CIGE Insights

Internationalizing
U.S. Higher
Education
Current Policies, Future Directions
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CIGE Insights

Internationalizing U.S. Higher Education:

Current Policies, Future Directions

Robin Matross Helms

Associate Director for Research
Center for Internationalization and Global Engagement
American Council on Education

CIGE Insights

This series of occasional papers explores key issues and themes surrounding the inter-
nationalization and global engagement of higher education. Papers include analysis,
expert commentary, case examples, and recommendations for policy and practice.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author gratefully acknowledges the contributions of a number of colleagues to this report. Laura
Rumbley, Patti McGill Peterson, Hans de Wit, and Brad Farnsworth provided invaluable editorial
feedback and support throughout the project. Katie Weigel’s role as fact-checker was instrumental
in ensuring that the many citations included in the report provide accurate and easily accessible
information; Lucia Brajkovic contributed on this front as well. As indicated in the text and footnotes,
a number of agency and organization representatives were tapped for their policy knowledge and
expertise, including Richard Boyum, Jarred Butto, Lara Campbell, Rachel Hanson, Miriam Kazan-
jian, Mark Overmann, Amanda Thorstad, and Gabriela Zelaya. Their input was critical in providing
a well-rounded and detailed view of the U.S. higher education internationalization landscape.
CONTENTS
Executive Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Policy Actors and Motivations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Current Policies and Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Type 1. Student Mobility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Type 2. Scholar Mobility and Research Collaboration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18
Type 3. Cross-Border Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Type 4. Internationalization at Home . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
International Comparisons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Toward a National Policy? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
A Focused Effort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Executive Summary
As a companion piece to Internationalizing Higher Education Worldwide: National Policies and
Programs, this report takes an in-depth look at the higher education internationalization policy
landscape in the United States. We take stock of the internationalization-related initiatives of
key policy players—including the U.S. Departments of State, Education, and Defense, as well as
the National Science Foundation and other agencies—and categorize their policies and programs
according to the typology developed in Internationalizing Higher Education Worldwide in order
to draw comparisons to global activity. Based on this analysis, we consider what additional federal
efforts are needed to further advance higher education internationalization on a national scale.
As in other countries, current U.S. initiatives center principally on student mobility, with State
Department programs anchoring this category. Scholar mobility and research collaborations are
promoted and supported—and in some cases, regulated—by a number of agencies. Cross-border
education, such as institutional partnerships, has not been a focus for U.S. government policies and
programs, either in terms of facilitation or regulation. Reflecting global trends, internationalization
at home, including internationalization of the curriculum, has received little policy attention, though
some Department of Education programs aimed at bolstering foreign language education contribute
to efforts on this front.
In terms of global comparisons, what is noticeably absent from the catalogue of U.S. policies and
programs is the final category of the typology presented in Internationalizing Higher Education
Worldwide: a comprehensive national policy that draws together multiple initiatives across cate-
gories with a specific goal of furthering higher education internationalization. In the last decade,
various organizations—including the American Council on Education—have called for such a broad
initiative. A policy in this vein has not taken root, however. Given the decentralized structure of the
U.S. government and the size and diversity of the higher education system, it seems unlikely that a
single, overarching national policy would be truly effective in advancing higher education interna-
tionalization nationwide.
Instead, going forward, the U.S. needs a broad, well-coordinated set of well-funded initiatives
that support comprehensive internationalization of U.S. higher education. Toward this end, a
focused effort is needed to better leverage existing U.S. federal government policies and programs
in advancing higher education internationalization, address aspects of internationalization that
are not currently well-supported, and ensure that all internationalization-related policies and pro-
grams—existing and new—are adequately funded. Ultimately, the internationalization of higher
education needs to become a jointly held national priority by the government and higher education
institutions.
Steps in this direction should include more inter-agency collaboration among the key players with
internationalization-related policies and programs; a higher level of engagement between these
agencies and the higher education community; greater attention to internationalization at home
as a way to deliver global competence to the large majority of U.S. students who are not internation-

Internationalizing U.S. Higher Education: Current Policies, Future Directions1

 ally mobile; and more federal funding for internationalization-related programs across the board.
Advocacy by the higher education community and other stakeholders is needed to ensure that
internationalization is recognized as fundamental to the success and global competitiveness of U.S.
higher education in the twenty-first century, and that U.S. government policies and programs reflect
this reality.

2 Internationalizing U.S. Higher Education: Current Policies, Future Directions

Introduction
Higher education has long been recognized as a key driver of economic and social
development worldwide. As countries have become more interconnected, and business,
industry and organizations increasingly operate across borders, higher education, too,
has by necessity become a global enterprise. In order to prepare their citizens to live
and work in the globalized world of the twenty-first century, and to bolster their coun-
tries’ competitiveness on the world stage, governments around the world are imple-
menting national- and regional-level policies to promote the internationalization of
their higher education systems. (Helms, Rumbley, Brajkovic, and Mihut 2015)

As a companion piece to Internationalizing Higher Education Worldwide: National Policies and

Programs, which examines government-sponsored higher education internationalization initiatives
around the globe, this report takes an in-depth look at the higher education internationalization
policy landscape in the United States.
Similarly to Internationalizing Higher Education Worldwide, we begin by identifying the various
policy actors involved in the United States, as well as the rationales and motivations underlying
their internationalization activities. We then inventory existing U.S. federal policies and programs
(both new and long-standing), categorize them according to the typology developed for our global
review, and draw comparisons to activity around the world. In turn, this analysis informs a discus-
sion of whether a comprehensive national internationalization policy or strategy—seen in other
parts of world but thus far not in the United States—is feasible or desirable, and what additional
efforts are needed to build upon current policies and programs.
Though the report is designed to stand on its own, it is our hope for the entire project, as described
in Internationalizing Higher Education Worldwide, to “provide a framework for policymakers and
institutional leaders to better understand existing initiatives, think critically about their own poli-
cies and practices in light of the broader global context, and identify synergies among policies that
provide opportunities for collaboration.” Given these goals, we reference Internationalizing Higher
Education Worldwide throughout this U.S.-focused piece, and encourage readers to explore the two
publications in tandem.

Internationalizing U.S. Higher Education: Current Policies, Future Directions3

 A NOTE ON DEFINITIONS
While the terms “internationalization,” “policy,” and “programs” are commonly used and it can be argued that practitioners
and policymakers in the higher education field share a general understanding about these notions, there are varying
interpretations of their actual meaning and scope. In terms of “internationalization,” as a framework for this report, we are
guided by a broad definition proposed by Jane Knight in 2003:

Internationalization at the national, sector, and institutional levels is defined as the process of
integrating an international, intercultural, or global dimension into the purpose, functions or delivery of
postsecondary education (2).

Often, “policy” is taken to mean government action that sets forth broad goals and general intent, while “program” refers to
specific activities and initiatives. However, definitions for the term “policy” also sometimes refer specifically to “plans,” as in
the following examples:
• “A high-level overall plan embracing the general goals and acceptable procedures especially of a governmental
body.”1
• “A set of ideas or a plan for action followed by a business, a government, a political party, or a group of people.”2
• “A course or principle of action adopted or proposed by a government, party, business, or individual.”3

Taken together, these definitions suggest that policies have both an ideological element (general goals, a set of guiding
ideas) and a practical element (a plan for action, influencing specific decisions).

In terms of internationalization, the latter typically consists of programs and activities intended to operationalize and achieve
the former; programs, therefore, are arguably an integral part of policies themselves. And when governments implement
discrete programs that are national in scope and involve substantial government funding—even if they are not part of a
broader, formal policy—they clearly reflect governmental policies and intent, and in essence are setting de facto policy.

In sum, policies and programs are integrally intertwined, and the definitional line between them can be quite blurry. Rather
than focusing on this distinction, therefore, in this report we use both terms, and explore a wide range of national- and
regional-level, government-initiated activities and initiatives as part of the analysis.

Finally, per Knight’s definition noted above, we have identified policies and programs worldwide that entail activities that
“integrate an international, intercultural, or global dimension into the purpose, functions or delivery of postsecondary
education.” These include initiatives to encourage student mobility, spur research collaborations, and establish institutional
partnerships, among other activities.

However, there is variation in the extent to which the instigating governments themselves connect these targeted initiatives
to a broader vision for the internationalization of higher education as a whole. In some cases, the term “internationalization
policy” is used directly and/or higher education internationalization is stated as an explicit goal; in other cases, the
focus is more specifically on the discrete activity at the heart of the initiative, or on other national policy goals. In short,
“internationalization” is our characterization of these policies, not necessarily or explicitly that of the instigating government
bodies.

1 Merriam-Webster, s.v. “policy,” http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/policy.

2 Cambridge Dictionaries Online, s.v. “policy,” http://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/american-english/policy.
3 Oxford English Dictionary, s.v. “policy,” http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/definition/american_english/policy.

(Excerpted from Internationalizing Higher Education Worldwide: National Policies and Programs)

4 Internationalizing U.S. Higher Education: Current Policies, Future Directions

Policy Actors and Motivations
Mirroring the array of policy actors involved in higher education internationalization worldwide,
the U.S. scene also includes a variety of actors and influencers. Similarly, a number of the academic,
economic, political, and social/cultural rationales for policies that contribute to higher education
internationalization around the world—described in detail in Internationalizing Higher Education
Worldwide—are reflected in the U.S. context as well.
In terms of policy actors, what sets the U.S. apart from most countries is the lack of a ministry of
education or other agency that holds overall responsibility for higher education nationwide; many
of the internationalization policies and programs in place worldwide originate with such an entity
or are tied in some significant way to the mandate of a primary national-level ministry or agency. In
the United States, however, federal policies and programs that promote student and faculty mobility,
research collaborations, and other cross-border activities and engagement are administered by a
number of different federal agencies.
As described in the box “A Note on Definitions,” there is country-to-country variation in terms of
the extent to which policies that advance these and other internationalization-related activities are
explicitly linked by the government to a broader vision for the internationalization of higher edu-
cation as a whole. The United States represents one end of this spectrum. Government policies and
programs are designed to achieve broad national-level goals (discussed in subsequent sections of
this report) in line with the purpose and missions of the individual agencies that administer them;
because they engage institutions, students, and faculty, these programs do indeed play a role in and
contribute to the internationalization of U.S. higher education. However, higher education inter-
nationalization is more a by-product of these dispersed policies and initiatives, rather than an
explicitly intended goal.

ESTABLISHING POLICY AND PROGRAMS

There are three primary mechanisms by which government-sponsored internationalization policies
and programs are established in the United States:
• Legislation. Congressional acts, proposed and passed by the U.S. Congress, set forth policy
goals, establish programs to carry them out, and may appropriate federal money towards these
programs.
• Executive action. The president sets forth goals and programs. As detailed below, however, in
the higher education internationalization realm, thus far presidential policies generally have not
been accompanied by substantial designated federal funding.
• Agency-designed initiatives. As part of their overall roster of activities, individual agencies
develop internationalization-related policies and programs that further their missions and stra-
tegic goals. They allocate funding for these activities from their operating budgets.
In some cases more than one of these mechanisms may come into play; for example, a congressional
act or executive order may establish broad policy and program outlines, but charge (and fund) a par-

Internationalizing U.S. Higher Education: Current Policies, Future Directions5

 ticular agency to determine the specific configuration of initiatives and programmatic details within
the guidance set forth.
Regardless of the mechanism by which policies and programs are established, the administering
agency, Congress, and the president all weigh in on their ongoing implementation and future direc-
tions through the federal budgeting process. Each year, each federal agency develops an operating
budget, which is submitted to the president and Congress for approval. Agency budgets reflect deci-
sions about how to allocate resources towards particular internationalization-related programs and
initiatives, which in turn reflect agency priorities and goals. The president and then Congress review
the individual agency budgets and may make adjustments—sometimes substantial—to program
allocations based on their own priorities. The final federal budget dictates what programs will be cre-
ated, expanded, maintained, and discontinued, and determines the overall level and focus of federal
support for internationalization-related programs and activities for the year.

LEGISLATIVE MANDATES
There are three key federal departments that administer internationalization-related policies and
programs mandated by federal legislation:

Department of State
For policies and programs to promote student and scholar mobility (both inbound and outbound),
the State Department (DoS) is the primary responsible government agency. Through its Bureau
of Educational and Cultural Affairs (ECA), DoS administers dozens of educational and cultural
exchange programs, many of which are part of the overarching Fulbright program, described by
ECA as the “flagship international educational exchange program sponsored by the U.S. govern-
ment.”1 Approximately 325,400 “Fulbrighters”—122,800 from the United States and 202,600 from
other countries—have participated in the program since its inception. The Fulbright Program awards
around 8,000 grants annually and currently operates in over 160 countries worldwide. 2 ECA also
supports the EducationUSA network of advisors who work with international students seeking to
study at U.S. colleges and universities.3
The main piece of legislation authorizing ECA programs is the Mutual Educational and Cultural
Exchange Act of 1961—also known as the Fulbright-Hayes Act—which consolidated previous laws
related to educational exchange (including the Fulbright Act of 1946, which originally created the
Fulbright program), and “remains the basic charter for all U.S. government-sponsored educational
and cultural exchanges.”4
As set forth in the Fulbright-Hayes Act, the main drivers of ECA policies and programming are pub-
lic diplomacy and mutual understanding. The act states:

The purpose of this [legislation] is to enable the Government of the United States to
increase mutual understanding between the people of the United States and the peo-
ple of other countries by means of educational and cultural exchange. . . and thus to

1 http://eca.state.gov/fulbright
2 http://eca.state.gov/fulbright/about-fulbright
3 http://eca.state.gov/educationusa
4 http://eca.state.gov/fulbright/about-fulbright/history/early-years

6 Internationalizing U.S. Higher Education: Current Policies, Future Directions

 assist in the development of friendly, sympathetic, and peaceful relations between the
United States and the other countries of the world.5

Department of Education
Through its International and Foreign Language Education Office,6 a division of the Office of Post-
secondary Education, the Department of Education administers a number of programs that contrib-
ute to U.S. higher education internationalization with a focus on foreign language and area studies.
In terms of legislation, two acts govern these activities: the Fulbright-Hays Act, and Title VI of the
Higher Education Act of 1965—initially Title VI of the National Defense Education Act of 1958.7 Most
grants are awarded to institutions, which then provide funding to individual students and faculty for
travel abroad and/or on-campus work. Not every program is funded every year.
In terms of motivation, Title VI links foreign language and area studies programs to national secu-
rity and economic development. It states:

The security, stability, and economic vitality of the United States in a complex global
era depend upon American experts in and citizens knowledgeable about world
regions, foreign languages, and international affairs, as well as upon a strong research
base in these areas. . . . Systematic efforts are necessary to enhance the capacity of
institutions of higher education in the United States for a) producing graduates with
international and foreign language expertise and knowledge, and b) research regard-
ing such expertise and knowledge.8

In line with the overall purpose of the Fulbright-Hays Act, the Department of Education’s interna-
tionalization-related programs are also underpinned by public diplomacy goals. A 2014 statement by
the Secretary of Education reflects the Department’s combined focus on public diplomacy, national
security, and workforce and economic development:

To help keep America safe, partner effectively with our allies, and collaborate with
other nations in solving global challenges, we need professionals with solid cultural
knowledge and language skills that cover all parts of the globe. These grants will
enable more students and educators to gain global competencies that equip them with
an understanding and openness to cultures and languages around the globe, as well
as the twenty-first century skills needed to preserve a rich, multicultural society and
thriving democracy right here at home. (U.S. Department of Education 2014).

Department of Defense
Like the Department of Education, the Department of Defense’s internationalization-related policies
and programs focus on building foreign language and area studies capacity. Through the National

5 https://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ope/iegps/fulbrighthaysact.pdf
6 http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ope/iegps/index.html
7 http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ope/iegps/brochure-ieps.pdf
8 http://c.ymcdn.com/sites/www.ncher.us/resource/collection/90515964-F9A5-45E4-83E5-06C2A26E3125/Titles_V_VI_VII-
10222002.pdf

Internationalizing U.S. Higher Education: Current Policies, Future Directions7

 Security Education Program (NSEP),9 the Defense Department awards both individual scholarships
for language study abroad and institutional grants to develop and enhance foreign language pro-
grams and curricula.
The stated purpose of NSEP is “strengthening national security through critical language and
culture expertise.” Training future government employees is a central purpose of the programs; the
NSEP website notes, “our primary mission is to develop a pipeline of foreign language and culture
expertise for the U.S. federal government workforce.”10
NSEP is authorized by the David L. Boren National Security Education Act of 1991, which estab-
lished its scholarship and institutional grant programs. While national security is the main moti-
vating factor, economic rationales are at play as well; to illustrate the need for the newly created
programs, the act notes, “the future national security and economic well-being of the United States
will depend substantially on the ability of its citizens to communicate and compete by knowing the
languages and cultures of other countries.”11

AGENCY-INITIATED PROGRAMS AND EXECUTIVE ACTION

Beyond the three agencies with legislatively mandated internationalization-related programs, agen-
cies with self-initiated programs contribute substantially to the federal-level policy landscape.
A prime example is the National Science Foundation (NSF). The International Science and Engi-
neering Section12 of NSF’s Office of International and Integrative Activities administers fellowship
programs for students to study and conduct research abroad, and project-based grants to support
international research collaborations. Numerous grants administered by other divisions of NSF also
allow for and encourage—but do not specifically focus on—international collaboration as warranted
by the topic and scope of the research they fund.
Developing global competence among the U.S. scientific workforce is a primary motivation for these
programs. The NSF website states, “Increasingly in the future, U.S. scientists and engineers must be
able to operate in teams composed not only of people from many disciplines, but also from different
nations and cultural backgrounds.”13 More broadly, U.S. competitiveness in the sciences, as well as
the advancement of scientific knowledge worldwide, drives NSF’s international programs. Among its
articulated “performance goals,” the organization’s fiscal 2011–16 strategic plan includes “Keep the
United States globally competitive at the frontiers of knowledge by increasing international part-
nerships and collaborations,” which in turn will lead to “transformational science and engineering
breakthroughs” (National Science Foundation 2011, 8).
Looking at other agencies’ internationalization-related activities, the Department of Commerce has
taken steps to attract international students with an eye toward their contribution to the U.S. econ-
omy. Some Commerce regulations also come into play in the research arena, and in how higher edu-
cation is addressed in international trade agreements. Programs administered by the U.S. Agency
for International Development (USAID), while not focused specifically on higher education, engage
colleges and universities in development projects and collaborations abroad. Numerous other agen-

9 http://www.nsep.gov/
10 http://www.nsep.gov/
11 http://www.intelligence.senate.gov/laws/david-l-boren-national-security-education-act-1991
12 http://www.nsf.gov/od/iia/ise/index.jsp
13 http://www.nsf.gov/od/oise/nsf-wide-info.jsp

8 Internationalizing U.S. Higher Education: Current Policies, Future Directions

cies fund faculty research on international topics and operate short-term exchange programs open to
scholars and professionals.
In terms of policies and programs established by executive action, in recent years the White House
has initiated bilateral policies and programs designed to increase student mobility and broader
collaboration between U.S. institutions and their counterparts in particular areas of the world. These
policies are broad in scope, and charge individual agencies—typically the Department of State—with
development and execution of programs. President Obama’s 100,000 Strong initiatives14 (described
in the “Current Policies and Programs” section on page 9) are prime examples in this category.

OTHER ACTORS AND INFLUENCERS

As in other countries, U.S. federal agencies’ policies and programs are often supported and imple-
mented by non-governmental organizations that receive administrative and programmatic fund-
ing from the sponsoring government agency. The Institute of International Education (IIE),15 World
Learning,16 the International Research and Exchanges Board (IREX),17 and other U.S. non-profit
organizations (as well as some for-profit counterparts) dedicated largely to this purpose compete for
contracts to carry out federal programs and policies; higher education associations with a broader
focus, such as ACE, may also be active in this realm.
In some cases, programs are implemented by organizations abroad that are jointly funded by the
U.S. and host country governments; examples include the United States–India Educational Founda-
tion18 and Fulbright Commissions19 around the world. Typically, these non-governmental organiza-
tions (both in the U.S. and abroad) collaborate closely with agency officials on the design and details
of these programs, and in this way play a role in guiding the direction of U.S. policy as it is imple-
mented.
Other bodies responsible for oversight of various aspects of the U.S. higher education system also
impact the direction of internationalization. In many countries, accreditation is a government func-
tion, but because independent regional and disciplinary accrediting bodies hold this responsibility
in the U.S., these organizations’ policies and priorities affect internationalization—particularly when
it comes to the curriculum. 20 State governments (and to some extent, local governments) exercise a
level of budgetary control over public institutions, and any internationalization initiatives involving
the use of public (state and local) funds; they may also engage colleges and universities in sister-city
programs and other initiatives to build trade relationships and increase connections with non-U.S.
counterparts. The details of state government and accrediting bodies’ policies are outside the scope
of this report’s focus on national government policies, but are an important part of the overall policy
milieu.
And of course, in a higher education system that prioritizes institutional autonomy, the policies and
programs administered by institutions themselves play a major role in guiding internationalization.

14 http://www.state.gov/100k/
15 http://www.iie.org/
16 http://www.worldlearning.org/
17 https://www.irex.org/
18 http://www.usief.org.in/About-USIEF.aspx
19 http://eca.state.gov/fulbright/about-fulbright/funding-and-administration/fulbright-commissions
20 For more information on accreditation and internationalization, read Mapping the Landscape: Accreditation and the International
Dimensions of U.S. Higher Education, released by NAFSA in 2015. http://www.nafsa.org/wcm/Product?prodid=438

Internationalizing U.S. Higher Education: Current Policies, Future Directions9

 These policies, their impact, and their role vis-à-vis federal government policies are discussed in
more detail in subsequent sections.

10 Internationalizing U.S. Higher Education: Current Policies, Future Directions

Current Policies and Programs
Given the many federal agencies whose policies bear upon higher education internationalization,
the large number of initiatives and activities they entail, and the dispersed nature of information on
U.S. government activities, inventorying existing policies and programs is a formidable challenge.
Here, we tackle this task by applying the typology developed in Internationalizing Higher Educa-
tion Worldwide, with some adjustments to fit the U.S. context. We focus primarily on the key-player
agencies described above, categorizing their internationalization-related activities, and incorporat-
ing examples from other agencies where particularly noteworthy. In order to provide a well-rounded
(though not exhaustive) view of efforts in each category, we also touch on policies that are not spe-
cific to higher education internationalization per se, but may impact programs and practices.
Four broad categories comprise our typology of U.S. internationalization-related policies and pro-
grams, each of which includes a number of subcategories. The main categories are:

• TYPE 1: STUDENT MOBILITY

• TYPE 2: SCHOLAR MOBILITY AND RESEARCH COLLABORATION
• TYPE 3: CROSS-BORDER EDUCATION
• TYPE 4: INTERNATIONALIZATION AT HOME

U.S. POLICY ACTORS

FEDERAL
GOVERNMENT
STATE NON-GOVERNMENTAL
GOVERNMENTS ORGANIZATIONS

ACCREDITING
U.S. Higher Education
AGENCIES
Internationalization-Related INSTITUTIONS
Policies & Programs

Internationalizing U.S. Higher Education: Current Policies, Future Directions11

 TYPE 1. STUDENT MOBILITY
Like other governments around the world, the U.S. federal government has implemented various
types of policies and programs to increase student mobility. As in other countries, these include
initiatives to attract international students to the U.S. and encourage American students to study
abroad, as well as bilateral and regional agreements to spur mobility specifically to and from key
partner countries or regions.
As discussed in Internationalizing Higher Education Worldwide, in examining student mobility-
focused policies it is useful to distinguish between “credit” and “degree” mobility. Degree mobility
involves the international movement of students in pursuit of a full degree at an institution in the
receiving country. Credit mobility occurs when students take courses—and typically earn credits for
their home country degree—from an institution in the host country, but generally are mobile for a
shorter time, and do not earn a full degree.

A. INBOUND MOBILITY
Mirroring the landscape in other parts of the world, policies and programs to attract international
students to the U.S. include scholarships, visa-related initiatives, and “study in”-type efforts. While
many other countries have established numerical targets for international students enrolled in their
institutions, to date, this has not been the case for the United States. This may be due, at least in part,
to the fact that only a small proportion of international students in the U.S. receive financial backing
from the U.S. government; recruiting and supporting international students is largely an institu-
tion-based endeavor.

Scholarships
U.S. government scholarships for incoming international students are primarily the purview of
the State Department’s Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs (ECA). The specific constella-
tion of programs varies over time as the State Department’s geographic and strategic priorities
shift. Currently, over 50 programs are available for non-U.S. citizens; these include a number of
programs open to youth and professionals as well as (or in lieu of) university-aged students, and
many are limited to short-term stays (credit mobility). Homing in on those that specifically focus
on bringing international students to U.S. institutions, current programs that fund undergradu-
ate students for stays of at least one semester in the United States include:

• The Global Undergraduate Exchange Program (also known as the Global UGRAD
Program) provides one-semester and academic year scholarships “to undergradu-
ate students from underrepresented sectors in East Asia, Eurasia and Central Asia,
the Near East and South Asia and the Western Hemisphere.”21

• The Tunisia Community College Scholarship Program (TCCSP), part of the Depart-
ment of State’s Thomas Jefferson Scholarships, offers full, one-year scholarships for
young Tunisians who are studying at technical schools (ISETs) in Tunisia. 22

21 http://exchanges.state.gov/non-us/program/global-undergraduate-exchange-program-global-ugrad
22 http://exchanges.state.gov/non-us/program/tunisia-community-college-scholarship-program

12 Internationalizing U.S. Higher Education: Current Policies, Future Directions

 • The Community College Initiative (CCI) Program provides students from abroad an
academic program at U.S. community colleges, with the intent to “build technical
skills, enhance leadership capabilities, and strengthen English language profi-
ciency.” Participants spend one academic year in the United States, and may earn a
certificate in their field of study. 23
Scholarship programs that fund incoming graduate students for a year or more include:

• The Fulbright Foreign Student Program enables graduate students, young profes-
sionals, and artists from abroad to research and study in the United States for one
year or longer at U.S. universities or other appropriate institutions.24

• The Edmund S. Muskie Graduate Fellowship Program provides fellowships for mas-
ter’s degree-level study to emerging leaders from Eurasia for study in the United
States in various fields. 25

Visas
The policies of two agencies impact international student visas. The State Department (guided
by the immigration laws passed by Congress) sets overall visa regulations and eligibility require-
ments for entry into the United States, including for student visas, and designs and administers
the visa application and review process. 26 Once the visas are granted, information on students
holding these visas is maintained via the Student Exchange and Visitor Program (SEVP), which
is managed by the Department of Homeland Security’s (DHS) U.S. Immigration and Customs
Office. The Student and Exchange Visitor Information System (SEVIS) is used by DHS to track
and monitor regulatory compliance by host institutions and student visa holders. The SEVIS sys-
tem was mandated as part of the USA Patriot Act that was passed in the wake of the September
11, 2001 terrorist attacks, and was fully implemented in 2003. 27
As described in Internationalizing Higher Education Worldwide, various countries are chang-
ing their visa regulations in order to attract international students by making it easier to obtain
a student visa, enjoy work permission while studying, or seek employment after graduation.
Recent efforts in this vein in the United States have centered on the period of “Optional Practical
Training” (OPT) that allows international students to remain in the U.S. after graduation in order
to obtain additional training in their field through work experience. In 2012, for example, regu-
lations were changed to allow students graduating in designated science, technology, engineer-
ing, and math (STEM) degree programs to remain in the United States for 29 months of OPT,
as opposed to the standard 12 months. 28 President Obama’s 2014 Immigration Accountability
Executive Action included a provision to “expand and extend the use of the existing OPT pro-
gram and require stronger ties between OPT students and their colleges and universities follow-
ing graduation.”29

23 http://exchanges.state.gov/non-us/program/community-college-initiative-program
24 http://exchanges.state.gov/non-us/program/fulbright-foreign-student-program
25 http://exchanges.state.gov/non-us/program/edmund-s-muskie-graduate-fellowship-program
26 http://travel.state.gov/content/visas/english/study-exchange.html
27 http://fpc.state.gov/documents/organization/44016.pdf
28 http://www.dhs.gov/news/2012/05/11/dhs-announces-expanded-list-stem-degree-programs
29 https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2014/11/20/fact-sheet-immigration-accountability-executive-action

Internationalizing U.S. Higher Education: Current Policies, Future Directions13

 In addition, both the State Department and DHS engage in outreach efforts to make the visa
application process less onerous for international students. EducationUSA advisors are trained
to help students navigate the application process and provide information on requirements.
SEVP maintains a Study in the States website that walks students through the visa process and
details regulations for maintaining visa status while in the United States.30

“Study In” Initiatives

As well as administering scholarship programs for incoming students, ECA houses
EducationUSA, which is akin to “study in” initiatives launched by governments in other countries.
EducationUSA consists of a network of advising centers around the world that provide informa-
tion and advice to students who want to study in the United States (for both degree and credit
mobility).
According to the program’s website, “these centers share a common goal: assisting students in
accessing U.S. higher education opportunities. Advising centers are staffed by EducationUSA
advisers, many of whom have first-hand experience studying in the United States.” In addition to
providing print and online materials at EducationUSA Advising Centers, advisers reach pro-
spective student audiences through fairs and outreach events at local schools, universities, and
other public venues.31
EducationUSA also has administrative staff housed at the State Department’s Washington, DC
headquarters, and maintains a website that outlines the key steps involved in selecting, apply-
ing to, and enrolling in a U.S. institution. The program also engages U.S. colleges and universities
by providing information about recruiting strategies for particular areas of the world, including
through an annual conference for admission officers and other institutional staff.
Beyond the State Department, the Department of Commerce has increased its activities related
to recruiting international students. In 2011, for example, the department’s under secretary for
international trade took a delegation of institutional representatives to Indonesia and Vietnam
in order to “explore opportunities for student recruitment and partnerships with higher educa-
tion institutions in those two countries.” The under secretary cited economic motivations as the
purpose of the visit:

Expanding educational opportunities for students in emerging economies like

Indonesia’s and Vietnam’s is critical to developing a middle class in those markets.
The new middle-class consumers emerge with increased resources to participate in
both local and global markets, including that of the United States. (Sánchez 2011)

The Commerce Department now regularly takes U.S. higher education delegations abroad, which
are typically composed of international student recruiters and faculty, among other institutional
representatives. In addition, the department has been instrumental to, and in some cases a cat-
alyst for, the formation of state-based consortia of institutions, designed to attract international
students. Study Oregon, 32 started in 1998, was one of the first of these organizations; currently,

30 https://studyinthestates.dhs.gov/
31 https://educationusa.state.gov/foreign-institutions-and-governments/educationusa-network
32 http://studyoregon.com/

14 Internationalizing U.S. Higher Education: Current Policies, Future Directions

 there are over 20 active consortia in the United States. Though the Commerce Department does
not fund these organizations, it provides administrative support through its local offices, and
helps member institutions connect with counterparts abroad.33

B. OUTBOUND MOBILITY
Similar to other countries around the world, the U.S. government promotes outbound mobility pri-
marily through scholarships (awarded to individuals, or in some cases, to institutions to disperse to
students) and to some extent, financial aid policies. As is the case for inbound mobility-related ini-
tiatives, the U.S. government has not set specific national-level targets for the number of outbound
students desired (though some of the regional mobility initiatives outlined in the subsequent section
do include specify such goals). The focus of these initiatives is credit mobility, rather than degree
mobility.

Scholarships
Compared to inbound scholarships, which are concentrated in the hands of the State Depart-
ment, the field of agencies offering funding for study abroad by U.S. students is considerably wider.
The State Department’s Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs is still a key player, however.
Currently, ECA sponsors 52 programs for U.S. citizens, including youth, higher education stu-
dents, scholars, and professionals; of these, 15 target U.S. undergraduate and graduate students.
Chief among them are:

• The Fulbright U.S. Student Program offers fellowships for U.S. graduating college
seniors, graduate students, young professionals, and artists to study, conduct
research, or be an English teaching assistant abroad for one academic year. Fellow-
ship amounts vary by country and project.34

• The Benjamin A. Gilman International Scholarship Program provides scholarships in

the amount of $5,000 to U.S. undergraduates with financial need for study abroad.35
A number of the remaining DoS-sponsored student programs fall under the Fulbright program,
and provide scholarships for study in specific disciplines or areas of the world.
Beyond the State Department, as part of its National Security Education Program (NSEP), the
Department of Defense administers two programs to fund language and culture study abroad:

• The David L. Boren Scholarship funds one year of study abroad, focused on lan-
guage and culture, for U.S. undergraduates. Awardees receive up to $20,000 and
commit to working for the U.S. government for at least one year.36

• At the graduate level, the David L. Boren Fellowship funds up to two years of lan-
guage- and culture-focused study abroad for U.S. master’s and doctoral students.
Awardees receive up to $30,000 and commit to working for the U.S. government for
at least one year.37

33 Information provided by Gabriela Zelaya, international trade specialist at U.S. Commercial Service.
34 http://exchanges.state.gov/us/program/fulbright-us-student-program
35 http://exchanges.state.gov/us/program/benjamin-gilman-international-scholarship-program
36 http://www.nsep.gov/content/david-l-boren-scholarship
37 http://www.nsep.gov/content/david-l-boren-fellowships

Internationalizing U.S. Higher Education: Current Policies, Future Directions15

 The Department of Education’s Fulbright-Hays suite of programs includes one—the Fulbright-
Hays Doctoral Dissertation Research Abroad Fellowship Program—specifically to support gradu-
ate student research abroad with a focus on language and area studies. Grants are awarded to
institutions, which in turn provide funding to individual students.38 In addition, under Title VI,
the Department of Education administers the Foreign Language and Area Studies Fellowships
Program (FLAS), 39 which provides grants to institutions to support foreign language study by
both undergraduate and graduate students; however, FLAS funding can be used for study in the
United States as well as abroad.
Finally in this category, NSF funds graduate students for short-term research training experi-
ences abroad through two institute programs: the East Asia and Pacific Summer Institutes for U.S.
Graduate Students, and the Pan-American Advanced Studies Institutes Program. In addition, NSF’s
International Research Experiences for Students program funds specific faculty-designed projects
that include and emphasize a student research experience abroad. 40
Also of note when it comes to scholarships for outbound students is the Paul Simon Study Abroad
Act, initially introduced in Congress in 2007, which would provide $80 million per year for indi-
vidual scholarships and institutional grants to “significantly enhance the global competitiveness
and international knowledge base of the United States by ensuring that more U.S. students have
the opportunity to acquire foreign language skills and international knowledge through sig-
nificantly expanded study abroad.” The bill has been introduced in a number of congressional
sessions in the past decade, but ultimately has failed to pass each time.

Financial Aid Policies

Federal financial aid programs administered by the Department of Education allow students to
apply their funding—both grants and loans—for study abroad (credit mobility). In some cases,
U.S. students pursuing a full degree at an institution abroad also qualify for aid—if the receiving
institution participates in U.S. federal aid programs. As of April 2015, there were approximately
850 participating general-focus institutions abroad, plus nearly 30 international medical schools.
The Department of Education’s Federal Student Aid Office maintains a website to walk students
through the process of obtaining aid for study abroad. 41

C. BILATERAL OR REGIONAL MOBILITY

In recent years, the White House and State Department have initiated several programs with
foreign governments to promote student mobility to and from particular countries and regions.
These include:

• Citing the strategic importance of the U.S.–China relationship, in 2009 President

Obama announced the 100,000 Strong initiative, “a national effort designed to
increase dramatically the number and diversify the composition of American

38 http://www2.ed.gov/programs/iegpsddrap/index.html
39 http://www2.ed.gov/programs/iegpsflasf/index.html
40 http://www.nsf.gov/od/iia/ise/index.jsp
41 https://studentaid.ed.gov/prepare-for-college/choosing-schools/types/international#study-abroad

16 Internationalizing U.S. Higher Education: Current Policies, Future Directions

 students studying in China.”42 The initiative was originally housed in the State
Department, but was subsequently spun off to become an independent founda-
tion. 43 The foundation administers student fellowships and provides information
about scholarships available from other organizations.

• In 2011 President Obama announced the 100,000 Strong in the Americas presiden-
tial initiative, the stated goal of which is to double student mobility (both inbound
and outbound) between the U.S. and the countries of Latin America and the Carib-
bean by 2020. The initiative was established as a collaboration among the State
Department and two international-exchange organizations, NAFSA - Association
of International Educators and Partners of the Americas. The program currently
administers institutional grants to develop student exchange opportunities. 44

• In 2013, President Obama and Mexican President Enrique Peña Nieto established

the U.S.–Mexico Bilateral Forum on Higher Education, Innovation and Research
(FOBESII), which aims to “expand student, scholar, and teacher exchanges, promote
language acquisition, increase joint research, promote workforce development and
share best practices between the two countries.” In support of Mexico’s Proyecta
100,000, which aims to send 100,000 Mexican students to the United States and
to receive 50,000 U.S. students in Mexico by 2018, FOBESII convenes institutional
leaders, brings university delegations back and forth between the U.S. and Mexico,
offers student scholarships, and promotes institutional partnerships. 45 In March
2015, the two governments signed an additional memorandum of understanding to
create a new U.S.–Mexico Intern Program. 46

• In collaboration with the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs, in 2014 the State
Department announced the Transatlantic Friendship and Mobility Initiative, the goal
of which is to “double the number of U.S. students going to France and the number
of French students coming to the United States by 2025.”47 In support of the ini-
tiative, the Embassy of France in the United States has funded grants to four U.S.
institutions in order to develop exchange programs with French counterparts. 48
A commonality among these programs is that they have not been supported by dedicated federal
funding on the U.S. end, instead relying on foreign government funds, public-private partner-
ships, industry sponsorship, and private donations to fund their activities. The implications of
this funding arrangement are discussed in more detail below.

42 http://www.state.gov/100k/
43 http://100kstrong.org/
44 http://www.state.gov/p/wha/rt/100k/index.htm
45 http://www.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2015/01/235641.htm
46 http://www.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2015/03/238902.htm
47 http://www.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2014/05/226057.htm
48 http://www.nafsa.org/Explore_International_Education/For_The_Media/Press_Releases_And_Statements/NAFSA_
Announces_Winners_of_French_Initiative_to_Increase_U_S__Study_Abroad_to_France/

Internationalizing U.S. Higher Education: Current Policies, Future Directions17

 TYPE 2. SCHOLAR MOBILITY AND RESEARCH COLLABORATION
In the United States, more federal agencies have a hand in scholar mobility and research collabo-
rations than in any other area related to higher education internationalization. This is due in large
part to three inter-related factors: the massive size of the U.S. research enterprise, the increasingly
global nature of knowledge creation, and a desire for the United States to be both competitive and
cooperative when it comes to cutting-edge research in the global knowledge economy.
In terms of individual fellowships for scholar mobility, exchange programs, and grant support spe-
cifically designed for internationally collaborative projects, the State Department, the Department of
Education, and the National Science Foundation lead the way. More broadly, however, a host of fed-
eral agencies fund university-based research projects that entail international collaboration through
their standard grant-making programs. Federal policies that regulate various aspects of research
and international trade also come into play in this arena.

Individual Fellowships
As is the case for student mobility programs, the State Department is the most active agency
in terms of providing individual support for faculty mobility. A number of programs within the
Fulbright suite fund U.S. faculty to go abroad and bring overseas faculty to the U.S. on a visiting
basis; some of the latter are targeted at faculty from particular areas of the world. Grants are
available for varying lengths of time, and opportunities have been expanded to include more
options for shorter stays. Key programs include:

• The Fulbright U.S. Scholar Program sends approximately 800 American scholars
and professionals per year to approximately 130 countries, where they lecture and/
or conduct research in a wide variety of academic and professional fields. 49

• The Fulbright Visiting Scholar Program provides grants to approximately 850 foreign
scholars from over 100 countries to conduct postdoctoral research at U.S. institu-
tions for an academic semester or a full academic year.50

• The Fulbright Scholar-in-Residence Program (S-I-R) supports non-U.S. scholars

through semester- and academic-year-long grants for teaching at institutions that
“might not have a strong international component.” The description states that
“One of the few Fulbright programs that serves institutions (rather than individ-
uals), S-I-R gives preference to Historically Black Colleges and Universities, His-
panic-serving institutions, Tribal Colleges and Universities, community colleges,
small, liberal arts institutions, Asian-American and Native American/Pacific
Islander-Serving Institutions—AANAPISI, American Indian and Alaskan Native
Institutions—AIANSIs, and Predominantly Black Institutions—PBIs.”51

• The Fulbright Specialist Program awards grants “to U.S. faculty and professionals
. . . in select disciplines to engage in short-term collaborative projects at eligible
49 http://exchanges.state.gov/us/program/fulbright-us-scholar-program
50 http://exchanges.state.gov/non-us/program/fulbright-visiting-scholar-program
51 http://www.cies.org/program/fulbright-scholar-residence-program

18 Internationalizing U.S. Higher Education: Current Policies, Future Directions

 institutions in over 140 countries worldwide.” Project length is two to six weeks.52
Approximately 400 U.S. participants engage in such projects per year.53
The Department of Education supports scholar mobility through its Fulbright-Hays Faculty
Research Abroad Fellowship Program, which, like other Department of Education programs,
focuses on foreign language and area studies. The program provides grants to institutions to
fund faculty to maintain and improve their area studies and language skills by conducting
research abroad for periods of three to 12 months.54

SHORT-TERM PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

AND EXCHANGE PROGRAMS
In addition to the Department of State and Department of Education programs that are specifically designed for higher
education faculty, a host of federal agencies and offices administer smaller-scale, short-term, highly targeted exchange
programs designed to bring together experts in specific fields (relevant to the sponsoring agency’s work) to network and
share good practices. Typically, these programs are open to government employees and other professionals, as well as, in
many cases, higher education faculty.

The Interagency Working Group (IAWG) on U.S. Government-Sponsored International Exchanges and Training compiles an
annual report that catalogues and describes each of these programs. In 2012, the most recent year for which information
is available, there were 232 such programs administered by 63 federal offices and agencies (Interagency Working Group
on U.S. Government-Sponsored International Exchanges and Training 2013).

A representative example is the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s Norman E. Borlaug International Agricultural Science
and Technology Fellowship Program, which “promotes food security and economic growth by providing training and
collaborative research opportunities to fellows from developing and middle-income countries. Borlaug fellows are
generally scientists, researchers or policymakers who are in the early or middle stages of their careers. Each fellow works
one-on-one with a mentor at a U.S. university, research center, or government agency, usually for six to 12 weeks.” (U.S.
Department of Agriculture 2015)

While these programs are not necessarily directly intended to spur long-term international research collaborations, many
rely on U.S. institutions to host participants from abroad and deliver training and other programming. The connections
made as a result of these interactions—brief as they may be—may lead to further discussions about joint research, as
well as teaching collaborations and other projects down the road.

Project-Based Grants
NSF and the Department of Education each offer programs whose primary purpose is to facili-
tate research projects that engage teams of faculty in international projects. These include:

• NSF Partnerships for International Research and Education (PIRE) “supports high
quality projects in which advances in research and education could not occur

52 http://www.cies.org/program/fulbright-specialist-program
53 Personal conversation with Amanda Thorstad, program coordinator at the Institute of International Education.
54 http://www2.ed.gov/programs/iegpsfra/index.html

Internationalizing U.S. Higher Education: Current Policies, Future Directions19

 without international collaboration.” In 2012 (the last year for which information is
available on the website), 12 projects received funding of approximately $3 million
to $5 million each. All projects involve faculty from multiple U.S. institutions.55

• The Fulbright-Hays Group Projects Abroad program funds teams of faculty and
graduate and undergraduate students to undertake research or study in a foreign
country or region. Projects vary in length, and focus on a particular aspect of area
studies or curriculum development. 56
While these targeted programs impact a relatively small number of faculty overall, federal fund-
ing for university-based research in the United States is enormous. There are 26 federal agencies
that provide grant support for research activities.57 While not all federal research dollars go to
college and university faculty, a sizeable portion do. In recent years, for example, U.S. higher
education institutions have received approximately $40 billion annually in federal funding for
research and development (R&D),58 which accounts for around one-third of the total federal R&D
budget.59
As globalization has taken hold, federal agencies are increasingly supporting projects related to
issues and challenges that are relevant not only in the United States, but globally as well. Faculty
proposals for research projects that address a cross-border focus may necessitate mobility on
their part and/or collaboration with colleagues in other countries, which is funded as part of the
overall project grant.

NSF’S FUNDING FOR INTERNATIONAL PROJECTS

While the PIRE program specifically targets international research collaborations, the majority of NSF support for
international activities is awarded through “standard” grant competitions administered by the agency’s discipline-based
divisions. Each division develops its own guidelines, requirements, and review criteria for its competitions; most now
incorporate language into their solicitations that encourages international work and provides guidance for applicants
interested in incorporating global perspectives and collaboration into their projects.

According to Lara A. Campbell, a program director in NSF’s Office of International Science and Engineering, the key
criterion for all divisions at the proposal review phase is the “quality of the science” that the selection committee
anticipates will result from a project. This means that internationally focused projects involving top researchers and
experts abroad—particularly when those colleagues provide access to first-rate expertise, facilities, or equipment—are
likely to be especially competitive.

Although there are variations between programs, most divisions across NSF are increasingly global. Agency-wide, there
are also co-funding mechanisms and partnerships with international funding agencies in place to facilitate support for
foreign collaborators who are part of proposals submitted by U.S. researchers.

55 http://www.nsf.gov/funding/pgm_summ.jsp?pims_id=505038
56 http://www2.ed.gov/programs/iegpsgpa/index.html
57 http://www.grants.gov/web/grants/applicants/applicant-resources/agencies-providing-grants.html
58 Data from NSF’s Higher Education Research and Development Survey, http://nsf.gov/statistics/srvyherd/#tabs-1.
59 http://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R43580.pdf

20 Internationalizing U.S. Higher Education: Current Policies, Future Directions

 Regulation
A number of federal regulatory policies are relevant when it comes to international research col-
laborations. These include intellectual property laws, as well as deemed export laws—the purview
of the Department of Commerce—which regulate the release of “controlled technology to foreign
persons.”60 Because the scope of such regulations is much broader than higher education inter-
nationalization, they are beyond the focus of this report. They can, however, have a considerable
impact on collaborative research activity, and therefore bear mention as an important part of the
policy equation in this category.

60 http://www.bis.doc.gov/index.php/policy-guidance/deemed-exports

Internationalizing U.S. Higher Education: Current Policies, Future Directions21

 TYPE 3. CROSS-BORDER EDUCATION
According to the definition cited in Internationalizing Higher Education Worldwide, cross-border
education “refers to the movement of people, programmes, providers, curricula, projects, research
and services across national or regional jurisdictional borders.” (Vincent-Lancrin 2007, 24)
Cross-border education typically entails partnerships between institutions (or among consortia of
institutions), or an institution in one country establishing a presence (e.g., a branch campus or other
outpost) in another country. Various governments have addressed cross-border education through
policies and programs that facilitate institutional partnerships and/or incentivize foreign institu-
tions to “set up shop” in their respective countries—or, conversely, encourage domestic institutions
to establish a physical presence abroad. Some countries have also introduced policies to regulate
various cross-border activities.

In general, cross-border education has not been a strong focus for U.S. federal government poli-
cies and programs—either in terms of support or regulation. Though small in number compared
to the many programs to facilitate individual student and scholar mobility, a handful or pro-
grams have, however, targeted the development of institutional partnerships. These include:

• USAID’s Higher Education for Development (HED) program61 joins U.S. colleges and
universities with higher education institutions in developing nations to pursue
development-focused activities. Partnerships focus on a range of international
development goals—strengthening human and institutional capacity, supporting
agricultural production, improving public health, and developing sustainable natu-
ral resource management practices, among others. HED operated for two decades,
but its funding expired at the end of the 2015 fiscal year.

• The Indo–U.S. 21st Century Knowledge Initiative awards, formerly known as the
Obama-Singh 21st Century Knowledge Initiative, which is supported by the State
Department but administered by the United States–India Educational Foundation,
provides institution-level grants to U.S. colleges and universities for the purpose of
developing partnerships with Indian counterparts. In operation since 2011, awards
support specific joint projects with approximately $250,000 over the course of a
three-year grant period. According to the program website, “Exchange activities
may include but are not limited to curriculum design, research collaboration, team
teaching, focused series of exchanges, seminars, among other activities. Activities
should be designed to develop expertise, advance scholarship and teaching, and
promote long-term ties between partner institutions.”62

• Since 2010, the Department of State’s Bureau of South and Central Asian Affairs
has enabled the Public Affairs Sections at the U.S. embassies in Kabul and Islam-
abad to award grants to U.S. institutions to establish multi-faceted partnerships with
universities in Afghanistan and Pakistan. Partner institutions are identified by the

61 http://www.acenet.edu/higher-education/topics/Pages/higher-education-development.aspx
62 http://www.usief.org.in/Institutional-Collaboration/Obama-Singh-21st-Century-Knowledge-Initiative-Awards.aspx

22 Internationalizing U.S. Higher Education: Current Policies, Future Directions

 State Department post in each country, with an eye toward capacity building in
particular geographic regions or academic fields. U.S. institutions submit project
proposals through an open grant competition; awards of approximately $1 million
are made to cover each three-year project, funded through a special appropriation
in the Bureau of South and Central Asian Affairs’ annual budget.

Grant activities typically include faculty professional development and

exchanges, curriculum reform initiatives, the co-development of teaching mate-
rials, and joint research. Thus far, 19 grants have been awarded for Pakistan col-
laborations; fields of study have included business administration, psychology,
linguistics, and gender studies, among others. In Afghanistan, nine projects have
been funded, focusing on journalism, engineering, and agriculture, entrepreneur-
ship, and geographic information systems. Upon completion of the initial three-
year project, partner institutions have the opportunity to apply for an add-on
grant to pursue additional joint activities and enhance the sustainability of the
partnership going forward.63
In addition to partnership-focused programs, one additional program bears mention in the
cross-border education category in that it creates “outposts” (Kinser and Lane 2012) of American
higher education activity abroad:

• As part of its Title VI suite of programs, the Department of Education funds the
American Overseas Research Centers Program, which provides grants to consortia
of U.S. institutions “to establish or operate overseas research centers that promote
postgraduate research, exchanges, and area studies.”64 According to the brochure
available on the program website, “The overseas centers must be permanent facili-
ties in the host countries or regions, established to provide logistical and scholarly
assistance to American postgraduate researchers and faculty. Typically, the area
studies or international studies research focuses on the humanities or social sci-
ences.” Since the program’s inception in 1994, 16 research centers have been fund-
ed.”65
In terms of initiatives to encourage and facilitate partnerships, a number of previously existing
Department of Education programs are also noteworthy. In fiscal 2007 through fiscal 2010, the
Department administered four programs to fund institutional partnerships and consortia arrange-
ments between U.S. institutions and counterparts in other countries: the U.S.–Brazil Higher Edu-
cation Consortia Program, the European Union–United States Atlantis Program, the Program for
North American Mobility in Higher Education, and the United States–Russia Program: Improv-
ing Research and Educational Activities in Higher Education. Funding was authorized by Title
VII of the Higher Education Act, and in each case, the program was jointly administered by the
Department of Education and a corresponding government body in the collaborating country or

63 Information provided by Richard A. Boyum, university partnership coordinator for Afghanistan and Pakistan at the Bureau of
South and Central Asian Affairs, U.S. Department of State.
64 http://www2.ed.gov/programs/iegpsaorc/index.html
65 http://www2.ed.gov/programs/iegpsaorc/brochure-aorc.pdf

Internationalizing U.S. Higher Education: Current Policies, Future Directions23

 region. The department’s website66 still lists these programs, but funding was eliminated and the
programs are no longer active.
When it comes to the regulation of cross-border activity, there have been virtually no policies or
programs at the federal level. In response to concerns about academic freedom, in late 2014 one
congressman called for the Government Accountability Office to “examine agreements Amer-
ican colleges and universities have signed with the Chinese government [to determine] if the
institutions had made ‘quiet compromises’ on academic freedom in the process” (Wilhelm 2014).
A hearing was held in June 2015 at which representatives from U.S. institutions with a presence
in China discussed the issue, but no additional action has been taken. (Thomsen 2015)
It is important to note that international trade agreements may come into play when it comes
to college and universities’ cross-border activities and initiatives. Recent examples include the
Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership and the Trade in Services Agreement, both
currently under negotiation, which critics assert may lead to an increasing and problematic
“marketization” of higher education activities (Redden 2015); similar questions have also been
raised about the impact of the Trans-Pacific Partnership.67 Because they are not specific to higher
education internationalization, however, the details of such policies are beyond the scope of this
report.

66 http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ope/iegps/index.html
67 http://academeblog.org/2015/05/25/the-impact-of-the-trans-pacific-partnership-on-higher-education/

24 Internationalizing U.S. Higher Education: Current Policies, Future Directions

TYPE 4. INTERNATIONALIZATION AT HOME
Although the term internationalization at home has typically been used in the European context,
the concept is equally applicable in the United States and elsewhere. Understandings vary as to
what specific activities are entailed, but center around on-campus student learning for non-mobile
students. One of the more recent definitions, for example, characterizes internationalization at home
as “the purposeful integration of international and intercultural dimensions into the formal and
informal curriculum for all students within domestic learning environments.” (Beelen and Jones
2014).

As noted in Internationalizing Higher Education Worldwide, internationalization at home is an

emerging, but still relatively new, focus area for national policies. In the United States, a few pro-
grams encourage internationalization at home vis-à-vis funding for one segment of the curricu-
lum: development of foreign language and area studies programs.
On the Department of Education side, Title VI authorizes a number of such programs, with
varying focus and scope. In all cases, grants are awarded at the institutional level. Key examples
include:68

• The Language Resource Centers Program provides grants to higher education insti-
tutions or consortia of institutions for the purpose of establishing, strengthening,
and operating a small number of national language resource and training centers
to improve the effectiveness of teaching and learning foreign languages.

• The National Resource Centers Program provides grants to higher education institu-
tions or consortia of institutions to establish, strengthen, and operate comprehen-
sive and undergraduate language and area/international study centers to serve as
national resources.

• The Centers for International Business Education Program “provides funding to

schools of business for curriculum development, research, and training on issues of
importance to U.S. trade and competitiveness.” Grant recipients are charged to “be
national resources for the teaching of international business; to provide instruction
in foreign languages and international fields; to provide research and training in
the international aspects of trade and commerce,” and are expected to engage in
outreach to the business community.

• The Undergraduate International Studies and Foreign Language Program provides

grants to institutions, consortia of institutions, or partnerships between nonprofit
educational organizations and institutions of higher education. The grants may be
used to plan, develop, and carry out programs to strengthen and improve under-
graduate instruction in international studies and foreign languages.

68 http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ope/iegps/index.html

Internationalizing U.S. Higher Education: Current Policies, Future Directions25

 As noted previously, not all Title VI programs are funded every year. And, as discussed in more
detail below, funding for Title VI programs has decreased substantially in recent years, which
has meant significant programmatic cuts and a curtailing of activity.
In the Department of Defense, NSEP includes two grant programs that fund institutional foreign
language initiatives:

• The Language Flagship Program provides institutional grants to develop instruc-

tional programs in “critical languages” that will allow students to attain profession-
al-level competency. Currently, the program sponsors 27 programs at 22 univer-
sities in the following languages: Arabic, Chinese, Hindi, Urdu, Korean, Persian,
Portuguese, Russian, Swahili, and Turkish.69

• Project GO funds institutional initiatives to build competence in critical languages

among Reserve Officer Training Corps (ROTC) students (i.e., future U.S. military
leaders). The program currently funds programs at 18 U.S. higher education institu-
tions, including five of the six senior military colleges.70
DoD also funds higher education institutions through its Language Training Centers program,
however the programs established through this program are specifically to train DoD personnel,
and are not about internationalizing the curriculum for college and university students.

69 http://thelanguageflagship.org/content/domestic-program-1
70 http://www.nsep.gov/content/project-go

26 Internationalizing U.S. Higher Education: Current Policies, Future Directions

International Comparisons
The U.S. policies and programs outlined in Table 1 generally mirror the types of initiatives cur-
rently underway in other parts of the world; most of the categories that make up the worldwide pol-
icy typology are reflected, at least to some extent, in the U.S. landscape. In terms of policy rationales
and goals, as noted previously, in the U.S. they are closely linked to the overall purposes of the indi-
vidual sponsoring agencies; in general, public diplomacy, national security, and economic rationales
stand out more than some of the academic and capacity-building rationales seen in other parts of the
world.

U.S. FEDERAL GOVERNMENT POLICIES AND PROGRAMS

FOR HIGHER EDUCATION INTERNATIONALIZATION
Type Policy/Program Agencies
1 Student Mobility Inbound mobility Scholarships State

Visa policies State, Homeland Security

“Study in” initiatives State, Commerce

Outbound mobility State, Education, Defense,

Scholarships NSF

Financial aid policies Education

Bilateral or regional Bilateral cooperation White House, State

mobility agreements

2 Scholar Mobility & Research Collaboration Individual fellowships State, Education

NSF, Education, other

Project-based grants grant-making agencies

Regulation Commerce, among others

3 Cross-Border Education Grants to institutions State, Education, USAID

4 Internationalization at Home Grants to institutions to develop Defense, Education

language and area studies

As in the rest of the world, there is a heavy emphasis on student mobility; the U.S.-specific issues
surrounding this emphasis are discussed in more detail below. There is little focus among U.S. pol-
icies and programs on curriculum development, which is consistent with global trends generally.
Whereas other areas—Europe in particular—are seeing more policies and programs that provide
institution-level grants, in the United States, internationalization-related support is still very much
centered on individual opportunities and activities.

Internationalizing U.S. Higher Education: Current Policies, Future Directions27

 In line with its focus on individual support, while various other countries are implementing policies
that encourage and/or restrict institutional cross-border higher education arrangements such as
partnerships and branch campuses—and may be wrestling with the balance between encouraging
and restricting such activities—the U.S. federal government has been largely hands-off in this area.
As in other countries and regions with a large research enterprise, internationalization of research is
becoming an increasing policy and programmatic focus for the U.S. agencies that oversee and fund
this type of work.

Looking at effectiveness, although there is a robust monitoring and evaluation function in many
federal agencies to collect and analyze data on outputs, outcomes, and longer-term impacts,71 these
assessments are typically done at the program level, and are tied to agency-specific goals. While
some larger-scale, cross-program evaluations have been undertaken,72 more data is needed on the
effectiveness and impact of internationalization-related policies and programs vis-à-vis higher
education in particular—i.e., how and to what extent such policies contribute to internationalization
efforts at the college and university level, and advance internationalization throughout the U.S.
higher education system as a whole.

71 For example, the Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs’ Evaluation Division: http://eca.state.gov/impact/evaluation-eca.
72 For example, the report of a Department of Education-funded evaluation of the Title VI and Fulbright-Hays programs, conducted
by the National Academy of Sciences, was released in 2007 and is available here: http://www8.nationalacademies.org/cp/
projectview.aspx?key=CFEX-Q-05-08-A.

28 Internationalizing U.S. Higher Education: Current Policies, Future Directions

Toward a National Policy?
In terms of global comparisons, what is noticeably absent from the catalogue of U.S. policies and
programs is the final category in the typology presented in Internationalizing Higher Education
Worldwide: a comprehensive national policy that draws together multiple initiatives across catego-
ries with a specific goal of furthering higher education internationalization. There have been peri-
odic calls for such a policy, including from various associations, as well as some efforts toward actual
implementation.
For example, in 2002, spurred by the tragic events of the previous year, ACE issued an “international
policy paper” titled Beyond September 11: A Comprehensive National Policy on International Edu-
cation, which was endorsed by 34 other higher education, scholarly, and exchange associations and
organizations. The report calls for a higher education internationalization policy with three objec-
tives: produce international experts and knowledge to address national strategic needs; strengthen
the United States’ ability to solve global problems; and develop a globally competent citizenry and
workforce. The federal government, it asserts, should partner with (and provide funding to) the
higher education community to:
• Enhance foreign language, area and international studies, and business education
• Internationalize teaching and learning
• Promote international research
• Enhance institutional linkages abroad
• Increase study and internships abroad
• Increase the number of international students
• Increase scholarly and citizen exchanges
• Make greater use of technology for learning and information access
Within each of these categories, the authors outline target areas and broad goals; they do not pro-
pose specific programs or specify funding amounts, however they acknowledge that “several federal
programs exist to address these strategies, but they must be strengthened and expanded, and new
initiatives must be considered” (American Council on Education 2002, 15).
In 2007, as a follow-up to an initial call set forth by their organizations in 1999, NAFSA and the
Alliance for International Educational and Cultural Exchange (the Alliance) released a statement
titled An International Education Policy for U.S. Leadership, Competitiveness, and Security.73 The
introduction states:

It is time for the federal government to provide the leadership that the public demands
by articulating a comprehensive international education policy that will set a strong
direction for the nation, one that will guide government officials, the higher education
and K–12 communities, the states, and the private sector in harnessing international
education to serve vital national needs in a global age. (2)
73 http://www.nafsa.org/Explore_International_Education/Advocacy_And_Public_Policy/United_States_International_
Education_Policy/An_International_Education_Policy_For_U_S__Leadership,_Competitiveness,_and_Security/

Internationalizing U.S. Higher Education: Current Policies, Future Directions29

 Such a policy, the report suggests, should focus on four primary goals:
• Promote international, foreign language, and area studies
• Create a comprehensive strategy to restore America’s status as a magnet for international stu-
dents and scholars
• Create a comprehensive strategy to establish study abroad as an integral component of under-
graduate education
• Strengthen citizen- and community-based exchange programs
Like the 2002 ACE report Beyond September 11, the NAFSA/Alliance statement calls for collabora-
tion with a number of stakeholders, including institutions and state/local governments. However
the primary responsibility, it asserts, is at the federal level; the report notes, “All must do their part.
But the leadership of the federal government is crucial” (Alliance for International Educational and
Cultural Exchange and NAFSA 2007, 2). Both reports focus on higher education, but acknowledge
the need for action at the secondary level as well. While both cite the need for student mobility, they
also highlight curriculum development and faculty engagement in internationalization as key areas
that require attention.

POLICY ARTICULATIONS
While no comprehensive national policy has emerged that mirrors those in other countries or fully
carries out the recommendations in the ACE and NAFSA/Alliance reports, over the past 15 years
there have been some efforts in this direction. In 2000, U.S. President Clinton issued a two-page
“Memorandum on International Education Policy,”74 which reflects to a great extent the priority
areas outlined by both the ACE and NAFSA/Alliance reports. The memo states, “It is the policy of
the Federal Government to support international education.” This commitment, according to the
memo, is to be manifested by:
• Encouraging students from other countries to study in the United States
• Promoting study abroad by U.S. students
• Supporting the exchange of teachers, scholars, and citizens at all levels of society
• Enhancing programs at U.S. institutions that build international partnerships and expertise
• Expanding high-quality foreign language learning and in-depth knowledge of other cultures by
Americans
• Preparing and supporting teachers in their efforts to interpret other countries and cultures for
their students
• Advancing new technologies that aid the spread of knowledge throughout the world
While the memo calls for the engagement of specific agencies—the Department of State and the
Department of Education, in particular—it does not outline steps or programs to accomplish these
broad goals. It also notes that actions called for by the memo “shall be conducted subject to the
availability of appropriations, consistent with the agencies’ priorities and my budget,” and that the

74 President William J. Clinton to the Heads of Executive Departments and Agencies, April 19, 2000, “Memorandum on
International Education Policy.” Online by Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, The American Presidency Project. http://www.
presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=58389.

30 Internationalizing U.S. Higher Education: Current Policies, Future Directions

memorandum itself is “a statement of general policy and does not confer a right of action on any
individual or group.”
More recently, the Department of Education issued a report in 2012 called Succeeding Globally
Through International Education and Engagement: U.S. Department of Education International
Strategy 2012-2016. The report highlights two “strategic goals”: “strengthening U.S. education” and
“advancing our nation’s international priorities.” Specifically, the report notes, the strategy “reflects
the value and necessity of”:
• A world-class education for all students
• Global competencies for all students
• International benchmarking and applying lessons learned from other countries
• Education diplomacy and engagement with other countries
The goals set forth in the report—particularly those related to global competencies and education
diplomacy—are in line with those suggested by ACE and NAFSA/the Alliance. However, as the title
suggests, the report is more about a strategy for the internationalization of the Department of Educa-
tion itself and for its engagement with counterpart agencies around the world, rather than a policy or
programs for the internationalization of the U.S. education system.
Though programs such as those funded under Title VI and other existing initiatives are men-
tioned as part of the strategy, funding levels are not addressed and specific new initiatives are
not described in detail. Of Title VI programs, for example, the report states, “the Department is
exploring how to leverage these programs to achieve broad global competence for more students
and teachers.” And while the report notes that the Department of Education “will continue to work
with other U.S. government agencies such as the Departments of State, Commerce, and Labor, and
USAID,” it does not outline the nature of such collaboration, or suggest greater interagency coordi-
nation to advance internationalization goals more broadly.

CONSTRAINTS AND CONSIDERATIONS

Despite the case made by organizations such as ACE, NAFSA, and the Alliance, as well as support-
ing data and arguments advanced by organizations in other countries (such as the European Uni-
versity Association, as cited in Internationalizing Higher Education Worldwide), it is not surprising
that a comprehensive national policy for the internationalization of U.S. higher education has not
taken root.
First, decentralization and autonomy—at both the government and institutional levels—are a
major factor. With no centralized ministry of education that controls higher education policy and
programs, it is not clear from where such a policy would originate. As discussed above, existing
policies and programs are dispersed across agencies; none of these exerts any significant influence
over higher education institutions, which are governed to some extent by state governments, but are
largely autonomous.
As discussed in Internationalizing Higher Education Worldwide, regardless of the national context,
institutional buy-in is needed for government policies and programs to be effective. However, in
countries where academic and operational decisions are made centrally, a national international-

Internationalizing U.S. Higher Education: Current Policies, Future Directions31

 ization policy that is implemented in a top-down fashion may be more feasible than in the United
States, where the autonomy of institutions is such an integral principle of the higher education sys-
tem and efforts by the government to dictate institutional operations and priorities are often highly
controversial.
Second, the diversity and size of the U.S. higher education system—certainly strengths of the sys-
tem overall—also work against the implementation of a broad national policy. As noted, the Clinton
memo and Department of Education strategy, as well as the ACE and NAFSA/Alliance reports, out-
line broad goals but stop short of proposing specific programs to achieve them. Most likely, this is
by design, or at least by necessity; the diversity of institutional types, missions, student populations,
and an array of other variables among U.S. institutions mean that the internationalization process
needs to play out very differently on different campuses. However, this makes it a formidable chal-
lenge to create a national policy that has enough specificity to be meaningful and go beyond gener-
alities, but is still broad enough to be applicable across all institutions.
Certainly a mitigating factor for the challenges posed by decentralization, institutional diversity,
and other factors would be financial support. A national policy scaffolded by programs backed by
substantial funding for institutions would attract their attention and generate buy-in and support.
As outlined in Internationalizing Higher Education Worldwide, the comprehensive national policies
implemented in other countries typically carry funding; in order for such a policy to take hold in
the U.S., a major commitment of federal funds would likely be needed—again, however, with no one
agency clearly responsible for higher education internationalization, it is unclear where such fund-
ing would come from. And given the tight budgetary environment of the current era, the ability to
marshal funding on the scale needed is questionable.
The attempts at and discussion around the possibility of a national internationalization policy
arguably have had value in and of themselves; all four documents reviewed in this section, for
example, concisely and convincingly articulate the importance of internationalization and the need
for efforts at the federal and institutional levels. Overall, they bring attention to the issue and keep
it on the collective “radar screens” of government agencies, Congress, institutions, and the public.
All told, however, the characteristics of the U.S. government and the higher education system make
it unlikely that a single, overarching national policy would be truly effective in advancing higher
education internationalization nationwide.
Instead, going forward, the U.S. needs a broad, well-coordinated set of well-funded initiatives that
support comprehensive internationalization of U.S. higher education. These activities should be
informed by the experiences of the other countries that are currently implementing international-
ization policies, and the issues of effectiveness identified in the Internationalizing Higher Education
Worldwide report.

32 Internationalizing U.S. Higher Education: Current Policies, Future Directions

A Focused Effort
Toward this end, a focused effort is needed to better leverage existing U.S. federal government pol-
icies and programs in advancing higher education internationalization, address aspects of interna-
tionalization that are not currently well-supported, and ensure that all internationalization-related
policies and programs—existing and new—are adequately funded. The following measures would be
a useful starting point for such efforts.

INTER-AGENCY COORDINATION
In 1997, an Interagency Working Group (IAWG) on U.S. Government-Sponsored International
Exchanges and Training was created to “make recommendations to the President for improving the
coordination, efficiency, and effectiveness of U.S.-government sponsored international exchanges
and training.”75 Still in operation today, the IAWG is composed of senior-level officials from the
Departments of Defense, Education, Justice, and State, USAID, and 26 other agencies, including
NASA, the Office of Management and Budget, and the Federal Trade Commission; 17 other federal
agencies and organizations are involved as “non-member” contributors. Chaired by an official of the
State Department’s Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs, the IAWG is tasked to:
• Establish a clearinghouse to improve data collection and analysis
• Promote greater understanding of and cooperation on common issues and challenges
• Identify administrative and programmatic duplication and overlap of activities
• Develop a coordinated strategy
• Develop recommendations on performance measures
• Develop strategies for expanding public and private partnerships, and leveraging private sector
support
The IAWG is a good concept; its annual reports (noted previously), for example, provide a compre-
hensive overview of the landscape of government mobility programs. However, policies and pro-
grams that deal with other aspects of higher education internationalization—including some of the
Title VI and NSEP programs—are outside the realm of IAWG’s work.
A dedicated coordinating body is needed to bring together officials and staff from the key agencies
whose programs most directly relate and contribute to higher education internationalization. This
would allow for a holistic analysis and evaluation of relevant policies and programs—informed by
data on outputs, outcomes, and impact already collected by individual agencies as well as targeted
studies as needed—and an assessment of what additional initiatives and activities would be benefi-
cial from the specific standpoint of higher education internationalization.
Such a group would also be well-positioned to consider how the federal government and institutions
could tap into and benefit from the national and regional policies and initiatives outlined in Interna-
tionalizing Higher Education Worldwide in order to further advance internationalization efforts in

75 This information was obtained from the currently defunct website for the Interagency Working Group (IAWG) on U.S.
Government-Sponsored International Exchanges and Training, http://www.iawg.gov/. At the time of this publication, there was no
date available for the site to be reactivated.

Internationalizing U.S. Higher Education: Current Policies, Future Directions33

 the United States. Given the Department of Education’s interface with U.S. colleges and universities,
the task of convening key agencies to focus on higher education internationalization would be a
natural outgrowth of its existing role.
Interagency collaboration and coordination at the operational level are also needed. On an ad-hoc
basis EducationUSA (DoS) and the Department of Commerce have made strides in this direction
when it comes to efforts to attract international students to the United States; for example, the
members of Commerce Department delegations traveling abroad engage with local EducationUSA
advisors, who provide information on the country’s higher education system and students. Staff of
the two organizations deliver joint presentations to U.S. and international audiences to explain their
respective roles and promote their services.
Creating more such opportunities for cross-promotion of programs would likely boost overall inter-
est and participation rates, and provide institutions, students, and other potential participants with
the full array of options and opportunities available so they can target those that best fit their own
needs, interests, and goals. A single website—perhaps based on the categorization framework used
in this report—that compiles information about internationalization-related federal programs and
opportunities would be a helpful first step.

ENGAGEMENT WITH THE HIGHER EDUCATION COMMUNITY

While a comprehensive federal-level policy for higher education internationalization has not taken
hold, formalized strategies, policies, and programs at the institution level are gaining consider-
able steam. Data from the 2011 iteration of ACE’s Mapping Internationalization on U.S. Campuses
survey, for example, indicate that an increasing percentage of colleges and universities are incorpo-
rating internationalization into their institutional mission statements and strategic plans; more are
also creating specific internationalization plans and designating task forces to implement them. And
as noted in a 2013 ACE report, Challenges and Opportunities for the Global Engagement of Higher
Education, institutions are developing internally focused internationalization policies and pursuing
partnerships and activity abroad. Additionally, more institutions are developing their own “foreign
relations” policies that entail “direct relationships and negotiations not only with foreign institu-
tions, but also with government representatives” (Peterson and Helms 2013a).
In the absence of a broad federal policy, institutional internationalization and “foreign relations” pol-
icies—and the resulting programs and initiatives—collectively constitute a substantial part of the
United States’ de facto higher education internationalization policy landscape. While this makes
sense given the diversity, autonomy, and decentralization of the U.S. higher education system, some
level of synchronicity between institutional policies and the internationalization-related federal
policies and programs described above is desirable in order to advance internationalization on a
national scale. Yet data suggest the extent to which U.S. institutional-level policies are informed by
or take into account national level policies and priorities is limited.
For example, as noted previously, the primary raison d’être for State Department policies and pro-
grams is public diplomacy. However ACE’s 2011 Mapping survey found that just one percent of
respondents reported that “participating in U.S. diplomacy efforts” was among the top three most
compelling reasons for their institutions to focus on internationalization—giving it a rank of eight

34 Internationalizing U.S. Higher Education: Current Policies, Future Directions

out of eight possible reasons. In comparative terms, the International Association of Universities’
fourth global survey, Internationalization of Higher Education: Growing Expectations, Fundamental
Values, found that in all regions of the world except North America, government policy was the most
significant or second most significant external driver of institutional internationalization. For North
America, government policy was not among the top three drivers, and its rank was not reported.
Even if internationalization of higher education is not the primary—or even an explicitly stated—goal
of the government policies and programs described above, all of these initiatives are substantially
dependent upon the support and participation of U.S. colleges and universities and their constit-
uents. As more institutions formalize their commitment to internationalization, federal agencies
need to understand and articulate how their policies and programs fit into and reinforce institu-
tional internationalization initiatives, and how the government and institutions can work together to
advance their respective and collective goals.
Currently, interaction between government agencies and the higher education community occurs
mainly at the program level. EducationUSA and other individual offices, for example, conduct
outreach on U.S. campuses to promote their programs and services. However, the IAWG does not
include any institutional representatives, and while the 12-member presidentially appointed J. Wil-
liam Fulbright Foreign Scholarship Board currently includes two institution presidents, its scope is
limited to the programs authorized by the Fulbright-Hays Act.76 Wider communication channels,
ongoing dialogue about higher education internationalization, and focused discussion around pol-
icy issues and intersections are needed.

GLOBAL COMPETENCE FOR ALL

While the overarching goals of federal internationalization-related policies and programs and those
at the institutional level vary, they converge in one key area: developing student global compe-
tence. Public diplomacy, workforce development, national security, scientific competitiveness, and
other government policy motivations hinge on participants developing the skills, knowledge, and
attitudes needed to communicate, collaborate, and establish relationships across borders and cul-
tures. At the institutional level, “improving student preparedness for a global era” was cited, by a
significant margin, as the most compelling reason for campus internationalization by respondents to
the 2011 Mapping survey.
Mirroring the worldwide landscape of national policies presented in Internationalizing Higher Edu-
cation Worldwide, current federal policies and programs are strikingly focused on mobility as the
means by which to build student global competence. As noted previously, programs to attract inter-
national students and to incentivize study abroad by U.S. students dominate the landscape; while
Fulbright and other initiatives also engage faculty, the main goal is still movement across borders.
Data indicate that the focus on mobility at the federal level is also prevalent across institutional
policies and programs. ACE’s 2011 Mapping survey, for example, found that compared to 2006
(the previous iteration of the survey), a larger percentage of institutions offered scholarships and
other financial aid to support study abroad by U.S. students, and to attract incoming international
students. More institutions are also funding staff travel abroad for recruiting purposes, and in spite

76 http://eca.state.gov/fulbright/about-fulbright/j-william-fulbright-foreign-scholarship-board-ffsb

Internationalizing U.S. Higher Education: Current Policies, Future Directions35

 of ethical debates, it is clear that a sizeable number of colleges and universities are complementing
staff efforts with the use of paid agents.
Unquestionably, mobility is an important part of internationalization. Although as noted in the Inter-
nationalizing Higher Education Worldwide, the long-term, national-level benefits of funding student
mobility are not well-documented globally, certainly spending time abroad can be instrumental in
students’ developing cross-cultural competence and related knowledge and skills. However, the
enduring reality is that few U.S. students study abroad; the most recent Open Doors report indi-
cates that “under 10 percent of all U.S. college students study abroad at some point during their
undergraduate years.”77
Efforts to increase this percentage, such as the Institute of International Education’s Generation
Study Abroad campaign,78 bring attention to the benefits of student mobility, and can help catalyze
institutional action. Even if Generation Study Abroad achieves its goal of doubling study abroad
participation by 2020, though, 80 percent of U.S. students still will not engage in study abroad
experience as part of their higher education programs. And as the U.S. student population becomes
increasingly composed of “nontraditional” students who are potentially less able to spend time out of
the country due to work and family commitments, the reliance upon study abroad to deliver global
competence is likely to become even less feasible.
Recruiting international students is sometimes seen as a means to counteract low study abroad
rates among domestic students. International students can infuse classroom discussions and co-cur-
ricular programming with an international perspective, it is argued, and help U.S. students gain
intercultural knowledge and skills through their interactions together. In order for international
students to make meaningful contributions in this way, however, they need to be well supported,
including by globally competent faculty who know how to tap non-local perspectives to bring a
global dimension to the classroom. Such support is also important from the perspective of public
diplomacy; in order for international students to develop positive feelings about the United States,
they need to have a positive campus experience.
Both the persistent lack of outbound student mobility and the challenge of ensuring appropriate
international student support and integration point to the need for internationalization at home.
The corresponding section of the typology above, however, contains few policy and program exam-
ples. At the federal level, while the Department of Education’s Title VI programs and those under the
Department of Defense’s NSEP umbrella support foreign language education (described above), in
doing so, they address only a small piece of the curriculum and provide funding to only a select set
of institutions that constitute a small percentage of the U.S. higher education system.
As discussed in Internationalizing Higher Education Worldwide, the U.S. is not alone in its lack of
focus on internationalization at home. However, in order to achieve global competence for all stu-
dents—not just those who are internationally mobile—greater policy and programmatic attention is
needed in this area. A useful starting point would be initiatives that provide funding to institutions
for curriculum internationalization projects and on-campus faculty professional development, which
can have a “multiplier effect” in terms of their reach and impact.

77 http://www.iie.org/en/Who-We-Are/News-and-Events/Press-Center/Press-Releases/2014/2014-11-17-Open-Doors-Data
78 http://www.iie.org/Programs/Generation-Study-Abroad

36 Internationalizing U.S. Higher Education: Current Policies, Future Directions

FUNDING
While governments around the world are committing substantial new resources to policies and
programs that advance higher education internationalization, this is not the case in the United
States. For example, from fiscal 2010 to fiscal 2012, the Department of Education’s budget for inter-
national education and foreign-language programs decreased by approximately 41 percent, which,
as noted previously, resulted in deep cuts to Title VI and Fulbright-Hays programs. In spite of the
Department of Education’s 2012–16 Strategic Internationalization Plan, funding to these programs
has not been restored; total funding accounts for only 0.1 percent of the Department’s overall discre-
tionary budget.79
Changes in State Department funding have been less dramatic; its mobility programs saw an almost
flat budget between fiscal 2011 and fiscal 2013, a decline in fiscal 2014, and then an uptick in fiscal
2015. 80 Still, however, for fiscal 2015, the State Department’s funding for the educational and cultural
exchange programs accounted for a very small proportion of the Department’s overall budget—just
under 4.5 percent. 81
Looking at the snapshot of fiscal 2015 funding across the key-player departments presented in Table
1 also provides an important reality check on the overall federal commitment to higher education
internationalization-related activities in the context of a total annual government spending of over a
trillion dollars.

TABLE 1. Fiscal 2015 Spending on Internationalization-Related Programs

Department Amount Spent
State Department $589.9 million1
Department of Education $72.2 million2
Defense Department (Language training only) $48.5 million3
Total $710.6 million

1 http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/236395.pdf
2 http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/236395.pdf
3 http://www2.ed.gov/about/overview/budget/budget15/15action.pdf

Direct international comparisons of spending on internationalization are difficult given the varying
size and scope of higher education systems and national budgets. As a rough cut, however, a look at
the budgets for some of the key government initiatives cited in Internationalizing Higher Education
Worldwide is illuminating. Table 2 illustrates approximately annual funding (converted to U.S. dol-
lars) for four of these programs.

79 Data obtained from Miriam A. Kazanjian, consultant of international education and government relations at the Coalition for
International Education.
80 Data obtained from Mark Overmann, deputy director at the Alliance for International Educational and Cultural Exchange.
81 http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/236395.pdf

Internationalizing U.S. Higher Education: Current Policies, Future Directions37

 TABLE 2. Annual Funding for Government Programs and Initiatives
Government Programs and Initiatives Annual Funding (in U.S. Dollars)
King Abdullah Foreign Scholarship Program (Saudi Arabia) $6 billion1
Erasmus+ (European Union) $2.4 billion2
Brazil Scientific Mobility Program $425 million3
Becas Chile $100 million4

1 http://www.saudiembassy.net/latest_news/news12251403.aspx
2 http://ec.europa.eu/programmes/erasmus-plus/discover/index_en.htm
3 http://www.cienciasemfronteiras.gov.br/web/csf/metas
4 http://www.acenet.edu/news-room/Documents/International-Briefs-2014-April-SouthernCone.pdf

In terms of impact and reach of federal funding, a northward comparison is illustrative. In a recent
survey of Canadian institutions by Universities Canada (formerly the Association of Universities
and Colleges of Canada), 56 percent of responding institutions reported receiving funding from the
Canadian federal government for their internationalization efforts in the past three years; among
respondents to ACE’s 2011 Mapping survey, only 18 percent had received such funding from the U.S.
federal government.
As ACE’s 2002 report Beyond September 11 asserted—and as a number of European studies cited in
Internationalizing Higher Education Worldwide attest—the importance of federal support should not
be underestimated:

Universities alone cannot cover the full cost of addressing international education pri-
orities. Federal funding is an essential catalyst for developing, maintaining, and pro-
viding access to interdisciplinary academic and exchange programs—many of which
would not exist without federal assistance. (American Council on Education 2002)

Currently, however, the large majority of U.S. institutions do not benefit from any such assistance.
While some colleges and universities receive state government funding for internationalization
initiatives, this was the case for only four percent of the institutions that responded to ACE’s 2011
Mapping survey. All told, U.S. colleges and universities are left largely to their own devices to secure
funds for internationalization.
Inadequate funding for internationalization-related activities is problematic not only at home, but
also in terms of U.S. engagement with governments abroad. As noted previously, the White House
and State Department’s 100,000 Strong initiatives rely on various non-federal sources of funding,
including public-private partnerships, corporate sponsorship, and donations. Importantly, they also
enlist financial support from foreign governments. When such bilateral agreements are inked, but
only one government commits financial resources, an unbalanced relationship is created and the
potential for success of collaborative initiatives is limited. In the long run, this is likely to lead to
disappointment on the part of partnering governments that spend money—sometimes substantial

38 Internationalizing U.S. Higher Education: Current Policies, Future Directions

amounts—on such policies and programs, which in turn may ultimately damage U.S. relations with
key countries and hinder future collaborations.
Given the initiatives and resources governments around the world are devoting to internationaliza-
tion, in order for U.S. higher education to continue to attract international students, establish effec-
tive research partnerships, ensure that students gain global competence, and remain competitive on
the global higher education stage, increased attention to and support for internationalization is no
longer optional. Simply put, more federal money is needed.

A SUSTAINED COMMITMENT
Though the federal funding data are generally discouraging, there is some room for optimism. The
characteristics of the U.S. government and the country’s higher education system may work against
the development of a broad national policy for internationalization, but the democratic governance
structure in the United States allows for substantial public input and influence on policy. In short,
advocacy for internationalization is important. Organizations such as the Alliance for Interna-
tional Educational and Cultural Exchange (referenced above) and the Coalition for International
Education actively facilitate such efforts.
When President Obama proposed a $30 million cut in funding for Fulbright programs as part of the
2015 federal budget, for example, program alumni and other interested parties launched the Save
Fulbright campaign, which garnered over 270,000 signatories from around the world, and involved
numerous news stories and extensive social media activity. The final version of the federal budget
not only restored Fulbright funding to its previous level, but increased it by $1.8 million. 82 President
Obama’s budget request for 2016 includes a 5.6 percent increase for State Department international
exchange programs. 83
It is important to note, however, that advocacy on behalf of other internationalization-related
policies and programs—especially those administered by the Department of Education under
Title VI—has been less successful. To some extent, this is understandable given the Department of
Education’s primarily U.S.-focused mandate; while the State Department is inherently international
in scope and it is relatively easy to make the case that internationalization-related programs and
activities are integral to its mission, for the Department of Education, access, equity, quality assur-
ance, and an array of other pressing domestic higher education issues are front and center.
While understandable, however, the lack of success of DoE-focused advocacy for international-
ization-related activities is problematic. As noted previously, given persistently low study abroad
rates among American students, internationalization at home is an especially critical component of
U.S. higher education internationalization in terms for the goal of “global competence for all.” Patti
McGill Peterson, ACE’s presidential advisor for global initiatives, has suggested that as the agency
with overall responsibility for educational goals and outcomes in the United States, the Department
of Education should take the lead on efforts towards internationalization at home (Peterson and
Helms 2013b). Indeed, as indicated in the typology, what efforts have occurred on this front in the
United States have largely been initiated by the Department of Education. Yet rather than becoming

82 http://www.savefulbright.org/
83 http://www.alliance-exchange.org/policy-monitor/02/02/2015/president-requests-623-million-exchanges-fy16-56-increase

Internationalizing U.S. Higher Education: Current Policies, Future Directions39

 an increasing priority for the Department, funding and programs have been cut, despite advocacy
efforts on their behalf.
Mirroring the “siloed” nature of internationalization-related policies and programs in separate
government agencies, advocacy efforts, too, have often focused on funding for a particular agency
or type of program. Going forward, a cohesive message about the importance of comprehensive
internationalization—and the interconnectedness of mobility, faculty development, research collab-
orations, institutional partnerships, internationalization at home, and other aspects of international-
ization—is needed. Proactive advocacy by institutions, organizations, and other stakeholders will be
crucial in taking government-initiated internationalization policies and programs to the next level
and ensuring that they address broad-based internationalization goals, and not just the objectives of
individual agencies. Our hope is that the messages presented here—the need for more collaboration
among federal agencies, greater engagement with the higher education community, promotion of
global competence for all rather than just mobility, and increased funding—can serve as focal points
for such efforts.
Looking across the spectrum of regional and national policies in place around the globe, Internation-
alizing Higher Education Worldwide concludes with the following statement:

The future for internationalization of higher education holds considerable promise

and opportunity. However, a sustained commitment to expanding and enhancing
meaningful, workable policies and programs in this area is most urgently required.
(Helms, Rumbley, Brajkovic, and Mihut 2015)

The in-depth examination of the U.S. policy landscape undertaken in this study reinforces the
applicability of this statement in the United States. As governments around the world increasingly
embrace the internationalization imperative, the United States must also redouble its efforts. This
will indeed require a sustained commitment by government agencies, institutions, and other stake-
holders, rooted in the recognition that internationalization is no longer an aspirational ideal, but a
fundamental necessity for U.S. higher education in the twenty-first century.

40 Internationalizing U.S. Higher Education: Current Policies, Future Directions

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CIGE Insights