(d) How many faces does your polyhedron have?

(e) Are the faces identical, and what shape are they?
(f) Are the edges equally long, and how many edges are there?

A polyhedron of which all the faces are identical

regular polygons is called a Platonic solid, because
the Greek philosopher Plato was fascinated by such
objects.
A regular polygon is a polygon with equal sides
and equal angles.

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 4. Do you think the diagram below can be used as a net to make a Platonic solid?
If it is possible, how many faces, how many edges and how many vertices will the
polyhedron have?

5. (a) Make two accurate copies of the above diagram. Cut out on the solid lines and
fold on the dotted lines to form two identical polyhedra. Polyhedra like this are
called regular tetrahedra.
(b) Try to combine your two regular tetrahedra to make another solid, with six faces,
nine edges and five vertices.

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 the platonic solids

The Platonic solids have special names, and these are given below.
There are only five Platonic solids.

A tetrahedron consists of four equilateral An octahedron consists of

triangles. It has six edges and four vertices. eight equilateral triangles. It has 12 edges
and six vertices.

A hexahedron (also known as a cube) A dodecahedron consists of 12 regular

consists of six squares. It has 12 edges and pentagons. It has 30 edges and 20
eight vertices. vertices.

An icosahedron consists of 20 equilateral triangles.

It has 30 edges and 12 vertices.

1. Nets for some of the Platonic solids are given on the following pages. Write the names
of the objects next to the nets that can be used to make them.

2. Investigate whether Euler’s formula is true for the Platonic solids.

(Euler’s formula: the number of faces + the number of vertices = 2 + the number of edges)

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 (a)

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 (b)

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 (c)

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 Chapter 26
Probability

26.1 How often different things can happen

different fractions of a whole number

Jayden lives close to the sea. He goes fishing every day. Some days he catches no fish, but
on some days he catches several fish. He never catches more than five fish in a day.
He has decided that he will always stop fishing when he has caught five fish in one day.

1. What are the different possible outcomes of each of Jayden’s daily fishing trips?
2. Jayden rolls a dice just once each day before he goes fishing.
(a) What are the possible outcomes of rolling a dice once?
(b) Are the six outcomes of rolling a dice equally likely?
(c) Is there any reason for Jayden to believe that the outcome
of his fishing trip on a day will be one less than the number
that came up when he rolled the dice on that day?

3. Jayden keeps a record of the outcomes of his daily dice rolls. Here is a summary of his
record for 60 consecutive days:

Outcome 1 2 3 4 5 6
Frequency 9 9 12 11 10 9

(a) How many times was the outcome a 6?

(b) What fraction is this of the total of 60 events?
(c) On what fraction of the days was the outcome a 3?

The fraction of a number of events which have a

specific outcome is called the relative frequency
of that outcome.
The range of a set of
4. What is the relative frequency of a: numbers is the difference
between the smallest and
(a) 5 in Jayden’s series of 60 dice rolls?
largest numbers in the set.
(b) 4 in Jayden’s series of 60 dice rolls?

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 5. What is the range of the relative frequencies of the different outcomes in Jayden’s
series of dice rolls? Express the range as a fraction in sixtieths, and as a percentage.
6. Do you think the six possible outcomes of Jayden’s daily fishing trips are equally
likely? Give reasons for your answer.
7. (a) Jayden has a book in which he keeps a record of the outcomes of his daily fishing
trips. A summary of his record for a period of 200 consecutive days is given in
the table below. Copy the table and write the relative frequencies of the different
outcomes in the table, with each expressed as two hundredths.

Outcome 0 1 2 3 4 5
Frequency 30 32 68 54 12 4

Relative frequency

(b) What is the range of the relative frequencies in this case? Express the range as a
common fraction and as a percentage.

how often can we expect something to happen?

Imagine that you have five coloured buttons as shown above in a paper bag.
1. Imagine that you put your hand into the bag without looking inside, and grab one
of the buttons.
(a) Can you say which colour that button will be?
(b) Discuss this with some classmates.
2. (a) What are the different possible colours of buttons that you could draw from
the bag?
(b) How many different possibilities are there?
3. Read the passage below, then answer the questions that follow.
When you draw a button from the bag, we say you perform a trial. The colour you draw is
called the outcome of the trial.
(a) What are the different possible outcomes of the trial if you draw one button out
of the bag?
(b) Imagine that you put the first button back into the bag. If you now draw one
button from the bag again, what are the possible outcomes of this new trial?
(c) Imagine that you repeat the event a third time. What are the possible outcomes
of this new trial?
(d) Imagine that you perform many trials. What are the possible outcomes of each
repetition?

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 4. (a) When you draw one of the five buttons many times and put it back each time,
do you think you will draw one colour more often than the others?
(b) Discuss this with some classmates.

5. (a) Imagine that you draw a button out of the bag with five buttons and put it back,
and repeat this 60 times. Approximately how many times do you think you will
draw the red button?
(b) Approximately how many times do you think you will draw the pink button?
(c) Discuss this with some classmates.

When there is no reason to believe that any outcome

will occur more often than any other outcome, the
outcomes are said to be equally likely.

6. Susan decides to perform 160 trials on the bag with five buttons. In each trial she will
draw one button from the bag, note its colour, and put it back. Lebogang decides she
will perform 60 trials and Archie decides to perform 40 trials.
Approximately how many times do you think each of them will draw each of the
buttons? Copy the table below and enter your expectations in it:

Susan
Lebogang
Archie

7. Here are the answers that eight different people “Close to 6” means it can be 6
or another number close to 6, for
gave for Archie, with his 40 trials.
example 5 or 7 or 4 or 8.

Answer A close to 5 close to 5 close to 5 close to 5 close to 20

Answer B 7, 8 or 9 7, 8 or 9 7, 8 or 9 7, 8 or 9 7, 8 or 9
Answer C 6, 7 or 8 6, 7 or 8 6, 7 or 8 6, 7 or 8 6, 7 or 8
Answer D close to 7 close to 9 close to 8 close to 10 close to 6
Answer E close to 6 close to 6 close to 6 close to 6 close to 6
Answer F 6 9 7 8 10
Answer G 8 8 8 8 8
Answer H close to 8 close to 8 close to 8 close to 8 close to 8

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 Which answers do you think are good answers, and which do you think are poor
answers? For each answer, explain why you think it is good or poor.
8. (a) How much is one fifth of 160, one fifth of 60 and one fifth of 40?
(b) Look at your own answers for question 6 again. Do you still agree with your
answers? If you want to give different answers now, do so and explain what
made you change your position.
9. Willem has decided to perform as many trials as he can in an afternoon, drawing one
button each time out of a bag containing five coloured buttons.
(a) In close to what fraction of the trials can he expect to get yellow as the outcome?
(b) In close to what fraction of the trials can he expect to get red as the outcome?
10. Manare has decided to perform as many trials as he can in an afternoon, drawing one
button each time out of a bag containing seven different coloured buttons.

(a) In close to what fraction of the trials can he expect to get blue as the outcome?
(b) In close to what fraction of the trials can he expect to get grey as the outcome?
11. Miriam has decided to perform as many trials as she can in an afternoon, drawing
one button each time out of a bag containing 12 different coloured buttons.
In close to what fraction of the trials can Miriam expect to get each specific colour as
the outcome?

The number of times that a specific outcome

is obtained during a series of trials is called the
frequency of the outcome.

12. What is the frequency for each of the following colours in answer F, in question 7 on
the previous page?
(a) red  (b) pink 
(c) yellow  (d) blue 

When the different possible outcomes of an event are

equally likely, it is reasonable to expect that when the
event is repeated many times, the frequencies for the
different outcomes will be almost equal.

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 an investigation

1. Make eight small cards or pieces of paper. On each card write a different letter. Use the
letters A, B, C, D, E, F, G and H. Put the cards in a paper bag. Imagine that you draw a
card out of the bag, note the letter and put it back. Imagine that you perform 40 such
trials, noting the outcome each time. Then you find the frequency for each letter. To
what number do you think each of the frequencies will be close? The number you
think of may be called the expected frequency.
2. What will be the expected frequencies for each letter if:
(a) 200 trials are performed?
(b) 1 000 trials are performed?
3. Now actually do the experiment described in question 1. Record your results with
tally marks in a table like the one below. When you have finished, count the tally
marks to find the actual frequencies.

A B C D E F G H
Tally marks
Actual frequency
Expected frequency 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5

4. Write your actual frequencies on a slip of paper, in a table like as follows:

A B C D E F G H
Actual frequency

5. The next step is to collect the slips of four different classmates. Copy the table on
page 305, and write their frequencies in rows 1, 4, 7, 10 and 13 of the table, together
with your own frequencies. Do not do it yet. When you put the five sets of results
together, and add them up, you will have the actual frequencies out of 200 trials. You
will write these in row 16. In the row for expected frequencies, write the numbers to
which you think the frequencies will be close.
6. Now work with your four classmates, and complete rows 1, 4, 7, 10 and 13.
7. In the first empty row after each actual frequency row, express the frequency as a
fraction of the total number of outcomes in the experiment, which was 40 in each
case. You need not simplify the fractions in rows 2, 5, 8, 11 and 14 of the table.
8. In rows 17 and 20, express the frequencies of rows 16 and 19 as fractions of 200.
9. In the remaining empty rows, express the fractions as percentages.

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 10. Calculate the ranges of the numbers in rows 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 and 18.

A B C D E F G H
1 Actual frequencies
2
3
4 Actual frequencies
5
6
7 Actual frequencies
8
9
10 Actual frequencies
11
12
13 Actual frequencies
14
15
16 Total actual frequencies
17
18
19 Expected frequencies

20

21

11. In which row is the range the smallest? Try to explain why this is the case.
12. In which of the rows in question 10 are the numbers closest to the expected
percentages in row 21?

The expected relative frequency of an outcome is

called the probability of the outcome.

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 13. Imagine that you have ten different coloured buttons in a bag, as shown below.

(a) Imagine that you draw one button out of the bag.
How many different equally likely outcomes are there for this trial?
(b) Imagine you draw one button out of the bag, look at the colour and make a tally
mark in the column for that colour on a table like the one below. Imagine you do
it many times. Approximately what fraction of the total number of tally marks do
you expect to be in each column?
(c) The fraction you have specified in (b) is the probability of the outcome for
each of the columns. Would you expect to get precisely that fraction in each
column?

(d) Hashim says he expects to have approximately ten tally marks in each column,
because the outcomes are equally likely. Do you agree with Hashim? Give reasons
for your answer.

26.2 Probability
In this activity you have to think about the following situation:
There are ten coloured, numbered buttons in a bag: six yellow buttons, three blue
buttons and one red button.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1. (a) What fraction of the total number of buttons is yellow?

(b) What fraction of the total number of buttons is blue?
(c) What fraction of the total number of buttons is red?

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 2. Suppose you put your hand into the bag without looking inside, take one button
out and note its colour, and then put it back into the bag.
If you repeat this trial many times, you will sometimes get a yellow, sometimes a
blue button and sometimes a red button.
(a) Do you think you will get blue more often than yellow? Explain your answer.
(b) Do you think you will draw yellow about twice as often as blue?
(c) Can you be certain which colour will be drawn? Explain your answer.
(d) Share your ideas with two classmates.

Here is an experiment that you will do later. Do not do it now.

Put ten buttons like those on page 308, or pieces of paper or cardboard with the names
of the colours written on them, in a bag. Put your hand into the bag without looking
inside, and take one button out. Check what colour it is, copy the table below and make
a tally mark in the column for that colour, and put the button back into the bag. Do this
ten times.

Yellow Blue Red

Each time you perform a trial, a certain event takes place, and there are three possible
events:
A.  The event of the colour being yellow
B.  The event of the colour being blue
C.  The event of the colour being red

3. (a) In how many different ways can event A be achieved in one trial?
(b) In how many different ways can event B be achieved in one trial?
(c) In how many different ways can event C be achieved in one trial?
4. (a) Suppose you do the experiment and make ten trials. Do you think event A will
happen three times or maybe four times, event B will happen three times or maybe
four times and event C will happen three times or maybe four times?
(b) Share your ideas with two classmates.
(c) Do you rather think event A will happen six times (or maybe five or seven times),
event B will happen three times (or maybe two or four times), and event C will
happen once (or maybe twice or not at all)?
(d) Share your ideas with two classmates.
5. (a) Do the experiment that is described before question 3. Copy the table on the
next page, and write the results in the second row of the table.
(b) Repeat the experiment and write the results in the third row of the table.
(c) Repeat the experiment three more times and enter the results in the table.
(d) Complete the last two rows of the table.

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 Outcome Yellow Blue Red
Frequency of each colour during the first ten trials
Frequency of each colour during the second ten trials
Frequency of each colour during the third ten trials
Frequency of each colour during the fourth ten trials
Frequency of each colour during the fifth ten trials
Total frequencies out of 50 trials
Total frequencies divided by 5

When you did the experiment for the first time in question 5(a), you performed ten
trials: you took a button out of the bag and inspected the colour.
Each time, there were three possible outcomes for the trial: the button could be
yellow, it could be blue or it could be red.
We can also say that three different events were possible: yellow, blue and red. But if
we consider the numbers on the buttons, ten different outcomes are possible.

6. (a) How many different outcomes (numbered buttons) will produce the event
yellow?
(b) How many different outcomes will produce the event blue?
(c) How many different outcomes will produce the event red?
7. (a) What fraction of the ten possible outcomes will produce the event yellow?
(b) What fraction of the ten possible outcomes will produce the event blue?
(c) What fraction of the ten possible outcomes will produce the event red?

The fractions you have given as answers for question 7 are the probabilities of the
three different events.

8. (a) What is the probability of getting blue when one of the buttons below is drawn
from a bag?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

(b) Describe in your own words what is meant by saying the probability of an
3
event is .
20

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