Reference: Communication systems-Simon Haykin (2001)

Chapter2:
In chapter1, we investigated the way of modulating a sinusoidal carrier wave using AM
technique.
There is another way of modulating a, sinusoidal carrier wave, namely, angle
modulation in which the angle of the carrier wave is varied according to the base-band
signal.
In this method of modulation the amplitude of the carrier wave is maintained constant.
An important feature of angle modulation is that it can provide better discrimination
against noise and interference than amplitude modulation.
However, this improvement in performance is achieved transmission bandwidth.

Definition:

If θ (t ) devote the angle of a modulated sinusoidal carrier, we express the resulting angle
modulation wave as

s (t ) = AC cos(θ i (t )) (2.1)

Where AC is the carrier amplitude, θ (t ) − phase of the signal . θ (t ) assumed to be a

function of the message signal.

A complete oscillator occurs whenever θ (t ) changes by 2π radians.

We may define the instantaneous frequency of the angle- modulated signal s(t) as
follows:
1 dθ (t )
f i (t ) = . (2.2)
2π dt
∴ dθ (t )
Wi (t ) = 2πf i (t ) = i
dt
According to equation 2.1, we may interpret the angle modulated signal s (t ) as a rotating
phasor of length AC and an angle θ (t ). the angular velocity of such a phasor
dθ (t ) rad
is ( i.e. equation 2.2)
dt sec
In the simple case of unmodulated carrier, the
angle θ (t ) is θ i (t ) = 2πf C t + φC initial phase (constant) - 2.3
and the corresponding phaser rotates with a constant angular velocity equal to2 πf c

∴ dθ i (t ) = 2πf C = (constant) ,The value of θ i (t ) at t = 0 is φC .

dt
There are an infinite number of ways in which the angle θ (t ) may be varied in some
manner with the message signal.
However ,we shall consider only two commonly used method, phase modulation and
frequency modulation .

Phase Modulation(PM)

It is a form of angle modulation in which the angle θ i (t ) is varied linearly with the
message signal m(t),
θ i (t ) = 2πf C t + φ (t )

not a constant
carrier

Where φ (t ) = k P m(t )

∴θ (t ) = 2πf t + k m(t )
i C P (2.3)
The term 2 πf C t represents the angle of the carrier ; the constant k P represents the phase
sensitivity of the modulator , expressed in radians per volt on the assumption that m(t) is
a voltage waveform.
The phase modulated signal s(t) is thus described in the time domain by

S (t ) = AC cos[2πf C t + k P m(t )] (2.4)

Frequency modulation(FM)

Frequency modulation is that from of angle modulation in which the instantaneous

frequency f i (t ) is varied linearly with the message signal m(t):

f i (t ) = f C + k f m(t ) (2.5)

The term f C represents the frequency of the unmodulated carrier and the constant
k f represents the frequency sensitivity of the modulator, expressed in hertz per volt on
assumption that m(t) is a voltage waveform .
Integration equation (2.5)with respect to time we get,(after multiplying by2 π ).

t
θ i (t ) = 2πf C + 2πk f ∫ m(τ )dτ (2.6)
0

The frequency modulated signal is therefore described in the time domain by

s (t ) = AC cos(θ i (t ))

⎡ t
⎤
s (t ) = AC cos ⎢2πf C t + 2πk f ∫ m(c)dc ⎥ (2.7)
⎣ 0 ⎦

*In summary (see equation 2.4 & 2.7)

Angle modulated wave

s (t ) = AC cos(2πf c t + φ (t )) (2.8)
Where

k p m(t ) PM

{
φ (t ) = t
2πk f ∫ m(c)dc FM
(2.9)

d
kP m(t ) PM
dφ (t )
dt
=
{ dt
2πk f m(t ) FM
(2.10)

From equation 2.8 it is clear that the envelope of a PM or FM signal is constant (equal to
the carrier amplitude).

Where as the envelope of an AM signal is dependent on the message signal.

Comparing equation 2.4 (page118) with 2.7(page119) reveals that an FM signal may be

regarded as a PM signal in which the modulating wave is :

t

∫ m(τ )dτ
0
in place of m(t )
This means that an FM signal can be generated by first integrating m(t ) and the using
the result as the input to a phase modulator (see Fig 2.1).

Modulating wave m(t) Phase FM wave

Integrator
modulator

Ac cos(2πf c t )

( Scheme for generating an FM wave )

Fig 2.1

Conversely, a PM signal can be generated by first differentiations m (t) and then using
the result as the input to a frequency modulator as shown Fig 2.2.

Modulating wave m(t) Frequency PM wave

Differentiator
modulator

Ac cos(2πf c t )

( Scheme for generating a PM wave )

Fig 2.2.
Scheme for generating PM wave (Fig2.2)

We may thus deduce all the properties of PM signal from those of FM signal or vice
versa.
∴ We concentrate our attention on FM signals.
 m(t)
Sinusoidal modulating signal, frequency fm

Zero Crossing

s(t) FM
AC

-AC

s(t) Frequency varies but the

AM envelope is constant.

Carrier frequency fC constant

m(t) and envelope varies.
f C + Δf

fC Fig 2.5

f C − Δf

t
Sinusoidal of
Instantaneous frequency of the frequency fm
corresponding FM signal

FM- message resides in the zero crossings of FM signal

FM- wave does not look at all like the modulating waveform
Frequency modulation

⎡ t
⎤
The FM signal s(t) defined by equation 2.7(page 119) s (t ) = A cos ⎢2πf c t + 2πk f ∫ m(τ )dτ ⎥
⎣ 0 ⎦
Is a nonlinear function of the modulating signal m(t), which makes frequency modulation
a nonlinear modulation process.

Consequently, unlike amplitude modulation, the spectrum of an FM signal is not related

in a simple manner to that of a modulating signal –its analysing is much more different
than that of an AM signal.

We propose two simple cases for the spectral analysis of an FM signal:

(1) A single tone modulation that produces a narrow FM signal.

(2) A single tone modulation that produces wideband FM signal.

Consider a sinusoidal modulating signal, m(t ) = Am cos(2πf m ) (2.11).

The instantaneous frequency of the resulting FM signal is given by:

f i (t ) = f c + k f m(t ) ← equation (2.5)

f i (t ) = f c + k f Am cos 2πf m t (2.12).

f i (t ) = f c + Δf cos 2πf m t (2.13).

The quantity Δf = k f Am is called the ‘frequency deviation’, representing the maximum

departure of the instantaneous frequency of the FM signal from the carrier frequency f c .

Δf = k f Am (2.14).

A fundamental characteristic of an FM signal is that the frequency deviation Δf is

proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal and is independent of the
modulation frequency.
The angle θ i (t ) of the FM signal,
t
θ i (t ) = 2πf c t + 2πk f ∫ m(τ )dτ ( See 2.6)
0

sin ω m t
θ i (t ) = 2πf c t + 2πk f Am
ωm
k f Am
θ i (t ) = 2πf c t + sin( 2πf m t )
fm

Δf
θ i (t ) = 2πf c t + sin(2πf m t ) (2.15).
fm

The ratio of the frequency deviation Δf to the modulation frequency f m is commonly

called the modulation index of the FM signal.

Δf
β= (2.16).
fm

⇒ θ i (t ) = 2πf c t + β sin(2πf mt )
β is measured in radians.

The FM signal is given by: s (t ) = Ac cos(2πf c t + β sin(2πf m t ) (2.17).

Depending on the value of the modulation index β , we may distinguish two cases of
frequency modulation:

- Narrowband FM, for which β is small compared to one radian.

- Wideband FM, for which β is large compared to one radian.
Narrowband Frequency Modulation:

Consider equation 2.17 above,

s (t ) = Ac cos(2πf c t + β sin(2πf m t )) =
Ac cos 2πf c t . cos( β sin(2πf m t )) − Ac sin 2πf c t . sin( β sin 2πf m t ) (2.18)

β Is small compared to one radian, we may approximate

cos( β sin 2πf m t )) ≈ 1

and
sin( β sin( 2πf m t ) ≈ β sin(2πf m t )

Hence equation2.18 becomes

s (t ) ≈ Ac cos(2πf c t ) − β A c sin(2πf c t ). sin( 2πf m t ) (2.19)

Narrowband FM signal
Equation 2.19 can be implemented as follows (Fig2.4).

DSB-SC modulated
signal

product
modulator
Modulating wave -
m(t ) = Am cos ω m t
Intergrator X ∑ Narrow-band FM

+
AC sin 2πf C t

Am sin ω m t -90o phase

shifter
ωm

Carrier Wave
AC cos 2πf C t
Narrow-band
phase modulator
Method for generating narrowband FM signal.
Fig 2.4.
Ideally, an FM signal has a constant envelope and for the case of a sinusoidal
modulating frequency f f m , the angle θ i (t ) is also sinusoidal with the same frequency.
(See page122 Fig2.3).

However the modulated signal produced by the narrowband modulator of Fig 2.4 (page
127) differs from this ideal condition in two fundamental respects:

• The envelope contains residue amplitude modulation and therefore varies with time.
• For a sinusoidal modulating the angle θ i (t ) contains harmonic distortion in the form
of third and higher-order harmonic of the modulation frequency f m .

However, if β (modulation index) is restricted toβ ≤ 0.3 radians, the effect of residual
AM and harmonic are limited to negligible levels.

Returning to equation 2.19(pp.127),

s (t ) = Ac cos(2πf c t ) − β Ac sin(2πf c t ). sin( 2πf m )t

Narrowband FM signal

1
s (t ) = Ac cos 2 πf c t +
2
[
βAc cos 2π ( f c + f m )t − cos 2π ( f c − f m )t ] (2.10)

Narrowband FM signal

Consider an AM signal equation (page26, equation12)

MAc
s (t ) = A cos(2πf c t ) + [cos 2π ( f c + f m )t + cos 2π ( f c − f m )t ] (2.11)
2
μ − modulation factor of AM

AM signal

Comparing equation 2.10$ 2.11, we see that in the case of sinusoidal modulation, the
Basic difference between an AM signal $ a narrowband FM signal is that the algebraic
sign of the lower side frequency in the narrowband FM is reversed.
Thus, a narrowband FM signal requires essentially the same transmission band width
(i.e.2 f m ) as the AM signal.
Wideband Frequency Modulation:

The FM signal itself is given by

s (t ) = Ac cos(2πf c t + β sin 2πf m t )
We wish to determine the spectrum of the single tone FM signal above, for an arbitrary
value of the modulation index β .
Assuming β > 1 (wideband frequency modulation we may write the above FM signal as
s(t) = A c [cos w ct. cos β sin w m t ) − sin w ct. sin( β sin w m t )]

• S(t) is no periodic unless f c is an integral multiple of f m.

• We assume that f c is large enough compared to the bandwidth of the FM signal.

We know that:
∞
cos( β sin ω m t ) = J 0 ( β ) + ∑ 2J
n even
n ( β ) cos nω m t (2.13)
∞
Sin ( β sin ω m t ) = ∑ 2J
n odd
n ( β ) sin nω m t (2.14)

Where n is positive and J n ( β ) are coefficient of Bessel functions of the first kind, of
order n argument β .
Figure below shows the Bessel function J n ( β ) versus modulation index β for different
positive integer value of n.

J n (β )
J 0 (β )
1

J1 ( β )
0.8

J 2 (β )
0.6
J 3 (β )
J 6 (β )
0.4

0.2

β
2 4 6 8 10

-0.2

-0.4

Bessel function for n=0 to n=6

We can develop further insight into the behaviour of the Bessel function J n ( β ),
(1) J n ( β ) = (−1) n J −n ( β ) For all n both positive & negative.
(2) For small values of the modulation index β , we have

J 0 (β ) = 1
β
J 1 (β ) =
2
J n (β ) = 0 n>2

∞
(3) ∑J
n = −∞
2
n (β ) = 1

Substituting equations 2.13 & 2.14 into equation2.12 and expanding products of sines
and cosines finally yields:

s (t ) = Ac J 0 β cos ω c t
∞
+ ∑A J c n ( β )[cos(ω c + nω m )t − cos(ω c − nω m )t ]
nodd
∞
+ ∑A J c n ( β )[cos(ω c + nω m )t + cos(ω c − nω m )t ]
neven

∞
s (t ) = Ac ∑J
n = −∞
n ( β ) cos(ω c + nω m )t (2.15)

Wide-band FM

s(t) is the desired form for the Fourier series representation of the single tone FM signal
s(t) for an arbitrary value of β .

The discrete spectrum of s(t) is obtained by taking the Fourier transform of both sides of
equation 2.15 & we have:
A ∞
s ( f ) = c ∑ J n ( β )[δ ( f − ( f c + nf m )) + 5( f + ( f c + nf m ))] (2.16)
2 n = −∞

FM signal
From 2.15& 2.16 we may make the following observation:

(1) The spectrum of an FM signal contain a carrier component and an infinite set of
side frequencies located symmetrically on either side of the carrier at frequency
separations f f m ,2 f m, 3 f m , …………………….(note in AM system a sinusoidal
modulating signal given rise to only one pair of side frequencies.
(2) For the special case of β small compared to unity ,only the Bessel coefficients
J 0 ( β ) and J 1 ( B) have significant values , so that the FM signal is effectively
composed of a carrier and a single pair of side frequency at f c ± f m .

This situation corresponds to the special case of narrowband FM that was

considered earlier.
J 0 ( β )[δ ( f − f c ) + δ ( f + f c )] + J 1 ( β )[δ ( f − ( f c + f m )) + δ ( f + f c + f m ))]
AC AC
s (t ) =
2 2

n=0 n=1
β
[Note: J (β ) = 1
0 , J 1 (β ) =
2
]
Note: Line spectrum of FM with tone modulation

J − n ( β ) = (−1) n J n ( β )

J 0 (β )

J1 (β )

J 2 (β ) J 2 (β )
J 3 (β )

fC
f
− J 3 (β ) fC + 2 f m
fC + f m
− J1 (β )

Note : J 0 ( β ) = 0 when β = 2.4 & 5.5 ( Bessel function) i.e. carrier line has zero amplitude.
 (3) The amplitude of the carrier component varies with β according toJ 0 ( β ).
Unlike AM signal, the amplitude of FM carrier component of an FM signal is
dependent the modulation an index β .

The envelope of an FM signal is constant, so that the average power of such a

signal developed across 1 ohm resistor is also constant.

∴ P = ⎛⎜ AC ⎞⎟
2
1
= AC 2
⎝ 2⎠ 2

or

2
∞
⎛ AC ⎞ 2 AC 2 ∞
P= ∑⎜ ⎟ .J n ( β ) = ∑J 2
n (β )
n = −∞ ⎝ 2⎠ 2 n =-∞

=1
∴ P = AC
2
(2.17)
2

We wish to investigate the ways in which variation in the amplitude and frequency of a
sinusoidal affect the spectrum of the FM signal.

Consider the case when the frequency of the modulating signal is fixed, but amplitude is
varied.

m(t ) = Am cos(ω m t )
varied
fixed
Δf k f Am
Δf = k f Am β= =
fm fm

frequency deviation
Figure below shows amplitude spectrum of FM signal for β = 1 , 2 and 5

1.0

fC
β =1

fm

2Δf f

1.0

β =2

2 Δf f

1.0
fC
β =5

fm

f
2 Δf

Fig 2.6

Consider next the case when the amplitude of the modulating signal is tuned : That is the
frequency deviation Δf is maintained constant.

m(t ) = Am cos(ωmt )
varied
fixed
 Δf
Δf = K f Am β=
fm

fixed

The amplitude spectrum of the resulting FM signal is shown is Fig2.7.

1.0

β =1

fC
f
2Δf

1.0

β =2

fC
f
2 Δf

1.0
fC
β =5

f
2 Δf

Fig 2.7
We see that when Δf is fixed and β is increased we have an increasing number of
spectral lines crowding into the fixed frequency interval.
f c − Δf < f < f + Δf
That is, when β approaches infinity, the bandwidth of the FM wave approaches the
limiting value of 2Δf .

Transmission Bandwidth of FM signals:

In theory an FM signal contains an infinite number of side frequencies so that the band
width required to transmit such a signal is infinite in extent.

In practice, we find that FM signal is effectively limited to a finite number of significant

side frequencies.

In the case of an FM signal generated by a single tone modulating wave of frequency f m ,

The side frequencies that are separated from the carrier frequency f C by an amount
greater than the frequency deviation Δf decrease rapidly toward zero.

Specifically for large values of β , the bandwidth approaches, and is only slightly greater
than the total frequency deviation 2Δf (See Fig 2.6).

On the other hand, for small values of β , the spectrum of FM signal is effectively
limited to the carrier frequency f C ± f m so that the brand width approaches 2 f m .

We may thus define an approximate rule for the transmission bandwidth for an FM signal
generated by a single tone modulating signal f m as follows:
Δf = βf m

2Δf
βT ≈ 2Δf + 2 f m = 2Δf +
β

Transmission
1
Bandwidth βT = 2Δf (1 + )
β

Note: for large β , β T = 2Δf (1 + 0) = 2Δf

Carson’s rule
Consider next the move general case of an arbitrary modulating signal m (t) with its
highest frequency component donated by W.

The bandwidth required to transmit an FM signal generated by this modulating signal is

estimated as follows:

First we determine the deviation ratio D defined as the ratio of the frequency deviation
Δf which corresponds to the maximum possible amplitude of the modulating signal m(t),
to the highest modulation frequency W.

Δf
D=
W

Deviation ratio

The deviation ratio D plays the same role for non sinusoidal modulation that the
modulation index β plays for the case of sinusoidal modulation.

Example:

The maximum value of frequency deviation Δf is normally fixed at 75KHz for

commercial FM broadcasting by radio.

If we take the modulation frequency W=15KHzwhich is typically the ‘maximum’ audio

frequency of interest in FM transmission, we find that:

Δf 75
D= = =5
W 15

Using the transmission bandwidth equation βT = 2Δf + 2 f m

1
βT = 2Δf (1 + ) (page…)
β
and replacing β by D and replacing f m by W the approximate value of the transmission
bandwidth of the FM signal is obtained as

βT = 2(75 + 15) = 180 KHz

In practice, a bandwidth of 200 KHz is allocated to each transmitter.

Generation of FM signals

There are essentially two basic methods of generating frequency –modulated signals
namely,

• Direct FM
(Carrier frequency is directly varied in accordance with the input base band signal,
which is readily, accomplished using a voltage controlled oscillator (VCO).

• Indirect FM
(The modulating signal is first used to produce a narrowband FM signal and
frequency multiplication is next used to increase the frequency deviation to the
desired level).
One method for generating an FM signal directly is to design an oscillator whose
Frequency changes with the input voltage.
When the input voltage is zero, the oscillator generating a sinusoid with frequency f C and
when the input voltage changes, this frequency changes accordingly.

vin = 0
y( f C )

Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO)

In this approach a “Varactor diode” is used. A Varactor diode is a capacitor whose

capacitance changes with the applied voltage.

C v (t )
Voltage

Varactor diode

Therefore , if this capacitor is used in a tuned circuit of the oscillator and the message
signal is applied to it, the frequency of the tuned circuit ,and the oscillator will change in
accordance with the message signal(see diagram below).
 Cv (t ) L0
C0
xC (t ) Oscillator
+
_ m(t )

Tuned Circuit

Let the indicator in the tuned circuit be L0 and the capacitance of the varactor diode is
given by

c(t ) = c0 + k0 m(t ) (2.18)

When m (t) =0, the frequency of the tuned circuit is given by:

1
fc =
2π L0C0
In general if m (t) ≠ 0, we have

1
f i (t ) =
2π L0 (c0 + k0 m(t ))
c(t) (2.8)

∴ f i (t ) = 1
.
1
= fc .
1
2π L0C0 h k
1 + 0 m(t ) 1 + 0 m(t )
C0 C0
h0
Assuming that ∈= m(t ) << 1
c0
and using the approximations

ε
1
1 + ε = (1 + ε ) ≈ 1 + 2
2 ε <1
1
≈ 1− ε
1+ ε
We obtain
⎡ k ⎤
f i (t ) = f c .⎢1 − 0 m(t )⎥ (2.19)
⎣ 2c0 ⎦
This is the relation for a frequency modulated signal.

xc (t ) = Ac cos θ i (t ) = Ac cos(2πf i (t ))
⎡ k ⎤
where f i (t ) = f c ⎢1 − 0 m(t )⎥
⎣ 2c0 ⎦

Indirect method for generating of FM

Another approach for generating an angle modulation signal is to first generate a

narrowband angle –modulated signal, and then change it to a wideband signal.
Due to the similarity of conventional AM signals, generation of narrowband angle
modulated signals is straightforward.

m(t ) = Am cos ω m t ∫
Am sin ω m t
ωm

AC sin 2πf C t AC cos 2πf C t

The next step is to use the narrowband angle modulated signals to generate a wideband
modulated signals (see diagram below).
 Input Narrow- f C Frequency nf C BP2 Output
band X
m(t) xn filter
modulator s(t)
f LO

Local
frequency Oscillator
multipliers

The narrow-band angle modulated signal enters a frequency

multiplier that multiplies the instantaneous frequency of the
input by some constant n.
The frequency multiplier consists of a nonlinear
device followed by a band pass filter (see below).

BP1
Band-pass
FM signal Non-linear v(t) FM signal
filter with mid
s(t ) device s′(t ) with
frequency nfC
centre frequency nf C

and the modulation

s(t ) with index nβ .
carrier frequency f C

and the modulation

index β .
v(t ) = a s(t ) + a s 2 (t ) + ... + an s n (t )
1 2

Where a1 , a2 , a3, ......, an coefficient and n are is the highest order of non linearity.
The input signal (FM) is defined by
t
s (t ) = A cos(2πf C t + 2πk f ∫ m(τ )dτ )
0

Whose instantaneous frequency is:

f i (t ) = f C + k f m(t )

The mid-band frequency of the band-pass filter is set to nf C where f C is carrier frequency
of the incoming FM single s(t).
The band-pass filter is designed to have a bandwidth equal to n times the transmission
bandwidth of s(t).
After band-pass filtering the nonlinear devices output v(t), we have a new FM signal
defined by:
⎡ t
⎤
s ′(t ) = AC′ cos ⎢2πnf C t + 2πnk f ∫ m(τ )dτ ⎥
⎣ 0 ⎦

Whose instantaneous frequency is:

f i′(t ) = nf C + nk f m(t ) (2.20)

Comparing f i (t ) = f c + k f m(t ) and f i′(t ) = nf C + k f nm(t ),

we see that nonlinear processing circuit in page … acts as a frequency multiplier.
The frequency multiplication ratio is determined by the highest power n in the equation

v(t ) = a1s (t ) + a2 s 2 (t ) + ...... + an s n (t )

Note: see the top diagram in page … after the above described process , there is no
guarantee that the carrier frequency of this signal n f C will be the desired carrier
frequency, we may perform an up or down conversion to shift the modulated signal to the
desired center frequency, (see page…). This stage consists

nf C Output
X BP2 filter
s′(t ) u (t )

f LO

Local
Oscillator

of a mixer and a band-pass filter (BP2). If the frequency of the local oscillator of the
mixer is f LO and we are using a down converter, the final wideband FM signal is given by
⎡ t
⎤
u (t ) = AC′ cos ⎢(2π (nf C − f L 0 )t + 2πnk f ∫ m(τ )dτ ⎥ =
⎣ 0 ⎦
AC′ cos(2π (nf C − f L 0 )t + nφ (t ))
Since we can freely chose n and f L 0 , we can generate any modulation index at any
desired carrier frequency by this method.

Example: a narrowband to wideband converter is implemented as follows.

s′(t ) = AC cos(nωC t + nφ (t ))
e(t ) = AC cos[( nωC t + ω LO )t + nφ (t )] + AC cos[( nωC t − ω LO )t + nφ (t )]

s(t ) = AC cos(ωC t + φ (t ))

fC s′(t )
s(t ) u (t )

2 cos(ω LO t )
nf C
ωcentre = nωC + ω LO
or nωC − ω LO

u (t ) = AC cos[ω centret + nφ (t )]

The output of the narrowband frequency modulator is given by:

s (t ) = Ac cos( wc t + φ (t ))

With wc = 2π ×105 Hz , the peak frequency deviation of φ (t ) is 50Hz and the bandwidth
of φ (t ) is 500Hz. The wideband output u (t ) is to have a carrier frequency of 85MHz and a
deviation ratio of 5. Determine the frequency multiplier factor n. Also determine two
possible local oscillator frequencies. Determine the centre frequency and the bandwidth
of the band-pass filter.
Deviation ratio at the output of the narrowband FM (i.e. s (t)):

Δf Δf = 50 Hz
D= =
50 Hz
W 500 Hz
= 0.1
W = 500 Hz
} given
The frequency multiplier n is:

Dat the output 5

n= = = 50
D 0.1
Wideband carrier frequency =n. wc =50 ×105 = 5MHz
We need a carrier of 85MHz

∴w LO = 85 + 5 = 90MHz
or
wLO = 85 − 5 = 80 MHz

Centre frequency of the BP filter must be equal to the desired carrier frequency of the
wideband output .i.e85MHz.

The BW of the band pass filter is calculated using Carson’s rule.

Δf
B = 2Δf + 2w = 2w( + 1) = 2 × 500(5 + 1) = 6 KHz
w
Demodulation of FM:

The demodulation of A FM signal requires a circuit that yields an output voltage that
varies linearly proportional to the frequency deviation of the input.
Such circuits are known as discriminators.

There are many different circuit designed for frequency detection (by a frequency
detector –known as a discriminator).

There are four operational categories:

9 FM to AM conversion
• Phase shift discrimination
• Zero crossing detection
9 Frequency feedback(PLL)

FM to AM conversion

Any device or circuit whose output equals the time derivation of the input produces FM
to AM conversion

Let s (t ) = AC cos θ i (t )

t
With θ i (t ) = 2πf C t + 2πk f ∫ m(τ )τ
0

∴θ& (t ) = 2πf
i C + 2πk f m(t )
 θ&i (t ) = 2π [ f C + k f .Am cos 2πf mt ]

= 2π [ f C + Δf cos 2πf m t ]

s&(t ) = − AC sin θ i (t ).θ&i (t ) [s(t ) = AC cosθ i (t )]

s&(t ) = − AC sinθ i (t ).2π [ f C + Δf cos 2πf mt ]

s&(t ) = 2πAC [ f C + Δf cosωmt ] .sin(θ i (t ) ± 180o ) (2.21)

AM envelope

Hence an envelope detector with input s&(t ) yields an output

proportional to f i (t ) = f C + Δf cosωmt.

Figure below shows a frequency detector based on equation( 2.21).

s(t ) sˆ(t ) e(t ) u(t )

The limiter at the input removes any spurious amplitude variations (due to noise) from
s(t) before reaching the envelope detector.
Typical waveforms are shown below:

s(t)

FM

s(t)

AM

m(t)

Equation (2.21)

FM to AM conversion & demodulated output

A differentiator can be implemented using an RC network.

Vin (t ) Vout (t )

Vo ( s )
= H (s)
Vi ( s )

Transfer function

R j 2πfRC
H( f ) = =
1 1 + j 2πfRC
R+
j 2πfC

The amplitude response of H ( f ) is shown below:

H( f )
1
1
2 High-pass filter ( Differentiator )

fC f Cut −off = 1
2πRC f

If all frequencies present in the input are low so that

1
f << ⇒ 2 fπRC << 1
2πRC

then the transfer function can be approximated by:

 differentiator

H ( f ) = j 2 π fRC = j ω RC

H ( f ) = 2πRCf i.e. H ( f ) ∝ f

For small f , the RC network has linear amplitude frequency characteristic required of
an ideal discriminator.

H ( f ) = jωRC

If small f , the RC filter acts as a differentiator with gain RC.

Thus the RC network can be used in place of differentiator in page ….

A simple discriminator circuit is shown below:

FM

FM demodulator using a phase locked loop (PLL):

For PLL see page…

s(t ) e(t ) v L (t )

vo (t )

The input to the PLL is the angle modulated signal s (t ) = AC cos[2πf C t + φ (t )] ,

 t
where for FM φ (t ) = 2πk f ∫ m(τ )dτ
0

The VCO generates a sinusoidal of a fixed frequency f C , in the absence of an input

control voltage. [i.e.VL (t ) = 0]

The instantaneous frequency of the VCO is

f i (t ) = f C + k v v L (t )
Where k v is a deviation constant with units Hz/Volt, consequently the VCO output may
be expressed as

vo (t ) = Ao sin(2πf C t + φ o (t ))
t
Where φ o (t ) = 2πk v ∫ v L (τ )dτ
0

The phase detector is basically a multiplier and the filter that rejects the signal component
centered at 2 f C . Hence its input may be expressed as

A A sin [ φ (t ) − φ0 (t ) ]
1
e(t ) =
2 C 0
= φe (t )
Let us assume that the PLL is in lock, so that the phase error is small, then

sin φ (t ) − φ o (t ) ≈ φ (t ) − φ o (t ) = φ e (t )

We may express the phase error as:

t
φe (t ) = θ (t ) − 2πkv ∫ VL (τ )dτ
0

Using this equation we obtain a linearised PLL.

φ (t ) φe (t ) v L (t )

φo (t )

t
2πk v ∫ v L (τ )dτ
0
 t
φ e (t ) = φ (t ) − 2πk v ∫ v L (τ )dτ
0

Equivalently, by differentiating we obtain:

dφ e (t ) dφ (t )
= − 2πk v v L (t )
dt dt

Fourier transform of the above equation gives :

Note:
φe (t ) v L (t )
j 2πfφe ( f ) = j 2πfφ ( f ) − 2πkv vL ( f )

vL ( f ) = φe ( f ).G ( f )
d
FT [ x(t )] = j 2πfX ( f )
dt

1
φe ( f ) = φ( f )
k
1 + v G( f )
jf

k v G( f )
We design the loop filter such that >> 1 in the frequency band | f |< W .
jf

φ( f ) jfφ ( f )
∴φ ( f ) =
e
kv
=
kv G( f )
G( f )
jf
 jfφ ( f ) jfφ ( f )
φe ( f )G( f ) = =
kv kv
vL ( f )
jf
vL ( f ) = φ( f )
kv
j 2πf
vL ( f ) = φ( f )
2πk v

Take inverse FT

1 d ⎡ t
⎤
v L (t ) = ⎢ 2πk f m(τ )dτ ⎥
∫
2πk v dt ⎣ 0 ⎦

1
= 2πk f m(τ )
2πk v

∴v
kf
L (t ) = m(t )
kv

Since the control voltage of the VCD is proportional to the message signal v L (t ) is the
demodulated signal.

φ (t ) φe (t ) v L (t )

vL (t ) ∝ m(t )
t
2πk v ∫ v L (τ )dτ
0

We observe the output of the loop filter with frequency responses G (f) is the desired
message signal. Hence the bandwidth of G (f) should be the same as the bandwidth W of
the message signal.
FM Radio Broadcasting (Mono transmission)

• Commercial FM radio broadcasting utilizes the frequency band 88-108MHz for

transmission of voice and music signals.
• The carrier frequencies are separated by 200 KHz and the peak –frequency
deviation is fixed at 75 KHz.
• The receiver most commonly used in FM radio broadcast is a super heterodyne
type.

f IF = 10.7 MHz

As in AM radio reception, common tuning between the RF amplification and the local
oscillator allows the mixer to bring all FM signals to a common if bandwidth of 200
KHz, centered at f IF = 10.7 MHz .

1 -3 dB
1
2 200 KHz

f IF = 10.7 MHz f

Since the message signal m (t) is embedded in the frequency of the carrier, any amplitude
variation in the received signal are a result of additive noise and interference. The
amplitude limiter removes any amplitude variations in the received signal.
FM stereo Broadcasting

Many FM radio stations transmit music programs in stereo by using the outputs of two
microphones placed in two different parts of the stage.
(see reference both for more details of the FM stereo transmitter.)