Equal by Law, Unequal by Caste: The "Untouchable" Condition in Critical Race Perspective

EQUAL BY LAW, UNEQUAL BY CASTE: THE
“UNTOUCHABLE” CONDITION IN CRITICAL

RACE PERSPECTIVE
SMITA NARULA*
I. INTRODUCTION
Caste-based oppression in India lives today in an environment

seemingly hostile to its presence: a nation-state that has long been
labeled the “world’s largest democracy;” a progressive and protective
constitution; a system of laws designed to proscribe and punish acts of
discrimination on the basis of caste; broad-based programs of affirmative
action that include constitutionally mandated reservations or quotas for
Dalits, or so-called “untouchables;” a plethora of caste-conscious
measures designed to ensure the economic “upliftment” of Dalits; and an
aggressive economic liberalization campaign to fuel India’s economic
growth.1
This Article seeks to answer the question of how and why this
seemingly foolproof recipe for equality has done little to mitigate
centuries of oppression and exclusion for over 167 million2 Dalits at the
*
Associate Professor of Clinical Law and Faculty Director, Center for Human Rights and Global
Justice, New York University School of Law. The author is grateful to Kimberlé Crenshaw,
Devon Carbado, Luke Harris, Martin Macwan, Satish Deshpande, Gowher Rizvi, and Jennifer
Gaboury for helpful conversations leading to the revisions of this article, and to Richard Green,
Loyiso Mbabane, Carlos Medeiros, Donald Davis, and Christophe Jaffrelot for their reviews of
an earlier draft. Portions of this piece were originally prepared for a ten-day multinational
research and development workshop titled “Globalizing Affirmative Action.” The workshop
was convened by the African-American Policy Forum and brought together twenty-four scholars
and advocates representing five countries to discuss social inclusion policy and discourse in a
comparative context. Portions of this piece previously appeared in HIDDEN APARTHEID: CASTE
DISCRIMINATION AGAINST INDIA’S “UNTOUCHABLES,” and are cited as such below. The author
acknowledges with great appreciation the invaluable research support provided by Jayne
Huckerby, Stephanie Barbour, Jeena Shah, Tiasha Palikovic, Sanjivi Krishnan, and Tara
Mikkilineni. Research assistance was also provided by Nishanth Chari, Mitra Ebadolahi, Anna
Gay, Jonathan Horne, Neha Sachdev, and Junko Tadaki. Research grant support was provided
by the Filomen D’Agostino Research Fund at New York University School of Law.
1
The phenomenon is not unique to India. Rather, caste-based discrimination affects an estimated
250 million people in Asia and Africa. See SMITA NARULA, CASTE DISCRIMINATION: A GLOBAL
CONCERN (Human Rights Watch, 2001) [hereinafter A GLOBAL CONCERN].
2
Census of India, Census Data 2001, available at http://www.censusindia.gov.in/
Census_Data_2001/India_at_glance/scst.aspx.
Electronic copy available at: http://ssrn.com/abstract=1273803

256 Wisconsin International Law Journal
bottom of India’s caste system.3 To the contrary, caste-based

discrimination, inequality, and oppression comfortably survive and even
thrive in modern day India. The Article further asks whether the clarion
call of “Dalit Rights are Human Rights,”4 increasingly heeded by the
international community and heard around the world,5 can now succeed
where all else has seemingly failed. It concludes that “Dalit Rights are
Human Rights” is not a self-fulfilling prophecy but one that can
galvanize a project of social transformation so long as it does not restrict
itself to the constraints of the legal and moral regime in which this
struggle now lives.
Part II of this Article situates “caste” in a global context,
particularly in the context of debates around affirmative action, racial
inequality, and racial justice in the United States. In so doing, it suggests
that the discourse surrounding the struggle for Dalits rights in India
brings the fallacy of anti-affirmative action arguments in the United
States into sharp relief. Part II then presents an overview of the caste
system and caste-based discrimination and inequality in India today,
paying specific attention to the intersection of caste and gender-based
discrimination and the impact on Dalits of India’s aggressive shift from a
state regulated economy to a market economy.
Part III focuses on Indian policies for redressing caste
discrimination against Dalits, known in legal parlance as “scheduled
3
An estimated additional 42 million Muslim and Christian Dalits are also vulnerable to
discrimination. Memorandum, National Campaign on Dalit Human Rights, Background of the
Dalit Situation in India, Sept. 2007 (on file with author).
4
See generally Clifford Bob, “Dalit Rights Are Human Rights:” Caste Discrimination,
International Activism, and the Construction of a New Human Rights Issue, 29 HUM. RTS. Q.
167 (2007) (analyzing recent efforts by Indian Dalit and international activists to “transform
centuries-old caste-based discrimination into an international human rights issue”). See also
National Campaign on Dalit Human Rights, Dalit Rights are Human Rights: A Charter of Dalit
Human Rights (on file with author).
5
See, e.g. H.R. Con. Res. 139, 110th Cong. (2007) (expressing sense of Congress that United
States should address the problem of untouchability in India); Resolution on the Human Rights
Situation of Dalits in India, Eur. Parl. Doc. B6-0021 (2007) (urging Indian government to tackle
problem of caste-based discrimination); U.N. Committee on the Elimination of Racial
Discrimination, Concluding Observations of the Committee on the Elimination of Racial
Discrimination [in response to the report submitted by India], U.N. Doc. CERD/C/IND/CO/19
(Mar. 6, 2007). For a general overview of the position of various U.N. human rights
mechanisms on the issue of caste discrimination, see generally CENTER FOR HUMAN RIGHTS AND
GLOBAL JUSTICE & HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, HIDDEN APARTHEID: CASTE DISCRIMINATION
AGAINST INDIA’S UNTOUCHABLES (2007), available at http://www.hrw.org/reports/2007/
india0207/india0207webwcover.pdf [hereinafter HIDDEN APARTHEID].

Vol. 26, No. 2 Equal by Law, Unequal by Caste 257
castes,”6 and includes an overview of constitutional provisions and

protective legislation aimed at abolishing “untouchability” practices and
promoting Dalits’ socio-economic development. It describes India’s
affirmative action policy, wherein seats are constitutionally “reserved”
for Dalits to ensure their proportional representation in federal
government jobs, state and local legislative bodies, the lower house of
parliament, and educational institutions.
India’s legal affirmation of Dalits’ rights lays the foundation for
real social transformation. Yet despite formal protections in law,
discriminatory treatment remains endemic and discriminatory societal
norms continue to be reinforced by government and private structures,
often through violent means.7 Much of the current scholarship on caste
in India has focused on the reservations policy.8 Scant attention has been
given to the corresponding under-enforcement of protective legislation or
the caste-based abuses committed by those entrusted with the role of
ensuring that the “rule of law” trumps discriminatory societal practices.9
Part IV argues that India’s law enforcement machinery enforces
the rules of the caste system, and not the “rule of law.” By depicting the
culture of under-enforcement of laws and policy prescriptions, this
section seeks to counter the prevailing perception that constitutional and
legislative protections are in and of themselves sufficient to ensure basic
protections for India’s most marginalized citizens. Rather than ensuring
basic rights, the preponderance of such legislation acts as a patina to
mask the daily reality of de facto segregation, exploitation, violence, and
other forms of “untouchability” practices. This has discouraged further
scrutiny into the condition of Dalits and other vulnerable groups who
remain outside the scope of basic protections.
Part IV additionally offers insights into how and why these
prescriptions have failed to deliver on their promises. Specifically, it
argues that casteism as a form of corruption and violence and as a
mechanism to entrench caste rules come together to effectively trump
6
This Article does not explore other pervasive discrimination practices, including those that target
tribal community members (in legal parlance “scheduled tribes”) and religious minorities in
India.
7
A GLOBAL CONCERN, supra note 1, at 2.
8
See, e.g., E.J. Prior, Constitutional Fairness or Fraud on the Constitution? Compensatory
Discrimination in India, 28 CASE W. RES. J. INT’L L. 63 (1996).
9
But see William J. Eisenman, Comment, Eliminating Discriminatory Traditions Against the
Dalits: The Local Need for International Capacity-Building of the Indian Criminal Justice
System, 17 EMORY INT’L L. REV. 133 (2003) (arguing that the Indian government’s
constitutional protections of Dalits and many protective acts, though exemplary, have failed to
result in gains for Dalits because of ongoing local prejudice).

any adherence to the rule of law. It then turns to the reservations

debate,10 situating reservations in the context of a system that is by its
very nature antithetical to merit or power-sharing. Even as they are cited
as prima facie evidence of Dalit equality and Dalit advancement,
reservations have proved to be an insufficient remedy for addressing
historic and entrenched discrimination against Dalits.
Part V articulates the formidable challenge that the caste system
presents to human rights law because of the competing and even inimical
theory of graded inequality that it represents. It scrutinizes the human
rights framework for its over-reliance on the state as a neutral agent of
social change and for the attendant assumption that like economic
growth, international laws and admonitions directed to the state will
“trickle down” to the rest of the population. Part V argues that human
rights actors must be scrutinized for paying insufficient attention to the
dismantling of the caste-based hierarchical mindset. Like the economic
and constitutional regimes that precede it, the human rights project has,
to date, left this project wholly undone. Part VI concludes that the
human rights movement can galvanize a project of social transformation
so long as it does not restrict itself to the constraints of the legal and
moral regime in which this struggle now lives.
II. THE CASTE SYSTEM
A. CASTE IN CONTEXT
On December 27, 2006, Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh

became the first sitting prime minister to openly draw a parallel between
the practice of “untouchability”—the imposition of social disabilities on
persons by reason of their birth in certain castes—and apartheid.11 In a
speech delivered at the Dalit-Minority International Conference in New
Delhi, Prime Minister Singh explained that, “Dalits have faced a unique
discrimination in our society that is fundamentally different from the
10
The term “reservations” refers to quotas or set-asides in institutes of higher education, legislative
bodies, and public sector jobs that are exclusively designated for historically disadvantaged
castes and tribes. As is the case with affirmative action in the U.S., caste-based reservations are
opposed by many as undermining merit-based advancement. On the debate generally, see, infra,
Part IV.F.
11
Maseeh Rahman, Indian Leader Likens Caste System to Apartheid Regime: Millions of Dalits
Still Face Oppression, Says PM, THE GUARDIAN (UK), Dec. 28, 2006, at 22.
problems of minority groups in general.”12 He pledged support for

affirmative action programs specifically targeting Dalits, stating that
India’s government “is deeply and sincerely committed to the equality of
all sections of our society and will take all necessary steps to help in the
social, educational and economic empowerment of dalits.”13
The analogy is an apt one on many levels, and an uncomfortable
one on others. Like South Africa, those who sit atop the caste pyramid
are a numerical minority. When combined, the population of Dalits,
“tribals,” “Other Backward Classes,” and religious minorities far
outnumber those of “upper-caste” Hindus.14 But the analogy reveals
something far deeper, that the system of “untouchability” in India
continues to operate as though a form of legal apartheid were effectively
still in place.
In many ways the Dalit condition naturally invites such
comparisons,15 and in others it is a singular category, cutting across the
Indian subcontinent, but categorically different than discrimination on
the basis of race. To begin, the visual cues that accompanied apartheid
in South Africa, or racial discrimination in other parts of the world, are
lacking in India. Caste is like oxygen—it is both invisible and
indispensable. While the absence of obvious racial cues does not prevent
the system from functioning to the detrimental exclusion of those who
fall below the “pollution line,”16 a general lack of Western familiarity
with a non-racial paradigm does frustrate international attention and
intervention.
12
Id.
13
Government Committed to Redress Inequities: Dr. Manmohan Singh, HINDUSTAN TIMES, Dec.
27, 2006.
14
According to the 2001 Census, India’s population breaks down along the following lines:
scheduled castes (“SC”) 16.2 percent; scheduled tribes 8.2 percent; Muslims 13.4 percent;
Christians 2.3 percent; Sikhs 1.9 percent; Buddhists 0.8 percent; Jains 0.4 percent; and others
0.6 percent. See Census of India, Census Data 2001, available at http://www.censusindia.gov.in/
Census_Data_2001/India_at_glance/scst.aspx. The percentage of the population that falls under
the category of “other backward classes” (“OBCs”) is the subject of much debate. The Mandal
Commission, set up by the government in 1979 to identify “socially or educationally backward”
classes, estimated in 1991 that OBCs comprise 52 percent of the population. A 2007 survey by
the National Sample Survey Organization (“NSSO”), however, puts this population at 41 percent
and the SC population just under 20 percent. OBCs are seen to be lower in the caste ranking but
above “untouchables” and are therefore not treated as untouchable. According to the NSSO
survey, the proportion of the population that is “upper-caste” Hindus is 25.5 percent. See OBCs
Form 41% of the Population: Survey, TIMES OF INDIA, Sept. 1, 2007 available at
http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/msid-2328117.cms (last visited Aug. 14, 2008).
15
See, e.g., V. T. RAJSHEKAR, DALIT: THE BLACK UNTOUCHABLES OF INDIA (3rd ed. 1995).
16
See infra Part II.C.1.
The Indian government has taken great pains to insulate itself

from international scrutiny by repeatedly pointing out that this is not
discrimination based on race, as though such confirmation nullifies the
abuse in question.17 Their protests ignore the fact that the prohibition of
“racial discrimination” under international law, and in particular the
International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial
Discrimination, Article 1, applies to discrimination on the basis of
descent.18 Regardless of how the abuse is defined, its noxious and
pervasive character should be sufficient to invite international attention
and condemnation.
Though scholars have pointed to the racial dimensions of caste,
this is not a Black and White issue, or a clear Black and Brown issue.
The caste system is one of graded inequality that invites people to share
in the spoils of iniquity even as they suffer from it.19 By offering
individuals a rank in a pecking order, the system strengthens itself and
keeps the equality revolution at bay.
India is also an example of injustice in the extreme: the numbers
affected are greater, the poverty is deeper, the atrocities are an every day
affair, and enforced servitude and segregation is the norm. The
population of Dalits equals more than half the population of the United
States.20 A majority of Dalits live on less than US$1 per day.21 Every
week, thirteen Dalits are murdered and five Dalit homes are destroyed.22
Three Dalit women are raped and eleven Dalits are assaulted every
day—a crime is committed against a Dalit every eighteen minutes.23
Aspects of the contemporary Dalit reality therefore find greater
resonance with the 1950s American South, American slavery, and, as
17
See, for example, the response of the Indian government to the U.N. Committee on the
Elimination of Racial Discrimination’s request that the government submit information on issues
pertaining to Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. India’s periodic report stated that “‘caste’
cannot be equated with ‘race’ or covered under ‘descent’ under Article 1 of the Convention.”
Government of India, Fifteenth, sixteenth, seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth periodic
reports of the Republic of India, due on January 4, 1998, 2000, 2002, 2004, and 2006 submitted
in one document on January 26, 2006, CERD/C/IND/19, ¶16 (Mar. 29, 2006).
18
International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination art. 1, Jan. 4,
1969, 212 U.N.T.S. 216 (regarding descent).
19
AMBEDKAR THOUGHT 74 (Pandiri Anjaiah & Durgam Subba Rao eds., 2005).
20
The population of Dalits in India is 167 million, while the population of the United States is
around 304 million. See U.S. Census Bureau, U.S. POPClock Projection, available at:
http://www.census.gov/population/www/popclockus.html (last visited Aug. 14, 2008).
21
SMITA NARULA, BROKEN PEOPLE: CASTE VIOLENCE AGAINST INDIA’S “UNTOUCHABLES” 2
(Human Rights Watch, 1999) [hereinafter BROKEN PEOPLE].
22
See infra note 285.
23
Id.
noted above, South Africa under apartheid. But, as discussed below, a

number of contemporary commonalities do exist.
The cross-fertilization of ideas between India and the United
States on approaches to ensuring equality is not new, nor is it
surprising.24 As two of the world’s largest democracies and as common
law countries with a profound history of de jure discrimination, India and
the United States have learned much from one another. The very
language of the Indian Constitution borrows heavily from the U.S.
Constitution.25 During his time at Columbia University, Dr. B.R.
Ambedkar—architect of the Indian Constitution—was inspired by such
legal constructs as the Fourteenth Amendment. As written by one
commentator: “Ambedkar’s revolution for the emancipation of
untouchables was significantly influenced by American ideals of
equality.”26 In 1947, the constitutional drafting committee’s advisor B.
N. Rau visited the United States and solicited the views of leading
American judges and scholars.27 Almost every fundamental right in the
Constitution of India finds its corollary in its American counterpart.28
Moreover, according to some scholars, the process of drafting the
Constitution of India took into account not only the textual wording of
the American provisions, but also the eventual interpretation of those
provisions offered by American courts.29
Both countries also continue to be mired in the politically

charged debate around affirmative action as either a suitable remedy to
24
See K.P. Singh, Liberation Movements in Comparative Perspective: Dalit Indians and Black
Americans, in DALITS IN MODERN INDIA: VISION AND VALUES (S.M. Michael ed., 2nd ed. 2007)
(describing similarities in the historical evolution of Dalit and African-American struggles and
arguing that both struggles have evolved from acquiescent movements to protest movements that
have founded their most far-reaching emancipatory visions on the notion of civil rights as a
counter to inequality.).
25
PRATAP KUMAR GHOSH, THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA: HOW IT HAS BEEN FRAMED 70 (1966).
26
M. Varn Chandola, Affirmative Action in India and the United States: The Untouchable and
Black Experience, 3 IND. INT’L & COMP. L. REV. 101, 118 (1992). See Eleanor Zelliot, Dr.
Ambedkar and America, Address at the Columbia University Ambedkar Centenary, 1991,
available at
http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00ambedkar/timeline/graphics/txt_zelliot1991.htm
l (last visited Aug. 14, 2008).
27
Soli J. Sorabjee, Equality in the United States and India, in CONSTITUTIONALISM AND RIGHTS:
THE INFLUENCE OF THE UNITED STATES CONSTITUTION ABROAD 96 (Louis Henkin & Albert J.
Rosenthal eds., 1990).
28
INDIA’S LIVING CONSTITUTION: IDEAS, PRACTICES, CONTROVERSIES 251 (Zoya Hasan, Eswaran
Sridharan & R. Sudarshan eds., 2005).
29
Robert B. Charles, Special Project, American Influence on the Indian Constitution: Focus on the
Equal Protection of the Laws, 17 COLUM. HUM. RTS. L. REV. 193, 202 (1986).
compensate for past injustices or as a means to level a playing field tilted

in favor of whites and “upper-caste” Hindus. Indian judges have often
cited U.S. affirmative action decisions and law review articles in their
opinions, although U.S. case law has not been cited as legal precedent.
Indian Supreme Court Justice Matthew in the 1975 case State of Kerala
v. Thomas noted the following in reference to the landmark U.S. case
Brown v. Board of Education:
Beginning most notably with the U.S. Supreme Court’s
condemnation of school segregation in 1954, the U.S. has finally
begun to correct the discrepancy between its ideals and its treatment
of the black man . . . . These actions, while not producing true
equality or even equality of opportunity logically dictated the next
step: positive use of government power to create the possibility of
real equality.30
It comes as no surprise that the richness of the field of

comparison has invited critical and thoughtful comparative legal
scholarship on the Indian and American experience with affirmative
action.31 Less well-considered are the contemporary struggles faced by
both movements to counter the mechanisms and rhetoric through which
the objectives of that legal framework now stand to be defeated. The
narrative of oppression, and of racist and casteist denial, is strikingly
similar from continent to continent and each country’s equality project is
decidedly unfinished for similar reasons.
Inviting American scholars and advocates to turn to India and the
lessons it offers to illuminate their own racial justice project is not an
30
State of Kerala v. Thomas, 1976 S.C.R. 906 (1975). See also Justice Harlan’s famous dissent in
Plessy v. Ferguson, the very case that affirmed the ‘separate but equal’ doctrine: “in [the] view
of the Constitution, in the eye of the law, there is in this country no superior, dominant, ruling
class of citizens. There is no caste here. Our Constitution is color-blind.” 163 U.S. 537, 559
(1896) (emphasis added).
31
See, e.g., Laura Dudley Jenkins, Race, Caste and Justice: Social Science Categories and
Antidiscrimination Policies in India and the United States, 36 CONN. L. REV. 747 (2004)
(examining the role of social science in the categorization of race and caste for affirmative action
purposes in India and the U.S., focusing on both the census and the courts); Clark D.
Cunningham, After Grutter Things Get Interesting! The American Debate Over Affirmative
Action Is Finally Ready for Some Fresh Ideas from Abroad, 36 CONN. L. REV. 665, 665-66
(2004) (arguing that U.S. affirmative action programs can be informed by lessons learned from
India and France, focusing specifically on India’s delineation of groups for different levels of
preference); Jason Morgan-Foster, Note, From Hutchins Hall to Hyderabad and Beyond: A
Comparative Look at Affirmative Action in Three Jurisdictions, 9 WASH. & LEE RACE & ETHNIC
ANC. L.J. 73, 73-75 (2003) (examining differences and similarities between American, Indian,
and European systems of affirmative action); Kevin D. Brown, African-Americans Within the
Context of International Oppression, 17 TEMP. INT’L & COMP. L.J. 1 (2003) (providing a
primarily personal account comparing the experience of African-Americans to the struggle of
Dalits and of black South Africans, based on his travel experiences to both countries).
anomaly, it is the natural continuation of a long tradition of inspiration

and solidarity shared between Indian and American civil rights leaders
and movements. The following examples are offered as a sampling of
that tradition, though they are by no means exhaustive.
In 1936, Howard Thurman, a famous black preacher and
educator, visited Mahatma Gandhi in India—who at the time was waging
India’s civil disobedience campaign against the British—to discuss
issues of racial segregation and voting rights in the United States.32
Better known is the fact that Martin Luther King, Jr. utilized the
Gandhian concept of “Satyagraha” or “nonviolent direct action” in his
teachings and leadership.33 Less well known, but equally significant, is
the relationship Ambedkar forged with W.E.B. Du Bois during the
founding year of the United Nations.34 The similarity of their situations
was not lost on either individual. In efforts to take the struggle for racial
justice to the international level, Du Bois used Ambedkar’s example in
appealing to the Secretary of the National Association for the
Advancement of Colored People (“NAACP”) to lodge a petition with the
newly formed United Nations General Assembly concerning the plight of
American Negroes.35
Formed in the Indian state of Maharashtra in the 1970s, the Dalit
Panthers aligned themselves ideologically to the Black Panther
movement in the United States.36 During the same period, Dalit
literature, painting, and theater challenged the very premise and nature of
established art forms and their depiction of society and religion.37 Dalit
Panthers visited “atrocity” sites, organized marches, election boycotts,
and rallies in villages, and raised slogans of direct militant action against
their “upper-caste” aggressors.38 Panther leaders were often harassed and
removed from districts for speaking out against the government and
32
HOWARD THURMAN, WITH HEAD AND HEART: THE AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF HOWARD THURMAN
131 (1981). Also in 1936, Jawaharlal Nehru was inspired to found an Indian Civil Liberties
Union after seeing the work of its U.S. counterpart, the American Civil Liberties Union. See
Munmun Jha, Nehru and Civil Liberties in India, 7 INT. J. HUM. RTS. L. 103, 107 (2003).
33
MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR., THE AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR. 128
(Clayborne Carson ed., 1998).
34
Daniel Immerwahr, Caste or Colony? Indianizing Race in the United States, 4 MOD.
INTELLECTUAL HIS. 275, 279 (2007).
35
Letter from W.E.B. Du Bois to Walter White (Aug. 1, 1946), in 3 THE CORRESPONDENCE OF
W.E.B. DU BOIS: SELECTIONS, 1944-1963, at 163 (Herbert Aptheker ed., 1997).
36
BROKEN PEOPLE, supra note 21, at 35.
37
Id.
38
Id.
Hindu religion.39 And like the Black Panthers, the Dalit Panthers became
frequent targets of police brutality and arbitrary detentions.40 Intellectual
solidarity between Dalits and African-Americans has been found in the
school of discourse called “Afro-Asian Traffic,” which finds
commonality between the two groups in their similar experiences of
slavery.41
Like the civil rights struggle that began in the 1950s and was led
by African-Americans, Dalits in the twenty-first century are forming
human rights movements, challenging local governments, and
demanding equal access to services and equal protection before the law,
often in alliance with international partners.42 In 2001, African-American
and Dalit activists found themselves sharing the same contested space at
the World Conference against Racism in Durban, South Africa.43 Both
groups faced the racist and casteist denial of their respective
governments who either refused to allow consideration of their concerns
in the international forum44 or diluted their delegation’s involvement to
the point that their participation was rendered meaningless.45
As the battle lines are drawn once again in the debate around
affirmative action in both countries, the same ideologies are used to
discredit the state’s use of race or caste-conscious measures to ensure
real equality of opportunity for minorities in the United States and Dalits
and other “lower-caste” groups in India. Meritocracy, equality,
efficiency, and liberalism are the catchwords that resonate in both
countries to either defeat or redefine constitutional pronouncements that
were heretofore invoked to ensure substantive equality on the basis of
race or caste. Affirmative action is attacked as either having sufficiently
39
Id.
40
Id. See also Immerwahr, supra note 34, at 300.
41
See, e.g., Vijay Prashad, Ethnic Studies Inside and Out, 9 J. ASIAN AM. STUD. 157 (2006).
42
Examples of these Dalit movements include the National Campaign on Dalit Human Rights,
www.ncdhr.org.in (last visited Aug. 15, 2008); The International Dalit Solidarity Network,
www.idsn.org (last visited Aug. 15, 2008); The Center for Dalit Rights, www.dalitrights.org (last
visited Aug. 15, 2008); The Dalit Foundation, www.dalitfoundation.org (last visited Aug. 15,
2008); the US-based Dalit Freedom Network, www.dalitnetwork.org (last visited Aug. 15,
2008); and the Dalit NGO Federation of Nepal, www.dnfnepal.org (last visited Aug. 15, 2008).
43
World Conference against Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related Intolerance,
held in Durban, South Africa, Aug. 31-Sept. 7, 2001.
44
India lobbied furiously against the inclusion of any references to caste discrimination, or
discrimination on the basis of “work and descent,” in the final conference documents. Anti
Racism Summit Ends on Hopeful Note, Human Rights Watch, Sept. 10, 2001,
http://hrw.org/english/docs/2001/09/10/global3038.htm.
45
Among other issues, the U.S. delegation simply walked out of the conference before it was over.
See id.
served its purpose, or as not being up to the task of alleviating a broad-

based social problem. In the latter category, the alternatives that are
offered in its place rarely find traction, let alone implementation in policy
terms. Reservations, once the mask that India wore to hide the real face
of caste oppression, are now being attacked as an affront to (formal)
equality and a barrier to achieving a caste-blind society. Yet formal
equality assumes a level playing field—which it certainly is not for
minorities in the United States or for Dalits and other marginalized
communities in India.46 As critical race theory scholar Crenshaw notes in
the context of the rhetoric of colorblindness in the United States, this
remarkable strategy is a “breathtakingly bold act of cooption” wherein
colorblindness “now delivers its reputation and historical capital to a
specious claim that the journey to the promised land is nearly
complete.”47
African-Americans and Dalits are also now made to compete
against other marginalized communities in their respective countries for
sufficient attention to their demands and their rights. It seems the small
slice of the pie reserved for non-whites and non-“upper-caste” Indians
has not grown much bigger, and attempts to broaden the collective share
invites swift protest and condemnation in the conservative media, on the
streets, at the polls, and in the courtroom. Regrettably, the attendant
claims of women in both struggles, and the compounded discrimination
they face, get lost in the debate.
Like the United States, India exhibits a temporal tension between
striving for equality as a space where caste categories (or, in other
countries, racial categories) do not matter, and the need to continually
identify and name the categories that have been used to create hierarchy
or exclusion for the purposes of ensuring social inclusion.48 Such a
tension is reflected at the level of policy, of social movements, and of
political discourse, both for and against caste-conscious measures to
ensure social inclusion.
46
Though not the subject of this Article, other communities face extreme marginalization and/or
human rights abuses in India, including tribal community members, Muslims, Christians, and
Sikhs. The treatment of Dalits, including those who have converted to other faiths, is unique,
however, because of their placement on the wrong side of the purity-pollution line and because
of the social disabilities that arise from their “untouchable” status.
47
Kimberlé W. Crenshaw, Framing Affirmative Action, 105 MICH. L. REV. FIRST IMPRESSIONS
132-33 (2007).
48
Author’s discussions with Satish Deshpande, Aug. 2007. See, e.g., Dudley Jenkins, supra note
31 at 747, 750 (arguing that in both India and the United States there exists a debate between a
view that warns against enforcing existing racial lines and a view that says we can “retain and
reconstruct racial categories as a means of empowerment”).
In both countries, caste- or race-based stigma has not been

erased by upward class mobility.49 Even for the minority of Dalits who
have managed to defy their religiously proscribed economic lot, social
oppression has not fallen away. As poignantly noted by a Dalit surgeon,
It is India’s most shameful paradox—this country has made almost
unimaginable progress in nearly every sphere of human life, but the
one thing unchanged is the condition of its dalits and backward
communities. I am a microsurgeon specialising in hand and spinal
reconstruction, and am [a Member of Legislative Assembly] from
Bihar, but I still remain very much a dalit—a dhobi, to be precise—
open to routine humiliation from the upper castes.50
The inter-category diversity among Dalits that comes about as a

result of the creation of a new Dalit middle class is cited not as the
success of affirmative action that it represents, but as the reason to now
defeat the affirmative action project. Class operates in both countries as
a displacement strategy. And in both countries the criminal justice
system and its application to particular groups suffers from the twin
malaise of over- and under-enforcement. Dalits are routinely rounded up
for crimes committed in their vicinity,51 yet summarily ignored when
they themselves are the victims of abuse.52
Like the United States, India’s social transformation project is
stunted by its increasing dependency on courts as a source of redress; its
recourse to the legislature and courts is seen as the dominant avenue for
social reform. The disproportionate focus on proportional
representation—or policies that aim to increase the representation of
marginalized groups in the legislature, institutes of higher education, and
now the private sector—is where this conversation gets debated and
defeated.53 Left out of consideration is the broad range of possible race-
49
As Derrick Bell argues in relation to racism in the United States, “[w]hatever our status, we are
feared because we might be one of ‘them.’” Derrick Bell, The Racism Is Permanent Thesis:
Courageous Revelation or Unconscious Denial of Racial Genocide, 22 CAPITAL U. L. REV. 571,
581 (1993).
50
Ramsunder Ram Kanauija, Surgeon Second, Dhobi First, TEHELKA, Feb. 3, 2007, available at
http://www.tehelka.com/story_main26.asp?filename=Cr020307Shadow_lines.asp (last visited
Aug. 15, 2008).
51
HIDDEN APARTHEID, supra note 5, at 28.
52
Id. at 33-34.
53
Journalist and social commentator P. Sainath notes: “In the media, any debate on Dalit rights is
about reservation, and not about water, health, sanitation or land rights. In the minds of the
media audience, we have created a stereotype that Dalit is equal to reservation, which is taken
out of the context of all these other deprivations.” He adds that the growing trend of using the
language of equality and meritocracy to oppose reservations represents a “‘repackaging’ of
casteism and caste stereotypes.” Trend of repackaging casteism growing, THE HINDU, Dec. 7,
or caste-conscious measures that exist on paper but are neglected or

undermined in practice. Even more neglected is the work that must be
done on both continents to dismantle the racist and casteist mindsets that
fuel the discrimination and generate inequality.
The social transformation project—that began in India with
adoption of the constitution in 1950, and in the United States with the
civil rights struggle leading up to and following the landmark case of
Brown v. Board in 1954—has left some with greater opportunity and
political mobility but has “transformed” little. The “Dalit ordeal” is an
example of a comprehensive legal framework with little to no execution.
The “African-American ordeal” is an example of an emasculated legal
framework that sees little hope of revival. The gap between
constitutional vision and social reality is therefore far greater in India
where the progressiveness of the constitution and the broader legal
framework is belied by its almost complete under-enforcement. The rule
of law lives in the shadow of the rule of caste. Though crafted as a
bulwark against caste discrimination, the juxtaposition of egalitarian
laws against an inherently unequal system acts as an open invitation to
frustrate constitutional intentions.
As a case study, the condition of Dalits in India brings into clear
view the limitations of the law and economic growth as antidotes to
inequality. India’s high levels of poverty concentrated among particular
social groups, its epidemic of violence meted out in the name of
upholding caste-based norms and traditions, and the prevalence of Dalit
segregation, exploitation, and untouchability as the rule, rather than the
exception, all expose the ways in which discrimination wears poverty as
its mask.
Poverty is deceptive. It makes one conclude that all suffer from
it equally. Poverty also masks a lack of political will to change the status
quo by shifting the debate to a lack of resources. But a closer look at
India’s poverty reveals the discrimination inherent in the allocation of
jobs, land, basic resources and amenities, and even physical security. A
closer look at victims of violence, bonded labor, and other atrocities also
reveals that they share in common the lowest ranking in the caste order.
Poverty in India is, of course, not limited to Dalits, but as is the case with
African-Americans in the United States, if you are a Dalit in India, you
2007, available at http://www.hindu.com/2007/12/07/stories/2007120759081200.htm (last

visited Aug. 15, 2008).
are far more likely to be poor.54 Moreover, the poverty endured is abject,
violent, and virtually inescapable.
In both countries, economic progress has not led to equitable
growth. In the United States—which is the most economically powerful
country in the world—and India—whose economic growth is celebrated
as a success of the ethos of economic liberalization—the rising tide has
not lifted all boats; rather, it has caused many to drown, in some cases all
too literally. Just as African-Americans bore the brunt of Hurricane
Katrina in 2005 due to their concentration in the areas where the flooding
was worst, as well as the lethargic response of the U.S. federal
government, Dalits too were twice victimized in India’s recent natural
disasters—first by nature, and then by the apathy of the state.55 Dalits are
particularly susceptible to loss of life and property in times of natural
disasters due to the precarious conditions in which they live. A survey
conducted by the National Campaign on Dalit Human Rights
(“NCDHR”) following catastrophic flooding in the eastern state of Bihar
in August 2007—which affected 14 million people in the state and killed
2,253 in the region—found that Dalits were the worst hit.56 Relief rarely
reached Dalits, testifying to the fact that “[t]he culture of discrimination
which runs through Indian society intensifies in times of crisis.”57 In
some cases, Dalits were forced to wait for their share of relief supplies
until all other groups had received aid.58
54
See MELVIN OLIVER & THOMAS M. SHAPIRO, BLACK WEALTH/WHITE WEALTH: A NEW
PERSPECTIVE ON RACIAL INEQUALITY (2nd ed., 2006); THOMAS M. SHAPIRO, THE HIDDEN COST
OF BEING AFRICAN AMERICAN: HOW WEALTH PERPETUATES INEQUALITY (2004); MEIZHU LUI,
BARBARA ROBLES & BETSY LEONDAR-WRIGHT, THE COLOR OF WEALTH: THE STORY BEHIND
THE U.S. RACIAL WEALTH DIVIDE (2006).
55
See Scott Shane, After Failures, Government Officials Play Blame Game, N.Y. TIMES, Sept. 5,
2005. It has been argued that the Bush administration’s lack of urgent concern about the victims
was because the population, mostly African-American, had never been of electoral significance
for Bush. Or, as rapper Kanye West put it simply, “George Bush doesn’t care about black
people.” See MICHAEL ERIC DYSON, COME HELL OR HIGH WATER: HURRICANE KATRINA AND
THE COLOR OF DISASTER 30 (2006).
56
Amelia Gentleman, Letter from India: In Flood Lands of India, Caste Prejudices Thrive, INT’L
HERALD TRIB., Aug. 29, 2007, available at http://www.iht.com/articles/2007/08/29/asia/
letter.php.
57
Id.
58
NATIONAL CAMPAIGN ON DALIT HUMAN RIGHTS, DALIT WATCH REPORT ON BIHAR FLOOD,
http://www.ncdhr.org.in/latestinterventions/dalit-watch-report (last visited Aug. 15, 2008).
Dalits also faced rampant discrimination in the distribution of aid in the wake of the January
2001 earthquake and the Indian Ocean tsunami in December 2004. See A GLOBAL CONCERN,
supra note 1, at 6; After the Deluge: India’s Reconstruction After the 2004 Tsunami, 17 HUMAN
RIGHTS WATCH NO. 3, May 2005, at 25.
Even during moments of shared hardship, communities are

divided by race or caste. Similarly, caste-based inequality, like racial
inequality, survives dramatic economic growth. Even as India celebrated
its triumphant testing of nuclear weapons, exploding them underground
in the deserts of Rajasthan, Dalit manual scavengers were being
manually lowered into open sewers without protective gear to unblock
toxic and noxious sewage.59 In India, the rise of a nuclear state and a
technological powerhouse has been accompanied by the rise of the
number of manual scavengers in the country today.60 The militarism and
jingoistic nationalism of both governments has also depleted state coffers
in the name of ensuring “national security” and fighting the global “War
on Terror”—a fight in which both states are now staunch allies—to the
detriment of the poor in both countries who enjoy neither physical nor
economic security.
Inequality, Indian-style, is a valuable case study for a variety of
reasons: it exposes the pitfalls of relying on the “rule of law” as a self-
fulfilling prophecy, or on the “neutrality” of the state as a guarantor of
social justice. The case of Dalits in India also serves to counter
prevailing global narratives that an insufficiency of resources is solely to
blame for the economic woes of the dispossessed, or, its sister argument,
that allowing for aggressive market reforms in the name of promoting
economic growth will reduce poverty and lead to equitable development.
The treatment of Dalits as “untouchables,” regardless of their educational
attainment or their economic class, also serves to summarily reject the
argument that “success,” as measured by one’s level of education or
income, can work to displace the stigma associated with caste or will do
away with discrimination and inequality all together.61 Such lessons are
particularly apt for general inquiries into the need for and/or legitimacy
of affirmative action. Inasmuch as affirmative action around the globe is
59
India’s Nuclear Weapons Program, Operation Shakti: 1998,
http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/India/IndiaShakti.html (last visited Aug. 15, 2008).
60
Balakrishnan Rajagopal, The Caste System—India’s Apartheid?, THE HINDU, Aug. 18, 2007,
available at http://thehindu.com/2007/08/18/stories/2007081856301200.htm (last visited Aug.
15, 2008).
61
Stigma of this kind adapts itself to new scenarios, as the experience of many African-Americans
has shown. Students of color who manage to gain access to elite academic institutions are
confronted with the accusation that they “only got in because of affirmative action.” According
to Feagin and Sikes, such a sentiment encapsulates the continuing racist belief of black
inferiority. See JOE. R. FEAGIN & MELVIN P. SIKES, LIVING WITH RACISM: THE BLACK MIDDLE-
CLASS EXPERIENCE 94 (1995). See also Daniel Farber & Suzanna Sherry, The Pariah Principle,
13 CONST. COMMENT. 257, 271 (1996), discussing stigmatization in an extreme sense that not
only causes a group to be regarded as inferior but outcasts them as “pariahs,” excluding them
from political participation and from society as a whole.
under attack as an affront to liberalism and “meritocracy,” the

intrinsically anti-merit nature of the caste system offers an alternative
space in which conversations about “merit” can take place.
India also presents a unique challenge for those human rights
lawyers and advocates who operate exclusively in the framework of
international human rights law as a mechanism for achieving social
change. International human rights laws and mechanisms, with their
over-reliance on the role of the state, and their almost unquestioned faith
that the right laws will do the trick, are ill-equipped to take on systems
that define equality in the inverse, and in which human beings are born
inherently unequal. Finally, a closer look at caste, worthy of academic
inquiry in its own right, provides a powerful reminder that race and
ethnicity are not the sole dominant constructs around which social and
economic oppression is organized to the detriment of a sizeable
population of the world.62
B. OVERVIEW OF THE CASTE SYSTEM
India’s caste system is perhaps the world’s longest surviving and

most rigorously enforced system of social hierarchy. The caste system
encompasses a complex ordering of social groups on the basis of ritual
purity. Caste is descent-based and hereditary in nature.63 It is a
characteristic determined by one’s birth into a particular caste. Caste
denotes a traditional system of rigid social stratification into ranked
groups defined by descent and occupation.64 While the particular ranking
of castes may vary among regions, the extremes of the spectrum are
fixed with Brahmins sitting atop the hierarchy and Dalits, or so-called
untouchables, at the very bottom.65
The caste system is an intrinsic part of Hinduism, the dominant
faith practiced by Indians. According to Hindu scripture, individuals are
born inherently unequal into a graded caste-based structure that defines
their status and opportunities in life. Caste-based discrimination is also
62
It is estimated that there are 240 million Dalits in South Asia alone, and that many populations
around the world suffer discrimination under caste-based or analogous systems of social
exclusion. A GLOBAL CONCERN, supra note 1, at 54.
63
64
65
openly practiced by Sikhs,66 Christians,67 and Muslims against Dalits who

have converted to these faiths in an effort to escape their persecution.
Though the origins of the caste system have long been a subject
of dispute,68 as has the question of whether it tracks racial groupings,69
the following theories are worthy of note. Caste is said to have its basis
in the Hindu religion, as it is referred to in scripture. In the Bhagavad
Gita, Lord Krishna proclaims: “the four castes have been created by
Me;”70 similarly, the Manu-Smriti sets out the main castes as each having
been created from a different part of God’s form, and codifies the
respective God-given duties of each of these castes.71 Alternative
sociological theories posit the caste system as a ritual solution to the
Vedic cultural preoccupation with distancing oneself from pollution.72 A
popular, but contested, suggestion has been that this Vedic culture
arrived in India with the migration of the Indo-Aryans, from whom the
Brahminic “upper castes” are allegedly descended.73 Still others have
focused on the role of British colonial rule in cementing caste-based
divisions.74
Differences in status are traditionally justified by the religious
doctrine of karma, a belief that one’s place in life is determined by one’s
deeds in previous lifetimes.75 Traditional scholarship has described this
more than two thousand-year-old system within the context of the four
66
Ronki Ram, Social Exclusion, Resistance and Deras: Exploring the Myth of Casteless Sikh
Society in Punjab, 42 ECON. & POL. WKLY. 4066 (2007) available at
http://www.epw.org.in/uploads/articles/11111.pdf (last visited Aug. 15, 2008).
67
Prakash Louis, Dalit Christians: Betrayed by State and Church, 42 ECON. & POL. WKLY., 1404
(2007).
68
See, e.g., RATNA G. REVANKAR, THE INDIAN CONSTITUTION—A CASE STUDY OF BACKWARD
CLASSES 14 (1971).
69
See J. C. NESFIELD, BRIEF VIEW OF THE CASTE SYSTEM OF THE N.W.P. AND OUDH (1885). Cf.
H. H. RISLEY, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA (1915); G. S. GHURYE, CASTE AND RACE IN INDIA 101—23
(1932). For more recent discussion, see J. L. Mountain et al., Demographic History of India and
mtDNA-Sequence Diversity, 56 AM. J. HUMAN GENETICS 979 (2005).
70
Bhagavad Gita 4.13.
71
THE LAWS OF MANU I, 87 (George Bühler trans., 1969).
72
J. H. HUTTON, CASTE IN INDIA: ITS NATURE, FUNCTION AND ORIGINS 180 (4th ed. 1963).
73
GHURYE, supra note 69, at 142; EDWIN BRYANT, THE QUEST FOR THE ORIGINS OF VEDIC
CULTURE - THE INDO-ARYAN MIGRATION DEBATE 49 (2001).
74
See Kevin Brown, Affirmative Action in the United States and the Reservation System in India, in
RELIGION AND PERSONAL LAW IN SECULAR INDIA 251, 253-54 (Gerald James Larson ed., 2001)
(arguing that the traditional caste system was first “seriously disturbed” during British colonial
rule by British divide-and-conquer efforts to reinforce existing religious and caste divisions). See
generally NICHOLAS B. DIRKS, CASTES OF MIND: COLONIALISM AND THE MAKING OF MODERN
INDIA (2001).
75
WENDY DONIGER O’FLAHERTY, KARMA AND REBIRTH IN CLASSICAL INDIAN TRADITIONS 209
(1980).
principal varnas, or large caste categories. In order of precedence these

are the Brahmins (priests and teachers), the Ksyatriyas (rulers and
soldiers), the Vaisyas (merchants and traders), and the Shudras (laborers
and artisans). A fifth category falls outside the varna system and consists
of those known as “untouchables” or Dalits; they are often assigned tasks
too ritually polluting to merit inclusion within the traditional varna
system.76
Though most closely associated with Hinduism, the practice of
untouchability—the social imposition of particular disabilities against
individuals deemed to be untouchable—permeates all major religions in
India and the entire subcontinent.77 Within the four principal castes,
there are thousands of sub-castes, also called jatis; endogamous groups
that are further divided along occupational, sectarian, regional, and
linguistic lines. Collectively, all of these are sometimes referred to as
“caste Hindus,” those falling within the caste system.78 The Dalits are
described as varna-sankara, falling outside the system. They are
considered so inferior to other castes that they are deemed polluting and
therefore “untouchable.”79 Even as outcasts, they themselves are divided
into further sub-castes and practice untouchability against those ranked
below; the discrimination is wholly internalized giving way to what Dr.
Ambedkar termed a system of “graded inequality.”80
Whereas the first four varnas have over time enjoyed significant
occupational mobility, a majority of Dalits in India continue to
involuntarily inherit occupations assigned to the caste into which they are
born—occupations deemed too filthy or polluting for others to carry out.
C. CASTE-BASED DISCRIMINATION AND INEQUALITY IN INDIA TODAY
In much of South Asia and India in particular, caste has become

coterminous with race in the definition and exclusion of distinct
population groups on the basis of their descent. For over 167 million
Dalits or “untouchables” in India, caste remains the determinative factor
76
77
A GLOBAL CONCERN, supra note 1, at 2, 59.
78
79
Id.
80
AMBEDKAR THOUGHT, supra note 19, at 74.
for the attainment of civil, political, social, economic, and cultural

rights.81
1. UNTOUCHABILITY: LIVING BELOW THE “POLLUTION” LINE
The practice of “untouchability”—the imposition of social

disabilities on persons by reason of their birth into “untouchable”
castes—continues to blight the lives of millions of Indians today who are
relegated to life below the “pollution” line. The manifestation of such
oppression has taken and continues to take many forms. Age-old
customs included prohibiting Dalits from walking public streets lest their
“polluting” shadow should fall on an “upper-caste” Hindu, and requiring
Dalits to mark themselves with black bracelets; string a broom around
their waists so as to sweep the “polluted” dust they walked on; or hang
an earthen pot around their necks “lest [their] spit falling on the earth
should pollute a Hindu who might unknowingly happen to tread on it.”82
Modern India has improved little by way of untouchability
practices. Dalits are still prohibited from entering temples, are
segregated into Dalit ghettoes, and in some areas are still forced to get
off their bike or take off their slippers when walking past non-Dalit
homes—gestures that force Dalits to repeatedly self-affirm their inferior
status.83 Caste divisions between Dalits and non-Dalits dominate in
housing, marriage, employment, and general social interaction—
divisions that are reinforced through the practice and threat of social
ostracism, economic boycotts, and physical violence.84 Dalits are denied
access to land, forced to work in degrading conditions, and routinely
abused at the hands of the police and “higher-caste” groups that often
enjoy the state’s protection.85 In what has been called India’s “hidden
apartheid,” entire villages in many Indian states remain completely
segregated by caste.86 As noted by Ambedkar, “India is admittedly a
land of villages and so long as the village system provides an easy
method of marking out and identifying the untouchable, the untouchable
81
SMITA NARULA, THE INT’L COUNCIL ON HUMAN RIGHTS POLICY, ENTRENCHED
DISCRIMINATION: THE CASE OF INDIA’S “UNTOUCHABLES” 8 (1999).
82
B.R. AMBEDKAR, Annihilation of Caste, in DR. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR WRITING AND
SPEECHES, VOL. 1, 39 (1979).
83
INDIA UNTOUCHED: STORIES OF A PEOPLE APART (Navsarjan Trust & Drishti Media 2007).
84
85
86
Id.
has no escape from untouchability.”87 Every village has its ghetto, and
the ghetto is where the Dalits live.
“Untouchability” relegates Dalits to a lifetime of discrimination,
exploitation, and violence, including severe forms of torture perpetrated
by state and private actors.88 Because of the castes into which they are
born, Dalits are forced to work in “polluting” and degrading occupations
and are subject to exploitative labor arrangements such as bonded labor,
migratory labor, and forced prostitution. Dalit children are vulnerable to
trafficking and the worst forms of child labor in these and other areas.
Dalits are also discriminated against in hiring and in the payment of
wages by private employers.89
Migration and the anonymity of the urban environment have in
some cases resulted in upward occupational mobility for Dalits, but the
majority continues to perform its traditional or “polluting” functions. A
lack of training and education, along with the discrimination faced in
seeking other forms of employment, has kept alive these traditions and
their hereditary nature. A majority of the Dalit rural workforce subsists
on the menial wages of landless agricultural laborers, earning less than
US$1 per day.90 Those in urban areas work mostly in the unorganized
sector. India’s much touted system of reservations or constitutionally
reserved quotas for scheduled castes assists less than 1 percent of the
Dalit population. In all forms of labor, women are consistently paid less
than men, compounding the dual discrimination of caste and gender
detailed below.91
Segregation between Dalits and non-Dalits is routinely practiced
in housing, schools, and access to public and private sector services.
Ninety-nine percent of Dalit students are enrolled in government schools
that lack basic infrastructure, classrooms, teachers, and teaching aids.92
Government schools by and large teach in local languages, as opposed to
private schools—whose students are predominantly “upper-caste”—that
teach in English.93 Their inability to speak English further disadvantages
87
88
HIDDEN APARTHEID, supra note 5, at 30-32.
89
Id. at 82.
90
91
See generally Sukhadeo Thorat et al., Human Poverty and Socially Disadvantaged Groups in
India, (Human Development Resource Center/United Nations Development Program, India
Office, New Delhi, Jan. 2007).
92
93
Emily Wax, India’s Lower Castes Seek Social Progress in Global Job Market, WASH. POST,
Aug. 20, 2007, at A01.
Dalits in the private sector and the global market.94 Dalit children also
face abuse from teachers and non-Dalit students as well as segregation
both in the classroom and in the provision of mid-day meals. Dalit
schoolchildren and teachers also face discrimination from “upper-caste”
community members who perceive education for and by Dalits as both a
waste and a threat. Their hostility toward Dalits’ education is linked to
the perception that Dalits are not meant to be educated, are incapable of
being educated, or if educated, would pose a threat to village hierarchies
and power relations.95
Indian economist Sukhadeo Thorat analyzes data generated by
primary surveys conducted in four regions of India as well as data
generated by the National Commission for Scheduled Castes and
Scheduled Tribes’ all-India annual reports.96 He argues that the regional
data generated by the primary surveys is important because it
underscores severe caste-based abuses that may not have been reported
to the local authorities and have been left undocumented.97 The studies
highlight persistent patterns such as: denial of Dalits’ access to water;
refusal of essential and/or public services to Dalits, or provision of such
services in a discriminatory fashion; physical violence against Dalits; and
Dalit political disenfranchisement.98 Thorat concludes that “upper-caste”
social behavior in rural India is governed by the norms and codes of the
traditional caste system.99 Consequently, Dalits are separated from other
communities, denied freedom of movement, and otherwise ostracized
from shared social activities.100
The practice of economic exclusion and discrimination is also
evident in the differential pricing for Dalits in the sale and purchase of
items ranging from raw materials to finished goods, and in Dalits being
denied the ability to purchase land for both agricultural and non-
94
Id.
95
96
Sukhadeo Thorat, Oppression and Denial: Dalit Discrimination in the 1990s, 37 ECON. & POL.
WKLY. 573-74 (2002). The non-governmental surveys were conducted in Karnataka (1973-74
and 1991), Andhra Pradesh (1977), Orissa (1987-88) and Gujarat (1971 and 1996).
97
Id. at 574.
98
Id. at 578.
99
Id..
100
Id. Another study relies on comparable poverty estimates drawn from two different cycles of the
Consumer Expenditure Surveys conducted by the National Sample Survey Organization. The
authors found that the social groups which were most vulnerable to poverty were Dalit and tribal
households in both urban and rural areas, and that the most vulnerable economic groups were
agricultural labor households (rural) and casual labor households (urban). K. Sundaram &
Suresh D. Tendulkar, Poverty Among Social and Economic Groups in India in 1990s, 38 ECON.
& POL. WKLY. 5263 (2003).
agricultural use.101 A study published in 2006 on the forms and

prevalence of “untouchability” in rural India—based on an extensive
survey of 565 villages in 11 Indian states conducted in 2001-2002—
confirmed the extent of “untouchability” practices in rural India today.102
But contrary to conventional wisdom, “untouchability” is not an
exclusively rural phenomenon perpetuated by the uneducated masses.
Egregious incidents of caste-based discrimination and abuse at the New
Delhi-based All India Institute of Medical Sciences (“AIIMS”), the
country’s premier medical college, and other institutions of higher
education103 bear testament to the depth and breadth of anti-Dalit
sentiment in education and illustrate that such discrimination transcends
the urban/rural, educated/non-educated divide.
2. ENDOGAMY—A MEANS TO AN END
Strict prohibitions on inter-dining, inter-living, and general

social interaction come together with the practice of endogamy as the
means for which the caste system is the end.104 Prohibitions on inter-
marriage are not only a hallmark feature of the caste system—designed
to ensure rigid social norms of purity and pollution—but are essential to
maintaining its very existence. As a result, inter-marriages between
Dalits and non-Dalits frequently become flashpoints for conflicts and can
result in extra-judicial punishments that include the public lynching or
killing of couples or their relatives, rape, public beatings, and economic
sanctions.105 Many such punishments receive “official” sanction from the
“upper-caste” dominated panchayats (village councils).106 The
prevalence of online matchmaking sites, which explicitly offer to match
individuals according to their caste (both within India and abroad)
101
Sukhadeo Thorat, M. Mahamallik, & Ananth Panth, Caste, Occupation and Labour Market
Discrimination: A Study of Forms, Nature and Consequences in Rural India; Report Submitted
to International Labour Organization, New Delhi, India (Jan. 2006) (on file with author).
102
GHANSHYAM SHAH ET AL., UNTOUCHABILITY IN RURAL INDIA (2006).
103
See, e.g., Caste-based apartheid in the Indian Institute of Technology, Madras, India, available at
http://ambedkar.org/research/CasteBased.htm (last visited Aug. 15, 2008).
104
See AMBEDKAR THOUGHT, supra note 19, at 25 (“The caste system and the rules relating to
intermarriage and interdining are related to each other as ends to means. Indeed, by no other
means could the end be realized.”).
105
106
Id. at 10-11.
provides a clear example of the practice of endogamy in its twenty-first

century avatar.107
3. DALIT WOMEN AT THE INTERSECTION OF CASTE AND

GENDER DISCRIMINATION
Caste discrimination has a unique and specific impact on Dalit

women who endure multiple forms of discrimination. Dalit women are
especially vulnerable to violence by the police and private actors. As the
majority of landless laborers, Dalit women come into greater contact
with landlords and enforcement agencies than “upper-caste” women,
rendering them more susceptible to abuse.108 Landlords use sexual abuse
and other forms of violence and humiliation against Dalit women as tools
to inflict “lessons” and crush dissent and labor movements within Dalit
communities.109 Vulnerability to sexual violence also results from Dalit
women’s lower economic and social status, leading many of them to turn
to prostitution for survival.110
Dalit women have unequal access to services, employment
opportunities, and justice mechanisms as compared to Dalit men.111 In
relation to employment opportunities, Dalit women are allotted some of
the most menial and arduous tasks and experience greater discrimination
in the payment of wages than Dalit men.112 In relation to services, Dalit
women have less access to education and health facilities,113 ensuring that
their literacy, nutrition, and health standards fall far below that of Dalit
107
As recently as January 2008, violence resulting from an inter-caste marriage was reported in the
United States. See Monica Davey, Father Says He Set Fire That Killed Three, N.Y. TIMES, Jan.
3, 2008 (reporting that an Indian man in Illinois allegedly set fire to a home—killing his pregnant
daughter, her husband, and her son—because he disapproved of her marriage to a lower-caste
man).
108
109
Id.
110
NAT’L HUM. RIGHTS COMM’N, REPORT ON PREVENTION OF ATROCITIES AGAINST SCHEDULED
CASTES AND SCHEDULED TRIBES 161 (2004) [hereinafter NHRC REPORT].
111
See Thorat, supra note 91, at 35 (“The women who belong to marginalized groups suffer from
triple deprivations arising out of lack of access to economic resources, as well as caste and
gender discrimination. The [Scheduled Caste] and [Scheduled Tribe] women are perhaps the
most economically deprived sections of Indian society.”).
112
SHAH, ET AL., supra note 102, at 117-18. The employment opportunities of professional Dalit
women may also be limited by discriminatory practices that deprive facilities run by Dalit
women of a customer or patient base. Id. at 117-18.
113
NHRC REPORT, supra note 110, at 160.
men and non-Dalit men and women.114 The number of Dalit women in
decision-making positions is also very low, and in some central services
Dalit women are not represented at all.115 Benefits of various
development programs for Dalits, such as distribution of land and other
productive assets, have essentially gone to Dalit males and have failed to
improve the status of Dalit women.116 Investment in projects targeted to
the development of Dalit women is also far lower as compared to those
for men.117
The practice of devadasi, in which a girl, usually before reaching
the age of puberty, is ceremoniously dedicated or married to a deity or to
a temple, continues in several southern Indian states including Andhra
Pradesh and Karnataka.118 Literally meaning “female servant of god,”
devadasis usually belong to the Dalit community. Once dedicated, the
girl is unable to marry, forced to become a prostitute for “upper-caste”
community members, and eventually auctioned into an urban brothel.119
The age-old practice continues to legitimize the sexual violence and
discrimination that have come to characterize the intersection between
caste and gender.120
4. MANUAL SCAVENGERS—DALITS AMONG DALITS
Dalit women make up the majority of manual scavengers—a

caste-based occupation wherein Dalits remove excrement from public
and private dry pit latrines and carry it to dumping grounds and disposal
sites.121 Indeed, the “occupation” of manual scavenging is the only
114
NATIONAL CAMPAIGN ON DALIT HUMAN RIGHTS, RESPONSE TO THE SPECIAL RAPPORTEUR’S
QUESTIONNAIRE ON WORK AND DESCENT BASED DISCRIMINATION 15 (2006) [hereinafter
NCDHR RESPONSE] (on file with author).
115
116
Id. at 161-62.
117
Id. at 162. The Government of India has recognized that “the incidence of poverty amongst SCs
[Scheduled Castes] still continues to be very high with 36.25 per cent in rural areas and 38.47 per
cent in urban areas, when compared to 27.09 and 23.62 per cent respectively, in respect of total
population in 1999-2000.” See U.N. Comm. on the Elimination of Discrimination against
Women [CEDAW], Consideration of reports submitted by State parties under article 18 of the
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, Combined
second and third periodic reports: India, U.N. Doc. CEDAW/C/IND/2-3 (Oct. 19, 2005),
available at http://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf/(Symbol)/5f31ce8d9622114cc1257245003346bd?
Opendocument.
118
119
Id.
120
Id. See also Sundaram & Tendulkar, supra note 100, at 37.
121
BALAKRISHNAN RAJAGOPAL ET AL., MASS. INST. OF TECH, FROM PROMISE TO PERFORMANCE:
ECOLOGICAL SANITATION AS A STEP TOWARD THE ELIMINATION OF MANUAL SCAVENGING IN
economic opportunity available to many Dalit women hailing from

scavenger sub-castes,122 with the result that more Dalit women and girls
work as manual scavengers than Dalit men.123 Manual scavengers are
situated at the very bottom of the graded inequality structure of the caste
system and as a result face discrimination from other non-scavenger
caste Dalits who treat them as “untouchables,” creating an unquestioned
“‘untouchability’ within the ‘untouchables’”124 The entrenched
discrimination against manual scavengers makes it difficult to find
alternative employment and even more difficult to convince scavengers
that they are able to take on, or are “worthy of performing,” different
occupations.125
“Though long outlawed, the practice of manual scavenging
continues in most states, and will continue as long as dry latrines are
used.”126 Similarly, dry latrines will continue to be used as long as there
are Dalits forcibly designated to clean them.
In 2002-03 the Union Ministry for Social Justice and Empowerment
admitted the existence of 6.76 lakh (676,000) manual scavengers in
India and the presence of 92 lakh (9,200,000) dry latrines, spread
across 21 States and Union Territories . . . . According to unofficial
estimates, the number of manual scavengers in India may be as high
as 1.3 million . . . . Manual scavengers are employed by private and
public employers, including the military engineering services, the
army, the railways, and other organs of the state.127
Manual scavengers work under extremely hazardous conditions.

A manual scavenger from Paliyad village, Ahmedabad district, Gujarat,
described how in the rainy season,
Water mixes with the feces that we carry in baskets on our heads, it
drips onto our clothes, our faces. When I return home, I find it
difficult to eat food . . . . But in the summer there is often no water to
INDIA 6 (2006), available at http://mit.edu/phrj/publications_phrj/Dalit_Report_Final.pdf

[hereinafter FROM PROMISE TO PERFORMANCE]. See also Sundaram & Tendulkar, supra note
100, at 35.
122
FROM PROMISE TO PERFORMANCE, supra note 121, at 6.
123
NCDHR RESPONSE, supra note 114, at 15.
124
BROKEN PEOPLE, supra note 21, at 145-46 (Citing Human Rights Watch interview with
Bejawada Wilson, National Convener of the Safai Karamchari Andolan, in Bangalore (July 26,
1998) in which Wilson told Human Rights Watch, “Even other scheduled-caste people won’t
touch the safai karamcharis [manual scavengers]. It is ‘untouchability’ within the ‘untouchables,’
yet nobody questions it.”).
125
Id. at 142 (citing a Human Rights Watch interview with Martin Macwan, in New York (Oct. 15,
1998)).
126
127
Id.
wash your hands before eating. It is difficult to say which [season] is

worse.128
Manual scavengers are routinely exposed to both human and animal

waste without the protection of masks, uniforms, gloves, shoes,
appropriate buckets, and mops, resulting in severe health problems.129
“Many scavengers have died of carbon monoxide poisoning while
cleaning septic tanks.”130 “More than 100 die every year due to
inhalation of toxic gases or drowning in excrement.”131 “The fear of
being fired by municipality officials keeps manual scavengers from
demanding higher wages or sanitary instruments.”132
The persistence of the outlawed and inhuman practice of manual
scavenging speaks to the resilience of caste-based discrimination. That
human beings should continue to clean human waste and be lowered into
sewers in a country that boasts of technological innovation and prowess
demonstrates the stranglehold of caste in India today—a system set up to
enforce the poverty of those it considers “outcaste.”
5. UNEQUAL BY ALL MEASURES
Although “untouchability” was officially abolished under Article

17 of the Constitution of India, the practice remains determinative of the
social and economic outcomes of those at the bottom of the caste
hierarchy.133 Though “untouchability” is normally considered as a
religiously prescribed system of separating the pure from the impure, it
is, at its heart, a system to support and sanction an exploitative economic
order. As a result, Dalits in India today continue to rank below other
social groups in all major social and economic indicators. While Dalits
have achieved some gains across a variety of indicators in the six
decades since independence, their socio-economic development
128
BROKEN PEOPLE, supra note 21, at 142-43.
129
HIDDEN APARTHEID, supra note 5, at 84 (citing FROM PROMISE TO PERFORMANCE, supra note
121, at 20).
130
HIDDEN APARTHEID, supra note 5, at 83 (citing Annie Zaidi, India’s shame, FRONTLINE, Sept. 9-
22, 2006), available at http://www.frontlineonnet.com/fl2318/stories/20060922005900400.htm
(last visited Aug. 14, 2008).
131
HIDDEN APARTHEID, supra note 5, at 84. In Mumbai, Dalits are lowered into manholes to clear
sewage blockages—often without any protection.
132
BROKEN PEOPLE, supra note 21, at 146 (citing Human Rights Watch Interview in Ahmedabad
District of Gujarat (July 23, 1998): “When we ask for our rights from the government, the
municipality officials threaten to fire us. So we don’t say anything. This is what happens to
people who demand their rights.”).
133
INDIA CONST. art. 17.
continues to lag significantly behind non-Dalits.134 Broadly speaking, the

gap between Dalits and non-Dalits in education, health, income, and land
ownership has either remained constant or widened.135
The practice of “untouchability” in schools has contributed to an
alarmingly high drop-out rate and illiteracy level among Dalit children,
particularly Dalit girls. According to the 2002 India Education Report,
school attendance in rural areas in 1993-94 was 64.3 percent for Dalit
boys and 46.2 percent for Dalit girls, compared to 74.9 percent among
boys and 61 percent for girls from other social groups.136 According to a
2001-2002 report prepared by the Indian government, “the drop-out rate
in Scheduled Castes during 1990-91 was as high as 49.35 percent at
primary stage and 67.77 percent at middle stage and 77.65 percent at
secondary stage.”137 The statistics for higher education are just as
alarming—the same government report states that enrollment of Dalit
students at graduate, post-graduate, and professional/research/PhD levels
134
See Sukhadeo Thorat & Motilal Mahamallik, Chronic Poverty and Socially Disadvantaged
Groups: Analysis of Causes and Remedies 40 (Indian Inst. of Pub. Admin., Working Paper No.
33, 2006).
[T]he persistently high chronic poverty conditions of the [Scheduled Castes]
households in high poverty states is closely associated with extremely low ownership
of income earning capital assets, like agricultural land and non-land assets, lower
diversification of employment in non-farm sector, lower wage earnings in farm and
non-farm sectors, and lower level of literacy and education levels as compared to the
Non-[Scheduled Castes/Schedules Tribes] groups.
Id.
135
See Sundaram & Tendulkar, supra note 100, at 17, 19, 22, 23:
The [Human Development Index (“HDI”)] is a composite index of three indicators,
namely infant mortality rate (reciprocal value), literacy rate (age 7 plus), and average
monthly per capita consumption expenditure (at 1993 base price) . . . . In 2000, the
HDI for the [Schedules Castes] was about 0.303, compared to 0.393 for the non-
[Scheduled Castes/Scheduled Tribes]. The disparity ratio in this case works out to
0.77, indicating that the human development achievement of the [Scheduled Castes]
was less by 23 percent compared to non-[Scheduled Castes/Scheduled Tribes] . . . .
For the purpose of estimating [Human Deprivation/Poverty Index (“HPI”)], the
variables are Infant Mortality Rate, Illiteracy Rate, Poverty Ratio (Head Count Ratio),
health status (which includes variables that capture access to public health services,
like percentage of children not vaccinated, and percentage of non-institutional
deliveries) and nutritional status (in terms of underweight children, etc) . . . . The HPI
for Scheduled Castes is estimated to be 41.47 percent which is much higher compared
to non-[Scheduled Castes/Scheduled Tribes] (31.34 percent).
136
Ellyn Artis et al., Princeton University, Woodrow Wilson Sch. of Pub. and Int’l. Affairs,
Economic, Social and Cultural Rights for Dalits in India: Case Study on Primary Education in
Gujarat 14 (2003) (citing India Education Report—A Profile of Basic Education (R. Govinda
ed., 2002)), available at http://wws-edit.princeton.edu/research/final_reports/wws591c_1_
f02.pdf (last visited Aug. 14, 2008).
137
is “abysmally low,” at 8.73 percent, 8 percent, and 2.77 percent

respectively.138 The 2001 population census reveals that the literacy gap
between Dalits and non-Dalits remains significant at 54.7 percent for
Dalits as compared to 68.81 percent among other groups.139
Discrimination in schools and the resulting drop-out rates for
Dalit children are intimately linked to child labor.140 Illiteracy results in a
lack of gainful employment options for Dalits. Even educated Dalits
face discrimination in the labor market, as seen through the systematic
exclusion of Dalits from jobs that they are considered too “impure” or
unintelligent to perform. Selective inclusion of Dalits in various
employment sectors still results in unequal treatment in the payment of
wages, in different terms and conditions applied to their work (including
the number of hours worked), in discriminatory treatment in the
workplace, and in the prevalence of compulsive or forced work governed
by traditional caste-related obligations.141
There are an estimated 40 million bonded laborers in India, of
whom 15 million are children.142 The vast majority of these laborers are
Dalits or tribal community members.143 Bonded labor is sustained by the
caste system, in particular through the traditional expectation of free
labor and/or inadequate remuneration for work, and by the lack of Dalit
ownership of land. Bonded labor also results from indebtedness to
employers or moneylenders on whom Dalits must rely because of
inadequate wages144 and because of the reluctance of institutional
agencies to lend to the poor in general and to Dalits in particular.
Landlessness—encompassing a lack of access to land, inability to own
land, and forced evictions—constitutes a crucial element in the
subordination of Dalits.145 When Dalits do acquire land, their right to
138
Id. at 96-97.
139
Id. at 97.
140
HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, SMALL CHANGE: BONDED CHILD LABOR IN INDIA’S SILK INDUSTRY 44
(2003), available at http://www.hrw.org/reports/2003/india/india0103.pdf (last visited Aug. 14,
2008).
141
Thorat et al., supra note 101.
142
143
HIDDEN APARTHEID, supra note 5, at 86. According to one estimate 83.2 percent of bonded
laborers belong to scheduled castes and scheduled tribes. NHRC REPORT, supra note 110, at 64.
Almost all bonded children interviewed for a 2003 Human Rights Watch report on bonded child
labor in the silk industry were either Dalit or Muslim. HIDDEN APARTHEID, supra note 5, at 86.
144
Id. at 86.
145
Id. at 11.
[S]evere lack of access to fixed sources of income like agricultural land arising out of
the historical process of denial of right to property for a long duration and heavy
own property—including the right to access and enjoy it—is routinely

infringed.146
As a result of their poverty and discriminatory treatment, Dalits
also fare poorly in health indicators. Over half of India’s Dalit children
are undernourished, 18.5 percent are classified as “severely
underweight,”147 while 8.8 percent die before their fifth birthday.148
Dalits are often refused admission to hospitals, access to healthcare, and
medical treatment.149 Those who do gain access frequently receive
discriminatory treatment. In addition, caste-based occupations that
Dalits are made to perform, such as manual scavenging150 and forced
prostitution,151 frequently expose Dalits to serious and sometimes fatal
health hazards.
a. Liberalization and the Incredible Shrinking Indian State
Beginning in 1991, and under the direction of the International

Monetary Fund (“IMF”) and World Bank’s Structural Adjustment
Programme, India’s New Economic Policy introduced dramatic shifts in
macroeconomic policy and aggressively pursued the privatization of
industries and the liquidation of policies and controls in economic
planning and regulation.152 While these reforms may have ushered in an
era of astounding progress in the areas of technology, infrastructure,
machinery, space, and even nuclear research, much of this progress has
meant little to Dalits; most continue to live in grinding poverty, lacking
dependence on low earning casual wage labour in agriculture seems to be primarily

responsible for chronic poverty among the [Schedules Castes].
Chronic Poverty and Socially Disadvantaged Groups, supra note 134, at 54.
146
147
INDIAN MINISTRY OF HEALTH AND FAMILY WELFARE, NAT’L FAMILY HEALTH SURVEY [NFHS-
3] 270 (2007), available at http://www.nfhsindia.org/NFHS-3%20Data/VOL-1/Chapter%
2010%20-%20Nutrition%20and%20Anaemia%20(608K).pdf. See also Human Poverty and
Socially Disadvantaged Groups in India, supra note 91, at 34.
148
See id. (“The IMR [Infant Mortality Rate in 2000] for the [Scheduled Castes] at all-India level
was 83, which was considerably higher than the non-[Scheduled Castes/Scheduled Tribes].”).
149
See Human Poverty and Socially Disadvantaged Groups in India, supra note 91, at 34 (“Thus, as
compared to non-SC/STs, persons not having access to public health services was higher by 7
percent points for SCs, and 16.4 percentage points for the STs respectively.”).
150
See Part II.C.4, supra.
151
See Part II.C.3, supra.
152
Anand Teltumbde, Globalization and the Dalits, available at http://www.ambedkar.org/research/
GLOBALISATIONANDTHEDALITS.pdf. Other hallmarks of this policy were a devaluation of
the rupee and the removal of price controls and import restrictions.
food security,153 and without the basic amenities of electricity, sanitation,

and safe drinking water.154 Almost two decades later, economic reforms
in India cling faithfully to the flawed “trickle down” theory—a theory
that holds even less relevance for Dalits for whom few benefits can
permeate the caste ceiling or trickle below the “upper-caste” stranglehold
on the fruits of economic growth. Unprecedented economic growth has
coincided comfortably with a post-reform reversal in poverty reduction
trends.155 Economic liberalization, for Dalits at least, may be fueling
economic inequality.156
As liberalization leads to a capital-intensive mode of production
requiring a greater proportion of highly skilled workers to manage
automated production processes, a large migration of unskilled labor to
the agricultural sector has led to lower wages for agricultural workers as
a whole.157 In addition to a reduction in agricultural subsidies, Dalits are
also affected by the increased acquisition of coastal lands by
multinationals (via the central government) for aquaculture projects.158
Dalits are the main laborers and tenants of coastal land areas and are
increasingly being forced to leave these areas—to live as displaced
people—as foreign investment rises.159
A reduction in the budget and fiscal deficit, devaluation,
privatization, the elimination or reductions in subsidies, and export
promotion have all contributed to inflation.160 As is true the world over,
inflation hits the poorest the hardest. With most of their earnings spent
on food, shelter, and clothing, any rise in prices has had a direct negative
153
See id. at 3-4 (noting that a decrease in capital expenditure and fertilizer subsidies has weakened
agriculture. The devaluation of the rupee has created more demand for the export of food grains
and the production of non-food exportables, leading to a reduction of foodstocks available for
sustenance that in turn causes the price of food to rise substantially). Id.
154
See NHRC REPORT, supra note 110, at 159 (stating that 30.91 percent of Dalit households have
electricity—half the number of non-Dalit households (61.31 percent)—that more than 20 percent
of Dalits lack access to clean drinking water, and that only 9.84 percent of Scheduled Caste
households have access to sanitation, compared with 26.76 percent of non-Scheduled Caste
households).
155
Government spending to curb poverty has been drastically reduced as has spending on disease
prevention and control. Teltumbde, supra note 152, at 9-10.
156
SMITA NARULA & MARTIN MACWAN, INT’L COUNCIL ON HUMAN RIGHTS POLICY,
“UNTOUCHABILITY:” THE ECONOMIC EXCLUSION OF DALITS IN INDIA 9 (2001), available at
http://www.international-council.org/paper_files/113_w_07.pdf.
157
Id.
158
Id. See also Sukhadeo Thorat & Martin Macwan, Liberalisation and Dalits, in RESERVATION IN
PRIVATE SECTOR: QUEST FOR EQUAL OPPORTUNITY AND GROWTH 253, 259 (S. Thorat, Aryama
& P. Negi eds., 2005).
159
NARULA & MACWAN, supra note 156, at 9.
160
Id.
effect on Dalits’ level of consumption. A lack of purchasing power is

compounded by the devaluation of currency and has led to a rise in
prices for general essential imports.161
Empirical studies seem to confirm that poverty rates are
uniformly higher in Dalit households (as compared to “higher-caste”
households).162 Eighty-five percent of Dalits live in rural areas163 while
over 75 percent of Dalits perform land-connected work; 25 percent as
marginal or small farmers and over 50 percent as landless laborers164
earning less than US$1 per day.165 Though only 16 percent of the
population, Dalits comprise 60 percent of those below the poverty line.166
According to government estimates in 2000, the unemployment
rate for Dalits and tribal groups was double that of non-Dalits/tribals.167
Additionally, public sector divestment to private owners is estimated to
have left two hundred thousand Dalit employees jobless.168 Dalits
continue to be significantly underrepresented in most professional strata
and their representation in India’s high industries, exports, imports, and
161
Teltumbde, supra note 152, at 6. A survey of bank lending practices in the post-liberalization
period revealed that market-based banking practices have proved less equitable than the Indian
public sector model that existed prior to liberalization. The percentage of Dalit rural households
borrowing from the formal sector fell a dramatic 16.3 percentage points since 1992. A majority
of rural Dalit households currently borrow from informal sources. The data suggests that market
determined banking practices have not turned out to be more equitable than the banking model
followed for decades by the Indian public sector. See Marketing Casteism, ECONOMIC TIMES,
Aug. 21, 2007, available at http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/Opinion/Todays_Features/
Perspectives/Marketing_casteism/rssarticleshow/msid-2296650,curpg-2.cms (last visited Aug.
15, 2008); Pallavi Chauhan, Access to Bank Credit, 42 ECON. & POL. WKLY. 3219 (2007).
162
See Human Poverty and Socially Disadvantaged Groups in India, supra note 91, at 30, 33.
In year 2000, at the all-India level, the average expenditure for [Scheduled Castes]
and the [Scheduled Tribes] was Rs. 285 and R. 260 respectively, much lower than the
non-[Scheduled Castes/Scheduled Tribes] (Rs. 393) . . . . [I]n relative terms the
poverty gap between the [Scheduled Castes] SCs, the [Scheduled Tribes] STs, and
non-SC/STs increased between 1983 and 2000.
Meenakshi, Ray, and Gupta present a comprehensive set of poverty estimates at the state level
and for rural and urban areas. They conclude that poverty rates are consistently higher for
scheduled caste, scheduled tribe, and female-headed households (relative to other socioeconomic
groups), irrespective of which deprivation measure was used. J.V. Meenakshi, Ranjan Ray, &
Souvik Gupta, Estimates of Poverty for Scheduled Caste, Scheduled Tribe, and Female-Headed
Households, 35 ECON. & POL. WKLY. 2748, 2754 (2000).
163
See Narula & Macwan, supra note 156.
164
Teltumbde, supra note 152, at 3.
165
166
India: The Broken People (Channel 4 television broadcast Sept. 21, 2007) (United Kingdom),
available at http://www.channel4.com/news/articles/ontv/unreported_world/india+the+broken+
people/830447 (last visited Aug. 15, 2008).
167
168
Id.
electronic industries sectors is dismal.169 Economic liberalization has not

translated into economic liberation for Dalits and other marginalized
communities in India.170 The market, in short, has not served as an
equalizing mechanism.171 Economic reforms must be scrutinized for the
work that they leave undone and for the inherent assumption that such
work can be done by either economic or legal means.172 As detailed in
the section below, legal reforms to address caste-based inequality and
discrimination, though astounding in their vision and reach, have been
sabotaged in their implementation due to the conflation of casteism and
corruption.173
169
Id. See also Teltumbde, supra note 152, at 7-8.
170
For empirical studies on the adverse impact of macro-economic reforms, including the
withdrawal of state involvement in social sectors, on marginalized populations such as Dalits,
see generally NEW ECONOMIC POLICY AND DALITS (P. G. Jogdand ed., 2000). In spite of
economic reforms, scheduled tribes continue to significantly lag behind in economic and social
development. Sandip Sarkar et al., Development and Deprivation of Scheduled Tribes, 41 ECON.
& POL. WEEKLY 4707, 4824 (2006); RS Deshpande & Amalendu Jyotishi, The State Policy &
Poverty in India: An Understanding in Retrospect, 2001, available at
www.uregina.ca/sipp/documents/pdf/despande.pdf. On Muslims in India, the findings of the
Sachar Committee Report conclude that by and large Muslims rank somewhat above scheduled
castes and schedule tribes, but below other minorities and Hindus generally. GOV’T OF INDIA,
PRIME MINISTER’S HIGH LEVEL COMM., SOCIAL, ECONOMIC & EDUCATIONAL STATUS OF THE
MUSLIM COMMUNITY OF INDIA: A REPORT 237 (2006).
171
See K.S. CHALAM, CASTE-BASED RESERVATIONS AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA 31
(2007).
172
173
See, e.g, CHALAM, supra note 171, at 87:
Politicians in the region see a political opportunity in the poverty of Dalits, for it can
be used as an alibi to approach donor agencies for funds. Such funds can be used at
the time of elections. This serves as a political investment of the ruling elite to win
the elections without any budgetary process.
III. INDIAN POLICIES FOR REDRESSING

CASTE DISCRIMINATION
A. CONSTITUTIONAL RIGHTS AND CONSTITUTIONAL VISION
The Constitution of India, often heralded as a landmark

document, was inspired by the emancipatory vision of its chief architect
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar—a Dalit leader who himself suffered severe
discrimination and who sought to ensure equal protection and substantive
equality for Dalits in independent India. As a document, the constitution
combines broad social purpose, stemming from the social content of the
Independence Movement, with practical administrative detail, based on
the Assembly members’ experiences in government and on the events
around them.174
Ambedkar cautioned against adopting too “Western” a vision of
what constitutional democracy in India should look like.175 According to
Ambedkar,
[Such a system failed] to realise that political democracy cannot
succeed where there is not social and economic democracy.
Democracy is another name for equality. Parliamentary democracy
developed a passion for liberty. It failed to realise the significance of
equality and did not even endeavour to strike a balance between
liberty and equality, with the result that liberty swallowed equality
and has left a progeny of iniquities.176
Indian constitutionalism attempts, however imperfectly, to balance

liberty and equality interests and in so doing foreshadows the delicate
balance between formal and substantive conceptions of equality in
174
See generally GRANVILLE AUSTIN, THE INDIAN CONSTITUTION: CORNERSTONE OF A NATION
(1966) (a political history that examines, inter alia, the drafting of India’s constitution by the
Constituent Assembly, from December 1949 to December 1952).
175
Parliamentary democracy, Ambedkar argued,
[T]ook no notice of economic inequalities and did not care to examine the result of
freedom of contract on the parties to the contract, should they happen to be unequal.
It did not mind if the freedom of contract gave the strong the opportunity to defraud
the weak. The result is that parliamentary democracy in standing out as protagonist
of liberty has continuously added to the economic wrongs of the poor, the
downtrodden and the disinherited class.
THE ESSENTIAL WRITINGS OF B.R. AMBEDKAR 62 (V. Rodrigues ed., 2002).
176
Id.
international human rights law.177 Chief among these fundamental rights

is the right to equality. Article 14 of the Constitution of India reads:
“The state shall not deny to any person equality before the law or the
equal protection of the laws within the territory of India.”178 An
exception clause allows for affirmative action measures under some
circumstances. “Nothing in this article . . . shall prevent the state from
making any special provision for the advancement of the socially and
educationally backward classes of citizens or for the Scheduled Castes
and Scheduled Tribes.”179
The clause marks a significant departure from the American
model on which India’s equality provision is based and constitutionalizes
the validity of affirmative action in the Indian context. The Indian model
is also one of substantive equality. If formal equality aims at equal
opportunity, then substantive equality aims at equal results by
considering the social structures in which equal results would not
necessarily result from formal equality guarantees.
The Court has interpreted Article 14 on a number of occasions as
charging the state with ensuring that there is equality among equals.180 In
State of Kerala v. Thomas, the Supreme Court noted that,
The guarantee of equality before the law or the equal opportunity in
matters of employment is a guarantee of something more than what is
required by formal equality. It implies differential treatment of
persons who are unequal. . . . Formal equality is achieved by treating
177
See generally MARC GALANTER, COMPETING EQUALITIES: LAW AND THE BACKWARD CLASSES
IN INDIA (1984) (analyzing treatment of Dalits under Indian Constitution).
178
INDIA CONST. art. 14. Article 14 thus marries the English doctrine of the “Rule of law” with the
equal protection of clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. Basheshar
Nath v. CIT, (1959) Supp. 1 S.C.R 528, 551 (Per Das C.J). In the U.S. Constitution, the
language of the Fourteenth Amendment reads, “No state shall . . . deny to any person within its
jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.”
179
The “schedule” of castes in India was originally created by the British in 1936, using the census
data of the same year and “an ad hoc mixture of social, religious, economic, educational and
even residential considerations.” Christopher Ford, Administering Identity: The Determination of
“Race” in Race-Conscious Law, 82 CAL. L. REV. 1231, 1269 (1994); Priya Sridharan,
Representations of Disadvantage: Evolving Definitions of Disadvantage in India’s Reservation
Policy and United States’ Affirmative Action Policy, 6 ASIAN L.J. 99, 109 (1999). While this list
did not accurately reflect caste membership and group interrelations, the post-independence
government adopted the list as its own after incorporating some amendments. Id. at 110 (noting
as significant the addition of Sikh “untouchables” to the list). The list of scheduled castes may
only be modified by a full Act of Parliament involving “rather elaborate procedures,” and taking
into account multiple factors such as caste membership and economic data. Ford, supra 179, at
1269; Dudley Jenkins, supra note 31, at 758.
180
See State of Kerala v. Thomas, (1976) 1 S.C.R. 805 (“Those who are similarly circumstanced are
entitled to equal treatment.”); Madhya Pradesh Ration Vikreta Sangh Society v. State of Madhya
Pradesh, (1982) 1 S.C.R. 750.
all persons equally. . . But men are not equal in all respects. The
claim for equality is in fact a protest against unjust, undeserved and
unjustified inequalities. It is a symbol of man’s revolt against chance,
fortuitous disparity, unjust power and crystallised privileges.181
As noted above, Article 17 of the constitution abolishes the

practice of “untouchability” and punishes the enforcement of any
disability arising out of the practice.182 Article 21 guarantees the right to
life and liberty.183 The Indian Supreme Court has interpreted this right to
include the right to be free from degrading and inhuman treatment, the
right to integrity and dignity of the person, and the right to speedy
justice.184 Article 23 prohibits traffic in human beings and other similar
forms of forced labor.185 Since the majority of India’s forty million
bonded laborers belong to scheduled castes,186 Article 23 is especially
significant for them.187 Similarly, Article 24 provides that no child under
the age of fourteen shall work in any factory or mine or engage in any
hazardous employment.188
Article 43 calls on the state to secure to all workers, agricultural,
industrial, or otherwise, a living wage and conditions of work ensuring a
decent standard of life.189 Article 46 comprises both development and
regulatory aspects and stipulates that: “The State shall promote with
special care the educational and economic interests of the weaker
sections of the people, and in particular, of the Scheduled Castes and the
Scheduled Tribes, and shall protect them from social injustice and forms
of exploitation.”190 As the article falls under the category of directive
principles and not fundamental rights, it cannot be enforced by the state’s
courts. Article 15 prohibits discrimination on the grounds of religion,
race, caste, sex, or place of birth191 while Article 15(4) empowers the
state to make any special provisions for the advancement of any socially
181
State of Kerala v. Thomas, (1976) 1 S.C.R. 805.
182
183
184
See S. K. SINGH, BONDED LABOUR AND THE LAW 48-51 (1994).
185
186
187
The Bonded Labour System (Abolition) Act, No. 19 of 1976, was passed pursuant to this article.
188
189
190
191
and educationally backward classes of citizens, or for scheduled castes

and scheduled tribes.192
Article 330 provides reservations for seats for scheduled castes
and scheduled tribes in the Lok Sabha (the House of the People),193 while
Article 332 provides for reservations in the state legislative assemblies.194
Through Article 16(4) the state is empowered to make “any provision for
the reservation of appointments or posts in favour of any backward class
of citizens which, in the opinion of the State, is not adequately
represented in the services under the State.”195 Accordingly, under
constitutional provisions and various laws, India grants Dalits a certain
number of rights, including reservations (quotas) in education,
government jobs, and government bodies.196 India’s policy of
reservations is an attempt by the central government to remedy past
injustices related to “low-caste” status.
To allow for proportional representation in certain state and
federal institutions, the constitution reserves 22.5 percent of seats in
federal government jobs, state legislatures, the lower house of
parliament, and educational institutions for scheduled castes and
scheduled tribes.197 An amendment to the constitution also enables
reservations for scheduled castes and scheduled tribes in village councils
(panchayats) and municipalities, with no less than one-third of reserved
seats to be allocated to scheduled caste and scheduled tribe women.198
Notably, no other reservation programs provides for a sub-category of
reservations for women. Reservations have also been provided for
“Other Backward Classes” (“OBCs”)—a group of castes officially
recognized as having been traditionally excluded but who, unlike Dalits,
are not treated as “untouchables.” Under the premise of proportional
representation, OBCs are entitled to 27 percent reservations in public
sector employment and higher education.
192
This particular provision was incorporated into the constitution through the Constitution (First
Amendment) Act, 1951 and has enabled several states to reserve seats for scheduled castes and
scheduled tribes in educational institutions, including technical, engineering, and medical
colleges. It has also paved the way for reservations in police forces. See INDIA CONST. art. 15, §
4, added by the Constitution (First Amendment) Act, 1951.
193
194
195
INDIA CONST. art. 16, §4.
196
197
Id. at 40.
198
INDIA CONST. arts. 243D and 243T.
B. PROTECTIVE LEGISLATION
In addition to constitutional provisions, the government of India

has pursued a two-pronged approach to narrowing the gap between the
socio-economic status of the scheduled caste population and the national
average: one prong involves regulatory measures which ensure that the
various provisions to protect their rights and interests are adequately
implemented, enforced and monitored; the second focuses on increasing
the self-sufficiency of the scheduled caste population through financial
assistance for self-employment activities through development programs
to increase education and skills.199
The protective component of this strategy includes the
enforcement of those legal provisions that make up the Protection of
Civil Rights Act, 1955, and the Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe
(Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989; of other state and central
government laws; and of “positive discrimination” through reservations
in the arenas of government employment and higher education. These
protective measures are monitored by the National Commissions for
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.200 The development measures
for the educational, social, and economic “upliftment” of scheduled
castes are administered by the Ministry of Social Justice and
Empowerment.201
1. THE PROTECTION OF CIVIL RIGHTS ACT
With an eye to eradicating pervasive discrimination practiced

against scheduled caste members, the central government enacted the
Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955 (“PCR Act”) to enforce the abolition
of “untouchability” under Article 17 of the constitution.202 The PCR Act
punishes offenses that amount to the observance of “untouchability.”203
These include, inter alia, prohibiting entry into places of worship,
denying access to shops and other public places, denying access to any
199
MINISTRY OF WELFARE (renamed as Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment on May 25,
1998), GOV’T OF INDIA, ANNUAL REPORT 1995-1996 8 (1996).
200
Id. The two commissions were until recently a single National Commission for Scheduled
Castes and Scheduled Tribes, set up pursuant to Article 338 of the Indian Constitution and
entrusted with the responsibility of ensuring that the safeguards and protections that have been
given to scheduled castes and tribes are implemented.
201
MINISTRY OF WELFARE, supra note 199, at 8.
202
See The Protection of Civil Rights Act, No. 22 of 1955 § 2(a).
203
The Protection of Civil Rights Act, No. 22 of 1955, pmbl.
water supply, prohibiting entry into hospitals, refusing to sell goods or

render services, and insulting someone on the basis of his or her caste.204
Perhaps the greatest deficiency of the PCR Act was the fact that
abuses against Dalits were not limited to name-calling or denial of entry
into public spaces: violence was a defining characteristic of the abuse.
Thirty-four years after the introduction of the PCR Act, the Scheduled
Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act of 1989, was
enacted purportedly to bring these other forms of abuse to an end.205
2. THE SCHEDULED CASTES AND SCHEDULED TRIBES

(PREVENTION OF ATROCITIES) ACT
In 1989 the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention

of Atrocities) Act was enacted to prevent and punish caste-based abuses,
to establish special courts for the trial of such offenses, and to provide for
victim relief and rehabilitation.206 Its enactment represented an
acknowledgement on the part of the government that abuses, in their
most degrading and violent forms, were still perpetrated against Dalits
decades after independence.207 A look at the offenses made punishable
by the Act provides a glimpse into the retaliatory or customarily
degrading treatment Dalits may receive. The offenses include: forcing
members of a scheduled caste or scheduled tribe to drink or eat any
inedible or obnoxious substance; dumping excrement, waste matter,
carcasses or any other obnoxious substance in their premises or
neighborhood; forcibly removing their clothes and parading them naked
or with painted face or body; interfering with their rights to land;
compelling a member of a scheduled caste or scheduled tribe into forms
of forced or bonded labor; corrupting or fouling the water of any spring,
reservoir or any other source ordinarily used by scheduled castes or
204
The Protection of Civil Rights Act, No. 22 of 1955 §§ 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7. The Act was originally
called the Untouchability (Offenses) Act of 1955, and was amended in 1976. Though
substantively unaltered, under the revised law, untouchability was made both a cognizable and
non-compoundable offense and stricter punishments were provided for offenders.
205
See The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, No. 33 of 1989,
pmbl. For a list of offenses under the Act, see ch. I and § 3 of the Act.
206
The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, pmbl. (1989).
207
In 1995 the government of India enacted accompanying rules for the Scheduled Castes and
Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act. The rules set out the amounts of, and
timetables for, state-allotted compensations for victims of various crimes defined under the act.
Rules 16 and 17 call for the constitution of state and district-level vigilance and monitoring
committees comprising official and non-official members. The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled
Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Rules, 1995.
scheduled tribes; denying right of passage to a place of public resort; and

using a position of dominance to exploit a scheduled caste or scheduled
tribe woman sexually.208
3. ADDITIONAL SOCIAL WELFARE LEGISLATION
In addition to the acts described above, a number of other

statutes aim to eradicate exploitative labor arrangements in which Dalits
are frequent victims. The Employment of Manual Scavengers and
Construction of Dry Latrines (Prohibition) Act, 1993, prohibits the
employment of manual scavengers or the construction of dry (non-flush)
latrines and punishes such offenses with imprisonment and/or a fine.209
The Bonded Labour System (Abolition) Act, 1976, seeks to abolish all
agreements and obligations arising out of the bonded labor system,
release all laborers from bondage, prohibit the creation of new bondage
agreements, and order the economic rehabilitation of freed laborers by
the state.210 Other relevant acts include the Inter State Migrant Workmen
(Regulation of Employment and Service Conditions) Act, 1979,211 the
Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act, 1986,212 the Minimum
Wages Act, 1948,213 and the Equal Remuneration Act, 1976.214
C. ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT MEASURES
The government of India has also attempted to increase the self-

sufficiency of the scheduled caste population through financial assistance
208
The Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, No. 33 of 1989, §
3.
209
The Employment of Manual Scavengers and Construction of Dry Latrines (Prohibition) Act, No.
46 of 1993.
210
Bonded Labour System (Abolition) Act (1976). Under the Act, payment of less than minimum
wage for the purposes of working off a debt also amounts to bondage. Id.
211
Dalit migrant laborers are seldom paid minimum wage. They work long hours, live in subhuman
conditions and may face physical abuse if they try to escape their place of work. NHRC
REPORT, supra note 110, at 78.
212
The Act prohibits the employment of children in particular industries, while regulating the
conditions of their work in other industries.
213
The Minimum Wages Act only regulates employers who employ more than 1,000 workers. The
Minimum Wages Act, No. 11 of 1948, § 3(1A), cited in NHRC REPORT, supra note 110, at 81.
214
The Act requires equity in the payment of wages between men and women employed to perform
the same or similar work. Equity cannot be achieved by reducing the wages of the higher paid
worker. Employers are also prohibited from discriminating on the basis of sex in recruitment,
hiring, or promotion. The Act is especially significant for Dalit women who frequently get paid
less than their male counterparts. See supra note 91.
for self-employment activities and through development programs

designed to increase education and skills. Included among these are
post-matriculation scholarships for scheduled caste students (which
purportedly reach over 20 million students), special education
development programs for scheduled caste girls with low literacy levels,
hostels for scheduled caste girls and boys from rural or remote areas
(designed to facilitate access to education), and a centrally-sponsored
assistance scheme for scheduled caste development corporations, which
provide eligible scheduled caste families with low-interest loans and
financial assistance for a variety of economic development schemes.215
Pursuant to Articles 38,216 39,217 and 46 of the constitution a
Special Component Plan (“SCP”) was introduced in 1979 with a view to
“achieving overall development of SCs/STs (Scheduled
Castes/Scheduled Tribes) and to raise them above the poverty line.”218
The SCP is “an umbrella programme under which all schemes
implemented by State and Central Governments are dovetailed for
addressing different needs of the Scheduled Castes,” and is used by the
Central Government to direct funds to critical areas of need to ensure the
developments needs of the scheduled caste population.219 The Ministry
of Social Justice and Empowerment’s Planning, Research, Evaluation,
and Monitoring Division (“PREM”) is charged with assessing the
effectiveness of these welfare programs. Through PREM, the Ministry
provides grants to research institutions, professional organizations, and
universities to study its scheduled caste welfare programs.220
215
Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment, Government of India, SCHEDULED-CASTE
WELFARE PROGRAMS, http://socialjustice.nic.in/schedule/welcome.htm (last visited Aug. 15,
2008).
216
Under Article 38,
[The] State[,] to secure a social order for the promotion of welfare of the people . . .
shall strive to promote the welfare of the people by securing and protecting as
effectively as it may a social order in which justice, social, economic and political,
shall inform all the institutions of the national life . . . [and] shall, in particular, strive
to minimise the inequalities in income, and endeavour to eliminate inequalities in
status, facilities and opportunities, not only amongst individuals but also amongst
groups of people residing in different areas or engaged in different vocations.
217
Article 39 mandates that the State shall direct its policies to conform to principles of economic
and social equality. INDIA CONST. art. 39.
218
See FACT SHEET, MINISTRY OF SOCIAL JUSTICE AND EMPOWERMENT, http://pib.nic.in/archieve/
factsheet/fs2000/socialjustice.html (last visited Aug. 15, 2008).
219
Id.
220
PLANNING, RESEARCH, EVALUATION & MONITORING DIV., MINISTRY OF SOC. JUSTICE &
EMPOWERMENT, GOV’T OF INDIA, RESEARCH/EVALUATION STUDIES SPONSORED UNDER THE
The plethora of laws and programs outlined above, that

collectively comprise India’s affirmative action package for Dalits, stand
in perverse contradiction to the social realities that Dalits face. The next
section seeks to answer the question of why the rule of law in India finds
no traction as a mechanism of repairing the Dalit condition.
IV. RULE OF LAW VS. RULE OF CASTE
The Rule of Law in India lives in the shadow of the Rule of

Caste. If law is understood as a set of rules backed by sanction, then
both the legal system and the caste system can lay claim to the mantle of
law with one significant difference: the caste system operates more
efficiently, more swiftly, and more punitively than any rights-protecting
law on the books. Political theorist Hannah Arendt lamented the
“poignant irony” of the discrepancy between regarding as “‘inalienable’
those human rights, which are enjoyed by citizens of the most prosperous
and civilized countries, and the situation of the rightless themselves.”221
The rightless, in Arendt’s opinion, were those stateless individuals who
had been deprived of what she saw as the most fundamental of all human
rights: the right to membership in a political community.222 According to
Arendt, without citizenship status, inalienable rights do not come into
effect.223 Devoid of such membership with a people or a state,
individuals lose “the very qualities which make it possible for other
people to treat [them] as fellow [human beings].”224
If citizenship is understood as a bundle of rights that includes,
inter alia, the rights to personal liberty, personal security, equality before
the law, freedom of speech and conscience, the right to own property,
and the right to political participation, then Dalits fall far short of that
bundle.225 As a system of law, the caste system relegates Dalits into an
almost permanent state of exception. If castes are understood as nations,
then as outcastes, Dalits are rendered stateless in their own country. As
SCHEME OF GRANT IN AID FOR RESEARCH PROJECTS, http://socialjustice.nic.in/prem/

welcome.htm.
221
HANNAH ARENDT, Decline of the Nation-State: End of the Rights of Man, in THE ORIGINS OF
TOTALITARIANISM 279 (1985).
222
Id. at 296.
223
Id. at 300.
224
Id.
225
See generally J.E. Penner, The “Bundle of Rights” Picture of Property, 43 UCLA L. REV. 711
(1996) (explaining genesis of “bundle of rights” theory of property).
shown below, the rights enshrined in the constitution and implemented

through a plethora of legislation are not meant to serve them. As victims
of both over- and under-enforcement of the law, Dalit existence is
defined by the extremes of brutality and neglect.
A. POLICE BRUTALITY AGAINST DALITS
India’s National Human Rights Commission (“NHRC”)—a body

that India characterizes as the apex national institution to protect human
rights and redress grievances226—has characterized the law enforcement
machinery as the greatest violator of Dalits’ human rights.227 According
to the NHRC, custodial torture and killing of Dalits, rape and sexual
assault of Dalit women, and looting of Dalit property by the police “are
condoned, or at best ignored.”228
Under a theory of collective punishment, the police will often
subject entire Dalit communities to violent search and seizure operations
in search of one individual.229 Dalit communities may also be perceived
by the police as inherently criminal.230 Dalits and other poor minorities
are disproportionately represented among those detained and tortured in
police custody because most cannot afford to pay police bribes.231 Police
officers’ deeply embedded caste bias (most officers belong to the “upper
castes”)232 and a general lack of familiarity with legislative protections
for Dalits further compound the problem.233 Dalits, including those
arrested for minor offenses, are often held in custody for long periods of
time, occasionally at distant and isolated locations to avoid publicity,234
where they are frequently deprived of food and water, subjected to verbal
abuse and humiliation, severe beatings, sexual perversities, and
demeaning acts. Often the injuries inflicted can prove fatal.235
226
U.N. Comm. on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination [CERD], Reports Submitted by States
Parties under Article 9 of the Convention ¶ 155, U.N. Doc CERD/C/IND/19 (Mar. 29, 2006).
227
228
Id. § VI, at 130.
229
Id. at 116.
230
Id. at 116-17.
231
232
233
Id.
234
S. Vishwanathan, A Tale of Torture, FRONTLINE, Aug. 2-15, 2003, at 61, available at
http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl2016/stories/20030815002504800.htm (last visited Aug. 15,
2008).
235
Dalit activists are also accused of being “terrorists,” “threats to

national security,” and “habitual offenders,” and frequently charged
under the National Security Act, 1980, the Terrorist and Disruptive
Activities (Prevention) Act, 1985 (“TADA”), and even older counter
insurgency laws such as the Indian Explosives Act, 1884.236 Dalit
activists are often subjected to specious prosecutions, falsified charges,
and physical abuse and torture following arrest.237
B. A CULTURE OF UNDER-ENFORCEMENT
Media, non-governmental, and official reports reveal that the

police have systematically failed to protect Dalit homes and Dalit
individuals from acts of looting, arson, sexual assault, torture, and other
inhumane acts such as stripping and parading Dalit women and forcing
Dalits to drink urine and eat feces.238
According to legal scholar Alexandra Natapoff, under-
enforcement as a phenomenon “deserves a more central role in the
evaluation of the evenhandedness and democratic legitimacy of the
criminal system.”239 Though articulated in the context of the United
States, her conclusion, that under-enforcement “offers important insights
into the government’s relationship with vulnerable groups in the context
of the criminal system,”240 is equally applicable to the Indian context. As
Natapoff contends,
Over- and under-enforcement are twin symptoms of a deeper
democratic weakness of the criminal system: its non-responsiveness
to the needs of the poor, racial minorities, and the otherwise
politically vulnerable. Because of this weakness, justice and
lawfulness are distributed unevenly and unequally across racial and
236
Id.
237
BROKEN PEOPLE, supra note 21, at 153. For a detailed discussion of the over-enforcement of the
law against vulnerable groups in India, in particular draconian anti-terrorism and security laws,
see Anil Kalhan et al., Colonial Continuities: Human Rights, Terrorism, and Security Laws in
India, 20 COLUM. J. ASIAN L. 93, 109 (2006), available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=970503 (last
visited Aug. 15, 2008). Kalhan notes at 109, 147 and 173 that the Terrorist and Disruptive
Activities (Prevention) Act, 1985, and the Prevention of Terrorism Act, 2002, have been
selectively enforced against members of Dalit and other disadvantaged groups, both in order to
prosecute offenses unrelated to terrorism, and to extort and illegally arrest and detain members of
these groups.
238
239
Alexandra Natapoff, Underenforcement, 75 FORDHAM L. REV 1715, 1717 (2006).
240
Id. See also RANDALL KENNEDY, RACE, CRIME AND THE LAW 19 (1997) (arguing that “the
principal injury suffered by African-Americans in relation to criminal matters is not
overenforcement but underenforcement of the law.”).
class lines, and some people can trust and rely on law enforcement
while others cannot.241
In what Natapoff defines as “underenforcement zones,” “the

state routinely and predictably fails to enforce the law to the detriment of
vulnerable residents,” with the result that “[f]or residents of these zones,
lawfulness is spread unevenly throughout daily life and the legal system
is at best unpredictable.”242 For Dalits in India, the under-enforcement
“zone” may be as wide as India itself.
1. UNDER-ENFORCEMENT OF PROTECTIVE LEGISLATION
In 2004, the NHRC released the findings of an in-depth

examination of the implementation of protective legislation for scheduled
castes. The report is a strong indictment of the government’s failure to
carry out its promises to protect Dalits from atrocities and violations of
their fundamental rights and to grant remedies for rights’ violations.243
NHRC concluded that there is virtually no monitoring of the acts’
implementation at any level.244 Political leaders have also played a
significant role in hindering the implementation of the Prevention of
Atrocities Act.245
The Protection of Civil Rights Act and the Prevention of
Atrocities Act together represent the most important pieces of legislation
for the protection of Dalits. The potential of these laws to bring about
social change, however, has been severely hampered by their under-
enforcement due to institutional prejudice and police corruption. State
governments have made no serious efforts to identify areas where the
practice of “untouchability” is prevalent, have done very little to make
public the provisions of the acts, and have failed to periodically survey
the acts’ effectiveness.246
According to the 2001-2002 Annual Report on the Prevention of
Atrocities Act, 30,022 cases were registered under the Act in 2001 and
27,894 cases were registered in 2002.247 As staggering as these statistics
241
Natapoff, supra note 239, at 1719.
242
Id. at 1717-18.
243
See generally NHRC REPORT, supra note 110.
244
Id.
245
Id. at 113-14.
246
Id. at 25, 45.
247
MINISTRY OF SOCIAL JUSTICE AND EMPOWERMENT, GOVERNMENT OF INDIA, ANNUAL REPORT
ON THE SCHEDULED CASTES AND THE SCHEDULED TRIBES (PREVENTION OF ATROCITIES) ACT,
are, they represent only a fraction of the violence committed against

Dalits. Systematic non-registration248 or improper registration249 of
atrocities contributes to under-reporting. Additional failures in
investigation once a case is registered also help ensure low conviction
rates.250 According to the Annual Report, only 2.31 percent of cases
brought under the Act in 2002 resulted in convictions.251 The low rate of
convictions, compared against the high number of atrocities reported
1989, FOR THE YEAR OF 2002 9-10 (2004), available at http://socialjustice.nic.in/schedule/ar-

poa.pdf.
248
In 2002, India reported that in at least fifteen states, between zero to two cases had been
registered under the Prevention of Atrocities Act, 1989. Annual Report on the Prevention of
Atrocities Act, supra note 247, at 9-10. Similarly, the Government of India reported that in the
same year no cases were registered under the Protection of Civil Rights Act in twenty-four states
and union territories. Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment, Number of Cases Registered
under the Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955 for the Year 2002 and 2003,
http://socialjustice.nic.in/schedule/cases.htm#case1 (last visited Aug. 16, 2008). The National
Commission for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes has concluded that “a large number of
cases of atrocities go unregistered, mainly because of reluctance on the part of police officers to
register the cases.” NCDHR RESPONSE, supra note 114, at 4. The NHRC has further confirmed
that the lack of registered cases does not represent an actual reduction in the practice of
“untouchability.” NHRC REPORT, supra note 110, at 25 (referring to the lack of registered cases
under the Protection of Civil Rights Act).
249
In addition to non-registration of cases, police routinely engage in improper registration of cases.
Dalit cases are often registered under the Indian Penal Code instead of the Protection of Civil
Rights Act, 1955 or the Prevention of Atrocities Act, 1989. NCDHR RESPONSE, supra note 114,
at 4; NHRC REPORT, supra note 110 § IV, at 45. Improper and under-registration of Dalit cases
adversely affects case outcomes. NHRC REPORT, supra note 110 § VI, at 117. Cases are less
likely to be prosecuted and even when pursued are more likely to result in acquittal when the
police have failed to collect evidence. Perpetrators, if convicted, are punished with a lighter
sentence and/or are likely to be released on bail. Id. at 117. Further, the appropriate relief may
not be available when the proper sections of the law are not cited. Id. at 117. Collectively, these
problems have caused a loss of faith in law enforcement, which in turn further diminishes the
number of cases registered. Id. § IV, at 25.
250
Dalits are frequently the victims of discriminatory treatment in the administration of justice.
Prosecutors and judges fail to vigorously and faithfully pursue complaints brought by Dalits, as
evidenced by the high rate of acquittals in such cases. Of the atrocities cases that reached the
trial stage in 1999-2000, less than a sixth were actually adjudicated, and between 2001 and 2002
only 11 percent of cases were disposed of. NCDHR RESPONSE, supra note 114, at 25. The
pattern of acquittals has continued in recent times: of the 833 cases registered under the Act in
the state of Maharashtra in 2005, only 6.3 percent ended in conviction. In 2004, 689 cases were
registered in the state with only 4.8 percent ending in convictions. In Gujarat, 1,301 cases were
registered in 2005 and the conviction rate was a poor 3.8 percent. The state of Uttar Pradesh
fared better: of the 4,369 cases registered last year, nearly half the offenders were convicted.
Meetu Jain, Dalits Safer in UP, Says Govt Report, CNN-IBN LIVE.COM, Dec. 12, 2006,
http://www.ibnlive.com/news/up-handles-atrocities-on-dalits-better/28242-3.html (last visited
Aug. 15, 2008).
251
Annual Report on the Prevention of Atrocities Act, supra note 247, at 12. The government of
India reported that in the same year no cases were registered under the Protection of Civil Rights
Act in 24 states and union territories. MINISTRY OF SOCIAL JUSTICE AND EMPOWERMENT, supra
note 247, at 2.
against Dalits, is often attributed to the caste bias of prosecutors as well

as other organs of justice, including the judiciary, and to the law
enforcement machinery’s lack of familiarity with provisions of the
relevant legislation.252
Dalit women are more likely to suffer violence and especially
sexual violence, and are least likely to get redress in the courts. Rape
cases are not prosecuted in good faith and Dalit women suffer both caste
and gender discrimination in the courtrooms. Prosecutorial failures in
the context of cases involving rape against Dalit women also serve to
encourage the use of rape as a tool to punish and silence Dalit
communities.253
2. UNDER-ENFORCEMENT OF SOCIAL WELFARE LEGISLATION
As described in Part III.B.3, a plethora of social welfare

legislation has been enacted with the goal of eradicating exploitative
economic arrangements in which Dalits are frequent victims. Land
reform legislation has additionally been passed to help free Dalits from
their perennial landless condition. Pervasive under-enforcement,
however, along with significant loopholes in the acts themselves, has
severely undermined the effectiveness of these laws and their
accompanying rehabilitation programs.
While the Bonded Labour System (Abolition) Act, 1976, seeks
to abolish all agreements and obligations arising out of the bonded labor
system,254 the extent to which bonded laborers have been identified,
released, and rehabilitated in the country is negligible.255 Rehabilitation
programs for individuals who have been released from bonded labor are
similarly undermined by their failure to secure substantial alternative
employment,256 implement rehabilitation immediately after release,257 and
ensure timely provision of benefits.258
252
253
254
The Act aims to release all laborers from bondage, cancel any outstanding debt, prohibit the
creation of new bondage agreements, and order the economic rehabilitation of freed bonded
laborers by the state. It also punishes attempts to compel persons into bondage with a maximum
of three years in prison and a Rs. 2,000 (US$50) fine. The Bonded Labour System (Abolition)
Act, No. 19 of 1976; India Code (2007).
255
256
257
While the process of rehabilitation is supposed to immediately follow the release of a bonded
laborer, this is rarely the case. In some cases the Certificate of Release from bonded debt is not
issued, and there is a huge time lag between release and rehabilitation operations, resulting in
The prevalence of the practice of manual scavenging has not

been alleviated by the Employment of Manual Scavengers and
Construction of Dry Latrines (Prohibition) Act, 1993, or its rehabilitation
program. To the contrary, the number of dry latrines has increased since
1989.259 Despite the fact that the Act was intended to be fully
implemented by October 2, 2002,260 only 151,930 out of the total 676,009
manual scavengers identified as of 2004 by the NHRC have been
retrained, while only 394,638 have been rehabilitated.261 The NHRC has
concluded that the objectives of these and other relevant labor laws have
been soundly defeated due to the inadequacy and unresponsiveness of the
law enforcement machinery, as well as the economic and social
dominance of the offending employers.262
Land reform laws that were intended to provide reparations for
the historic landlessness of Dalits263 have failed due to: a lack of political
will and bureaucratic commitment; loopholes in the laws; the tremendous
manipulative power of the landed classes; excessive interference of
courts;264 and problems in ensuring that oral tenancies are truthfully
recorded in land records so as to enable implementation of the land to the
tiller policy.265
While India has adopted measures to abolish forced prostitution
and “rehabilitate” devadasis, these efforts have been largely
many released laborers being unable to survive after their release and being forced to return to
their captors. Id.
258
Id. at 67-68.
259
260
Id. at 54.
261
Id. Such failures led to the filing of a public interest litigation petition before the Supreme Court
in 2003 by the Safai Karamchari Andolan on behalf of manual scavengers seeking the
enforcement of the Act. S. Viswanathan, Exposing An Abhorrent Practice, FRONTLINE, Feb. 11–
24, 2006, http://www.flonnet.com/fl2303/stories/20060224000808000.htm (last visited Aug. 16,
2008). In 2004, when the Supreme Court requested the in-court presence of Secretaries of seven
states for their failure to file responses to the petition, a number of states responded by simply
asserting that no dry latrines existed in their states. Id.; J. Venkatesan, Manual Scavenging:
Court Summons Principal Secretaries, THE HINDU, Sept. 14, 2004, available at
http://www.thehindu.com/2004/09/14/stories/2004091404061200.htm (last visited Aug. 16,
2008).
262
263
264
265
Id. at 125. The evidence of this failure is clear; for example, Dalit landlessness is estimated at
around 75 percent. Of surplus land collected pursuant to land reform laws, only 69.5 percent has
been distributed, of which Dalits have received only 34.6 percent. NCDHR RESPONSE, supra
note 114, at 23.
unsuccessful. Legislative initiatives are poorly implemented.266 The

societal perception of devadasis as women who are sexually available to
men makes it more difficult for them to approach the police with
complaints of sexual violence.267 Moreover, the police themselves have
been known to exploit devadasis.268
3. UNDER-ENFORCEMENT OF ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT MEASURES
According to the National Human Rights Commission, the

beneficial impact of programs aimed at ensuring Dalit development have
been hindered by inadequate investment of public resources; non-
utilization or diversion of funds earmarked for Dalit development; a lack
of programs specifically targeted to Dalit development; poor preparation
of such projects; and a lack of monitoring of development programs
leading to the failure of many such programs to reach their target
groups.269 The anti-Dalit bias of personnel in charge of implementing
these programs has also hindered their effectiveness.270 Moreover, Dalits
rarely participate in the formulation and implementation of development
projects. Many Dalits are also unaware of the existence of such
programs, further restricting their participation.271
The Special Component Plan described above—a potentially
powerful mechanism for ensuring Dalit economic empowerment—has
itself been thwarted in its application and implementation by
administrative agencies at the central and state level. According to the
National Campaign on Dalit Human Rights, during the past five-year
plan period, an average of 2 billion Euros (US$ 2.96 billion) per year
was illegally diverted from these funds.272 According to some estimates,
266
For example, the Karnataka state government passed the Karnataka Devadasi (Prohibition of
Dedication) Act in 1992, however, not a single case has been booked against offending priests
despite many complaints and admonitions to that effect. NHRC REPORT, supra note 110, at 61.
267
“When a devadasi is raped, it is not considered rape. She can be had by any man at any time.”
BROKEN PEOPLE, supra note 21, at 152 (citing Human Rights Watch interview with Jyothi Raj,
Rural Education and Development Society, in Bangalore (July 26, 1998)).
268
Jyothi Raj added that the law works to the disadvantage of women because it criminalizes their
actions and not the actions of their patrons. Police will even go so far as to demand sex as a
bribe: “They will threaten to file charges under the act if the woman says no.” Id.
269
270
Id.
271
Id. at 175-76.
272
NAT’L CAMPAIGN ON DALIT HUMAN RIGHTS, BACKGROUND OF THE DALIT SITUATION IN INDIA,
Sept. 2007 (on file with author) (the figure is calculated from: Expenditure Budget Vol. II (Notes
on demands for Grants), Union Budget 2006-07; Statement No. 21, Expenditure Budget Vol. I,
over the course of the past quarter-century a total of US$93.75 billion

has been siphoned from Dalit development programs.273
C. CASTEISM AS CORRUPTION
While the near epidemic of over- and under-enforcement speaks

to a lack of political will on the part of the state to ensure Dalits’ rights, it
also serves to counter common assumptions about why such abuses
persist. The notion that a dearth of resources are to blame for the lack of
socio-economic development of Dalits is belied by the siphoning of close
to $3 billion a year away from funds that were meant to advance Dalit
economic empowerment. Secondly, the brutality of the police toward
Dalits makes clear that they are not merely uninterested in securing
redress for anti-Dalit crimes; they view Dalits as criminals and derelicts
at best, and subhuman at worst. Local police chiefs have been known to
indoctrinate recruits to hate Dalits,274 and Dalits may be denied entry into
police stations.275 What security do Dalits have when they cannot even
step foot into the very office that represents their first line of defense, or
worse, when they are tortured or raped by those meant to defend them?
What has alternatively been called a “lack of political will” or
“police corruption” benignly represents something far more pernicious.
The words “police” and “corruption” seemingly go hand in hand in
India; one can hardly avoid using one word without uttering the other.
But what is meant by corruption in the context of caste is woefully
misunderstood. While petty bribes do certainly play a role, especially
when most Dalits can ill-afford to pay them, the lack of “will” to enforce
the law is not due to passive apathy but to active complicity in the caste
system. The nexus between political leaders and “upper-caste”
community members accounts, to some extent, for these failures and for
the disincentive to address violations by private actors.276 That which is
under-enforced is done so at the behest of the privileged castes to whom
Union Budget 2006-07; Outcome Budget 2006-07 for various Ministries of Central
Government).
273
S. Viswanathan, Denial by Design, FRONTLINE, Oct. 6-19, 2007, http://www.frontlineonnet.com/
fl2420/stories/20071019509412400.htm (last visited Aug. 16, 2008).
274
Eisenman, supra note 9, at 160.
275
SHAH ET AL., supra note 102, at 71.
276
For example, social and economic legislation to further Dalits’ rights adversely affects the
interests of the classes and castes to which political leaders either belong or represent; political
leaders are either landowners themselves or have close political and social links with land-
owners, and those relying on cheap or bonded labor, including child labor. NHRC REPORT,
supra note 110, at 125.
the police and the judiciary owe their caste loyalty and who have a
vested (karmic and economic) interest in keeping the system in place.
Those who are brutalized represent individuals who are simply meant to
be treated that way.
Just as police officers refuse to register complaints brought by
Dalits, Dalits as complainants “are often treated with indifference by
local judges.”277 The caste composition of the police and the judiciary is
a significant part of the impunity equation. Dalits are severely under-
represented in the higher ranks of the police, the prosecutors, and the
judiciary. The reservations regime, discussed below, does not extend to
the judiciary278—with the result that, in 2002, the Supreme Court had
only one Dalit out of twenty-six judges, while the High Courts had 25
Dalits out of 625 positions.279 In January 2007, that Dalit judge, Justice
K.G. Balakrishnan, became the first Dalit to rise to the position of
Supreme Court Chief Justice.280 According to recent studies based on
available data, 47 percent of India’s Chief Justices and 40 percent of all
other judges have been “high-caste” Brahmins, who constitute only 6.4
percent of the population.281
Caste discrimination also does not cease once a Dalit is
appointed to a judicial position, as discriminatory attitudes prevail among
judges themselves. The depth of anti-Dalit sentiment in the judiciary is
particularly well illustrated by an incident that took place in July 1998 in
the state of Uttar Pradesh, where, as the Times of India reports, an
Allahabad High Court Judge had his chamber “purified with Ganga jal”
(water from the River Ganges) because it had earlier been occupied by a
Dalit judge.282
277
Eisenman, supra note 9, at 167.
278
The National Human Rights Commission has recommended that the government identify
institutions that have not accepted reservations—including the judiciary and defense forces—and
develop measures to ensure that Dalit candidates have the opportunity to compete for these
positions. NHRC REPORT, supra note 110, at 141. Supporters of such a proposition point to the
abysmal rate of convictions for offenses against Dalits highlighted above which stem in part
from the anti-Dalit bias of the judiciary. The chairman of the National Commission on
Scheduled Castes has also recommended that reservations be extended to the judiciary. Grant
SC/ST Quotas in Judiciary: Buta, THE HINDU, Jan. 20, 2008, available at
http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/holnus/002200801201965.htm (last visited Aug. 16, 2008).
279
President’s No on Chhattisgarh Judges, INDIAN EXPRESS, Feb. 3, 2002.
280
Balakrishnan to be CJI, INDIAN EXPRESS, Dec. 23, 2006, available at
http://www.indianexpress.com/story/19176.html (last visited Aug. 15, 2008).
281
Balakrishnan Rajagopal, The Caste System—India’s Apartheid?, THE HINDU, Opinion, Aug. 18,
2007, available at http://www.hinduonnet.com/2007/08/18/stories/2007081856301200.htm (last
visited Aug. 15, 2008).
282
When the law enforcers become the criminals and the judiciary
treats its own colleagues with untouchable contempt, then something far
more insidious is at play. The police, and in some cases the judiciary, do
not owe their allegiance to the rule of law, but to caste. Casteism must
then be viewed as a form of corruption, and a force that invites
corruption, rather than something separate from it. Those who occupy a
variety of positions in the public administration—from the police, to
prosecutors, to district collectors, to judges, and to government
bureaucrats responsible for implementing social welfare programs—are
so deeply entrenched in the casteist mindset that the system cannot be
anything but corrupt and the state is anything but neutral. The brutality
and apathy of state agents is matched by the brutality of the dominant
castes. This could only be so if they were one and the same.
D. VIOLENCE AS CASTE ENTRENCHMENT
In India’s perennial struggle between the rule of law and the rule
of caste, violence is the trump card that ensures the rule of caste always
wins out. Violence against Dalits in India has reached epidemic
proportions. Between 1992 and 2005 a total of 398,644 cases involving
crimes against Dalits were registered throughout the country.283 These
include the crimes of murder, rape, kidnapping, robbery, and arson,
among others.284 Police statistics averaged over the past five years
indicate that every week 13 Dalits are murdered, 5 Dalit homes (or
possessions) are burned, 6 Dalits are kidnapped or abducted, and that
every day 3 Dalit women are raped, 11 Dalits are assaulted and a crime is
committed against a Dalit every eighteen minutes.285
As noted above, these statistics represent only a fraction of the
violence committed against Dalits. A lack of police cooperation
(including denying Dalits entry into police stations), fear of reprisals,
systematic non-registration or improper registration of atrocities cases,
and additional failures of investigation have all contributed to
283
Press Release, National Campaign on Dalit Human Rights, Strengthening Civil Society
Initiatives for Upholding Dalit Human Rights (Dec. 12, 2007) (on file with author).
284
Id. Between 2001 and 2002, close to 58,000 cases were registered under the Prevention of
Atrocities Act. MINISTRY OF SOCIAL JUSTICE AND EMPOWERMENT, supra note 247, at 9-10.
285
Derived from figures provided in NATIONAL CRIME RECORDS BUREAU, MINISTRY OF HOME
AFFAIRS, CRIME IN INDIA (2005) 295, available at http://ncrb.nic.in/crime2005/cii-
2005/CHAP7.pdf. See also CHALAM, supra note 171, at 81 (“[T]he numbers of murders was
reported to be 430 in 1979 and they have increased to 506 (only recorded) by 1999. The total
offences against Dalits, including rape and arson, have doubled from 13,976 in 1979 to 25,093 in
1999. This shows the criminal intolerance against Dalits in India.”).
underreporting and to the staggering acquittal rates associated with these

crimes. Despite these obstacles, fifty-seven atrocities cases are officially
registered in police stations across the country every day.286
Violence is a principal weapon in sustaining economic and caste-
based discrimination against Dalits. Dalits’ attempts to enforce their
rights, alter village customs, defy the social order, or to demand land,
increased wages, or political rights often lead to violence and economic
retaliation on the part of those most threatened by changes in the status
quo.287 Dalit communities as a whole are summarily punished for
individual transgressions; Dalits are cut off from community land and
employment during social boycotts, women bear the brunt of physical
attacks, and the letter of the law is rarely enforced.288
Over the course of just one week in September 2007, a number
of atrocities made the headlines. On September 20, it was reported that a
Dalit man, a sixty-year-old landless laborer, was beaten to death by
landowners in the eastern state of Bihar over a “land-related dispute.”289
Two days later in the northern state of Uttar Pradesh, a Dalit woman,
whose son was accused of eloping with an “upper-caste” girl, was set on
fire and killed.290 The following day it was reported that police had failed
to register a First Information Report (“FIR”) against suspects in the case
of a Dalit boy who was forced to set himself ablaze in the northern state
of Punjab.291 On September 26, newspapers reported that in the central
state of Madhya Pradesh, a Dalit laborer was reportedly tied to a tractor
286
CRIME IN INDIA, supra note 285.
287
The following headlines are commonplace in Indian newspapers and speak to the retaliatory
nature of violence against Dalits: Dalit Leader Abused for Daring to Sit on a Chair, INDO-ASIAN
NEWS SERVICE, July 10, 2006; Dalit Lynched while Gathering Grain, INDIAN EXPRESS, Apr. 25,
2006, http://www.indianexpress.com/story/3152.html (last visited Aug. 15, 2008); Dalit Beaten
for Entering Temple, INDO-ASIAN NEWS SERVICE, Feb. 22, 2006; UP Dalit Girl Resists Rape,
Loses Arm as a Result, HINDUSTAN TIMES, Feb. 13, 2006; Dalit Tries to Fetch Water Beaten to
Death, INDO-ASIAN NEWS SERVICE, Feb. 4, 2006.
288
See also TELTUMBDE, supra note 152, at 14-15 (arguing that atrocities occur as a means of
maintaining the subjugation and dependency of Dalits towards higher castes, and as a way of
stifling any uprising that seeks to alter the inherently feudal relationship).
289
Dalit Man Beaten to Death in Bihar, INDO-ASIAN NEWS SERVICE, Sept. 20, 2007.
290
Caste War: Dalit Woman Burnt Alive, NDTV.COM, Sept. 22, 2007,
http://www.ndtv.com/convergence/ndtv/story.aspx?id=NEWEN20070026983&ch=9/22/2007%2
010:35:00%20PM (last visited Aug. 16, 2008). Earlier in the month it was reported that a 55-
year-old Dalit woman was “tortured, stripped and tied to a tree in Ram Duali village of Punjab
because her nephew eloped with a girl from the same community.” Dalit Woman Tied Naked to
Tree, TIMES OF INDIA, Sept. 10, 2007, available at http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/
articleshow/2353945.cms (last visited Aug. 16, 2008).
291
Bipin Bhardwaj, No FIR in Dalit Immolation Case, THE TRIBUNE, Sept. 23, 2007, available at
http://www.tribuneindia.com/2007/20070924/punjab1.htm#9 (last visited Aug. 16, 2008).
and dragged, sustaining severe injuries, for refusing to plow the fields
because he was sick.292 That same day, it was reported that the suicide of
a Dalit Ph.D. student from the Indian Institute of Science in the southern
state of Karnataka was alleged to have resulted from caste-based abuse
and harassment.293
The atrocities outlined above are revealing on many fronts and
speak to the degrading, retaliatory, and violent nature of abuse against
Dalits; to the impunity enjoyed by perpetrators of such acts; to the
geographic spread of such cases; and perhaps most disturbingly, to the
fact that these abuses are all too commonplace. A review of cases
reported in any other week would likely yield the same results and even
then would grossly underestimate the prevalence of such abuses, the
majority of which never get reported to the police or make national
headlines.294
Tellingly, in that same week and in the week that followed, a
number of headlines spoke to both the initiatives taken by the
government to purportedly protect Dalit rights and to examples of Dalit
protest and Dalit activists’ engagement with the state machinery in an
effort to demand their rights. The headlines, among others, read:
“National Human Rights Commission issues notice to police for failure
of action;”295 “Dalit Commission constituted in state;”296 “Collector for
speedy disposal of atrocity cases;”297 “Cells to deal [with] Dalit issues;”298
292
Dalit Labourer Dragged by Tractor over Refusal to Work, TIMES OF INDIA, Sept. 26, 2007,
available at http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/India/Dalit_labourer_dragged_by_tractor_over_
refusal_to_work/articleshow/2404265.cms (last visited Aug. 16, 2008).
293
Caste Discrimination Cause of Suicide, THE HINDU, Sept. 26, 2007, available at
http://www.hindu.com/2007/09/26/stories/2007092655570500.htm (last visited Aug. 16, 2008).
294
BROKEN PEOPLE, supra note 21, at 189; see also HIDDEN APARTHEID, supra note 5, at 33, 57.
295
T.S. Ranganna, Police Fail to Address Our Complaints, Say Dalits, THE HINDU, Sept. 24, 2007,
available at http://www.hindu.com/2007/09/24/stories/2007092457430500.htm (last visited Aug.
16, 2008) (describing failure of police to take action against atrocities committed against Dalits).
296
Dalit Commission Constituted in State, TIMES OF INDIA, Sept. 21, 2007, available at
http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Cities/Patna/Dalit_Commission_constituted_in_state/articlesh
ow/2388448.cms (last visited Aug. 16, 2008) (reporting establishment of first state Maha Dalit
commission to cover Dalit sub-castes).
297
Andhra Pradesh, Collector for Speedy Disposal of Atrocity Cases, THE HINDU, Oct. 6, 2007,
16, 2008) (describing statements by Collector Ahmad Nadeem that review meetings should be
held every quarter in order to hasten progress of cases under the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled
Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act).
298
Andhra Pradesh, Cells to Deal Dalit Issues, The HINDU, Oct. 6. 2007, available at
http://www.hindu.com/2007/10/06/stories/2007100657150300.htm (last visited Aug. 16, 2008)
(describing establishment of cells to address problems pertaining to Dalits).
“SC/ST orgns to campaign for reservation in Kerala;”299 “SC/ST hostel

students go on an indefinite fast;”300 “Protestors block Delhi-Dehradun
National highway;”301 “PIL [Public Interest Litigation] moved in HC
[High Court] by Dalit outfit.”302
Hidden beneath the headlines are the parallel stories of resilience
and retaliation. It has been suggested that the rise in violence against
Dalits since the early 1990s is a direct reaction to increasing resistance
on the part of Dalits to defy the social order and demand their basic
rights, on the streets and in the courtrooms.303 The retaliation, which in
many instances is directed at entire Dalit communities, seeks to send a
clear message that Dalits should not dare to step outside their karmically
prescribed duties and occupations.304 The very nature of the violence
signals the dehumanization of Dalits as lesser humans and speaks to the
use of violence as caste entrenchment.305 The use of sexual violence
against Dalit women signals the perception of Dalit women as “sexually
available,”306 while the use of economic boycotts ensures that a
299
SC/ST Orgns to Campaign for Reservation in Kerala, ZEENEWS.COM, Oct. 3, 2007,
http://www.zeenews.com/articles.asp?aid=398811&archisec=REG (last visited Aug. 16, 2008)
(reporting on campaign for safeguarding SC/ST reservations and comprehensive land reform).
300
Tamil Nadu, SC/ST Hostel Students Go on an Indefinite Fast, THE HINDU, Sept. 28, 2007,
16, 2008) (describing fasting by SC/ST hostel students to protest “infrastructure weaknesses” in
hostel).
301
Fake Encounter—Protestors Block Delhi-Dehradun NH, HINDUSTAN TIMES, Sept. 19, 2007,
available at http://www.hindustantimes.com/StoryPage/StoryPage.aspx?id=79ed951d-a714-
4a74-85bb-be7bc61af10c&&Headline=Protestors+block+Delhi-Dehradun+National+highway
(last visited Aug. 16, 2008) (describing protest by Dalits of police shooting of Dalit youth in
“fake encounter”).
302
PIL Moved in HC by Dalit Outfit, CHENNAIONLINE.COM, Sept. 21, 2007 (reporting challenge to
court order denying permission to Dalit organization to protest denial of Dalit entry to
Kandampatti Draupadi Amman Temple).
303
Press Release, Human Rights Watch, Violence Against “Untouchables” Growing, Says Report
(Apr. 1, 1999) available at http://hrw.org/english/docs/1999/04/14/india879.htm.
304
When Dalits from the Dalit colony of Veludavur village in Villapuram district, Tamil Nadu,
demanded their right to participate in a government auction of common properties in Veludavur,
members of seven neighboring “upper-caste” Hindu villages attacked their colony. They
destroyed four hundred huts, attacked women, children, and the elderly, and displaced seven
hundred Dalit families. BROKEN PEOPLE, supra note 21, at 112-13.
305
Take for example the case of a Dalit man from the Dholapur district of Rajasthan, a western
Indian state. For the “crime” of refusing to sell bidis (hand-rolled cigarettes) on credit to the
nephew of an “upper-caste” village chief, the “upper-caste” family forcibly pierced his nostril,
drew a string through his nose, and paraded him around the village, eventually tying him to a
cattle post. Id. at 24.
306
When a sixteen-year-old Dalit rape survivor from Sahalwada village in Madhya Pradesh, refused
to withdraw the complaint she had filed against her attacker, he retaliated by pouring kerosene on
her and setting her on fire. Dalit Girl Burnt to Death by Man Accused of Rape, ZEENEWS.COM,
Nov. 23, 2006, http://www.zeenews.com/articles.asp?aid=337515&archisec=REG (last visited
relationship of economic dependency between Dalits and their “upper-

caste” employers remains intact.307
In the overwhelming majority of cases, the sheer brute force with
which caste rules are enforced, and against entire Dalit communities, acts
as a form of collective punishment. As noted above, punishment from
the law enforcement machinery against perpetrators of such acts is
comparatively non-existent. The contradiction is not ironic; it is the
logical outcome of that which justifies the violence itself. The
observance of “untouchability” and the punishment of those who dare
step out of their ranking as “untouchables” are acts “of religious merit,
the non-observance of which is a sin.”308 If the act of discriminating and
punishing is seen as just, and laden with economic incentive, then how
can just punishment be punished? Seen in this light, the impunity
perpetrated by the police—who are products of the same hierarchical
system—is not impunity from the vantage point of caste, but a form of
justice in observance of a wholly different set of laws.
E. COLLECTIVE UNCONSCIOUSNESS
Atrocities of the nature outlined above do not find a home in the

collective conscience of the nation. Though the state may respond with
the pro forma setting up of commissions to investigate particular
atrocities, or with administrative agencies mandated to address the lack
of justice to Dalit victims, the outcry from the general public is
deafeningly silent. This of course begs the question, “Why?” Some may
posit that such cases, by the sheer force of their volume turn outrage into
apathy, compassion into fatigue, and normalize that which should be
Aug. 16, 2008). When Dalit agrarian labor activist Bant Singh, whose daughter was gang-raped
in 2002, defied landlords’ threats and local “upper-caste” leaders in seeking prosecution against
those who gang-raped his daughter, the landlords retaliated by violently attacking him, beating
him so badly that both his arms and one of his legs had to be amputated; the remaining leg was
permanently disabled. Amit Sengupta, Bant Singh Can Still Sing, TEHELKA.COM, Feb. 4, 2006,
http://www.tehelka.com/story_main16.asp?filename=Cr020406do_bigha.asp (last visited Aug.
16, 2008).
307
In June 2006, for instance, when a Dalit argued with an “upper-caste” farmer in Kothapally
village in the southern state of Andhra Pradesh, the “upper-caste” villagers attacked eighty Dalit
families in retaliation. When the same Dalit man then went to the police to report the incident, a
social boycott was imposed on all of the Dalits from Kothapally; they were thrown out of their
village and denied any opportunity to earn their livelihood. Tejeshwi Pratima, Dalits Thrown
Out of Their Village For Raising Their Voice, INDIANCHRISTIANNEWS.COM, June 29, 2006,
http://indianchristians.in/news/index2.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=449&pop=1&p
age=0&Itemid=44 (last visited Aug. 16, 2008).
308
anything but. Others may live in willful blindness and fail to connect the
dots between acts of violence to draw the clear line that such violence
helps preserve: the line between the “pure” and the “polluted.” Some
may offer counter-narratives that pigeonhole such incidents into rural
pockets, blame them on a few bad apples, or worse, blame the victims for
the violence they surely invited upon themselves. These and other
narratives help reconcile such tragedies more comfortably with one’s
idea of what India represents: a secular liberal democracy (and the
world’s largest at that), a multicultural tapestry of cultures and religions,
and a booming economic powerhouse.
The Idea of India is, of course, in the eye of the beholder. As has
been said about the caste system itself, India is “Superman’s heaven and
the common man’s damnation.”309 Some have begun to tell the Tale of
Two Indias, wherein inequalities are further polarized by globalization’s
steady march, and where Indians are anointed into the Billionaire’s
Club,310 while farmers commit suicide to escape their vexing poverty.311
But the equation is not so simply divided between the “Haves” and
“Have-Nots.” For caste has turned India into many nations and has kept
India from realizing true nationhood. If nationhood is defined as the
success of securing citizens’ allegiance to the nation above all else, then
surely India has failed in its nation-building project. For Indians, the
nation comes a distant second to caste, religion, and region.
Then there are those who, even while acknowledging the Two
India paradigm, argue that reservations will only serve to “enshrine caste
differences” and “prevent India from reaching its full potential.”312 For
such critics, the vision of the future India can only be realized through
the creation of educational opportunities for all, regardless of caste, and
through equality of opportunity in a “merit-based system.” Reservations,
in turn, are emblematic of a “divide-and-rule” approach that has the
“potential to break up India.”313
309
Id. at 21.
310
Alex Perry, A Tale of Two Indias, TIME, Nov 29, 2004, available at
http://www.time.com/time/asia/covers/501041206/story.html (last visited Aug. 16, 2008).
311
Randeep Ramesh, A Tale of Two Indias, THE GUARDIAN, Apr. 5, 2006, available at
http://www.guardian.co.uk/india/story/0,,1746948,00.html (last visited Aug. 16, 2008); see also
Colin Hallinan, India: A Tale of Two Worlds, FOREIGN POLICY IN FOCUS, Apr. 10, 2006,
http://www.fpif.org/fpiftxt/3186 (last visited Aug. 16, 2008).
312
Surendra K. Kaushik, Do Not Reinforce Two Indias, BUSINESS WEEK, Nov. 2, 2006, available at
http://www.businessweek.com/globalbiz/content/nov2006/gb20061102_285971.htm (last visited
Aug. 16, 2008).
313
Id.
Ironically, those at the bottom of the caste system would likely

make the very same argument with one important difference: it is not
reservations that divide and rule or get in the way of equality of
opportunity; it is the caste system itself. Set against the backdrop of the
“untouchability” mindset described above, and the abuses and
inequalities that it foments, reservations create the possibility of a
meritocracy and of equality of opportunity, albeit imperfectly, rather than
undermine it. The space into which reservations enter, the space of
caste, is antithetical to “merit” because under the caste system respect
and ability (or lack thereof) is determined not by natural talent, but by the
karmic non-accident of one’s birth into a particular caste.
As the reservations debate careens into the corporate board
room, many now argue that India will lose its competitive edge and
sacrifice efficiency if the private sector comes under the purview of
reservations and opens the door to “non-meritorious” candidates.314
Caste-based affirmative action in India, a constitutional right, is now
portrayed as antithetical to the meritocracy that India purportedly
represents. An overhaul of the terms of the reservations debate is long
overdue.
F. AFFIRMATIVELY EXCLUDED:
SITUATING THE RESERVATIONS “DEBATE”
Like many of the protective measures described in this Article,

the reservations policy has not proved in and of itself to be a sufficient
remedy for caste discrimination against Dalits in India. Though
reservations have helped support a Dalit political awakening, they are
limited in their reach. The reservations policy benefits only a minute
percentage of Dalits in the country—high illiteracy and drop out rates
among Dalits mean that very few are able to avail themselves of
constitutional rights in public sector employment and education. A
number of key sectors also continue to remain outside the purview of the
reservation policy; and caste-based discrimination continues to be
practiced in the sectors where reservations are secured, leading to under-
enforcement.
314
Rahul Bajaj, Reservations: Devoid of Merit, in RESERVATION IN PRIVATE SECTOR, supra note
158, at 248. However, Thorat debunks the “efficiency” argument as empirically unsubstantiated,
arguing further that a corporation’s productive efficiency could only be compromised if job
qualifications were relaxed, which is not the case in the Indian public sector. Sukhadeo Thorat,
Reservation and Efficiency: Myth and Reality, in RESERVATION IN PRIVATE SECTOR, supra note
158, at 183, 187.
Problems of enforcement and reach are, however, effectively

sidelined in the anti-reservations debate. Reservations are now at the
center of a storm of critique that projects reservations as undermining
“meritocratic ideals” and reinforcing caste-based divisions. There has
also been widespread public opposition to reservations for Dalits in local
government bodies (often leading to violence) and in highly coveted
government jobs and seats in higher education because of the economic
security these jobs are perceived to offer.315 While reservations to state
legislatures and the lower house of parliament have ensured greater Dalit
representation in political bodies, these reservations have not necessarily
translated to greater protection of Dalit rights. Finally, the already
limited reach of reservations is increasingly undermined by economic
liberalization and its attendant outsourcing of public sector jobs to the
private sector where reservations, for the time being at least, cannot
reach.
1. THE (LIMITED) REACH OF RESERVATIONS
It is not incorrect to say that for some things are getting better.
Dalits have achieved positions of economic and political prominence
unimaginable prior to independence. Thanks in large part to greater
opportunities created by reservations, Dalits are now engineers and
surgeons and feature prominently on the political landscape.316 The
expanding power base of Dalit and “low-caste” political parties, the
election of Dalit and “low-caste” chief ministers to state governments,
and even the appointment of a Dalit as president of India in July 1997 all
signal the increasing political prominence of Dalits, but cumulatively
have yet to yield any significant benefit for the majority of Dalits.
Indeed, one could argue, as sociologist Jogdand does, that the
reservations have really only provided “individual social mobility at the
expense of group stagnation,” in that gains at the singular level are only
loosely tending towards the uplifting of Dalits as a whole.317
315
Sanjoy Majumder, Indian Court Upholds Caste Quotas, BBC NEWS, Oct. 19, 2006,
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/6067504.stm (last visited Aug. 16, 2008).
316
See Chandrabhan Prasad, Of Outcaste and Lower Caste, ATROCITY NEWS,
http://atrocitynews.wordpress.com/2007/01/15/an-article-from-pioneeer/ (last visited Aug. 16,
2008).
317
See P.G. Jogdand, Reservation Policy and the Empowerment of Dalits, in DALITS IN MODERN
INDIA: VISION AND VALUES, supra note 24, at 315, 331-32.
The examples of a Dalit chief minister,318 a former Dalit

president,319 and the current Dalit Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of
India320 are called upon to symbolize far more than they represent—
evidence of real equality for Dalits in India today. Such figures are on
the fingertips of those who critique accounts of widespread
untouchability, exploitation, and violence against Dalits as “unbalanced.”
How the identification of a handful of examples balances the treatment
of over 167 million people as sub-human is left unquestioned as the
curious mathematical feat that it represents. As is often the case in other
countries, the existence of the exception is enough to swallow the rule.
Rather than strengthening the argument that such few examples confirm
the sluggish pace of change, they are offered as proof positive of the
success of legal reform.
According to a 1996 estimate, only 1.1 million out of the then
population of 138 million Dalits were employed in sectors that fell under
the domain of reservations, a paltry 0.8 percent.321 With the privatization
of public sector industries since the advent of economic reforms in India
in the early 1990s, that percentage has likely declined.322 For the minute
percentage that has been able to escape the confines of poverty,
reservations represent the only viable path to economic liberation and the
embodiment of hope for many Dalits that a slice of the economic pie is
“reserved” for them. Reservations are an entry point, an opening of the
door to institutions that were historically sealed shut by the caste system.
Though limited in their reach and their effect, research suggests
that reservations for Dalits in political representation, public
employment, and education have benefited those whom the policies were
able to reach.323 Supporters of reservations argue that without affirmative
318
See Profile of Ms. Mayawati, Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh (Oct. 6, 2007),
http://www.upgov.nic.in/upinfo/Ms_%20Mayawati%20_English_%20Biodata.pdf.
319
Mr. K.R. Narayanan held the position of the President of India from 1997-2002, and was India’s
first and only Dalit President. He passed away in November 2005. See Profile of Mr. K.R.
Narayanan, (October 6, 2007), available at http://presidentofindia.nic.in/formerpresidents.html
320
See Profile of Justice K.G. Balakrishnan, Chief Justice of India (Oct. 6, 2007),
http://www.supremecourtofindia.nic.in/judges/bio/sitting/bkgopinathan.htm (last visited Aug. 16,
2008). Balakrishnan is India’s First Dalit Chief Justice. Balakrishnan is India’s First Dalit
Chief Justice, EXPRESS INDIA, Jan. 14, 2007,
www.expressindia.com/fullstory.php?newsid=79647 (last visited Aug. 16, 2008).
321
322
Jogdand, supra note 317, at 319, 328.
323
See, e.g., John M. Alexander, Inequality, Poverty and Affirmative Action: Contemporary Trends
in India 30-31 (Paper Prepared for the WIDER Conference: Inequality, Poverty and Human
Well-being, United Nations University, Helsinki, Finland) (May 2003) available at
action Dalits would not be able to penetrate the caste ceiling in education
and employment that results from entrenched anti-Dalit biases.324 They
add that there are no objective standards of merit applicable to all groups
within society, given that dominant groups shape traditions within which
they make judgments of merit.325 Further, they support reservations on
the basis of national diversity, arguing that different views should be
represented in national institutions to promote diversity, which ultimately
benefits the social and the political life of the country.326
Supporters also point to evidence that reservation policies have
been successful in some areas. Reservations in local government bodies,
such as village councils or panchayats, for example, have enhanced the
delivery of local public goods to disadvantaged groups.327 Similarly,
reservations in higher education have afforded greater opportunities to
Dalit students.328 While the reservation policies tend to benefit the so-
called “creamy layer” of the Dalit population, the average socio-
http://62.237.131.23/conference/conference-2003-2/conference-2003-2-programme.htm (last
visited Aug. 16, 2008). Alexander notes the evident but limited steps toward equality for
scheduled castes and tribes due to reservations in political representation, public employment
and education, and argues that the effectiveness of affirmative action is undermined by
inattention to variations among different sub-castes of “untouchables” and because of severe
disparities in lower castes’ relative disadvantage across states and between urban and rural areas.
As a result, reservations and similar measures have for the most part benefited only the relatively
better off among lower castes. Id.
324
See D. Parthasararthy, Reservations: Towards a Larger Perspective, in RESERVATION IN
PRIVATE SECTOR, supra note 158, at 193-96.
325
Surinder S. Jodhka & Katherine Newman, In the Name of Globalisation: Meritocracy,
Productivity and the Hidden Language of Caste, in LABOR MARKET DISCRIMINATION AND
URBAN SECTOR 19 (Indian Institute of Dalit Studies & Princeton University eds., 2007) (on file
with author) [hereinafter LABOR MARKET DISCRIMINATION]. The authors use interviews with
private sector hiring managers to unpack the apparently neutral concept of “merit,” revealing a
common recruiter tendency to rely on family background, which is at least implicitly a proxy for
caste, as an assurance of an individual’s reliability and character. The authors also show the
prevalence of using regional stereotypes, often derogatory, as gauges of candidates’ competence.
Id. at 27. See also Anand Teltumbde, Reservation in the Private Sector: An Overview of the
Proposition, in RESERVATION IN PRIVATE SECTOR, supra note 158, at 275-77, 279-80.
326
Sridharan, supra note 179, at 117.
327
In Impact of Reservation in Panchayati Raj: Evidence from a Nationwide Randomized
Experiment, Chattopadhyay and Duflo summarize the findings of their research in districts in
West Bengal and Rajasthan. According to the authors, “[l]ocal leaders seem to have some
effective control over decisions, even when they are women or SCs [Scheduled Castes].”
Raghabendra Chattopadhyay & Esther Duflo, Impact of Reservation in Panchayati Raj:
Evidence from a Nationwide Randomised Experiment, ECON. & POL. WKLY., Jan.-Apr. 2004, at
979.
328
Thomas E. Weisskopf, Impact of Reservation in Admissions to Higher Education in India, ECON.
& POL. WKLY, July-Sept. 2004, at 4339. See also CHALAM, supra note 171, at 107, 142, 162
(arguing further that educational reservations in south Indian states have contributed to their high
scores on the Human Development Index, despite their lower economic status).
economic status of Dalit students is still significantly lower than that of

other students. As a result of reservations, these students are able to
secure better career opportunities than they would have in the absence of
reservation policies.
2. RESERVATIONS UNMASKED:
UNDER-ENFORCEMENT OF RESERVATION POLICIES
The few who have been able to avail themselves of the benefit of
reservations must still wage a hard-fought battle to overcome the stigma
of their “untouchable” status. Caste-based occupational distribution is
reinforced in reserved government employment.329 The National Human
Rights Commission reports that Dalits occupy 65.57 percent of the total
government posts for safai karmacharis (sweepers) and only 16.7
percent of non-sweeper posts.330 Dalits are also discriminated against
when being considered for promotions.331 Reservations in higher
education continue to be met with a great deal of resistance leading to
under-enforcement.332 In the country’s 256 universities and
approximately 11,000 colleges funded by the University Grants
Commission (an apex body of the Government of India), Dalits and tribal
community members comprise only 2 percent of the teaching positions—
about 75 thousand teaching positions reserved for these communities
remain vacant.333
Dalit students also continue to face discrimination in higher
education and are limited in their employment opportunities upon
graduation. In September 2006, amidst anti-reservation protests,
allegations of caste-based discrimination and intimidation surfaced at the
All-India Institute of Medical Sciences (“AIIMS”), India’s premier
medical institute. In written complaints submitted to the director of the
Institute, two first-year Dalit students complained of casteist remarks and
various forms of harassment and intimidation from senior “upper-caste”
329
See NHRC REPORT, supra note 110, at 137.
330
Id.
331
Recently, the government moved to create quotas for promotions for scheduled castes and other
backward castes. While the Supreme Court upheld the move, it required that governmental
authorities prove that these groups were poorly represented in government positions, that quotas
be capped at 50 percent, and that prosperous lower-caste employees be excluded from the plan.
Majumder, supra note 315.
332
333
Id.
students.334 The complaints were accompanied by a memorandum signed

by forty students recounting similar incidents of harassment and
intimidation.335
Graduating from an eminent institution also does not guarantee
suitable employment for Dalits. Despite earning a Masters degree in
economics from Gujarat University, the best job twenty-four-year-old
Arvind Vaghela could get was as a road sweeper.336 Vaghela’s story
underscored the experience of many other university-educated Dalits. In
his city of Ahmedabad; “[n]early 100 of its council sanitation workers
have degrees in subjects ranging from computing to law, but cannot get
better jobs because they are Dalits.”337 Such outcomes are the result of
intentional discrimination in hiring decisions, and the lack of “social and
cultural capital” enjoyed by Dalits.338 As noted in a recent study by
economist Deshpande and sociologist Newman, “social and cultural
capital (the complex and overlapping categories of caste, family
background, network and contacts) play a huge role in urban, formal
sector labour markets.”339 As a result, Dalits’ historic exclusion and
disadvantage continues to undermine their advancement even where they
are just as qualified and competent as their “upper-caste” peers.
Where political reservations are concerned, strict party politics
has, according to one commentator, resulted in “accommodating rather
than forceful, articulate and independent” Dalit elected representatives.340
More fundamentally, violence and intimidation are used to prevent Dalits
from standing for election in local government bodies. In October 2005,
a Dalit woman, Prabhati Devi, was burned alive for contesting a
panchayat (village council) election against an “upper-caste” candidate
in Mirzapur district in Uttar Pradesh in defiance of a local politician’s
334
Abantika Ghosh, Dalit Students “Abused” at AIIMS, THE TIMES OF INDIA, Sept. 12, 2006.
335
Id.
336
Randeep Ramesh, Untouchables in New Battle for Jobs, THE OBSERVER (UK), Oct. 3, 2004, at
26.
337
Id.
338
See Sukhadeo Thorat & Paul Attewell, The Legacy of Social Exclusion: A Correspondence Study
of Job Discrimination in India, in LABOR MARKET DISCRIMINATION, supra note 325, at 9. The
authors sent targeted applications to numerous graduate entry-level positions in the private
sector, and found that among equally qualified candidates, a person with a high-caste Hindu
name had a greater chance of being called for interview than one with a Dalit or a Muslim name.
Furthermore, they found that having a high-caste Hindu name could help under-qualified
candidates and even outweighed the chances of overqualified Dalit candidates.
339
Ashwini Deshpande & Katherine Newman, Where the Path Leads: The Role of Caste in Post-
University Employment Expectations, in LABOR MARKET DISCRIMINATION, supra note 325, at
40, 59.
340
Jogdand, supra note 317, at 330.
warning not to contest.341 Those Dalits who are in positions of public

office are also often unable to properly discharge their public functions
due to intimidation, threats, and physical violence at the hands of “upper-
caste” community members.342
Additionally, Dalits who convert to Christianity or Islam lose
their “scheduled caste” status and the few benefits it affords. While the
Constitution of India grants certain constitutional rights to Hindu,
Buddhist, and Sikh Dalits, the same benefits do not extend to Dalits who
convert to Christianity or Islam, even though they are ultimately unable
to escape their discriminatory treatment as “untouchables.” At this
writing, a petition challenging the constitutional validity of the 1950
Presidential Order limiting reservations to Hindu, Buddhist, and Sikh
scheduled castes was pending before the Supreme Court.343
Despite the obvious problems associated with the effective
implementation of reservations, equality on paper has helped usher in a
new conservative discourse. Fueled by proposals to introduce
reservations in the private sector and expand the scope of reservations in
higher education, such a discourse skips the step of situating reservations
in the context of the social and unequal reality that Dalits face, and
moves straight to critiquing the continued “privileging” of particular
groups on the basis of their caste as a mechanism that reinforces
difference.344
341
Dalit Woman Burnt Alive for Contesting Panchayat Elections, HINDUSTAN TIMES, Oct. 23,
2005. In June 1997, Dalit leaders elected to the Melavalavu panchayat in Tamil Nadu were
murdered by members of the higher-caste Thevar community, signaling that the ceding of power
would not be tolerated by those displaced from their positions on the council. BROKEN PEOPLE,
supra note 21, at 90. Thevars also threatened Dalits with economic sanctions should any of them
file for the position of panchayat president, a sanction that would effectively leave Dalits without
employment or access to economic or social services in villages in that area. Id. at 91.
342
Asian Human Rights Commission, Dalit Village Head Faces Constant Intimidation Due to Caste
Discrimination in Uttar Pradesh, Nov. 22, 2006, http://www.ahrchk.net/ua/mainfile.php/2006/
2086 (last visited Aug. 16, 2008).
343
Notice to Centre on Plea for Quota for Dalit Muslims, THE HINDU, Jan. 27, 2008, available at
The state government of Tamil Nadu passed a bill in 2007 to provide a seven percent quota for
Christian and Muslim Dalits, to be carved out of the existing 30 percent reservations for OBCs.
Dominic Emmanuel, Dalit Christians too Need Reservations, THE TRIBUNE, Dec. 25, 2007,
available at http://www.tribuneindia.com/2007/20071225/edit.htm (last visited Aug. 16, 2008).
344
See also SATISH DESHPANDE, Caste Inequalities in India Today, in CONTEMPORARY INDIA: A
SOCIOLOGICAL VIEW 101 (2003) (arguing that proposals to expand affirmative action policies in
India today elicit discussion of the possible consequences of their implementation, instead of first
asking: “Is caste discrimination still practiced in contemporary India? Does it continue to breed
inequality? What is the nature and extent of such inequality today? How has it been changing
since independence?”).
3. RESERVATIONS IN THE PRIVATE SECTOR
Economic liberalization in India—with its underlying philosophy

of increased reliance on market forces, a dismantling of controls, and a
drastically reduced role of the state—has resulted in a shrinking of the
public sector. The reservations model is therefore affecting—and able to
assist—fewer people, inasmuch as government-related jobs are being
drastically reduced.345 Though poorly monitored and enforced, there is,
as noted above, evidence to support the notion that Dalits have benefited
from the quota system.346 Substantial divestment in the public sector,
including the proliferation of joint ventures formed between public sector
undertakings and private companies, both domestic and foreign, serves to
severely undercut the reach of the reservations policy.347 According to
Dalit theorist Dr. Anand Teltumbde,
even if such entities technically remains a PSU [Public Sector
Undertaking] and follows the reservation policy sincerely, it would
still have little or no scope to absorb the dalits in its staff. Whatever
may be the strategic considerations, the fall out of this process
practically amounted to shutting the doors of these new age
companies to the dalits and to potential neutralization of the
reservation policy.348
Reservations in educational institutions and scholarships for

Dalit students represent a critical component in Dalit socio-economic
development. Economic reforms have, however, led to a freezing in
grants to many institutions.349 The privatization of social services is
turning education and health services into commodities only affordable
to the rich.350 A blind faith adherence to privatization as the lone path
that India must take, combined with the pretext that reservations
345
Jogdand notes the loss of over 350,000 public sector employment opportunities between 1992–
99 as a result of the downsizing of the state. Jogdand, supra note 317, at 328.
346
See Teltumbde, supra note 152, at 13 (arguing that reservations in public sector employment
have had positive effects, albeit limited ones, on the situation of Dalits, providing a degree of
bureaucratic influence to some, and providing hope of advancement to many).
347
Id. at 13.
348
Id.
349
Id. at 12.
350
Narula & Macwan, supra note 156; Teltumbde, supra note 152, at 12 (noting that spending on
education has decreased while foreign universities increasingly partner with corporations to offer
pricy outpost courses. Prestigious institutions have had to raise their fees while the new even
more competitive job market is made harder to access for people who cannot afford to attend
those schools. Children in village schools especially lose out from an early age because they
lack the ability to speak English, which business has turned into a hot commodity.). See also
Thorat & Macwan, supra note 158, at 260.
undermine India’s ability to compete in the global market,351 is

seamlessly “superimposed on . . . traditional caste prejudice”352 to all but
seal reservations’ ominous fate. In response, sectors within civil society
and some government actors and agencies have supported a proposed
extension of reservations to the private sector.353
The National Commission for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled
Tribes has stated that the private sector, which continues to enjoy
government patronage—through concessional land, financing, and excise
and sales tax relief—should also be brought under the purview of the
reservation policy.354 Indian economist, Sukhadeo Thorat, has argued in
favor of extending reservations to the private sector to redress market
discrimination against Dalits. According to Thorat, caste-based market
discrimination not only exacerbates inequality but is also “retrogressive
for economic growth.”355 Thorat and Newman argue that discrimination
here should be understood as the result of social exclusion of Dalits.356
The restrictions placed by caste on Dalits’ ability to participate in the
market, and the fact that the benefits of an exploitative market outweigh
the intangible costs to Dalits, mean that we cannot simply rely on a
competitive market to self-correct discrimination.357 Strong opposition to
the private sector proposal remains, however, from both private
employers and certain political parties. Private employers have criticized
the government for failing to provide Dalits adequate opportunities in
education and for imposing upon the private sector the obligation to
employ individuals they deem unqualified.358
As detailed in Part II.C., India has indeed failed to provide Dalits
adequate opportunities in education. The notion that more must be done
to increase educational opportunities and ensure non-discrimination in
351
Thomas E. Weisskopf, Globalisation and Affirmative Action, in RESERVATION IN PRIVATE
SECTOR, supra note 158, at 266.
352
353
See BHOPAL CONFERENCE: CHARTING A NEW COURSE FOR DALITS FOR THE 21ST CENTURY,
JAN. 12-13, 2002, THE BHOPAL DECLARATION,
http://www.indiatogether.org/dalit/events/bhopal.htm (last visited Aug. 16, 2008). Article 19 of
the “Bhopal Declaration” calls for mandatory reservations in the private sector.
354
See BROKEN PEOPLE, supra note 21, at 4.
355
Sukhadeo Thorat, On Reservation Policy for Private Sector, ECON. & POL. WKLY, Apr.-July
2004, at 2560.
356
Sukhadeo Thorat & Katherine S. Newman, Caste and Economic Discrimination: Causes,
Consequences, and Remedies, in LABOR MARKET DISCRIMINATION, supra note 325, at 2.
357
Id. at 4.
358
Priyanka Bhardwaj, India Debates Private Sector Quotas, ASIA TIMES ONLINE, Feb. 7, 2006,
http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/HB07Df01.html (last visited Aug. 16, 2008).
the classroom for Dalits and other marginalized communities can hardly
be refuted.359 But the notion that non-meritorious individuals are now
being hoisted upon the private sector must be unpackaged for the casteist
thinking that it represents.
4. CASTE AS ANTI-MERIT AND ANTI-POWER SHARING
Opposition to reservations often centers around the “meritocratic

ideal” that “positions in society should be based on the abilities and
achievements of the individual rather than on characteristics such as
family background, race, religion or wealth.”360 Critics add that
reservation policies are inherently divisive and serve only to solidify
caste divisions.361 Instead of lowering the caste barriers, they argue,
reservation policies accentuate caste identity and lead to greater social
stratification.362 Opponents have also called for greater reliance on
economic indicators of “backwardness,” rather than on caste,363 and have
criticized the reservation policies as strengthening “anti-Scheduled Caste
attitudes.”364
The idea that reservations are a threat to meritocracy is a farce.
The road that begins with Dalit students being made to clean toilets at
schools and sit at the back of classrooms, and ends with Dalit students
facing ongoing harassment from their peers in institutes of higher
education, while examiners stroke students’ backs to check whether they
are wearing the sacred Brahmin thread, is hardly one that is paved with
meritocratic ideals.
359
As it relates to discrimination in the private sector, prior inequality in educational provision has
been cited as a significant cause of wage disparities. See S. Madheswaran & Paul Attewell,
Caste Discrimination in the Indian Labour Market: Evidence from the National Sample Survey,
in LABOR MARKET DISCRIMINATION, supra note 325.
360
Sheela Rai, Social and Conceptual Background to the Policy of Reservation, ECON. AND POL.
WKLY, Oct.-Dec., 2002, at 4309, 4315.
361
Sridharan, supra note 179, at 99, 117.
362
Thomas Boston & Usha Nair-Reichert, Affirmative Action: Perspectives from the United States,
India and Brazil, 27 W. J. BLACK STUD. 3, 11 (2003). In this respect, anti-reservation arguments
are not unlike arguments against affirmative action programs in the United States that center on
the need to promote “colorblind” societies and which claim that positive discrimination
reinforces difference and undermines the goal of striving toward a society where such
differences are not accentuated. Scott Cummings, Affirmative Action and the Rhetoric of
Individual Rights: Reclaiming Liberalism as a “Color-Conscious” Theory, 13 HARV.
BLACKLETTER L.J. 183, 184, 191 (1997) (providing overview of liberal theoretical arguments
against race-based state policies). See also Crenshaw, supra note 47.
363
364
Id. (citing RAVINDER SINGH BAINS, RESERVATION POLICY AND ANTI RESERVATIONISTS 93
(1994)).
The caste system is by its very nature antithetical to merit

inasmuch as it assigns value on the basis of birth and not individual
aptitude.365 Similarly, hirings and promotions are dictated not just by the
academic credentials of particular candidates, but by the ability of those
individuals to effectively deploy caste-based networks that, as in the
public administration, corrupt the ability of the private sector system to
operate neutrally.
Moreover, if market efficiency is furthered by the freedom of
individuals to develop their capacities to the point of choosing their
occupations, then that very principle “is violated in the caste system in so
far as it involves an attempt to appoint tasks to individuals in advance,
selected not on the basis of trained original capacities, but on that of the
social status of [his or her] parents.”366 And what could be more
inefficient than the denial of opportunity to individuals, in the millions,
who are told from birth to death that they will never amount to more than
that which has been previously ordained for them? As an economic
organization, “caste is therefore a harmful institution, in as much as it
involves the subordination of man’s natural powers and inclinations to
the exigencies of social rules.”367 By denying so many the freedom to
choose their profession, caste also becomes “a direct cause of much of
the unemployment we see in the country.”368
Reservations or quotas are critiqued for their inflexibility, but the
rigidity of the caste system, against which more fluid options find no
traction, does not get scrutinized. Timeframes for bringing reservations
to an end are proposed as though giving legal remedies a deadline will
automatically lead to discrimination’s time-bound demise.
Reservations as a form of power sharing in India take on new
significance given that the caste system is organized around the idea of
power consolidation and is, in its division of labor according to caste,
antithetical to the very notion of a meritocracy. The absence of choice in
employment is also quite stark in the Indian context wherein one’s caste,
or more specifically one’s membership in an “untouchable” caste,
remains determinative of one’s occupation. Dalits throughout India are
forced into an involuntary monopoly over occupations considered too
filthy or polluting for others, occupations over which they ironically
365
Gail Omvedt, Mythologies of Merit, in RESERVATION IN PRIVATE SECTOR, supra note 158, at
203, 206.
366
367
Id. at 55.
368
Id.
exert 100 percent reservations. Inequality of opportunity is the social

norm and one that the state has stepped in to legislate against in order to
secure equality of respect and concern for its most marginalized
inhabitants. Left to its own devices, Indian society would no doubt
swallow Dalits whole. Until now at least, the Indian Supreme Court has
agreed.
5. INDIAN SUPREME COURT JURISPRUDENCE ON RESERVATIONS
According to comparative constitutional law scholar Jacobsohn,

each nation’s constitution contains a vision of the kind of polity it seeks
to preserve and to become, which combines distinctive aspects of the
country’s political culture with features of a universal culture of
constitutionalism.369 Jacobsohn refers to the gap between the ideal
espoused in a constitution and the societal status quo as the “disharmonic
jurisprudential context,” within which courts have incentives and
opportunities to learn from the constitutional approaches of other
countries, although they may also incur costs in doing so.370
Indeed the Indian judiciary has on numerous occasions
triumphantly stepped into such a disharmonic context to attempt to
harmonize India’s constitutional vision with the abysmal condition of
Dalit social reality (borrowing in some cases from the American
experience). The jurisprudence of the Indian Supreme Court has to date
lent much credence to this ethos. In ABSK Sangh v. Union of India,371
Justice Chinnappa Reddy noted that,
[W]hen posts . . . are reserved . . . to members of Scheduled Castes,
Scheduled Tribes and other socially and economically Backward
Classes it is not a concession or privilege extended to them, it is in
the recognition of their undoubted fundamental right to equality of
opportunity . . . and to secure to all its citizens, justice, social,
economic and political and equality of status and opportunity . . . to
ensure their participation on an equal basis in the administration of
369
Gary Jeffrey Jacobsohn, The Permeability of Constitutional Borders, 82 TEXAS L. REV. 1763,
1767 (2004).
370
Id. Jacobsohn cautions that while the Indian constitution lays out an agenda for social reform,
judges who adapt ideas from other countries in order to further this agenda must be aware of the
specific cultural context within which they operate.
371
A.I.R 1981 SC 298.
the country . . . . Every lawful method is permissible to secure the

due representation of SCs and STs in the public services.372
In that same case, Justice Krishna Iyer noted:

Trite arguments about efficiency are a trifle phoney . . . . The
fundamental question arises, as to what’s “merit” and “suitability?”
Elitists, whose sympathies with the masses have dried up, are from
standards of Indian people, least suitable to run the government and
least meritorious to handle the state business . . . . Unfortunately, the
very orientation of our selection process is distorted and those like
the candidates from Scheduled Castes whom from their birth, have a
traumatic understanding of the conditions of agrestic India, have in
one sense more capability than those who lived under affluent
circumstances and are callous to the human lot of the sorrowing
masses.373
As the following discussion shows, implementing this

understanding of Dalit’s social reality is far from straightforward. As
challenges to the constitutional validity of reservations grow, the limits
of the Supreme Court’s ability to reconcile the state’s duty to take
positive action with its duty to ensure the right to equality are
increasingly tested.
a. Caste vs. Class, and the “Other Backward Classes”
The period starting in the early 1990s is significant not only

because it launched the era of economic reforms, but also because it saw
the entry of “Other Backward Classes” (“OBCs”) into the reservations
conversation—an entry that has resulted in much confusion and
backlash, including against Dalits, and has paved the way for Class to
enter the Caste debate. OBCs or so-called backward castes are identified
as those whose ritual rank and occupational status are above
“untouchables,” but who themselves remain socially and economically
“depressed.”374 Few groups in independent India have made progress on
372
Id. The case contested the validity of “concessions and relaxations” offered to scheduled caste
and scheduled tribe community members in order to fill vacancies for reserved posts in the
Railway Administration.
373
Id.
374
The term OBCs is a problematic categorization. Jain notes that OBCs:
Span[] such a wide cultural and structural arch as to be almost meaningless. There
are at one extreme the dominant, landowning, peasant castes which wield power and
authority over local Vaishyas and Brahmins, whereas at the other extreme are the
poor, near-Untouchable groups living just above the pollution line. The category also
includes many artisan and servicing castes.
a scale comparable to the OBCs, including in the arenas of politics and

land reforms.375 Yet the inclusion of so many heterogeneous groups
within the OBC category has both made for its enormous size and has
complicated its demands for reservations.
In Indira Sawhney v. Union of India,376 which challenged the
constitutionality of then-Prime Minister V.P. Singh’s decision to
implement 27 percent reservations in government employment for
OBCs, the Supreme Court affirmed that caste may still be used as a
criterion for determining backwardness, as long as the caste is primarily
socially and educationally backward, as determined by empirical
evidence.377 Furthermore, in order to ensure that the most disadvantaged
would benefit from reservations, the Court spelled out a means test, or
the “creamy layer” test, which imposed an income limit to exclude those
eligible for OBC classification.378 The Indian government subsequently
implemented a more complex means test to be applied to individuals and
their families who attempted to claim backward status.379 This test takes
into account a variety of indices of social, educational, and economic
disadvantage, such as parents’ professional status, and the claimant’s
occupation and wealth as calculated by agricultural landholdings.380
Notably, the Supreme Court’s determination of “scheduled
caste” status embodies the critical recognition that one’s membership in a
Dalit caste per se subjects individuals to a particularly egregious form of
discrimination (“untouchability”) regardless of one’s socio-economic
status, and merits positive action and special attention by the state. By
contrast, the determination of “Other Backward Classes” recognizes the
socio-economic gains achieved by many members of backward castes in
India—who are not subject to “untouchability” practices—and
Meenakshi Jain, Backward Castes and Social Change in U.P. and Bihar, in CASTE: ITS
TWENTIETH CENTURY AVATAR 136 (M. N. Srinivas ed., 1996).
375
See CHRISTOPHE JAFFRELOT, The Uneven Emancipation of the Lower Castes: Non-Brahmins in
the South, OBCs in the North, in INDIA’S SILENT REVOLUTION: THE RISE OF THE LOWER CASTES
IN NORTH INDIA 214-253 (2003).
376
A.I.R. 1993 S.C. 477.
377
Sridharan, supra note 179, at 116. Prime Minister Singh’s decision to implement reservations
for OBCs came in the wake of the release of the report by the Mandal Commission. See OBCs
Form 41% of the Population: Survey, supra note 14.
378
Dudley Jenkins, supra note 31, at 771; Sridharan, supra note 179, at 116. The basis for
imposing this threshold is a concern that reservations should not, through focusing exclusively
on caste, aid only the privileged members of backward castes and thereby overlook the plight of
the poor. See Pradipta Chaudhury, The “Creamy Layer:” Political Economy of Reservations, in
RESERVATION IN PRIVATE SECTOR, supra note 158, at 299, 305.
379
380
Id. at 117.
circumscribes constitutional protections more strictly to those in greatest

need by using empirical evidence of economic status.
In December 2005, the Ninety-third Amendment, which inserted
Article 15(5) into the Indian constitution, expanded reservations for
OBCs to include private colleges, while the Central Education Institution
(Reservation in Admission) Act of 2006 provided for 27 percent
reservations for Other Backward Classes (“OBCs”) in higher educational
institutions in the country.381 When combined with the percentage of
seats already reserved for scheduled castes and scheduled tribes, a total
of 49.5 percent of seats would be reserved in national public
universities.382 In April 2008, a five-judge constitutional bench in the
Supreme Court upheld the 27 percent OBC quota in government-
maintained and funded institutions, stating that the Ninety-third
Amendment—which empowers the Central Government to make
reservations for “socially and educationally backward classes,”
scheduled castes, and schedules tribes in educational institutions383—
does not violate the Constitution’s “basic structure.”384 Meanwhile, the
implementation of the Central Education Institution Act has been stayed
by a two-judge bench hearing,385 which in light of the importance of the
questions of law raised in this case referred it for hearing to a higher
bench.386
At issue in the latter case is whether the Ninety-third
Amendment confers on the government the “unbridled power” to make
provisions for certain groups without indicating the circumstances under
which such reservations can be made, or limiting the duration of such
provisions thereby violating the right to equality and the basic structure
of the Constitution of India.387 Petitioners have argued that there is
currently no accepted definition of who constitutes the “socially and
381
(2006) 13 S.C.R. 265, ¶ 1.
382
The 49.5 percent figure is derived by adding the 27 percent reservations for OBCs with the 22.5
percent reservations for scheduled castes and scheduled tribes. See supra note 197 and
accompanying text.
383
Id.
384
Ashoka Kumar Thakur v. Union of India, (2008) 6 S.C.C. 1, ¶ 47. The Amendment’s
constitutional validity with respect to private, non-government funded institutions was left open.
See also Article 15(5) Has Enough Guidelines, HINDU (Oct. 4, 2007), available at
385
(2006) 13 S.C.R. 265.
386
Id. ¶ 7.
387
Article 15(5) Has Enough Guidelines, supra note 384. See also OBC Quota: Define
Backwardness First, Salve Tells Center, INDIAN EXPRESS, Aug. 10, 2007, available at
economically backward classes,” adding that the use of data that is either
obsolete or based entirely on caste statistics further perpetuates the caste
system.388 A related contention involves the scope of Article 15(5) and
whether allowing for reservations in institutions of higher education
abandons the significance of merit altogether, adding that such
reservations in specialty institutions had been struck down by the
Supreme Court in earlier decisions.389 Finally, the petitioners have
argued that the current Act does not take into account the concept of
excluding the “creamy layer” from the reservations policy.390
While the category at issue is that of OBCs, the issue of whether
Dalit candidates should also be subjected to the “creamy layer” test has
now entered the fray.391 Moreover, the public discourse and ensuing
protests have conflated the Dalit and OBC categories in the symbols used
to decry the Amendment and the Act. In the spring of 2006, for instance,
thousands of students across the country went on strike to protest the
expansion of reservations in higher education.392 Under the banner of
“Youth for Equality,” “[m]edical students in Delhi, dressed in their white
coats, took up brooms and swept the streets to suggest that they will
become untouchable ‘sweepers’ if the policies are implemented.”393
Students at the All India Institute of Medical Sciences also burned copies
of Dr. Ambedkar’s books in protest, videotaped the incident, and
circulated the video on campus as a means of intimidating Dalit students
who were no strangers to name-calling, abuse, and harassment.394
Oblivious to the irony of degrading Dalits as sweepers while
simultaneously marching under an equality banner, or burning the books
of the author of the constitution whose equality language now buttresses
their fight—an act no less horrific for Dalits than the burning of crosses
in front of African-American homes by the Klu Klux Klan—the anti-
388
Quota Law Has to Pass the Test of Rationality, INDIAN EXPRESS, Oct. 11, 2007, available at
389
(2006) 143 S.C.R. 265.
390
Id.
391
See Debashis Pal, Reservation for Creamy Layer?, HINDU BUSINESS LINE, May 12, 2006. On
the controversy as to whether a Supreme Court judgment last year introduced a “creamy layer”
exclusion into public sector employment reservations for scheduled castes and scheduled tribes,
see V. Venkatesan, Ambiguous Verdict, 22 FRONTLINE, Nov. 4-17, 2006, at 32; J. Venkatesan,
Verdict Does Not Relate to Creamy Layer Among SCs, STs: Banerjee, HINDU, Nov. 24, 2006.
392
Laura Dudley Jenkins, Caste, Community, and Reservations, (Working Paper, 2007) (on file
with author).
393
Id.
394
See Ajay Kumar Singh, “Even if I Never Become a Doctor, I Will Not Give Up This Fight,”
TEHELKA, Jun. 2, 2007, available at http://www.tehelka.com/story_main30.asp?filename=
hub020607Personal_histories.asp (last visited Aug. 16, 2008).
reservations protests in India are a microcosm of the global trend to co-

opt the language of equality for wholly unequal ends.
V. CASTE VS. HUMAN RIGHTS:

COMPETING THEORIES OF EQUALITY
On November 25, 1949, in an address to members of the

Constituent Assembly, Dr. Ambedkar declared:
We must make our political democracy a social democracy as well.
Political democracy cannot last unless there lies at the base of it
social democracy. What does social democracy mean? It means a
way of life which recognizes liberty, equality, and fraternity as the
principles of life . . . . On the 26th of January 1950, we are going to
enter into a life of contradictions. In politics we will have equality
and in social and economic life we will have inequality. In politics,
we will be recognizing the principle of one man–one vote and one
vote–one value. In our social and economic life, we shall by reason
of our social and economic structure, continue to deny the principle
of one man-one value.395
The Constitution of India—now in 22 parts, with 395 articles and 12

schedules—embraces an aggressive state role in ensuring both formal
and substantive equality (equality of result) in India. Even with its more
than 117,000 words, and the volumes of laws to which it has given birth,
it has yet to yield its promised result for Dalits. As noted above, the
mere presence of laws and constitutionally mandated affirmative action
programs has served to mask widespread, egregious, and often violent
forms of de facto discrimination. In 1943, Ambedkar commented that,
The idea of making a gift of fundamental rights to every individual is
no doubt very laudable. The question is how to make them effective?
The prevalent view is that once rights are enacted in a law then they
are safeguarded. This again is an unwarranted assumption. As
experience proves, rights are protected not by laws, but by the social
and moral conscience of society.396
The drafting of the Indian Constitution in 1947 and 1948 also coincided
with the promulgation of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
(“UDHR”) in 1948 and as such emulates the UDHR in a number of
395
Debate From the Constituent Assembly of India, Nov. 25, 1949, available at
http://parliamentofindia.nic.in/ls/ debates/vol11p11.htm.
396
B.R. Ambedkar, Speech Delivered on Jan. 18, 1943, in DR. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR: WRITING
AND SPEECHES, VOL. 1 222 (1979).
ways.397 Ambedkar’s words apply with equal force to the corpus of

human rights law to which the UDHR has given birth and which
prohibits discrimination in its many forms and calls on the state to take
positive measures to ensure equality in effect.398
Nowhere is this tussle between law and social conscience more
pronounced than in the context of caste. The caste system is inimical to
human rights and to the vision of human equality as defined under
various international instruments. Article 1 of the UDHR, the
foundational document of the international human rights legal regime
and the calling card of the international human rights movement,
proclaims that, “[a]ll human beings are born free and equal in dignity and
rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act
towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.”399 By contrast, Dalits are
born unequal and slotted into a system of graded inequality wherein the
inequality is so ingrained that Dalits themselves practice untouchability
against other Dalits below them in rank.
As Thorat notes, inasmuch as the caste system and the institution
of untouchability continue to govern social behavior in India, “it makes
the enforcement of human rights difficult, if not impossible.”400 Thorat
adds:
The provisions in the Constitution and law are secular and equal but
the customary rules of the caste system and the institution of
untouchability are based on the principle of inequality in social,
economic, cultural and religious sphere . . . . People continued to
follow the latter because it provides immense privilege and serves
their social, political and economic interests.401
397
Sukhadeo Thorat, Hindu Social Order and Human Rights of Dalits, COMBAT LAW, available at
http://www.combatlaw.org/information.php?article_id=109&issue_id=4 (last visited Aug. 16,
2008).
398
International treaties that proscribe discrimination and mandate equal protection include the
International Covenant on Civil & Political Rights, arts. 2(1) and 26, Dec. 16, 1966, 999
U.N.T.S. 171; International Covenant on Economic, Social & Cultural Rights, art. 2(2), Dec. 16,
1966, 993 U.N.T.S. 3, International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial
Discrimination, Mar. 7, 1966, 660 U.N.T.S. 195; and the Convention on the Elimination of All
Forms of Discrimination Against Women, Dec. 18, 1979, 1249 U.N.T.S. 13. These conventions
preclude States from taking deliberately discriminatory measures and also outlaw apparently
neutral measures that have the effect of unjustifiably imposing disproportionate burdens on
particular groups. Further, they embody a substantive notion of equality that may require States
to take tailored measures of positive discrimination in order to remedy disadvantage suffered by
certain groups.
399
Universal Declaration of Human Rights, art. 1, G.A. Res. 217A, U.N. GAOR, 3d Sess., 1st plen.
mtg., U.N. Doc. A/810 (Dec. 12, 1948).
400
Thorat, supra note 397.
401
Id.
What then are we to make of the challenge that the caste system presents
to human rights law and human rights lawyers? The implications of such
a system are vast and counterintuitive to those who reach for the law as a
triggering mechanism for social transformation: in sum, legal measures
will make little difference unless and until the inequalities embedded in
the social structure of the caste system are confronted head on.
The Constitution of India, with all its celebrated virtues, does not
take on this challenge. The constitution explicitly prohibits “vertical”
distinctions (i.e., the hierarchical distinctions of caste) while tolerating
“horizontal” distinctions (i.e., differential treatment for different
religions).402 The limitations on these vertical prohibitions, however, are
seldom considered. As noted in Part III, the constitution explicitly
outlaws “untouchability,” calls for the social, educational, and economic
advancement of scheduled castes, and extends constitutionally reserved
positions for members of scheduled castes. It does not, however, abolish
the caste system per se, only the most extreme injustices associated with
it.
Such limitations necessarily beg the questions: will an
“untouchable” ever cease to be so as long as there is a Brahmin whose
claim over priesthood and even the judiciary is near absolute? What
rights does a Dalit have if the privilege of “upper-castes” remains
unchecked? And what rights would “upper-castes” have left if Dalits
were truly treated as equal? Seen in this light, the active and pernicious
subordination of the rule of law to the rule of caste is not surprising;
rather it is the logical outcome of a general failure to challenge
Brahminism, in the same manner that white supremacy remains
institutionally unchallenged in the West. Legally, Dalits may be “former
untouchables” but there is no “former Brahmin,” legally or otherwise.
Judicial interventions in the context of caste, though
commendable in a number of respects, continue to “disaggregat[e] an
issue with religious significance to take account of the various ways it
may impinge on secular concerns.”403 Though courts have to date
allowed the government “to achieve modern secular goal[s] of helping
disadvantaged groups,” they do so without interrogating the broader
caste categories.404 The “untouchable” does not exist in isolation from
402
GARY JEFFREY JACOBSOHN, THE WHEEL OF LAW: INDIA’S SECULARISM IN COMPARATIVE
CONSTITUTIONAL CONTEXT 120 (2003).
403
William D. Popkin, Some Continuing Issues, in RELIGION AND PERSONAL LAW IN SECULAR
INDIA 335-36 (G. Larson ed., 2001).
404
Id.
the greater caste structure; rather he or she is socially constructed in

order to ensure “upper-caste” privilege. Privileges or rights assigned or
denied to a particular caste are determined by that caste’s relationship to
other castes. The question human rights lawyers must therefore start
asking is not simply who is disadvantaged by discrimination, but who
stands to benefit from it.
Even with its inherent limitations, a faithful application of the
Constitution of India—as human rights and constitutional scholar,
Upendra Baxi, reminds us—would be a recipe for complete social
revolution.405 According to Jacobsohn, Baxi sees India as having both a
written and unwritten constitution where the written is the social justice
ideology of the document, while the unwritten is the “antireform
ideology of the privileged classes and castes, who, [Baxi] argues, have
been quite successful in entrenching their version as constitutional
orthodoxy.”406
Defenders of each system have burned the words of the other in
effigy: just as medical students burned the writings of Dr. Ambedkar in
anti-reservation protests in 2006, in 1927, Ambedkar set fire to the Manu
Smriti, the ancient Hindu law book that Ambedkar believed sanctified
and authorized the cruel treatment of Dalits.407 Both acts seek to
annihilate that which symbolically stands between those who are
aggrieved and that which they seek. For anti-reservations protestors,
Ambedkar and his thoughts are the embodiment of undeserved Dalit
“privilege,” while for Dalits, the Manu Smriti stands in as the veritable
Brahmin Bill of Rights.
Even acts of simple revolution like the decision to extend
reservations to include other “lower-caste” categories have contributed to
the resurgence of the Hindu Nationalist movement in India.408 The
movement’s emphasis on cultural nationalism is seen as both an attempt
to unite Hindus under one cultural, nationalistic banner and as an
405
See UPENDRA BAXI, COURAGE, CRAFT AND CONTENTION: THE INDIAN SUPREME COURT IN THE
EIGHTIES (1985).
406
JACOBSOHN, supra note 402, at 233–34. See also Teltumbde, supra note 152, at 12: “The sorry
state of the executive compliance with . . . constitutional provisions amply bears out the fangs of
the intrinsically iniquitous Indian society.”
407
S. M. MICHAEL, UNTOUCHABLES: DALITS IN MODERN INDIA 58 (1999).
408
See JACOBSOHN, WHEEL OF LAW, supra note 402, at 154 (describing the connection between the
Mandal Commission recommendation to extend reservations to “Other Backward Castes” and
the Hindu Nationalist campaign to demolish the Babri mosque and erect a Hindu temple
dedicated to the Lord Ram in its place).
effective means of “maintaining the status quo in social and economic

privilege.”409
The success of the anti-reform project is so profound that laws
are openly and confidently flouted by those who wear their “upper-caste”
status as a badge of superiority and preach the virtues of caste to
audiences full of reverence. Rules of caste come pouring out of the
mouths of school children who learn from a very young age that these
norms must be obediently followed,410 while families openly and
exclusively court marriage proposals (in India and abroad) from families
of the same caste.411
Any project of social transformation, whether rooted in the
language of human rights, human dignity, or in the language of equality,
must set its sights on the twin goals of eliminating inequality and
discrimination wherein discrimination is understood not simply as a legal
term but as a hierarchical mindset that allows race- or caste-based abuses
and inequalities to comfortably and openly flourish. Instead of reaching
for these twin goals, we have arrived at a moment where social
transformation and mobilization is subordinated to imperfect judicial and
legislative action and affirmative action policies are narrowly defined
and easily defeated under the rubric of liberalism.
The conventional strategies adopted thus far do little to counter
such a mindset, which in turn ensures the failure of even the most
aggressive legal and economic approaches to achieve equality. As
indicated in Part IV, the constitution and the law remain paper tigers with
little effect; economic growth has been unevenly distributed along caste
lines; reservations, already limited in their reach, increasingly offer
diminishing returns; and the broader affirmative action project threatens
to be defeated, ironically, using the nomenclature of rights and equal
protection.
409
CHRISTOPHE JAFFRELOT, THE HINDU NATIONALIST MOVEMENT IN INDIA 431 (1996).
410
INDIA UNTOUCHED, supra note 83. Through candid interviews with oppressors and oppressed
alike, this documentary provides a stark exploration of the rigidity with which people hold their
perceptions of caste positions and untouchability.
411
Typical examples of matrimonial classified advertisements from Indian national newspaper THE
HINDU include: “HINDU PALLAR 26/161 MCA S/W CTS Chn wheatish, seeks well employed
groom same caste;” “TIRUNELVELI SAIVA Pillai 29/170 DME Purattathi Business-Software
Training Centres seeks Suitable Alliance from Same Caste.” The online matrimonial ad service
Shaadi.com allows browsing by caste. See SHAADI.COM,
http://www.shaadi.com/matrimonials/indian-castes (last visited Aug. 16, 2008). See also Moses
Seenarine, The Persistence of Caste and Anti-Caste Resistance in India and the Diaspora,
http://tamilelibrary.org/teli/caste1.html (last visited Aug. 16, 2008).
Whatever the limitations, reservations have helped create a Dalit

middle class. But the creation of a Dalit middle class has not created a
revolution, nor does upward class mobility work to eliminate the stigma
attached to one’s “untouchable” status. Dalit journalist Chandraban
Prasad—perhaps the only nationally prominent Dalit journalist412—
poignantly reminds us that even as select Dalits migrate into higher class
and occupational categories as a result of reservations, Dalit tea shop
vendors are nowhere to be found. Though non-Dalits may grudgingly
accept marginal economic success among Dalits, they will not dine with
them, allow their children to marry them, or even be served a cup of tea
by Dalit hands.413
The international human rights movement now steps into the
fray with its clarion call of “Dalit Rights are Human Rights.” The
question remains, can human rights succeed where all else has seemingly
failed? Can it deliver on its promise of equality? The remainder of this
section scrutinizes the human rights framework for its own brand of the
“trickle-down theory” but concludes that the human rights movement can
galvanize a project of social transformation so long as it does not restrict
itself to the constraints of the legal and moral regime in which this
struggle now lives.
A. HUMAN RIGHTS’ FLAWED TRICKLE-DOWN THEORY
Until recently, attention to India from international human rights

nongovernmental organizations (“NGOs”) focused on the symptoms of
the caste system (e.g., bonded labor, forced prostitution, and police
corruption) without diagnosing the disease. Simultaneously,
international interventions on caste (and racial) discrimination were
limited to inquiries regarding the mechanisms of protection offered by
the state, without asking for evidence of their effective enforcement.
U.N. human rights treaty bodies have now begun to ask for such
412
413
Prasad, supra note 316. Prasad asks: “We must ponder. . . how Dalits can become Collectors,
Engineers, Ministers and surgeons, but not tea vendors or sweet shop owners?” On the
difference between Dalits and “lower-caste” non-Dalits, Prasad asserts:
Those who can’t open a tea or a paan [betel leaf] shop, are least likely to graduate into
iron, cloth or grocery shop owners. On the other hand, howsoever poor the lower
caste people may be, society offers them ample opportunities of self-employment.
That’s the distinction between out caste and lower caste.
evidence while domestic agencies have invested greater energy into

exposing gaps in protection.414
For the human rights movement, what began as a failure of
diagnosis has now transmuted into a failure of strategy. The
international human rights framework holds as its organizing principle
the promotion of a system of laws, universal in their application, but
delivered by the state. Inherent to this strategy is an over-reliance on the
state as a neutral agent of social change and the assumption that like
economic growth, international laws and admonitions directed to the
higher echelons of the state will trickle down to the rest of the
population. The primacy the human rights movement has given to the
system of laws and the state’s implementation of these laws merits closer
scrutiny, most especially in the context of the caste system. The social
and religious sanction, when combined with the economic incentives, all
but ensures that the practice of “untouchability” is perpetuated. In turn,
attempts to alter the status quo are met with violent recrimination.
Where then does that leave the law and the state?
1. THE ROLE OF THE LAW AND THE STATE
The introductory paragraph to Narendra Jadhav’s family

biography, Untouchables: My Family’s Triumphant Escape from India’s
Caste System, proclaims:
Every sixth human being in the world today is an Indian, and every
sixth Indian is an erstwhile untouchable, a Dalit. Today, there are
165 million Dalits (equal to more than half the population of the
United States) and they continue to suffer under India’s 3,500 year-
old caste system, which remains a stigma on humanity. However,
Dalits are awakening. We are struggling against caste discrimination,
illiteracy, and poverty; our weapons are education, self-
empowerment, and democracy.415
The opening of the book exposes the magnitude of abuses perpetrated in

the name of upholding the caste system, and the monumental challenge
facing a democracy only sixty years young to dismantle and reconstruct
society away from practices that are almost sixty times as old as
independent India itself. Of note in the above quote is not just the
magnitude and age of oppression, but that in the abbreviated list of
414
See, e.g., HIDDEN APARTHEID, supra note 5; NHRC REPORT, supra note 110.
415
NARENDRA JADHAV, UNTOUCHABLES: MY FAMILY’S TRIUMPHANT JOURNEY OUT OF THE CASTE
SYSTEM IN MODERN INDIA 1 (2005).
“weapons” in the arsenal against caste discrimination (education, self-

empowerment, and democracy), the laws are nowhere to be found.
By contrast, the notion that the state must take positive action to
ensure substantive equality finds increasing traction in international and
regional human rights law.416 So what role do we give the state? At the
very least, we expect the state to remedy the effects of discrimination
through the implementation of broad-based policies that seek to outlaw,
punish, and provide redress for acts of individual discrimination, while
simultaneously correcting or alleviating manifestations of structural and
ongoing discrimination that are rooted in a historic legacy of legally
sanctioned subordination on the basis of caste or race.
The role of positive state action, defined in this case as any race
or caste-conscious measure under the broader rubric of affirmative
action, will at its best be to remedy the effects of racism and casteism.
Though affirmative action may be seen as removing the effects of
cumulative and structural discrimination that result in race or caste-based
inequality, as currently conceived and operationalized it does not deal
with the root of the discrimination itself, which stems from a casteist
mindset that does not question, legally or otherwise, the Brahminic
hierarchy.417 Nor does it sufficiently consider that the state itself is far
from a neutral actor.
The plight of Dalits in India serves to highlight the paradoxical
role of the state in a society that is, in its natural state and left to its own
devices, inherently unequal. The role of the state in such a context is to
institutionalize checks and balances and intervene against the natural
inclinations of the dominant groups for the protection of the dominated.
But reaching for the state lands us in a double bind: without government
intervention, the system could not dismantle itself, but we incorrectly
assume that the state is a neutral actor. As shown in Part IV, the state’s
416
See Theodor Meron, The Meaning and Reach of the International Convention on the Elimination
of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, 79 AM. J. INT’L L. 283, 286 (1985); Kevin Boyle &
Annaliese Baldaccini, International Human Rights Approaches to Racism, in DISCRIMINATION
AND HUMAN RIGHTS: THE CASE OF RACISM 156 (Sandra Fredman ed., 2001).
417
Similar arguments have been offered in relation to the role of white supremacy in the United
States. Affirmative action may redress social inequalities but it cannot of itself change minds, as
white supremacy persists in the form of “color-blind racism,” an attitude held by precisely those
who oppose “positive discrimination.” See EDUARDO BONILLA-SILVA, RACISM WITHOUT
RACISTS: COLOR-BLIND RACISM AND THE PERSISTENCE OF RACIAL INEQUALITY IN THE UNITED
STATES (2003). In what Bonilla-Silva calls the “whiteness of color-blindness,” an insistence
upon abstract equality of opportunity, belying actual inequalities, is a commonsense gloss over a
subconscious belief in the superiority of whiteness—of property in whiteness that must be
preserved, to the exclusion, and in turn subordination, of other group racial identities. Id. at 177.
See also Cheryl I. Harris, Whiteness as Property, 106 HARV. L. R. 1710, 1761 (1993).
law enforcement and administrative machinery is itself constructed along

the hierarchy of caste.
Even if we were to assume that the state was both neutral and
faithful in its implementation of the law, we still must ask whether the
law can be a vehicle for social change, or does it simply divert attention
away from the social condition it masks and act as a safety-valve to
diffuse pressure for real reform. Moreover, can the law take away that
which it did not create? If equality is understood as a value as opposed
to a law, then can the state as a non-emotional body ever address it?418
Any program of affirmative action, no matter how broadly defined,
implemented, and enforced, will not work to remove the underlying
prejudice as long as it conceives of “the oppressed” as its sole target.
2. WHAT ABOUT THE “TOUCHABLES?”
If the human rights framework is to be critiqued for presuming

that the state will ensure that the laws will trickle down, then it must also
be scrutinized for setting its sites on those at the “bottom.” The
downward trajectory of human rights sets its sights on the wrong target
and invariably assumes that the persona to be reclaimed is that of the
“untouchable victim.” As noted by Ambedkar,
It is usual to hear all those who feel moved by the deplorable
condition of the Untouchables unburden themselves by uttering the
cry, “We must do something for the Untouchables.” One seldom
hears any of the persons interested in the problem saying, “Let us do
something to change the Touchable Hindu.” 419
Affirmative action policies, as currently envisioned and

advanced, fail to sufficiently transform the racist or casteist hierarchy
itself. And what of the fact that the very existence of these policies help
to strengthen and cement the very identities that we seek to fight against?
418
On this point, noted Dalit journalist, Chandra Ban Prasad, poignantly asks:
How can the State deal with issues of occupational and blood purity? Can the State,
for instance, legislate and execute the idea that a certain percentage of Brahmans must
take to cleaning toilets and sweeping floors? Can it ensure that a certain percentage
of Kshatriyas must marry Dalits? . . . . Why should we blame a bull for not giving
milk even after we fed it with that expectation?
Chandra Ban Prasad, Markets and Manu: Economic Reforms and its Impact on Caste in India 15-
16 (CASI Working Paper Series, 08-01, 2008), available at http://casi.ssc.upenn.edu/research/
papers/Chandrabhan_2008.pdf.
419
See S. Anand, On Claiming Dalit Subjectivity, http://www.india-seminar.com/2006/558/
558%20s.%20anand.htm (relying on quote by B.R. Ambedkar) (last visited Aug. 16, 2008).
Affirmative action may alleviate inequality but it will not break

discrimination, and in the process may end up strengthening the
discrimination itself by cementing identity formation along racial or
caste lines.
Affirmative action (whether under the mantle of the constitution
or human rights law), must be conceived in a way that is compatible with
the goal of social transformation while recognizing that affirmative
action, as currently constructed, is a necessary but insufficient tool for
social transformation. The gap between affirmative action and social
transformation can perhaps be overcome to some extent by reframing
affirmative action policies to reflect the salient fact that rights and
privileges are negotiated, assigned, and denied not just in the courtroom,
the police station, or even the legislature, but in non-formal social spaces
where “upper-caste” privilege and “upper-caste” rights are rarely
contested on legal or moral grounds. According to Thorat:
Non-formal institutions; social, religious as well as economic,
involve a framework of social behavior of their own, which may not
be in consonance with the principles enunciated by the United
Nations, or the Constitution of a nation in which case different sets of
values may result in conflicts. It implies that unless inequalities
imbedded in the social, economics and cultural structure of the Hindu
society are addressed, the legal measures will make little difference
in providing access to human rights to the dalits in India.420
The caste system may be understood as an example of what

critical theorist Michel Foucault termed disciplinary power.421 Viewed in
this light, caste oppression can be seen as inhering in diffuse power
relations that arise out of socially entrenched practices (including
discourse) which have become the “norm.” These practices “discipline”
individuals by imposing categorized identities on them and others, and
set those categories within a hierarchy.422 Foucault argued that the liberal
conception of rights was useless as a means of resisting disciplinary
power, as it conceived of domination as negative repression by the state,
thus overlooking the identity-constructing effect of disciplinary power
relations which do not emanate from a single, central source, but pervade
all of society.423 He argued for a “new form of right” that concerns itself
not with setting limits on state intrusions against the private autonomy of
420
Thorat, supra note 397.
421
MICHEL FOUCAULT, DISCIPLINE AND PUNISH: THE BIRTH OF THE PRISON (Alan Sheridan trans.,
2nd ed. 1995).
422
Id. at 183.
423
Id. at 191.
an abstract subject, but altering the constructive effects of disciplinary

power.424 Ambedkar was keenly aware of the necessity of a solution that
confronted caste as a constructive power of this kind; as he saw it, caste
as a discipline was rooted in religious ideology and he made an effort to
tackle it at the level of discourse.425
Among Ambedkar’s most salient contributions was to define the
caste system as not simply a division of labor, but a division of laborers
that is neither spontaneous nor based on natural aptitudes, and which
prevents mobilization because of the system of graded inequality in
which it inheres.426 Perhaps the greatest threat comes not from those who
oppose affirmative action or Dalit rights, but from the internalization of
the mentality of graded inequality. “Untouchability” among
“untouchables” is a well-documented practice, seen especially in the
treatment of manual scavengers by other Dalits.427 As noted in the
Mandal Commission Report, “[t]he real triumph of the caste system lies
not in upholding the supremacy of the Brahmin, but in conditioning the
consciousness of the lower castes in accepting their inferior status in the
ritual hierarchy as part of the natural order of things.”428
While the task of mobilizing Dalits to claim a uniform Dalit
identity in place of the hierarchical structure they inherited and impose is
ongoing, the impetus does not and cannot come from the state. The state
and any actor tasked with the project of translating the human rights
vision into reality must set its sights on the (un)consciousness of the
privileged castes. Yet what program exists to ameliorate the pathetic
mentality of the bigot? Once the “touchable” condition is problematized,
then perhaps the quotas would apply to them leaving the remainder and
majority of seats and positions open to the majority of the nation.
3. THE ECONOMY OF HUMAN RIGHTS IN THE FREE MARKET
An over-reliance on the law and the state has rendered other

paths and options for the realization of human rights virtually obsolete.
While the state must continually be held accountable vis-à-vis its
424
MICHEL FOUCAULT, Two Lectures, in POWER/KNOWLEDGE 108 (Colin Gordon ed., 1980).
425
See B. R. AMBEDKAR, WHO WERE THE SHUDRAS? 436-41 (Thackers 1970) (1946).
426
427
428
As quoted in James Massey, Reflections and Remarks—Occupation and Descent-Based
Discrimination: Identification of Affected Communities in Various Countries (Presented at the
Global Conference Against Racism and Caste-Based Discrimination, New Delhi) (Mar. 2001)
(on file with author).
obligation to respect, protect, and fulfill human rights, an almost myopic

focus on the state ends up also ceding to it too much power and fosters a
perpetual state of dependency. In India, as elsewhere, the state cannot be
seen as the sole locus for social change. While the linking of
reservations to broader social welfare strategies exists on paper, even
those paper promises are being shredded by economic and ideological
liberalization.
Ideologically, caste categories are constructed and imposed to
organize exclusion, yet when those very categories are used as a basis to
claim remedies to ensure inclusion, the categories magically disappear
and we are invited to revel in the fantasy of a caste- or color-blind nation
that through the very proclamation of equality has achieved an imaginary
break with the past.429
Economically, the persistence of massive poverty in India and its
concentration among particular social groups suggests that, without
“wide spread purchasing power,” the free market perpetuates caste-based
exploitation.430 An alternative prescription offered by Dalit economists
involves greater investment in agriculture and public services and
positive discrimination for disadvantaged classes that must be expanded
to sectors currently out of reach and must include due attention to the
implementation of the directive principles of the constitution. These
policies and programs, they add, must seek to effectuate those principles
through caste-conscious interventions in primary education, housing, and
healthcare.431 A similarly aggressive role of the state is promoted by
human rights advocates.
Yet as noted in Part II.C.5, the free market ideology stands in
fierce opposition to the notion that the state must take positive action to
ensure substantive equality for its marginalized citizens. The prevailing
legitimacy of the free market ideology within India also serves to
legitimize pre-existing anti-Dalit sentiment. The outsourcing of public
sector functions to the private sector, unaccompanied by the
simultaneous outsourcing of human rights obligations to non-state actors,
dismantles both the obligation and the infrastructure of programs that
support social inclusion, and along with it, any hopes of Dalit
advancement. Less frequently noted, but equally pernicious, is the
signaling to Dalits that their hopes for social inclusion, centuries
overdue, may now be dashed long before they were ever fully realized.
429
See Crenshaw, supra note 47.
430
431
Id.
But the iniquities of liberalization must be delinked from the

potential benefits of globalization. Inasmuch as globalization represents
the influx of outside forces into the Indian scene, and insofar as it has
helped build solidarity among anti-discrimination activists across the
world, globalization allows Dalit activists to reach beyond the state to
foreign actors and the international community to press their claims.
Social scientist Ramaiah cautions against unequivocally
accepting criticisms of globalization and instead draws attention to its
potential to empower Dalits in ways that the state has failed.432 Legal
scholar Chimni supports such a view and finds that Dalit intellectuals
tend to see the threat of oppression by globalization as secondary to
oppression by caste adding that much of the Dalit movement has
successfully galvanized international pressure to force some change in
their status.433 Indeed the very success of the demands for private sector
reservations may hinge on the willingness of foreign investors, who are
not steeped in the same caste culture, to both participate and take the lead
in creating a space for Dalit employment in sectors from which they
have, to date, been excluded.434
That foreign investors, aid agencies, and governments are now
more attuned to the deleterious role that the caste system plays in
undermining both human rights and uniform economic development is a
result of the work done by international and Indian advocates using the
language and tools of human rights. The next and necessary step is for
human rights advocates to step out of the constraints of the trickle-down
legal regime and support the advancement of Dalits rights from the
bottom up.
432
A. Ramaiah, Dalits to Accept Globalisation: Lessons from the Past and Present (July 2004),
available at http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=568582.
433
B.S. Chimni, Alternative Visions of Just World Order: Six Tales from India, 46 HARV. INT’L L. J.
389, 394-95 (2005).
434
See, e.g., H. Res. 139, supra note 5:
[E]nsuring that qualified Dalits are in no way discouraged from working with
organizations receiving funding in India from the United States Government . . .
procedures exist to detect and remedy any caste discrimination in employment
conditions, wages, benefits or job security for anyone working with organizations
receiving funding in India from the United States Government . . . [and] encouraging
United States citizens working in India to avoid discrimination toward the Dalits in
all business interactions.
VI. CONCLUSION
The law as a mechanism for achieving social change has fallen

drastically short of delivering on its paper promise of ensuring equality.
While legally sanctioned forms of caste-based discrimination have been
largely abolished, discrimination and inequality persists, adapts, and
even thrives in environments seemingly hostile to its growth—
environments that outlaw de jure discrimination and seek to ensure non-
discrimination and substantive equality through the availability of
constitutional remedies, protective legislation, and social welfare
programs.
As with other countries with a history of institutionalized or
legalized racism or casteism, the dismantling of de jure discrimination
complicates the project of making visible ongoing and structural forms of
discrimination. India’s remarkable affirmation of Dalit rights through
constitutional privileges and legislative protections is a double-edged
sword. On the one hand, it lays the foundation for real social
transformation. On the other hand, it masks the daily reality of de facto
segregation, exploitation, and other forms of abuse by discouraging
further scrutiny into the condition of Dalits.
The role of discourse in shaping and informing affirmative
action policies and debates is in need of further examination. Despite the
virulence of racism and inequality in the world today, the categorization
of affirmative action as a program to address “historic” forms of
discrimination is accepted, seldom debated, and now increasingly
circumscribed. This Article offered a different scale of interrogation and
foregrounds these debates in empirical realities and puts them in
conversation with the struggle to achieve racial justice in the United
States. A variety of formal mechanisms ranging from protective
legislation to affirmative action policies have not penetrated the caste-
ceiling in any real sense, and the market has not proved to be an
equalizing mechanism. Despite a large body of legislation and
administrative agency mandates assigned exclusively to deal with the
oppression of scheduled castes, the laws have benefited few and
development programs and welfare projects designed to improve
economic conditions for Dalits have generally had little effect.
In order to effectively redress entrenched discrimination against
Dalits and ensure their substantive equality, the testing of these formal
mechanisms against their actual impact in promoting basic human rights

is a first and necessary step. This Article offered a bottom-up view of
how the law operates, or is denied, in practice, and examined how the
rule of law lives in the shadow of the rule of caste. It concluded that
reservations are an attempt, however imperfect, to equalize opportunity
in the face of a social structure that is antithetical to equality of
opportunity. Reservations create the possibility of a meritocracy in a
system that is functionally anti-merit. Yet conversations about
affirmative action stagnate around the question of whose disadvantage
deserves protection and for how long, and fail to ask who stands to
benefit from systematic social exclusion. Reservations alone constitute
an insufficient remedy to the problem of caste discrimination in India.
Controversy over the reservations scheme has also allowed the debate to
predictably stagnate around the distribution of “privilege,” taking the
focus away from violations of basic rights.
To say that the road that we are on will eventually get us to a
place where one’s race and caste will no longer be determinative of one’s
claims over resources or one’s very human personality is false. One’s
“untouchable” status continues to act as a bar to material progress, access
to justice, and to development of human personality. The passage of
time has not witnessed discrimination’s elegant decline, but its sadistic
entrenchment. Growing movements by Dalits to claim their basic human
rights and their human dignity are increasingly met with large-scale
violence and attempts to further remove Dalits from economic self-
sufficiency.
While the stark disjuncture between constitutional vision and
social reality quickly gives way to indignation, the call to action is still
directed at the state, using top down approaches that assume a self-
executing quality of the law. Human rights strategies must instead be
informed by the twin goals of remedying the effects of discrimination
and dismantling the discriminatory mindset. Without the latter, the
equality project will by definition remain incomplete.
This Article has attempted to shift the debate on caste and offer
broader insights into the discursive role of the law in undermining real
reform. Entrenched forms of discrimination stemming from the world’s
longest surviving system of social hierarchy offer valuable lessons and
cautionary tales applicable to the broader equality project. The first and
most obvious is to look beyond “race” as the only arbiter of rights. The
second is to look beyond the mere existence of affirmative action
policies and protective legislation and to scrutinize the implementation of

these laws.
Data plays an important role in making visible structural and
contemporary forms of discrimination and inequality. The third lesson is
not to become complacent regarding the availability of data that animates
the social condition. Perhaps unsurprisingly, the disaggregation of caste
in the 2001 census was the subject of much debate. While some argued
that the census should also disaggregate “Other Backward Castes,” or
even all castes,435 others mounted a “vigorous campaign” against
counting caste on the grounds that it would lead to a hardening of caste
identities and possibly even to large-scale caste conflicts and violence.436
The fourth lesson is to recognize the resilience and adaptability
of historic forms of discrimination to contemporary global trends. An
increased reliance on market forces, a dismantling of economic controls,
and a drastically reduced role of the state has triggered dramatic
economic growth, but the growth has been captured by the powerful few
and has not led to equitable development.
The fifth and final lesson is to caution against the intuitive
linking of caste or race and class, and to recognize that upward class
mobility does not displace the stigma attached to one’s “untouchable”
status. Among Dalits, the “Haves” are few and the “Have-Nots” are
great. Regardless of class status, none have escaped the confiscation of
their very persona or realized their right to self determination in the most
profound sense of the term: they remain stateless in their own country
and robbed daily of human dignity. Poignantly captured by Ambedkar,
the Dalit struggle, therefore, “is a battle not for wealth or for power. It is
a battle for freedom. It is a battle for the reclamation of human
personality.”437
435
Ravivarma Kumar, Caste Enumeration in Census: Constitutional Imperative, ECON. AND POL.
WKLY, Aug. 26, 2000, at 3100.
436
Id; Ranjit Sau, Human Development Index in Lieu of Caste Census 2001, ECON. AND POL.
WKLY., Dec. 18, 1999, at 3607; Nandini Sundar, Caste as Census Category: Implications for
Sociology, 48 CURRENT SOC. 111, 117 (2000). Governmental agencies in India and the Indian
Parliament itself persistently fail to make statistics available to the public in a timely fashion.
The National Commission on Scheduled Castes’ annual report for 2004-05 has to this day not
been published owing to, the Commission says, the failure of the Ministry of Social Justice and
Empowerment to lay a response before the Houses of Parliament. See NAT’L COMM. FOR
SCHEDULED CASTES, ANNUAL REPORTS OF THE NCSC, http://ncsc.nic.in/index1.asp?linkid=157
437
The emancipatory path from subject to citizen has been a long

and tortuous one for Dalits, and remains woefully incomplete.438 The
failure of the legal reform project now openly invites comparisons to
apartheid. Here, apartheid must be understood as both state-sponsorship
of oppression, as is the case in India in spite of the law, and as a mindset
that denies sociability and social inclusion. The human rights movement
has, to date, forsaken the struggle against the latter. It can, however, help
galvanize a process of social transformation by inviting greater scrutiny
into the “upper-caste” condition. With this scrutiny, the rule of law can
start to emerge from the shadow of the rule of caste and the emancipation
of Dalits can begin.
438
For an analysis of Ambedkar’s own path, see generally CHRISTOPHE JAFFRELOT, DR.
AMBEDKAR AND UNTOUCHABILITY: FIGHTING THE INDIAN CASTE SYSTEM (Columbia
University Press 2005).

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EQUAL BY LAW, UNEQUAL BY CASTE: THE

“UNTOUCHABLE” CONDITION IN CRITICAL

Caste-based oppression in India lives today in an environment

Electronic copy available at: http://ssrn.com/abstract=1273803

bottom of India’s caste system.3 To the contrary, caste-based

Electronic copy available at: http://ssrn.com/abstract=1273803

castes,”6 and includes an overview of constitutional provisions and

Electronic copy available at: http://ssrn.com/abstract=1273803

any adherence to the rule of law. It then turns to the reservations

II. THE CASTE SYSTEM

On December 27, 2006, Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh

problems of minority groups in general.”12 He pledged support for

The Indian government has taken great pains to insulate itself

noted above, South Africa under apartheid. But, as discussed below, a

Both countries also continue to be mired in the politically

compensate for past injustices or as a means to level a playing field tilted

It comes as no surprise that the richness of the field of

anomaly, it is the natural continuation of a long tradition of inspiration

served its purpose, or as not being up to the task of alleviating a broad-

In both countries, caste- or race-based stigma has not been

The inter-category diversity among Dalits that comes about as a

or caste-conscious measures that exist on paper but are neglected or

2007, available at http://www.hindu.com/2007/12/07/stories/2007120759081200.htm (last

Even during moments of shared hardship, communities are

under attack as an affront to liberalism and “meritocracy,” the

B. OVERVIEW OF THE CASTE SYSTEM

India’s caste system is perhaps the world’s longest surviving and

openly practiced by Sikhs,66 Christians,67 and Muslims against Dalits who

principal varnas, or large caste categories. In order of precedence these

C. CASTE-BASED DISCRIMINATION AND INEQUALITY IN INDIA TODAY

In much of South Asia and India in particular, caste has become

for the attainment of civil, political, social, economic, and cultural

1. UNTOUCHABILITY: LIVING BELOW THE “POLLUTION” LINE

The practice of “untouchability”—the imposition of social

agricultural use.101 A study published in 2006 on the forms and

2. ENDOGAMY—A MEANS TO AN END

Strict prohibitions on inter-dining, inter-living, and general

provides a clear example of the practice of endogamy in its twenty-first

3. DALIT WOMEN AT THE INTERSECTION OF CASTE AND

Caste discrimination has a unique and specific impact on Dalit

4. MANUAL SCAVENGERS—DALITS AMONG DALITS

Dalit women make up the majority of manual scavengers—a

economic opportunity available to many Dalit women hailing from

Manual scavengers work under extremely hazardous conditions.

INDIA 6 (2006), available at http://mit.edu/phrj/publications_phrj/Dalit_Report_Final.pdf

wash your hands before eating. It is difficult to say which [season] is

Manual scavengers are routinely exposed to both human and animal

5. UNEQUAL BY ALL MEASURES

Although “untouchability” was officially abolished under Article

continues to lag significantly behind non-Dalits.134 Broadly speaking, the

is “abysmally low,” at 8.73 percent, 8 percent, and 2.77 percent

own property—including the right to access and enjoy it—is routinely

a. Liberalization and the Incredible Shrinking Indian State

Beginning in 1991, and under the direction of the International

dependence on low earning casual wage labour in agriculture seems to be primarily

food security,153 and without the basic amenities of electricity, sanitation,

effect on Dalits’ level of consumption. A lack of purchasing power is

electronic industries sectors is dismal.169 Economic liberalization has not

III. INDIAN POLICIES FOR REDRESSING