Name : Andi Ariesta Indar Framesti(17084014015)

: Zafira Dwi Ramadani(17084014006)

: Awaluddin(17084014005)

Subject : Intoduction to Linguistic

Group :1

Phonology: The Sound Patterns of Language

What do you think is greater: the number of languages in the world, or

the number of speech sounds in all those languages? Well, there are only

a dozen or so features needed to describe every speech sound in every

human language. All the languages in the world sound so different

because the way the languages use speech sounds to form patterns differs

from language to language

• The study of how speech sounds form patterns is phonology.

• Phonology tells us what sounds are in a language, how they do and can

combine into words, and explains why certain phonetic features are

important to identifying a word.

 Phonology tells you what sounds are in your language and which

ones are foreign; it tells you what combinations of sounds could be an

actual word, whether it is (black) or isn’t (blick), and what combination

of sounds could not be an actual word (*lbick). It also explains why

certain phonetic features are important to identifying a word, for example

voicing in English as in pat versus bat, while other features, such as

aspiration in English, are not crucial to identifying a word, as we noted in

the previous chapter. And it also allows us to adjust our pronunciation of

a morpheme, for example the past or plural morpheme, to suit the

different phonological contexts that it occurs in, as we will discuss

shortly.

In this chapter we’ll look at some of the phonological processes

that you know, that you acquired as a child, and that yet may initially

appear to you to be unreasonably complex. Keep in mind that we are

only making explicit what you already know, and its complexity is in a

way a wondrous feature of your own mind.

 The Pronunciation of Morphemes

The t is silent, as in Harlow. MARGOT ASQUITH, referring to

her name being mispronounced by the actress Jean Harlow

Knowledge of phonology determines how we pronounce words

and the parts of words we call morphemes. Often, certain morphemes are

pronounced differently depending on their context, and we will introduce

a way of describing this variation with phonological rules. We begin with

some examples from English, and then move on to examples from other

languages.

The Pronunciation of Plurals

Nearly all English nouns have a plural form: cat/cats, dog/dogs,

fox/foxes. But have you ever paid attention to how plural forms are

pronounced? Listen to a native speaker of English (or yourself if you are

one) pronounce the plurals of the following nouns.

A B C D

Cab cap bus child

 Cad cat bush ox

Bag back buzz mouse

Love cuff garage criterion

• Some-mess certain morphemes are pronounced differently depending

on their context

• For example, the English plural morpheme has three different

pronunciations depending on what noun you attach it to:

– It gets pronounced as a [z] for words like cab, bag, and bar

– It gets pronounced as [s] for words like cap, back, and faith

– It gets pronounced as [əz] for words like bus, garage, and match

How do we know how to pronounce this plural morpheme? The

spelling, which adds s or es, is misleading—not a z in sight—yet if you

know English, you pronounce it as we indicated. When faced with this

type of question, it’s useful to make a chart that records the phonological

environments in which each variant of the morpheme is known to occur.

(The more technical term for a variant is allomorph.) Writing the words

from the first three columns in broad phonetic transcription, we have our

first chart for the plural morpheme.

 Additional Examples of Allomorphs

The formation of the regular past tense of English verbs parallels

the formation of regular plurals. Like plurals, some irregular past tenses

conform to no particular rule and must be learned individually, such as

go/went, sing/sang, and hit/hit. And also like plurals, there are three

phonetic past-tense morphemes for regular verbs: [d], [t], and [əd]. Here

are several examples in broad phonetic transcription. Study sets A, B,

and C and try to see the regularity before reading further.

Set A: gloat [glot], gloated [glotəd]; raid [red], raided [redəd]

Set B: grab [græb], grabbed [græbd]; hug [hʌg], hugged [hʌgd];

faze [fez], fazed [fezd]; roam [rom], roamed [romd].

Set C: reap [rip], reaped [ript]; poke [pok], poked [pokt]; kiss

[kɪs], kissed [kɪst]; patch [pætʃ], patched [pætʃt]

Set A suggests that if the verb ends in a [t] or a [d] (i.e., non-nasal

alveolar stops), [əd] is added to form the past tense, similar to the

insertion of [əz] to form theplural of nouns that end in sibilants. Set B

suggests that if the verb ends in a voiced segment other than [d], you add
a voiced [d]. Set C shows us that if the verb ends in voiceless segment

other than [t], you add a voiceless [t].

The English possessive morpheme and the third person singular

morpheme have allomorphs that take on the same phonetic form as the

plural morpheme and are governed by the same rules:

Possessive:

Add [z] to woman to get woman's

Add [s] to ship to get ship's

Add [əz] to judge to get judge's

Third person singular:

Add [z] to need to get needs

Add [s] to eat to get eats

Add [əz] to rush to get rushes

 The English past tense morpheme also has different pronunciations

depending on the last sound of the verb

- If the verb in any voiced sound except [d] to make it past tense

- If the verb ends in any voiceless segment other than [t], then you add [t]

to make it past tense

- If the verb verbs in [t] or [d] then you add [əd] to make it past tense

 Most languages have allomorphemic variation. For example, there

has three allomorphs for a negative marker:

 The rule that changes the pronunciation of the nasal consonants is

called the homorganic nasal rule

Phonemes: The Phonological Units of Language

• Phonemes are the basic unit of sound and are sensed in your mind

rather than spoken or heard

• Each phoneme has one or more sounds called allophones associated

with it, which represent the actual sound being produced in various

environments

This section introduces the notions of phoneme and allophone.

Phonemes are what we have been calling the basic form of a sound and

are sensed in your mind rather than spoken or heard. Each phoneme has

associated with it one or more sounds, called allophones, which represent

the actual sound corresponding to the phoneme in various environments.

For example, the phoneme /p/ is pronounced with the aspiration

allophone [pʰ] in pit but without aspiration [p] in spit. Phonological rules

operate on phonemes to make explicit which allophones are pronounced

in which environments.

Vowel Nasalization in English as an Illustration of Allophones

English contains a general phonological rule that determines the contexts

in which vowels are nasalized.

• When you do these sustains you are creang minimal pairs, such as in

this list:

• This list demonstrates that this dialect of English has fourteen different

vowel phonemes:/i ɪ e ɛ æ u ʊ o ɔ a ʌ/ and /aɪ/, /aʊ/and /ɔɪ/ – And all of

these phonemes has at least two allophones;

• The nasal version, which occurs before nasal consonants

• The oral version, which occurs elsewhere

• English contains an allophonic rule that determines contexts in which

vowels are nasalized:

– Vowels are nasalized before a nasal consonant within the same syllable

structure

– You could change the nasalization when you pronounce these words (if

you were aware that you did this) and although it would sound strange, it

would not change the meaning of the words

– Because nasalized vowels are not used to make a meaning contrast we

tend to not even notice them

Allophones of /t/

Consonants, too, have allophones whose distribution is rule-governed.

For /t/ the following examples illustrate the point.

• Consonants also have allophones:

tick [tʰɪk] stick [stɪk] hits [hɪts] bitter [bɪɾər]

• /t/ is pronounced [th] before a stressed vowel

• /t/ is pronounced [t] directly before or aMer [s]

• /t/ is pronounced [ɾ] between a stressed and unstressed vowel

• If we pronounce tick as [tɪk] or [ɾɪk] instead of [thɪk], we are s-ll

speaking the same word, even if it sounds strange because these

allophones of /t/ do not contrast

• However, if we tried to pronounce tick as [sɪk], we would be saying

sick, which has a different meaning

• The meaning changes because /t/ and /s/ are separate phonemes and do

contrast
 Complementary Distribution

• Allophones of a phoneme are in complementary distribution = they

never occur in the same environment

– Like Superman and Clark Kent

• Examples from the writing system can help illustrate the idea of

complementary distribution

1. Each letter of English can appear in upper case or lower case form, but

upper case only occurs in certain contexts, like the beginning of a word,

and everywhere else we get the lower case

2. In cursive handwriting, letters may get written differently depending

on what comes before and after, and each variant (allograph) is

dependent on context
When sounds are in complementary distribution, they do not contrast

with each other the replacement of one sound for the other will not

change the meaning of the word. If two sounds are allophones of a single

phoneme, they must be in complementary distribution and be

phonetically similar

Distinctive Features of Phonemes

• For two phones, or sounds, to contrast meaning there must be some

difference between them. For example, the phonetic feature of voicing

distinguishes [s] from [z]

• When a feature distinguishes one phoneme from another, it is a

distinctive feature or a phonemic feature

 Speakers of a language generally perceive the different allophones

of a single phoneme as the same sound or phone. For example, most

speakers of English are unaware that the vowels in bead and bean are

different phones because mentally, speakers produce and hear phonemes,

not phones. Distinctive Features of Phonemes

Feature Values

One can think of voicing and voicelessness as the presence or

absence of a single feature, voiced. This single feature may have two

values: plus (+), which signifies its presence, and minus (–), which

signifies its absence.

• Features have two values: [+ feature] and [-feature] to indicate the

presence or absence of that particular feature

– For example, [b] is [+voiced] and [p] is [- voiced]

• At least one feature difference must distinguish each phoneme of a

language
 Nondistinctive Features

We have seen that nasality is a distinctive feature of English consonants,

but it is a nondistinctive feature for English vowels.

• When a feature is predictable by a rule for a certain class of sounds, that

feature is a nondistinctive (or redundant or predictable) feature for that

class

– For example, nasalization is a redundant feature for

English vowels but is distinctive for English consonants

• But in Akan and French nasalization is a distinctive feature for Vowels.

This is not the case in all languages. In French, nasality is a

distinctive feature for both vowels and consonants: gars (pronounced

[ga]) “lad” contrasts with gant [ga]̃ , which means “glove”; and bal [bal]

“dance” contrasts with mal [mal] “bad.” Thus, French has both oral and

nasal consonant phonemes and vowel phonemes; English has oral and

nasal consonant phonemes, but only oral vowel phonemes

– Also, aspiration is a nondistinctive feature for voiceless stops in

English

Phonemic Patterns May Vary

Across Languages

• The same phones may occur in two languages but pattern differently

because the phonologies of the languages are different

• While aspiration is not distinctive in English, it is distinctive in Thai:

 ASL Phonology

As discussed in chapter 4, signs can be broken down into smaller

units that are in many ways analogous to the phonemes and distinctive

features in spoken languages. They can be decomposed into location,

movement, and hand shape and there are minimal pairs that are

distinguished by a change in one or another of these features. Figure 4.6

in chapter 4 provides some examples. The signs meaning “candy,”

“apple,” and “jealous” are articulated at the same location on the face and

involve the same movement, but contrast minimally in hand

configuration. “Summer,” “ugly,” and “dry” are a minimal set

contrasting only in place of articulation, and “tape,” “chair,” and “train”

contrast only in movement. Thus signs can be decomposed into smaller

minimal units that contrast meaning. Some features are non-distinctive.

Whether a sign is articulated on the right or left hand does not affect its

meaning.
 Natural Classes of Speech Sounds

We show what speakers know about the predictable aspects of

speech through phonological rules. In English, these rules determine the

environments in which vowels are nasalized or voiceless stops aspirated.

• Phonological rules often apply to natural classes of sounds

– A natural class is a group of sounds described by a small number of

distinctive features

– Natural classes can be defined by + and – feature Values

Feature Specifications for American English Consonants and Vowels

Here are feature matrices for vowels and consonants in English. By

selecting all segments marked the same for one or more features, you can

identify natural classes.

The Rules of Phonology

But that to come Shall all be done by the rule. WILLIAM

SHAKESPEARE, Antony and Cleopatra, 1623

 Throughout this chapter we have emphasized that the relationship

between the phonemic representation of a word and its phonetic

representation, or how it is pronounced, is rule-governed. Phonological

rules are part of a speaker’s knowledge of the language. The phonemic

representations are minimally specified because some features or feature

values are predictable. For example, in English all nasal consonants are

voiced, so we don’t need to specify voicing in the phonemic feature

matrix for nasals. Similarly, we don’t need to specify the feature round

for non–low back vowels. If Table 5.5 was strictly phonemic, then

instead of a + in the voice-row for m, n, and ŋ , the cells would be left

blank, as would the cells in the round-row of Table 5.4 for u, ʊ , o, ɔ .

Such under specification reflects the redundancy in the phonology, which

is also part of a speaker’s knowledge of the sound system. The phonemic

representation should include only the nonpredictable, distinctive

features of the phonemes in a word. The phonetic representation, derived

by applying the phonological rules, includes all of the linguistically

relevant phonetic aspects of the sounds. It does not include all of the

physical properties of the sounds of an utterance, however, because the

physical signal may vary in many ways that have little to do with the

phonological system. The absolute pitch of the sound, the rate of speech,

or its loudness is not linguistically significant.

The phonetic transcription is therefore also an abstraction from the

physical signal; it includes the nonvariant phonetic aspects of the

utterances, those features that remain relatively constant from speaker to

speaker and from one time to another.

Although the specific rules of phonology differ from language to

language, the kinds of rules, what they do, and the natural classes they

refer to are universal.

Assimilation Rules

• An assimilation rule is a rule that makes neighboring segments more

similar by duplicating a phonetic property

– For example, the English vowel nasalization rule states that vowels

become nasalized before a nasal consonant within the same syllable

• Assimilation rules reflect coarticulation

– Coarticulation is the spreading of phonetic features either in

anticipation or in the preservation of articulatory processes

• For example, it is easier to lower the velum while a vowel is being

produced before a nasal stop than to wait for the completion of the vowel

to then lower the velum even more quickly

• There are many assimilation rules in English and other languages

– English plural and past tense morphemes

Dissimilation Rules

• Languages also have dissimilation rules, in which a segment becomes

less like another segment

– It is sometimes easier to articulate dissimilar sounds

• Latin suffix –alis to form adjectives dissimilates to –aris when an l is in

the noun and the dissimilation can be seen in the words borrowed into

English
Feature-Changing Rules

The assimilation and dissimilation rules we have seen may all be thought

of as feature-changing rules. In some cases a feature already present is

changed. The /z/ plural morpheme has its voicing value changed from

plus to minus when it follows a voiceless sound. Similarly, the /n/ in the

phonemic negative prefix morpheme /ɪn/ undergoes a change in its place

of articulation feature when preceding bilabials or velars. In the case of

the Latin dissimilation rule, the feature [+lateral] is changed to [–lateral],

so that /l/ is pronounced [r]. The addition of a feature is the other way in

which we have seen features change.

Segment Insertion and Deletion Rules

Phonological rules may add or delete entire segments. These are

different from the feature-changing and feature-adding rules we have

seen so far, which affect only parts of segments. The process of inserting

a consonant or vowel is called epenthesis. The rules for forming regular

plurals, possessive forms, and third-person singular verb agreement in

English all require an epenthesis rule.

– Adding a segment is known as epenthesis

• The rules for forming plurals, possessives, and third person singular

verb agreement in English all involve an

Epenthesis rule: Insert a [ə] before the plural morpheme /z/ when a

regular noun ends in a sibilant, giving [əz]

• Segment deletion is more common than insertion

– The word memory is often pronounced as if it were spelled memry

– The deletion of [g]:

 Movement (Metathesis) Rules

Phonological rules may also reorder sequences of phonemes, in

which case they are called metathesis rules. For some speakers of

English, the word ask is pronounced [æks], but the word asking is

pronounced [æskĩŋ]. In this case a metathesis rule reorders the /s/ and /k/

in certain contexts. In Old English the verb was aksian, with the /k/

preceding the /s/. A historical metathesis rule switched these two

consonants, producing ask in most dialects of English. Children’s speech

shows many cases of metathesis (which are corrected as the child

approaches the adult grammar): animal [æ̃ mə̃nəl] for animal and pusketti

[pʰəskɛti] for spaghetti are common children’s pronunciations. Dog

lovers have metathesized the Shetland sheepdog into a sheltie, and at

least two presidents of the United States have applied a metathesis rule to

the word nuclear, which many Americans pronounce [njukliər], but is

pronounced [nukjələr] by those leading statesmen.

 From one to many and from Many to One As we’ve seen,

phonological rules that relate phonemic to phonetic representations have

several functions, among which are the following:

Function Example

1. Change feature values Nasal consonant assimilation rules in Akan and

English

2. Add new features Aspiration in English

3. Delete segments g-deletion before nasals in English

4. Add segments Schwa insertion in English plural and past tense

5. Reorder segments Metathesis rule relating [æsk] and [æks]

The relationship between the phonemes and phones of a language

is complex and varied. Rarely is a single phoneme realized as one and

only one phone. We often find one phoneme realized as several phones,

as in the case with English voiceless stops that may be realized as

aspirated or unaspirated, among other possibilities. And we find the same

phone may be the realization of several different phonemes. Here is a

dramatic example of that many-to-one relationship. Consider the vowels

in the following pairs of words:

A B /i/ compete [i] competition [ə] /ɪ/ medicinal [ɪ] medicine [ə]

/e/ maintain [e] maintenance [ə] /ɛ/ telegraph [ɛ] telegraphy [ə] /æ/

analysis [æ] analytic [ə] /a/ solid [a] solidity [ə] /o/ phone [o] phonetic [ə]

/ʊ/ Talmudic [ʊ] Talmud [ə]

In column A all the boldfaced vowels are stressed vowels with a

variety of vowel phones; in column B the boldfaced vowels are without

stress or reduced and are pronounced as schwa [ə]. In these cases the

stress pattern of the word varies because of the different suffixes. The

vowel that is stressed in one form becomes reduced in a different form

and is therefore pronounced as [ə]. The phonemic representations of all

of the root morphemes contain an unreduced vowel such as /i/ or /e/ that

is phonetically [ə] when it is reduced. We can conclude, then, that [ə] is

an allophone of all English vowel phonemes. The rule to derive the

schwa is simple to state: Change a vowel to a [ə] when the vowel is

reduced.
 In the phonological description of a language, it is not always

straightforward to determine phonemic representations from phonetic

transcriptions. How would we deduce the /o/ in phonetic from its

pronunciation as [fəñ εɾɪk] without a complete phonological analysis?

However, given the phonemic representation and the phonological rules,

we can always derive the correct phonetic representation. In our internal

mental grammars this derivation is no problem, because the words occur

in their phonemic forms in our mental lexicons and we know the rules of

the language. Similar rules exist in other languages that show that there is

no one-to-one relationship between phonemes and phones. For example,

in German both voiced and voiceless obstruent’s occur as phonemes, as

is shown by the following minimal pair: Tier [tiːr] “animal” dir [diːr] “to

you”

However, when voiced obstruents occur at the end of a word or

syllable, they become voiceless. The words meaning “bundle” Bund

/bʊnd/ and “colorful” bunt /bʊnt/ are phonetically identical and

pronounced [bʊnt] with a final [t]. Obstruent voicing is neutralized in

syllable-final position. The German devoicing rule changes the

specifications of features. In German, the phonemic representation of the

final stop in Bund is /d/, specified as [+voiced]; it is changed by rule to [–

voiced] to derive the phonetic [t] in word final position. Again, this

shows there is no simple relationship between phonemes and their

allophones. German presents us with this picture:

German Phonemes /d/ /t/

German Phones [d] [t]

The devoicing rule in German provides a further illustration that

we cannot discern the phonemic representation of a word given only the

phonetic form; [bʊnt] can be derived from either /bʊnd/ or /bʊnt/. The

phonemic representations and the phonological rules together determine

the phonetic forms.

From One to Many and from Many to One

• In English unstressed vowels are reduced to [ə]

• German has both voiced and voiceless obstruents as phonemes, but

when they occur at the end of words, they become voiceless

The Function of Phonological Rules

• Phonological rules provide the phonetic information necessary for the

pronunciation of utterances

– Derivation: the way the phonological rules apply to the underlying

phonemic representation to create the phonetic representation:

 Slips of the Tongue: Evidence for Phonological Rules

Slips of the tongue, or speech errors, in which we deviate in some

way from the intended utterance, show phonological rules in action. We

all make speech errors and they tell us interesting things about language

and its use. Consider the following speech errors:

– Intended utterance: gone to seed [gan tə sid]

– Actual utterance: god to seen [gad tə sĩn]

• Here the reversal of the consonants also changed the nasality of the

vowels

• The vowel [a] in the intended utterance is replaced by [a] because the

vowel is no longer followed by a nasal (since the /n/ and /d/ switched)

and the vowel [i] in the intended utterance is nasalized since it was

followed by a nasal consonant after the switch

Syllable Structure

• Words are composed of one or more syllables, which are phonological

units composed of one or more phonemes

– Every syllable has a nucleus, and the nucleus may be preceded and/or

followed by one or more phonemes called the onset and the coda

– The rime is the nucleus + the coda

Onset = one or more consonants

Rhyme = Nucleus + Coda

Nucleus = a vowel

Coda = one or more consonants coda

Word Stress

• In English and many other languages one or more syllables in every

word has stress

– In English stress can be contrastive and helps to distinguish nouns from

verbs:
– British English and American English have different stress patterns

which also leads to reduction of different vowels, both of which cause

differences in pronunciation.

Sentence and Phrase Stress

• When words are combined into phrases and sentences, one syllable

receives more stress than others

• Phrasal stress can distinguish a compound noun from an adjective +

noun combination intonation.

• Pitch is a phonemic feature in some languages, and for these languages

the pitches are known as contrastive tones

• In intonation languages pitch is important for the pitch contour or

intonation

– In intonation languages like English, intonation can be used to

distinguish questions from statements can also disambiguate sentences in

some cases

Sequential Constraints of Phonemes

• Knowledge of phonology includes information about what sequences of

phonemes are possible and which are not in a particular language

– The limitations on sequences of segments are called phonotactic

constraints

• Phonotactic constraints are based on syllables and vary from language

to language

– In English two stops cannot begin a syllable

– In two a word can only end in a vowel or a nasal consonant

Lexical Gaps

• Lexical gaps, or accidental gaps, are words that don’t exist

In a language but could exist because they conform to the phonotac-c

constraints of the language

– For example, the words cruke [khruk] Cruck [khrʌk], and crike [khraɪk]

are not currently words in English, but they could be

– Adver-sers make use of their knowledge of phonotac-c constraints to

create new

Product names

• While Bic, Xerox, and Kodak are OK, we’re Unlikely to see a new

brand or product called Zhleet [ʒlit]

Why Do Phonological Rules Exist?

Many linguists believe that phonological rules exist to ensure that

the phonetic forms of words do not violate the phonotactic constraints of

the language

– For example, English has a phonotactic constraint that prevents words

from ending with two obstruents whose voicing features don’t match

(walked pronounced as [wakd] is not possible)

• A phonological rule such as the one that devoices the past tense marker

in English changes the pronunciation so that it conforms to this constraint

(the pronunciation of walked becomes [wakt])

• Optimality Theory: It has been proposed that a universal set of

phonological constraints exists and that this set is ordered with some

constraints being more highly ranked

– The rankings differ from language to language

– The order of the rankings determines the different sound patterns

shown across languages

Phonological Analysis

In order to determine the phonemes and allophones in a language

other than English, you should answer the following questions while you

examine data:

1. Are there any minimal pairs in the data in which these sounds

contrast?

2. Are any noncontrastive sounds in complementary distribution?

3. If noncontrasting phones are found, what are the underlying

phonemes and their allophones?

4. What are the phonological rules by which the allophones can be

derived?
 In the Greek data below, our task is to determine whether the

following sounds are allophones of separate phonemes or allophones of

the same phoneme:

[x] voiceless velar fricative

[k] voiceless velar stop

[c] voiceless palatal stop

[ҫ] voiceless palatal fricative

1. Are there any minimal pairs in which the sounds [x],

[k], [c], and [ҫ] contrast?

1. Are there any minimal pairs in which the sounds [x], [k], [c], and [ҫ]

contrast?

1. [kano] “do” 9. [ҫeri] “hand”

2. [xano] “lose” 10. [kori] “daughter”

3. [ҫino] “pour” 11. [xori] “dances”

4. [cino] “move” 12. [xrima] “money”

5. [kali] “charms” 13. [krima] “shame”

6. [xali] “plight” 14. [xufta] “handful”

7. [ҫeli] “eel” 15. [kufeta] “bonbons”

8. [ceri] “candle” 16. [oҫi] “no”

• From these minimal pairs, we can tell that [k] and [x] contrast and that

[c] and [ҫ] also contrast, but we have no evidence that [k] and
[c] contrast, and we also don’t yet know about [x] and [ҫ]

2. Are any noncontrastive sounds in complementary distribution?

One way to determine this is to list each phone with the

environment in which it occurs:

• [k]: before [a], [o], [u], [r]

• [x]: before [a], [o], [u], [r]

• [c]: before [i], [e]

• [ҫ] before [i], [e]

We can conclude that the stops [k] and [c] are allophones of one

phoneme, and the fricatives [x] and [ҫ] are allophones of one phoneme

3. Which of the phone pairs is more basic, and therefore the underlying

phoneme? In many languages of the world, velar sounds become palatal

before front vowels. This is an assimilation rule since palatals are

pronounced further forward in the mouth as are front vowels Therefore

we select /k/ to be a phoneme with allophones [k] and [c], and /x/ as a

phoneme with allophones [x] and [ҫ]

4. We can now state the rule by which the palatals can be derived from

the velars:
Palatalize velar consonants before front vowels

– Using feature notation we can state the rule as:

[+velar] ! [+palatal] / ___ [--back]

– Since only consonants can be velar and only vowels have the feature [-

back], we don’t have to include information about the features

[consonantal] or [syllabic] in order to make our rule as simple as possible