Introduction to

Tribology
Viscosity, Lubrication and Friction Theories


  
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Sec: 1
Introduction

The study of friction, wear, and lubrication has long been of enormous practical importance, since the
functioning of many mechanical, electromechanical and biological systems depends on the appropriate
friction and wear values. In recent decades, this field, termed "tribology," has received increasing attention
as it has become evident that the wastage of resources resulting from high friction and wear is greater than
6% of the Gross National Product. The potential savings offered by improved tribological knowledge, too,
are great.

The background of most engineers in this important technological area, however, is seriously deficient. For
example, an undergraduate engineering student receives less than an hour of instruction in tribology.
Moreover, most reference works of tribology provide little guidance to solving real-world problems.

Tribology is the science and technology of interacting surfaces in relative motion. It includes the study and
application of the principles of friction, lubrication and wear.

1. Viscosity
Definition:

Viscosity is a measure of the resistance of a fluid which is being deformed by either shear stress or
extensional stress. In everyday terms (and for fluids only), viscosity is "thickness". Thus, water is "thin",
having a lower viscosity, while honey is "thick" having a higher viscosity. Viscosity describes a fluid's
internal resistance to flow and may be thought of as a measure of fluid friction. All real fluids (except
superfluids) have some resistance to stress, but a fluid which has no resistance to shear stress is known as an
ideal fluid or inviscid fluid. The study of viscosity is known as rheology.

1.1. Viscosity coefficients

When looking at a value for viscosity, the number that one most often sees is the coefficient of viscosity.
There are several different viscosity coefficients depending on the nature of applied stress and nature of the
fluid. They are introduced in the main books on hydrodynamics and rheology.

• Dynamic viscosity (or absolute viscosity) determines the dynamics of an incompressible Newtonian
fluid;
• Kinematic viscosity is the dynamic viscosity divided by the density for a Newtonian fluid;
• Volume viscosity (or bulk viscosity) determines the dynamics of a compressible Newtonian fluid;
• Shear viscosity is the viscosity coefficient when the applied stress is a shear stress (valid for non-
Newtonian fluids);
• Extensional viscosity is the viscosity coefficient when the applied stress is an extensional stress
(valid for non-Newtonian fluids).

Shear viscosity and dynamic viscosity are much better known than the others. That is why they are often
referred to as simply viscosity. Simply put, this quantity is the ratio between the pressures exerted on the
surface of a fluid, in the lateral or horizontal direction, to the change in velocity of the fluid as you move
down in the fluid (this is what is referred to as a velocity gradient). For example, at room temperature, water
has a nominal viscosity of 1.0 × 10−3 Pa·s and motor oil has a nominal apparent viscosity of 250 × 10−3 Pa·s.

Extensional viscosity is widely used for characterizing polymers.

Volume viscosity is essential for Acoustics in fluids, see Stokes' law (sound attenuation).

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 1.2. Newton's theory

In general, in any flow, layers move at different velocities and the fluid's viscosity arises from the shear
stress between the layers that ultimately oppose any applied force.

Newton postulated that, for straight, parallel and uniform flow, the shear stress, τ, between layers is
proportional to the velocity gradient,, ∂u/∂y, in the direction perpendicular to the layers.

Here, the constant µ is known as the coefficient of viscosity, the viscosity, the dynamic viscosity, or the
Newtonian viscosity. Many fluids,, such as water and most gases,, satisfy Newton's criterion and are known
as Newtonian fluids. Non-Newtonian
Newtonian fluids exhibit a more complicated relationship between shear
she stress
and velocity gradient than simple linearity.

1.3. Viscosity Measurements

Dynamic viscosity is measured with various types of rheometer.. Close temperature control of the fluid is
essential
ential to accurate measurements, particularly in materials like lubricants, whose viscosity can double with
a change of only 5 °C. For some fluids, it is a constant over a wide range of shear rates. These are
Newtonian fluids.

The fluids without a constant viscosity are called non-Newtonian fluids.. Their viscosity cannot be described
by a single number. Non-Newtonian
Newtonian fluids exhibit a variety of different correlations between shear stress
and shear rate.

Units of measure

 Dynamic viscosity
The cgs physical unit for dynamic viscosity is the poise (P), named after Jean Louis Marie Poiseuille.
Poiseuille It is
more commonly expressed, particularly in ASTM standards, as centipoise (cP). Water at 20 °C has a
viscosity of 1.0020 cP.

1 P = 1 g·cm−1·s−1.

The relation between poise and pascal-seconds

pascal is:

10 P = 1 kg·m−1·s−1 = 1 Pa·s,
1 cP = 0.001 Pa·s = 1 mPa·s.

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  Kinematic viscosity

The cgs physical unit for kinematic viscosity is the stokes (St), named after George Gabriel Stokes. It is
sometimes expressed in terms of centistokes (cSt or ctsk). In U.S. usage, stoke is sometimes used as the
singular form.

1 stokes = 100 centistokes = 1 cm2·s−1 = 0.0001 m2·s−1.

1 centistokes = 1 mm2·s−1 = 10−6m2·s−1.

1.4. Viscosity Index

Viscosity index is a term. It is a lubricating oil quality indicator, an arbitrary measure for the change of
kinematic viscosity with temperature. The viscosity of liquids decreases as temperature increases of a
lubricant is closely related to its ability to reduce friction. Generally, you want the thinnest liquid/oil which
still forces the two moving surfaces apart. If the lubricant is too thick, it will require a lot of energy to move
the surfaces (such as in honey); if it is too thin, the surfaces will rub and friction will increase.

1.5. Heat Effects

Liquids: As the temperature of the liquid fluid increases its viscosity decreases. In the liquids the cohesive
forces between the molecules predominates the molecular momentum transfer between the molecules,
mainly because the molecules are closely packed (it is this reason that liquids have lesser volume than gases.
The cohesive forces are maximum in solids so the molecules are even more closely packed in them). When
the liquid is heated the cohesive forces between the molecules reduce thus the forces of attraction between
them reduce, which eventually reduces the viscosity of the liquids.

µ = µ o/ (1 + αt + βt2)
Where: µ - Viscosity of the liquid at t degree Celsius n poise
µ o – Viscosity of the fluid at 0o Celsius in poise
α, β – are the constants

1.6. Viscosity in Gases

Suppose now we repeat Newton’s suggested experiment, the two parallel plates with one at rest the other
moving at steady speed, but with gas rather than liquid between the plates.
It is found experimentally that the equation F/A= η v/ d still describes the force necessary to maintain steady
motion, but, not surprisingly, for gases anywhere near atmospheric pressure the coefficient of viscosity is far
lower than that for liquids (not counting liquid helium—a special case):

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Note first that, in contrast to the liquid case, gas viscosity increases with temperature. Even more surprising,
it is found experimentally that over a very wide range of densities, gas viscosity is independent of the
density of the gas!
Returning to the two plates, and picturing the gas between as made up of layers moving at different speeds
as before:

The previous picture of crowded molecules jostling each other is completely irrelevant! As we shall discuss
in more detail later, the molecules of air at room temperature fly around at about 500 meters per second, the
molecules have diameter around 0.35 nm, are around 3 or 4 nm apart on average, and travel of order 70 nm
between collisions with other molecules.

2. Reynolds number
Definition

Reynolds type equations are widely used in the field of Tribology. Tribology is a multidisciplinary field,
which deals with the science, practice and technology of lubrication, wear prevention and friction control in
machines. This enables lubrication engineers to minimize cost of moving parts. In this way machinery can
be made more efficient, more reliable and more cost effective. In the field of hydrodynamic lubrication, the
flow of fluid through machine elements such as bearings, gearboxes and hydraulic systems may be governed
by the Reynolds equation. The Reynolds type equations are often used in analyzing the influence of surface
roughness on the hydrodynamic performance of different machine elements when a lubricant is flowing
through it.
The two surfaces through which a lubricant flows, may have any of the following characteristics:
• both surfaces are rough and moving,
• one surface is rough and stationary while the other is smooth and moving.

2.1. Flow in Pipe

For flow in a pipe or tube, the Reynolds number is generally defined as:

where:

• is the mean fluid velocity (SI units: m/s)

• D is the diameter (m)
• µ is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid (Pa·s or N·s/m²)
• ν is the kinematic viscosity (ν = µ / ρ) (m²/s)
• ρ is the density of the fluid (kg/m³)
• Q is the volumetric flow rate (m³/s)
• A is the pipe cross-sectional area (m²)

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Definitions in non-SI units usually have a number (coefficient) in front, for example 124, where the pipe
diameter is in inches, the velocity in feet per second, the fluid density in pounds per cubic foot, and the
viscosity in centipoise,, which are traditional USA and UK units.

2.2. Assumptions

Some assumptions on which the Lubrication Approximation (Reynolds Equation) is based are given below:
1. Laminar Flow:
i. This is flow which is like shearing a deck of cards.
ii. Flow is in one direction only, x.
iii. Flow is a continuous function of y (i.e. no discontinuities, i.e. no slip)
2. Steady State
i. In = Out
ii. Isothermal: Heat in = heat out
iii. Incompressible: Mass in=Mass out
3. Newtonian (Viscosity is constant in dg/dt): t = h dg/dt. (For non-Newtonian
nian h = f(dg/dt).)
f(dg/dt).
4. Viscosity dominates over inertia (Creeping Flow), i.e. a couette viscometer is flow of two flat plates.
5. Taking Navier-Stokes, r Dv/Dt
/Dt = -ÑP + h Ñ2v + rg, for these conditions,
∇P = η ∇2v and for velocity only in the x direction, δP/δx = η δ2vx/δy2 which on integration yields:
Vx(y) = Vx (1 - y/H) + H/2η (δP/P/δx) y(y/H -1)
where v = Vx at y = 0 and v = 0 at y = H. The pressure driven velocity is maximum in the middle. The
first term in this form of the Reynolds Equation is linear and the second is parabolic. The sum gives a
skewed parabolic profile.
6. For Reynolds flow between 2 plates, integration over y yields:
qx = VxH/2 +H3/12η (-δP/δx)

2.3. Reynolds Equation Derivation

Substitute velocities into continuity equation, and then integrate across film thickness

First and third terms require Leibnitz s rule:

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Reynolds Equation

• Describes flow through convergent channel

• Left side: tangential & out of plane flows
• Film thickness h = h(x, z)
• Pressure p = p(x, z)
• Boundary velocities on surfaces:
(U1, V1, W1), (U2, V2, W2)

3. Hydrodynamic Lubrication Theory

3.1. Lubrication Zones

 Boundary lubrication
Contact between Journal and Bearing
 Mixed-film lubrication
Intermittent contact
 Hydrodynamic lubrication
Journal rides on a fluid film. Film is created by the Motion of the journal.

3.2. Newtonian Fluid

Newtonian fluid is any fluid whose shear stress and transverse rate of deformation are related through the
equation.

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 3.3. Pumping Action

When dry, friction will cause the journal to try to climb bearing inner wall. When lubricant is introduced, the
climbing action and the viscosity of the fluid will cause lubricant to be drawn around the journal creating a
film between the journals and bearing. The lubricant pressure will push the journal to the side.

3.4. Journal Bearing Nomenclature

β is equal to 2π for a full bearing.

If β is less than 2π, it is known as a partial bearing. We will

only be considering the full bearing case.
case

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 3.5. Analysis Assumptions
1) Lubricant is a Newtonian fluid.
fluid
2) Inertia forces of the lubricant are negligible.
negligible
3) Incompressible.
4) Constant viscosity.
5) Zero pressure gradient along the length of the bearing.
bearing
6) The radius of the journal is large compared to the film thickness.

3.6. Analysis Geometry

Actual Geometry Unrolled Geometry

From boundary layer theory, the pressure gradient in the y direction is constant.

 X-Momentum Equation

 Boundary Conditions
y=0, u=0

y=h(x), u=-U

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 Note that h(x) and dp/dx are not
known at this point.

 Mass Flow Rate

 Conversion of mass

Reynolds Equation

 h(x) Relationship

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3.7. Sommerfeld Solution

A. Sommerfeld solved these equations in 1904 to find

the pressure distribution around the bearing.

It is known as a long bearing solution because there is

no flow in the axial direction.

3.8. Short-Bearing
Bearing Pressure Distributions

3.9. Short & Long BearingComparisons

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4. Elasto-Hydrodynamic Lubrication theory

Hydrodynamic lubrication is the best described regime in literature and is based on the so called Reynolds equation
(1886). For detailed information regarding hydrodynamic lubrication the reader is referred to Moes (1997). This
equation describes the relation between the pressure and film shape as a function of the viscosity and the velocity. The
Reynolds equation can be written as:

With:
v+: the sum velocity of the moving surfaces ( v+ = v1 + v2 + )
x, y : spatial Cartezian coordinates
t: time
p: pressure
h: film thickness
ρ: density
η : viscosity

The right-hand-side of Eq. 2.1 denotes three possible effects that generate pressure in the gap between the
opposing moving surfaces. The first term is referred to as the wedge term, the second as the stretch term and
the last as the squeeze term. The stretch term is omitted in this thesis, i.e. the sum velocity is constant in the
direction of motion. The chosen moving direction is the x-direction. This thesis deals with line-contacts, the
pressure is constant along the y-direction and therefore the second term in the left-hand side of Eq. 2.1 can
be omitted. In this thesis the steady-flow case is considered. The squeeze term in the Reynolds equation can
thus be left out as well. The remaining Reynolds equation reads:

In order to solve the Reynolds equation boundary conditions are needed. The pressure is defined as zero at
the edges of the gap, thus:

By solving the Reynolds equation, pressure distribution is obtained. The integral over pressure distribution
in the gap results into the load applied to the contact:

With B the length of the cylinder.

Reynolds’ equation includes parameters like the geometry or shape of the surfaces (i.e. the film thickness),
the viscosity h and the density r. These three parameters are pressure dependent. The next three sections
present a literature review on the relationships between these three parameters and pressure.

Film shape
Due to the pressure generated in the contact the surface may deform. If this is the case elasto-hydrodynamic
lubrication takes place. The distribution of the pressure in the gap is solved by using the Reynolds equation
when the geometry or shape of the surface is known. The equation which describes the film shape between
two deformed cylinders can be written by using a parabolic approximation:
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with:
h¥ : constant
R: reduced radius of the undeformed cylinders
w: deformation.

The reduced radius is defined by:

with R1 and R2 the radii of cylinder 1 and 2 respectively. The deformation
of a cylinder by a pressure distribution is calculated according to Timosenko and Goodier (1982) as:

Where E’ is reduced elasticity modulus.

The reduced elastic modulus is given by:

With E1and E2 the elasticity modulus and ν1 and ν2 the Poisson ratios of surfaces ν1 and ν2 respectively

5. Tribology and friction

Friction is essential in our daily life. Friction makes it possible to walk, cycle, skate etc. On one hand, there
are cases where a high friction is demanded, as for instance in brakes, traction drives and clutches. But on
the other hand, in many industrial applications low friction between the contacting surfaces is required, such
as gears, bearings and cam & tappet system.
One of the developments in design is to reduce the size of the components in constructions while
transmitting the same or even higher loads resulting in severe operational contact conditions. Therefore, a
higher quality of the materials is required and the need of tribological knowledge increases as well.
Furthermore the tribo-systems are optimized with respect to low friction and wear. This is often realised by
lubrication. When the lubricant is able to separate the surfaces, then friction is considerably less, compared
to the situation when the surfaces are in direct contact. If the surfaces are separated by a fluid film due to
motion, the lubrication mechanism is called hydrodynamic lubrication (HL) and when the contacting bodies
deform elastically due to the contact pressure the lubrication mechanism refers to as elasto-hydrodynamic
lubrication (EHL).

Schematic representation of two surfaces in contact. I local contact separated by a boundary layer and II
direct contact between the opposing surfaces

Triboelectric effect
Rubbing dissimilar materials against one another can cause a build-up of electrostatic charge, which can be
hazardous if flammable gases or vapours are present. When the static build-up discharges, explosions can be
caused by ignition of the flammable mixture.

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