Math 151 Algebra2016 1

Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION TO
NUMBER THEORY
1.1 REAL NUMBERS

(a) NATURAL NUMBER
Natural numbers is 1,2,3,· · · , also called positive integers, are used in

counting members of a set.The symbols varied with the times, e.g., the
Romans used I, II, III, IV,· · ·
The sum a + b and product a · b or ab of any two natural numbers a
and b is also a natural number. This is often expressed by saying that
the set of natural numbers is closed under the operations of addition
and multiplication, or satisfies the closure property with respect to these
operations.
For any natural numbers a,b,c, we have
• a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c
• a+b=b+a
• a(b + c) = ab + ac
• a(bc) = (ab)c Associativity
• ab = ba Commutativity
• (a + b)c = ac + bc Distributive
1
2 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO NUMBER THEORY
(b) INTEGERS
Negative integers and zero denoted by -1,-2,-3,· · · and 0,respectively,

arose to permit solutions of equations such as x + b = a, where a and
b are any are any natural numbers. This leads to the operation of sub-
traction, or inverse of addition, and we write x = a − b.
The set of positive and negative integers and zero is called the set of
integers.
PROPERTIES OF INTEGERS
• Associativity
• Commutativity
• Distributive
• a+0=a=0+a
• a·1=a=1·a
• Transitivity: a > b and b > c ⇒ a > c.
• Trichotomy:a > b,a < b or a = b.
• Cancellation law: If a · c = b · c and c 6= 0 then a = b.
(c) RATIONAL NUMBERS
Rational numbers or fractions such as 23 , −5

4
,· · · arose to permit
solutions of equations such as bx = a for all integers a and b, where
b 6= 0.This leads to the operation of division, or inverse of multiplication,
and we write x = ab or a ÷ b where a is the numerator and b the de-
nominator.The set of integers is a subset of the rational numbers, since
integers correspond to rational numbers where b = 1.
(d) IRRATIONAL NUMBERS

√
Irrational numbers such 2 and π are numbers which are not rational,
i.e., they cannot be expressed as ab (called the quotient of a and b),where
a and b are integers and b 6= 0.
The set of rational and irrational numbers is called the set of
real numbers.
1.2. THE PRINCIPLE OF MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION 3
1.2 THE PRINCIPLE OF MATHEMATICAL

INDUCTION
The principle of mathematical induction is an important property of the
positive integers. It is especially useful in proving statements involving all
positive integers when it is known for example that the statements are valid
for n=1,2,3 but it is suspected or conjectured that they hold for all positive
integers. The method of proof consists of the following steps:
1. Prove the statement for n = 1 (some other positive integer).
2. Assume the statement true for n = k ; where k is any positive integer.
3. From the assumption in 2 prove that the statement must be true for
n = k + 1. This is part of the proof establishing the induction and may
be difficult or impossible.
4. Since the statement is true for n = 1 [from step 1] it must [from step
3] be true for n = 1 + 1 = 2 and from this for n = 2 + 1 = 3, and
so on, and so must be true for all positive integers. (This assumption,
which provides the link for the truth of a statement for a finite number
of cases to the truth of that statement for the infinite set, is called The
Axiom of Mathematical Induction).
EXAMPLES:
n(n+1)
1. Prove that 1 + 2 + ... + n = 2
PROOF:
This formula is easily verified for small numbers such as n = 1, 2, 3,

or 4, but it is impossible to verify for all natural numbers on a case-by-
case basis.
To prove the formula true in general, a more generic method is required.
Suppose we have verified the equation for the first k cases.
We will attempt to show that we can generate the formula for the
(k + 1)th case from this knowledge.
The formula is true for
1(1+1)
n0 = 1, since 1 = 2
If we have verified the first k cases, then
k(k + 1)
1 + 2 + ... + k + (k + 1) = +k+1
2
k 2 + 3k + 2
=
2
(k + 1)[(k + 1) + 1]
=
2
This is exactly the formula for the (k + 1)th case.
2. Prove that for all integers n ≥ 3, 2n > n + 4.
PROOF:
Since 8 = 23 > 3 + 4 = 7; the statement is true for n0 = 3.
Assume that 2k > k + 4 for k ≥ 3.
then ,2k+1 = 2 · 2k > 2(k + 4)
But 2(k + 4) = 2k + 8 > k + 5 = (k + 1) + 4.
Since k is positive. Hence, by induction, the statement holds for all

integers n ≥ 3.
1.3 DEFINITION 1:
A non-empty subset S of Z is well-ordered if S contains a least element.Notice
that the set Z is not well-ordered since it does not contain a smallest element.
However, the natural numbers are well-ordered.
1.4 PRINCIPLE OF WELL ORDERING:

Every non-empty subset of the natural numbers is well-ordered.
The Principle of Well-Ordering is equivalent to the Principle of Mathematical
Induction.
1.5. THEOREM 1: 5
1.5 THEOREM 1:
• If x ∈ R, y ∈ R ,and x > 0,then there is a positive integer n such that
nx > y
• If x ∈ R, y ∈ R ,and x < y,then there is a p ∈ Q such that x < p < y.

The first part is usually referred to as the archimedean property of
R.Second Part may be stated by saying that Q is dense in R: Between
any two real numbers there is a rational one.
EXERCISE:
n(n+1)(2n+1)
1. Prove that 12 + 22 + 32 + · · · + n2 = 6
2. Prove that 2n < n! for n ≥ 4

n2 (n+1)2
3. 13 + 23 + 33 + · · · + n3 = 4
4. Show that n3 + 2n is divisible by 3.
5. Prove Bernoullis inequality (1 + x)n > 1 + nx for n = 2, 3, · · ·

if x > −1,x 6= 0
1.6 ALGEBRA OF COMPLEX NUMBERS

Although complex numbers occur in many branches of mathematics, they
arise most directly out of solving polynomial equations.We examine a specific
quadratic equation as an example.
Consider the quadratic equation
z 2 − 4z + 5 (1.1)
Equation (1.1) has two solutions, z1 and z2 , such that
(z − z1 )(z − z2 ) = 0 (1.2)
Using the familiar formula for the roots of a quadratic equation,the solutions
z1 and z2 ,written in brief as
p √
4 ± (−4)2 − 4(1 × 5) −4
z1,2 = =2± (1.3)
2 2
Both solutions contain the square root of a negative number. However, it is

not true to say that there are no solutions to the quadratic equation. The
fundamental theorem of algebra states that a quadratic equation will always
have two solutions and these are in fact given by (1.2).The second term on
the RHS of (1.3) is called an imaginary term since it contains the square
root of a negative number; the first term is called a real term. The full
solution is the sum of a real term and an imaginary term and is called a
complex number.The choice of the symbol z for the quadratic variable was
not arbitrary; the conventional representation of a complex number is z,
where z is the sum of a real part x and i times an imaginary part y, i.e.
z = x + iy, (1.4)
where i is used to denote the square root of −1. The real part x and the
imaginary part y are usually denoted by Rez and Imz respectively. We
note at this point that some physical scientists, engineers in particular, use
j instead of i. However,for
√ √consistency, we will use i this book. In our
particular example −4 = 2 −1 = 2i,and hence the two solutions of (1.3)
are
2i
z1,2 = 2 ± =2±i (1.5)
2
Thus, here x = 2 and y = ±1 For compactness a complex number is some-
times written in the form
z = (x, y),
where the components of z may be thought of as coordinates in an xy-plot.

Such a plot is called an Argand diagram and is a common representation of
complex numbers.
Our particular example of a quadratic equation may be generalised readily

to polynomials whose highest power (degree) is greater than 2, e.g. cubic
equations (degree 3), quartic equations (degree 4) and so on. For a general
polynomial f (z),of degree n, the fundamental theorem of algebra states that
the equation f (z) = 0 will have exactly n solutions. The remainder of this
chapter deals with: the algebra and manipulation of complex numbers; their
polar representation, which has advantages in many circumstances; complex
exponentials and logarithms; the use of complex numbers in finding the roots
of polynomial equations.
1.6. ALGEBRA OF COMPLEX NUMBERS 7
(a) ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION
The addition of two complex numbers z1 and z2 ,in general gives another
complex number. The real components and the imaginary components
are added separately and in a like manner to the familiar addition of real
numbers:
z1 + z2 = (x1 + y1 i) + (x2 + y2 i)
= (x1 + x2 ) + (y1 + y2 )i,
or in component notation
z1 + z2 = (x1 , y1 ) + (x2 , y2 ) = (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 ).
By straightforward application of the commutativity and associativity of

the real and imaginary parts separately, we can show that the addition
of complex numbers is itself commutative and associative, i.e.
z1 + z2 = z2 + z1 ,
z1 + (z2 + z3 ) = (z1 + z2 ) + z3 .
Thus it is immaterial in what order complex numbers are added.
EXAMPLE:
(a) Sum the complex numbers 1 + 2i, 3 − 4i, −2 + i.

Summing the real terms we obtain
1 + 3 − 2 = 2,
and summing the imaginary terms we obtain
2i − 4i + i = −i.
Hence
(1 + 2i) + (3 − 4i) + (−2 + i) = 2 − i.
(b) (2 + 3i) + (3 − 4i) = 2 + 3i + 3 − 4i = 5 − i
(c) (2 + 3i) − (3 − 4i) = 2 + 3i − 3 + 4i = −1 + 7i
(d) (−4 + 7i) + (5 − 10i) = 1 − 3i
(e) (4 + 12i) − (3 − 15i) = 4 + 12i − 3 + 15i = 1 + 27i
(f) 5i − (−9 + i) = 5i + 9 − i = 9 + 4i
The subtraction of complex numbers is very similar to their addition.

As in the case of real numbers, if two identical complex numbers are
subtracted then the result is zero.
(b) EQUALITY
Let z1 = x1 + y1 i and z2 = x2 + y2 i be complex numbers, then:

z1 = z2 If and only if x1 = x2 and y1 = y2
EXERCISE:
Given z1 = 2 + 4i , z2 = 3 − i and z3 = −3i

Determine:
(a) z1 + z2
(b) z1 − z2
(c) z2 + z3
(d) z2 − z3
(e) z1 + z3
(f) z1 − z3
(c) MODULUS AND ARGUMENT
The modulus of the complex number z is denoted by | z | and

is defined as
p
| z |= x2 + y 2 . (1.6)
Hence the modulus of the complex number is the distance of the corre-
sponding point from the origin in the Argand diagram. The argument
of the complex number z is denoted by arg z and is defined as
y
argz = tan−1 (1.7)
x
It can be seen that arg z is the angle that the line joining the origin to
z on the Argand diagram makes with the positive x − axis. The anti-
clockwise direction is taken to be positive by convention.Account must
be taken of the signs of x and y individually in determining in which
quadrant arg z lies. Thus, for example, if x and y are both negative then
arg z lies in the range −π <arg z< −π2
rather than in the first quadrant
0 <arg z< π2 ,though both cases give the same value for the ratio of y to x.
EXAMPLES:
(a) Find the modulus and the argument of the complex number
z = 2 − 3i.
Using (1.6), the modulus is given by
p √
| z |= (2)2 + (−3)2 = 13
Using (1.7), the argument is given by
−3
arg z= θ = tan−1

2
= −56.31o
Since x = 2 and y = −3, z clearly lies in the fourth quadrant;(i.e.
the argument must be measured from the positive real axis). there-
fore arg z = 56.31o is the appropriate answer.
(b) Determine the modulus and argument of the complex number
z = 3 + 4i
p
| z |= r = (3)2 + (4)2 = 5
arg z= θ = tan−1 ( 43 ) = 53.13o
Since x = 3 and y = 4, z clearly lies in the first quadrant

(c) Determine the modulus and argument of the complex number
z = −3 + 4i
p
| z |= r = (−3)2 + (4)2 = 5
arg z = θ = tan−1 34 = 53.13o

Since x = −3 and y = 4, z clearly lies in the second quadrant;

Argument= 180 − 53.13 = 126.87 (i.e. the argument must be mea-
sured from the positive real axis).
(d) Determine the modulus and argument of the complex number

z = −3 − 4i
p
| z |= r = (−3)2 + (−4)2 = 5
arg z = θ = tan−1 34 = 53.13o

Since x = −3 and y = −4, z clearly lies in the third quadrant;

Argument= 180 + 53.13 = 233.13 (i.e. the argument must be mea-
sured from the positive real axis).
(d) MULTIPLICATION
Complex numbers may be multiplied together and in general give a com-

plex number as the result. The product of two complex numbers z1
and z2 is found by multiplying them out in full and remembering that
i2 = −1,i.e.
z1 z2 = (x1 + y1 i)(x2 + y2 i)
= x1 x2 + x1 y2 i + y1 x2 i + y1 y2 i2
= (x1 x2 − y1 y2 ) + (x1 y2 + y1 x2 )i.
EXAMPLE:
(a) Multiply the complex numbers z1 = 3 + 2i and z2 = −1 − 4i.

By direct multiplication we find
z1 z2 = (3 + 2i)(−1 − 4i) = −3 − 2i − 12i − 8i2 = 5 − 14i
(b) If z1 = 7i and z2 = −5 + 2i.
Determine z1 z2
7i(−5 + 2i) = −35i + 14(−1) = −14 − 35i
(c) If z1 = 1 − 5i and z2 = −9 + 2i.
Determine z1 z2
(1−5i)(−9+2i) = −9+2i+45i−10i2 = −9+47i−10(−1) = 1+47i
(d) Find (1 − 8i)(1 + 8i)
(1 − 8i)(1 + 8i) = 1 + 8i − 8i − 64i2 = 1 + 64 = 65
The multiplication of complex numbers is both commutative and asso-

ciative i.e.
z1 z2 = z1 z2 (1.8)
(z1 z2 )z3 = z1 (z2 z3 ) (1.9)
The product of two complex numbers also has the simple properties
| z1 z2 |=| z1 || z2 | (1.10)
arg(z1 z2 ) = argz1 + argz2 . (1.11)
EXAMPLE:
Verify that (1.10) holds for the product of z1 = 3 + 2i and z2 = −1 − 4i
SOLUTION:
p √
| z1 z2 |=| 5 − 14i |= 52 + (−14)2 = 221
We also find
√ √
| z1 |= 32 + 22 = 13
p √
| z2 |= (−1)2 + (−4)2 = 17
and hence
√ √ √
| z1 || z2 |= 13 17 = 221 =| z1 z2 |
(e) COMPLEX CONJUGATE
If z has the convenient form x + yi then the complex conjugate, de-

noted by z may be found simply by changing the sign of the imaginary
part, i.e. if z = x + yi then z = x − yi. More generally, we may define
the complex conjugate of z as the (complex) number having the same
magnitude as z that when multiplied by z leaves a real result, i.e. there
is no imaginary component in the product. In the case where z can be
written in the form x + yi it is easily verified, by direct multiplication of
the components, that the product zz gives a real result:
zz = (x + yi)(x − yi)
= x2 − xyi + xyi − y 2 i2
= x2 + y 2 =| z |2
EXAMPLE:
Find the complex conjugate of z = a + 2i + 3ib
SOLUTION:
The complex number is written in the standard form
z = a + i(2 + 3b);
Then, replacing i by −i, we obtain
z = a − i(2 + 3b)
In some cases, however, it may not be simple to rearrange the expres-

sion for z into the standard form x + yi.Nevertheless, given two complex
numbers, z1 and z2 ,it is straightforward to show that the complex con-
jugate of their sum (or difference) is equal to the sum (or difference)
of their complex conjugates, i.e.(z1 ± z2 ) = z1 ± z1 .Similarly, it may be
shown that the complex conjugate of the product (or quotient) of z1
and z2 is equal to the product (or quotient) of their complex conjugates,
i.e.(z1 z2 ) = z1 z2 and (z1 /z2 ) = z1 /z1 . Using these results, it can be
deduced that, no matter how complicated the expression, its complex
conjugate may always be found by replacing every i by −i. To apply
this rule, however, we must always ensure that all complex parts are first
written out in full, so that no i’s are hidden.
EXAMPLE:
Find the complex conjugate of the complex number z = w(3y+2ix) where

w = x + 5i
SOLUTION:
In this case w itself contains real and imaginary components and so

must be written out in full, i.e.
z = w(3y+2ix) = (x + 5i)3y+2ix .
Now we can replace each i by −i to obtain
z = (x − 5i)3y−2ix .
It can be shown that the product zz is real, as required. The following

properties of the complex conjugate are easily proved and others may be
derived from them. If z = x + yi
then
(a) z = z,
(b) z + z = 2 Re z = 2x,
(c) z − z = 2i Im z = 2yi,
2 2
−y
(d) zz = xx2 +y 2 + i 2xy
x2 +y 2
.
(f) DIVISION
The division of two complex numbers z1 and z2 bears some similarity

to their multiplication. Writing the quotient in component form we ob-
tain
z1 x1 + y1 i
= (1.12)
z2 x2 + y2 i
In order to separate the real and imaginary components of the quotient,

we multiply both numerator and denominator by the complex conjugate
of the denominator. By definition, this process will leave the denominator

as a real quantity.
z1 (x1 + y1 i)(x2 + y2 i) (x1 x2 + y1 y2 ) + (x2 y1 − x1 y2 )

= = (1.13)
z2 (x2 + y2 i)(x2 − y2 i) x22 + y22
x1 x2 + y 1 y 2 x2 y1 − x1 y2
= 2 2
+i (1.14)
x2 + y 2 x22 + y22
Hence we have separated the quotient into real and imaginary compo-
nents, as required.
EXAMPLE 1 :
Express z in the form x + iy,when
3 − 2i
z=
−1 + 4i
SOLUTION:
Multiplying numerator and denominator by the complex conjugate of

the denominator we obtain
(3 − 2i)(−1 − 4i) −11 − 10i
z= =
(−1 + 4i)(−1 − 4i) 17
−11 10i
= −
17 17
PROPERTIES
z1 |z1 |
(a) | z2
|= |z2 |
,
(b) arg( zz12 ) =arg z1 -arg z2
EXAMPLE 2:
Write each of the following in standard form
3−i
(a) 2+7i
3
(b) 9−i
8i
(c) 1+2i
6−9i
(d) 2i
SOLUTION:
So,in each case we are really looking at the division of two complex num-
bers. The main idea here is that we want to write them in standard form.
standard form does not allow for any is to be in the denominator.So, we
want to get the i’s out of the denominator. This is actually fairly simple
if we recall that a complex number times its conjugate is real number.
So, if we multiply the numerator and denominator by the conjugate of
the denominator we will be able to eliminate the i from the denominator.
Now that we’ve figured out how to do these let’s go ahead and work the
problems.
3−i (3−i)(2−7i) 6−23i+7i2 −1−23i 1 23
(a) 2+7i
= (2+7i)(2−7i)
= 22 +72
+ = 53
= − 53 − 53
i
Notice that to officially put the answer in standard form we broke

up the fraction into the real and imaginary parts.
3 3(9+i) 27+3i 27 3
(b) 9−i
= (9−i)(9+i)
= 92 +12
= 82
+ 82
i
8i 8i(1−2i) 8i−16i2 16+8i 16

(c) 1+2i
= (1+2i)(1−2i)
= 12 +22
= 5
= 5
+ 85 i
(d) This one is a little different from the previous ones since the de-
nominator is a pure imaginary number. It can be done in the same
manner as the previous ones, but there is a slightly easier way to do
the problem.
First,we break up the fraction as follows.
6−9i 6 9i 3 9
2i
= 2i
− 2i
= i
− 2
Now, we want the i out of the denominator and since there is only
an i in the denominator of the first term we will simply multiply the
numerator and denominator of the first term by an i.
6−9i 3(i) 9 3i 9 −9
2i
= i(i)
− 2
= −1
− 2
= 2
− 3i
(g) POLAR REPRESENTATION OF COMPLEX NUMBERS
Although considering a complex number as the sum of a real and an

imaginary part is often useful, sometimes the polar representation proves
easier to manipulate.This makes use of the complex exponential function,
which is defined by
z2 z3
ez = exp z = 1 + z + + + ··· . (1.15)
2! 3!
Strictly speaking it is the function expz that is defined by (1.15).The
number e is the value of exp(1), i.e. it is just a number. However, it
may be shown that ez and expz are equivalent when z is real and ratio-
nal and mathematicians then define their equivalence for irrational and
complex z. For the purposes of this book we will not concern ourselves
further with this mathematical nicety but,rather, assume that(1.15),is
valid for all z. We also note that, using(1.15),by multiplying together
the appropriate series we may show that
ez1 ez2 = ez1 +z2 (1.16)
which is analogous to the familiar result for exponentials of real numbers.

From (1.15),It immediately follows that for z = iθ, θ real,
θ2 iθ3
eiθ = 1 + iθ − − + ··· (1.17)
2! 3!
θ2 θ4 θ3 θ5
=1− + − · · · + i(θ − + − ···) (1.18)
2! 4! 3! 5!
and hence that
eiθ = cosθ + isinθ (1.19)
where the last equality follows from the series expansions of the sine and
cosine functions.This last relationship is called Euler’s equation. It also
follows from (1.19)
einθ = cosnθ + isin nθ (1.20)
for all n. From Euler’s equation (1.19) we deduce that
reiθ = r(cosθ + isinθ) (1.21)

= x + yi (1.22)
Thus a complex number may be represented in the polar form

z = reiθ (1.23)
Now we can identify r with | z | and θ with argz. The simplicity of the
representation of the modulus and argument is one of the main reasons
for using the polar representation. The angle θ lies conventionally in the
range −π < θ ≤ π,but, since rotation by θ is the same as rotation by
2nπ + θ, where n is any integer,
reiθ ≡ rei(θ+2nπ) (1.24)
The algebra of the polar representation is different from that of the real
and imaginary component representation, though, of course, the results
are identical.Some operations prove much easier in the polar represen-
tation, others much more complicated. The best representation for a
particular problem must be determined by the manipulation required.
(h) MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION IN POLAR FORM
Multiplication and division in polar form are particularly simple. The

product of z1 = r1 eiθ1 and z2 = r2 eiθ2 is given by
z1 z2 = r1 eiθ1 r2 eiθ2 (1.25)
= r1 r2 ei(θ1 +θ2 ) (1.26)
= r1 r2 [cos(θ1 + θ2 ) + isin(θ1 + θ2 )] (1.27)
The relations | z1 z2 |=| z1 || z2 | and arg (z1 z2 ) = arg z1 +argz1 follow
immediately. Division is equally simple in polar form; the quotient of z1
and z2 is given by
z1 r1 eiθ1 r1
= iθ
= ei(θ1 θ2 ) (1.28)
z2 r2 e 2 r2
r1
= [cos(θ1 − θ2 ) + isin(θ1 − θ2 )] (1.29)
r2
The relations | z1 /z2 |=| z1 | / | z2 | and arg (z1 /z2 ) = arg z1 -argz1 are
again immediately apparent.
(i) De MOIVRE’S THEOREM
We now derive an extremely important theorem. Since (eiθ )n = einθ ,

we have
(cosθ + isinθ)n = cosnθ + isinnθ (1.30)
where the identity einθ = cosnθ + isinnθ follows from the series defini-
tion of einθ .This result is called de Moivres theorem and is often used
in the manipulation of complex numbers. The theorem is valid for all
n whether real,imaginary or complex. There are numerous applications
of de Moivres theorem but this section examines just three: proofs of
trigonometric identities; finding the nth roots of unity; and solving poly-
nomial equations with complex roots.
(a) TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES
The use of de Moivres theorem in finding trigonometric identities is

best illustrated by example. We consider the expression of a multiple-
angle function in terms of a polynomial in the single-angle function,
and its converse.
EXAMPLES:
i. Express sin3θ and cos3θ in terms of powers of cosθ and sinθ.
Using de Moivres theorem,
cos3θ + isin3θ = (cosθ + isinθ)3

= (cos3 θ − 3cosθsin2 θ) + i(3sinθcos2 θ − sin3 θ)
We can equate the real and imaginary coefficients separately,i.e.
cos3θ = cos3 θ − 3cosθsin2 θ

= 4cos3 θ − 3cosθ
and
sin3θ = 3sinθcos2 θ − sin3 θ

= 3sinθ − 4sin3 θ.
This method can clearly be applied to finding power expansions

of cosnθ and sinnθ for any positive integer n. The converse
process uses the following properties of z = eiθ ,
1
zn + = 2cosnθ, (1.31)
zn
1
zn + = 2isinθ. (1.32)
zn
These equalities follow from simple applications of de Moivres

theorem, i.e.
1
zn + n
= (cosθ + isinθ)n + (cosθ + isinθ)−n
z
= cosnθ + isin nθ + cos(−nθ) + isin(−nθ)
= cosnθ + isin nθ + cosnθ − isin nθ = 2cosnθ
and
1
zn − = (cosθ + isinθ)n − (cosθ + isinθ)−n
zn
= cosnθ + isin nθ + cos(−nθ) + isin(−nθ)
= cosnθ + isin nθ − cosnθ + isinnθ = 2isin nθ
In the particular case where n = 1,

1
z+ = eiθ + e−iθ = 2cosθ. (1.33)
z
1
z− = eiθ − e−iθ = 2isinθ. (1.34)
z
ii. Find an expression for cos3 θ in terms of cos3θ and cosθ.
1 1
cos3 θ =
3
(z + )3
2 z
1 3 3 1
= (z + 3z + + 3 )
8 z z
1 3 1 3 1
= (z + 3 ) + (z + ).
8 z 8 z
we find
1 3
cos3 θ = cos3θ + cosθ
4 4
(b) FINDING THE NTH ROOTS OF UNITY
The equation Z 2 = 1 has the familiar solutions z = ±1.However,

now that we have introduced the concept of complex numbers we
can solve the general equation z n = 1.Recalling the fundamental
theorem of algebra, we know that the equation has n solutions. In
order to proceed we rewrite the equation as
z n = e2ikπ , (1.35)
where k is any integer. Now taking the nth root of each side of the
equation we find
2ikπ
zn = e n , (1.36)
Hence, the solutions of z n = 1 are

2iπ 2i(n−1)π
z1,2,··· ,n = 1, e n ,··· ,e n , (1.37)
corresponding to the values 0, 1, 2, · · · , n − 1 for k. Larger integer

values of k do not give new solutions, since the roots already listed
are simply cyclically repeated for k = n, n + 1, n + 2, etc.
EXAMPLES:
i. Find the solutions to the equation z 3 = 1.
SOLUTION:
By applying the above method we find
2ikπ
z=e 3
2iπ 4iπ
Hence the three solutions are z1 = e0i = 1, z2 = e 3 ,z3 = e 3 .
We note that, as expected,the next solution, for which k = 3,gives
6iπ
z4 = e 3 = 1 = z1 ,so that there are only three separate solutions.
Not surprisingly, given that | z 3 |=| z |3 all the roots of unity have
unit modulus, i.e. they all lie on a circle in the Argand diagram of
unit radius
(c) SOLVING POLYNOMIAL EQUATIONS
A third application of de Moivres theorem is to the solution of poly-

nomial equations. Complex equations in the form of a polynomial
relationship must first be solved for z in a similar fashion to the
method for finding the roots of real polynomial equations. Then the
complex roots of z may be found.
i. Solve the equation z 6 − z 5 + 4z 4 − 6z 3 + 2z 2 − 8z + 8 = 0.
SOLUTION:
We first factorise to give
(z 3 − 2)(z 2 + 4)(z − 1) = 0
Hence z 3 = 2 or z 2 = −4 or z = 1.The solutions to the quadratic

equation are z = ±2i;to find the complex cube roots, we first write
the equation in the form
z 3 = 2 = 2e2ikπ ,
where k is any integer. If we now take the cube root, we get

2ikπ
z = 21/3 e 3 .
To avoid the duplication of solutions, we use the fact that

−π < arg z≤ π and find
z1 = 21/3
√ !
2πi 1 3
z2 = 21/3 e 3 = 21/3 − + i ,
2 2
√ !
−2πi 1 3
z3 = 21/3 e 3 = 21/3 − − i .
2 2
The complex numbers z1 ,z2 , and z3 together with z4 = 2i, z5 = −2i

and z6 = 1 are the solutions to the original polynomial equation.
As expected from the fundamental theorem of algebra, we find that
the total number of complex roots (six, in this case) is equal to the
largest power of z in the polynomial. A useful result is that the roots
of a polynomial with real coefficients occur in conjugate pairs (i.e. if
z1 is a root, then z1 unless z1 is real). This may be proved as follows.
Let the polynomial equation of which z is a root be
an z n + an−1 z n−1 + · · · + a1 z + a0 = 0.
Taking the complex conjugate of this equation,
an (z)n + an−1 (z)n−1 + · · · + a1 z + a0 = 0.
But the an are real, and so z satisfies
an (z)n + an−1 (z)n−1 + · · · + a1 z + a0 = 0,
and is also a root of the original equation.
(j) COMPLEX LOGARITHM AND COMPLEX POWERS
The concept of a complex exponential has already been introduced, where

it was assumed that the definition of an exponential as a series was valid
for complex numbers as well as for real numbers. Similarly we can define
the logarithm of a complex number and we can use complex numbers as
exponents. Let us denote the natural logarithm of a complex number z
by w = Lnz, where the notation Ln will be explained shortly. Thus, w
must satisfy
z = ew (1.38)
we see that
z1 z2 = ew1 ew2 = ew1 +w2 , and taking logarithms of both sides we find
Ln(z1 z2 ) = w1 + w2 = Lnz1 + Lnz2 , (1.39)

which shows that the familiar rule for the logarithm of the product of
two real numbers also holds for complex numbers. We may (1.42) to
investigate further the properties of ln z. We have already noted that
the argument of a complex number is multivalued,i.e. arg z = θ + 2nπ
where n is any integer. Thus, in polar form, the complex number z
should strictly be written as
z = rei(θ+2nπ) .
Taking the logarithm of both sides, and using (1.42), we find

Lnz = lnr + i(θ + 2nπ) (1.40)
where lnr is the natural logarithm of the real positive quantity r and so is
written normally. Thus from (1.43) we see that lnz is itself multivalued.
To avoid this multivalued behaviour it is conventional to define another
function lnz, the principal value of lnz, which is obtained from lnz by
restricting the argument of z to lie in the range −π < θ <≤ π.
(a) Evaluate Ln(−i)

By rewriting i as a complex exponential, we find
Ln(−i) = Ln[ei(−π/2+2nπ) ] = i(−π/2 + 2nπ),
where n is any integer. Hence Ln(−i) = − π2 , 3iπ2
,· · · We note that
ln(i), the principal value of Ln(i),is given by ln(i) = − π2 .
(b) Simplify the expression z = i−2i .
Firstly we take the logarithm of both sides of the equation to give
Lnz = −2iLni
Now inverting the process we find
eLnz = z = e−2iLni
We can write i = ei(−π/2+2nπ) ,where n is any integer, and hence
Lni = Ln[ei(π/2+2nπ) ]
= i(π/2 + 2nπ)
We can now simplify z to give

π
i−2i = e−2i×i( 2 +2nπ)
= eπ+4nπ
which, perhaps surprisingly, is a real quantity rather than a complex

one.
EXERCISES:
1. Two complex numbers z and w are given by z = 3 + 4i and w =

2 − i.Evaluate the following
(a) z+w
(b) w − z
(c) wz
(d) z/w
(e) lnz
(f) (1 + z + w)1/2
(g) zw + wz
2. By writing π/12 = (π/3)−(π/4) and considering eiπ/12 ,evaluate cot(π/12)

and tan(π/12).
3. Use de Moivres theorem with n = 4 to prove that
cos4θ = 8cos4 θ − 8cos2 θ + 1
4. Use de Moivres theorem to prove that

t5 −10t3 +5t
tan5θ = 5t4 −10t2 +1
where t = tanθ
5. Evaluate
(a) ii
(b) Im2i+3
(c) exp(i3 )
√
(d) (−1 + 3i)1/2
(e) e3iπ + 1
(f) (1 + i)10000
6. Find the cubic roots of a complex number z = −1 + i
7. Find the cubic roots of unity
8. Show that log z n =log [(reiθ )n ]
9. Show that log (ez ) = z
10. If z = a − ib, what is i3 z
11. Simplify z = (25i)(3 + i)/(3i) and find the modulus and argument of
the result.
12. If w = z 2 and z = x + iy and w = u + iv, find u and v.
13. If i2 = −1, what are i3 ,i4 ,i5 ,i6 .
14. If z = 3 + 4I find z 2 and the modulus and argument of z 2
15. Find z n if θ = π and r = 2.
√ −1 1
16. Write ( 5)eitan ( 2 ) in the form a + bi.
Chapter 2
VECTOR ALGEBRA
The term vector is used by scientists to indicate a quantity (such as displace-

ment or velocity or force) that has both magnitude and direction. A vector
is often represented by an arrow or a directed line segment. The length of
the arrow represents the magnitude of the vector and the arrow points in the
direction of the vector. We denote a vector by the letter →−v.
For instance, suppose a particle moves along a line segment from point A to
point B.The corresponding displacement vector has initial point A (the tail)
−→
and terminal point B(the tip) and we indicate this by writing v = AB. We
say that u and v are equivalent (or equal) and we write u = v.The zero vector
denoted by 0, has length 0. It is the only vector with no specific direction.
2.1 Combining Vectors

−→
Suppose a particle moves from A to B,so its displacement vector is AB.Then
the particle changes direction and moves from B to C,with displacement
−−→
vector BC.The combined effect of these displacements is that the particle
−→
has moved from A to C.The resulting displacement vector AC is called the
−→ −−→
sum of AB and BC and we write
−→ −→ −−→
AC = AB + BC
In general, if we start with vectors u and v, we first move v so that its tail
coincides with the tip of u and define the sum of u and v as follows.
25
26 CHAPTER 2. VECTOR ALGEBRA
2.2 DEFINITION OF VECTOR ADDITION

If u and v are vectors positioned so the initial point of v is at the terminal
point of u,then the sum u + v is the vector from the initial point of u to the
terminal point of v. If we place u and v so they start at the same point, then
u + v lies along the diagonal of the parallelogram with u and v as sides.(This
is called the Parallelogram Law. )
2.3 DEFINITION OF SCALAR MULTIPLI-

CATION
If is a scalar and is a vector, then the scalar multiple cv is the vector whose
length is | c | times the length of v and whose direction is the same as v if
c > 0 and is opposite to v if c < 0.If c = 0 or v = 0,then cv = 0. If two
non-zero vectors are parallel if they are scalar multiples of one another. In
particular, the vector −v = (−1)v has the same length as v but points in the
opposite direction.We call it the negative of v.By the difference u − v of two
vectors we mean
u − v = u + (−v)
There are several nice applications of scalar multiplication that we should

now take a look at.The first is parallel vectors. This is a concept that we will
see quite a bit over the next couple of sections. Two vectors are parallel if
they have the same direction or are in exactly opposite directions.When we
performed scalar multiplication we generated new vectors that were parallel
to the original vectors (and each other for that matter).
So, let’s suppose that a and b are parallel vectors.If they are parallel then
there must be a number c so that ,
a = cb
So, two vectors are parallel if one is a scalar multiple of the other.
2.4. COMPONENTS 27
2.4 COMPONENTS
For some purposes its best to introduce a coordinate system and treat vectors
algebraically.If we place the initial point of a vector a at the origin of a
rectangular coordinate system, then the terminal point of a has coordinates of
the form (a1 , a2 ) or (a1 , a2 , a3 ),depending on whether our coordinate system
is two- or three-dimensional. These coordinates are called the components
of and we write
a = ha1 , a2 i or a = ha1 , a2 , a3 i
We use the notation a = ha1 , a2 i for the ordered pair that refers to a vector
so as not to confuse it with the ordered pair (a1 , a2 ) that refers to a point in
the plane.
−→
In three dimensions, the vector a = OP = ha1 , a2 , a3 i is the position vector of
−→
the point P (a1 , a2 , a3 ).Let’s consider any other representation AB of a,where
the initial point is A(x1 , y1 , z1 ) and the terminal point is B(x2 , y2 , z2 ).Then
we must have x1 + a1 = x2 ,y1 + a2 = y2 , and z1 + a3 = z2 and so a1 =
x2 − x1 ,a2 = y2 − y1 , and a3 = z2 − z1 .Thus we have the following result.
Given the points A(x1 , y1 , z1 ) and B(x2 , y2 , z2 ),the vector with representation
−→
AB is
a = hx2 − x1 , y2 − y1 , z2 − z1 i
EXAMPLE 1:
Find the vector represented by the directed line segment with initial point
A (2, −3, 4) and terminal point B (−2, 1, 1)
SOLUTION:
−→
the vector corresponding to AB is
a = h−2 − 2, 1 − (−3), 1 − 4i = h−4, 4, −3i
The magnitude or length of the vector is the length of any of its representa-
tions and is denoted by the symbol | v |. By using the distance formula to
compute the length of a segment OP ,we obtain the following formulas.
The length of the two-dimensional vector a = ha1 , a2 i is

p
| a |= a21 + a22
The length of the two-dimensional vector ha1 , a2 , a3 i is
p
| a |= a21 + a22 + a33
If a = ha1 , a2 i and b = ha1 , a2 , a3 i,then
a + b = ha1 + b1 , a2 + b2 i
a − b = ha1 − b1 , a2 − b2 i
ca = hca1 , ca2 i
Similarly, for three-dimensional vectors,
ha1 , a2 , a3 i + hb1 , b2 , b3 i = ha1 + b1 , a2 + b2 , a3 + b3 i

ha1 , a2 , a3 i − hb1 , b2 , b3 i = ha1 − b1 , a2 − b2 , a3 − b3 i
c ha1 , a2 , a3 i = hca1 , ca2 , ca3 i
EXAMPLE 2:
If a = h4, 0, 3i and b = h−2, 1, 5i,Find | a | and the vectors a+b,a−b,3b 2a+5b.
SOLUTION:
√ √
1. | a |= 42 + 02 + 32 = 25 = 5
2. a + b = h4, 0, 0i + h−2, 1, 5i
= h4 + (−2), 0 + 1, 3 + 5i = h2, 1, 8i
3. a − b = h4 − (−2), 0 − 1, 3 − 5i = h6, −1, −2i
4. 3b = 3 h−2, 1, 5i = h3(−2), 3(1), 3(5)i = h−6, 3, 15i
5. 2a + 5b = 2 h4, 0, 3i + 5 h−2, 1, 5i
= h8, 0, 6i + h−10, 5, 25i = h−2, 5, 31i

2.5. PROPERTIES OF VECTORS 29
2.5 PROPERTIES OF VECTORS

If a,b and c are vectors in Vn and c and d are scalars,then
(a) a + b = b + a
(b) a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c
(c) a + (−a) = 0
(d) c(a + b) = ca + cb
(e) a + 0 = a
(f) (c + d)a = ca + da
(g) (cd)a = c(da)
(h) 1a = a
These eight properties of vectors can be readily verified either geometrically

or algebraically.(it’s equivalent to the Parallelogram Law) or as follows for
the case n = 2
a + b = ha1 , a2 i + hb1 , b2 i = ha1 + b1 , a2 + b2 i

= hb1 + a1 , b2 + a2 i = hb1 , b2 i + ha1 , a2 i = b + a
Three vectors in V3 play a special role.Let
i = h1, 0, 0i j = h0, 1, 0i k = h0, 0, 1i
These vectors i,j and k are called the standard basis vectors. They have
length 1 and point in the directions of the positive x-, y-, and z-axes.Similarly,
in two dimensions we define i = h1, 0i and j = h0, 1i
If
a = ha1 , a2 , a3 i = ha1 , 0, 0i + h0, a2 , 0i + h0, 0, a3 i

= a1 h1, 0, 0i + a2 h0, 1, 0i + a3 h0, 0, 1i = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k
Thus any vector in V3 can be expressed in terms of i,j,k and . For instance,
h1, −2, 6i = i − 2j + 6k
Similarly, in two dimensions, we can write
a = ha1 , a2 i = a1 i + a2 j
EXAMPLE 3:
If a = i + 2j − 3k and b = 4i + 7k,express the vector 2a + 3b in terms

of i,j,k.
SOLUTION:
Using Properties 1, 2, 5, 6, and 7 of vectors, we have
2a + 3b = 2(i + 2j − 3k) + 3(4i + 7k)

= 2i + 4j − 6k + 12i + 21k = 14i + 4j + 15k
2.6 UNIT VECTOR

A unit vector is a vector whose length is 1.For instance,i ,j and k and are
all unit vectors In general, if a 6= 0,then the unit vector that has the same
direction as a is
1 a
u= |a|
a = |a|
In order to verify this, we let c = 1/ | a |.Then u = ca and c is a positive

scalar, so u has the same direction as a. Also
1
| u |=| ca |=| c || a |= |a|
| a |= 1
EXAMPLE 4:
Find the unit vector in the direction of the vector 2i − j − 2k
SOLUTION:
The given vector has length

p √
| 2i − j − 2k |= 22 + (−1)2 + (−2)2 = 9=3
So,the unit vector with the same direction is

1
3
(2i − j − 2k) = 23 i − 31 j − 23 k.
2.6. UNIT VECTOR 31
EXERCISE:
1. Find a + b,2a + 3b,| a |, and | a − b |.
(a) a = h5, 12i, b = h−3, −6i

(b) a = 4i + j, b = i − 2j
(c) a = i + 2j − 3k ,b = −2i − j + 5k
(d) a = 2i − 4j + 4k, b = 2j − k
2. Find a unit vector that has the same direction as the given vector.
(a) −3i + 7j
(b) 8i − j + k
(c) h−4, 2, 4i
3. Determine the magnitude of each of the following vectors.
(a) a = h3, −5, 10i

D E
(b) b = √15 , − √25
(c) u = h1, 0, 0i
4. Determine if the sets of vectors are parallel or not.
(a) a = h2, −4, 1i,b = h−6, 12, −3i

(b) a = h4, 10i,b = h2, −9i
2.7 DOT PRODUCT

So far we have added two vectors and multiplied a vector by a scalar. The
question arises:Is it possible to multiply two vectors so that their product
is a useful quantity? One such product is the dot product, whose definition
follows. Another is the cross product, which is discussed in the next section.
2.8 DEFINITION 1
If a = ha1 , a2 , a3 i and b = hb1 , b2 , b3 i,then the dot product of a and b is the
number a · b given by
a · b = a1 b 1 + a2 b 2 + a3 b 3
Thus, to find the dot product of a and b,we multiply corresponding compo-
nents and add. The result is not a vector. It is a real number, that is, a
scalar. For this reason, the dot product is sometimes called the scalar prod-
uct (or inner product). Although Definition 1 is given for three-dimensional
vectors, the dot product of two-dimensional vectors is defined in a similar
fashion:
ha1 , a2 i . hb1 , b2 i = a1 b1 + a2 b2
EXAMPLE 5:
1. h2, 4i · h3, −1i = 2(3) + 4(−1) = 2
2. h−1, 7, 4i · 6, 2, − 21 = (−1)(6) + 7(2) + 4(− 12 ) = 6

3. (i + 2j − 3k) · (2j − k) = 1(0) + 2(2) + (−3)(−1) = 7
The dot product obeys many of the laws that hold for ordinary products of
real numbers.These are stated in the following theorem.
2.9. PROPERTIES OF THE DOT PRODUCT 33
2.9 PROPERTIES OF THE DOT PRODUCT

If a,b,and c are vectors in V3 and c is a scalar,then
1. a · a =| a |2
2. a · b = b · a
3. a.(b + c) = a · b + a · c
4. 0 · a = 0
5. (ca).b = c(a · b) = a · (cb)
6. a · b = 0,a and b are mutually perpendicular or a = 0 or b = 0.
These properties are easily proved using Definition 1. For instance, here are
the proofs of Properties 1 and 3:
1. a · a = a21 + a22 + a23 =| a |2
2. a.(b + c) = ha1 , a2 , a3 i · hb1 + c1 , b2 + c2 , b3 + c3 i

= a1 (b1 + c1 ) + a2 (b2 + c2 ) + a3 (b3 + c3 )
= a1 b 1 + a1 c 1 + a2 b 2 + a2 c 2 + a3 b 3 + a3 c 3
= (a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 ) + (a1 c1 + a2 c2 + a3 c3 )
=a·b+a·c
The proofs of the remaining properties are left as exercises.
The dot product a · b can be given a geometric interpretation in terms of

the angle θ between a and b,which is defined to be the angle between the
representations of a and b that start at the origin, where 0 ≤ θ ≤ π.
−→ −−→
In other words, θ is the angle between the line segment OA and OB.
Note that if a and b are parallel vectors, then θ = 0 or θ = π.
The formula in the following theorem is used by physicists as the definition
of the dot product.
2.10 THEOREM 1
If θ is the angle between the vectors a and b ,then
a · b =| a || b | cosθ
EXAMPLE 6:
If the vector a and b have lengths 4 and 6, and the angle between them
is π/3,find a · b
SOLUTION :
Using Theorem 1,we have

1
a · b =| a || b | cos(π/3) = 4 · 6 · 2
= 12
The formula in Theorem 1 also enables us to find the angle between two
vectors.
2.11 COROLLARY 1
If θ is the angle between the non-zero vectors a and b,then
a·b
cosθ =
| a || b |
EXAMPLE 7:
Find the angle between the vectors a = h2, 2, −1i and h5, −3, 2i.
SOLUTION:
Since
p p √
| a |= 22 + 22 + (−1)2 = 3 and | b |= 52 + (−3)2 + 22 = 38
and since
a · b = 2(5) + 2(−3) + (−1)(2) = 2
we have, from Corollary 1
a·b 2
cosθ = = √
| a || b | 3 38
2.12. THEOREM 2 35
So the angle between a and b is

−1 2
θ = cos √ = 84o
3 38
Two non-zero vectors a and b are called perpendicular or orthogonal if the
angle between them is θ = π/2
a · b =| a || b | cos(π/2) = 0
and conversely if
a·b=0
then cosθ = 0,so θ = π/2.The zero vector is considered to be perpendicular to

all vectors. Therefore we have the following method for determining whether
two vectors are orthogonal.
2.12 THEOREM 2
Two vectors a and b are orthogonal if and only if a · b = 0
EXAMPLE 8:
Show that 2i + 2j − k is perpendicular to 5i − 4j + 2k
SOLUTION:
since
(2i + 2j − k) · (5i − 4j + 2k) = 2(5) + 2(−4) + (−1)(2) = 0 these vectors are
perpendicular.
2.13 PROJECTION
The scalar projection of b onto a (also called the component of b along a)
is defined to be the signed magnitude of the vector projection, which is the
number | b | cosθ, where θ is the angle between a and b.This is denoted by
compa b.Observe that it is negative if π/2 < θ ≤ π.The equation
a · b =| a || b | cosθ =| a | (| b | cosθ)
shows that the dot product of a and b can be interpreted as the length of a
times the scalar projection of b onto a.Since
a·b a
| b | cosθ = = ·b
|a| |a|
the component of b along a can be computed by taking the dot product of
b with the unit vector in the direction of a.We summarize these ideas as
follows.
1. Scalar projection of b onto a:
a·b
compa b =
|a|
2. Vector projection of b onto a:

a·b a a·b
proja b = = a
|a| |a| | a |2
Notice that the vector projection is the scalar projection times the unit vec-
tor in the direction of a.
EXAMPLE 9:
Find the scalar projection and vector projection of b = h1, 1, 2i onto

a = h−2, 3, 1i .
SOLUTION:
p √
Since | a |= (−2)2 + 32 + 12 = 14, the scalar projection of b onto a
is
a·b (−2)(1) + 3(1) + 1(2) 3
compa b = = √ =√
|a| 14 14
2.13. PROJECTION 37
The vector projection is this scalar projection times the unit vector in the
direction of a:

3 a 3 3 9 3
proja b = √ = a= − , ,
14 | a | 14 7 14 14
EXERCISE:
1. Find a · b
(a) a = h−2, 3i, b = h0.7, 1.2i
(b) a = h−2, 1/3i ,b = h−5, 12i
(c) a = h6, −2, 3i ,b = h2, −5, −1i
(d) a = hp, −p, 2pi, b = h2q, q, −qi
(e) a = h4, 1, 1/4i, b = h6, −3, −8i
(f) a = 2i + j, b = i − j + k
(g) a = 3i + 2j − k, b = 4i + 5k
(h) | a |= 6, | b |= 5,the angle between a and b is 2π/3
√
(i) | a |= 3, | b |= 6,the angle between a and b is 45o
2. Determine whether the given vectors are orthogonal, parallel, or nei-
ther.
(a) a = h−5, 3, 7i ,b = h6, −8, 2i
(b) a = h−3, 9, 6i ,b = h4, −12, −8i
3. Find the values of such that the angle between the vectors
a = h2, 1, −1i and b = h1, x, 0i is 45o .
4. Find the angle between the vectors.
(a) a = h4, 3i and b = h2, −1i
(b) a = h−2, 5i and b = h5, 12i
(c) a = h3, −1, 5i and b = h−2, 4, 3i
(d) a = h4, 0, 2i and b = h2, −1, 0i
5. Find the scalar and vector projections of b onto a.
(a) a = h−5, 12i and b = h4, 6i
(b) a = h1, 4i and b = h2, 3i
(c) a = h3, 6, −2i and b = h1, 2, 3i
(d) a = h−2, 3, −2i and b = h5, −1, 4i
(e) a = 2i − j + 4k, b = i − j + k
(f) a = i + j + k, b = i − j + k
2.14. THE CROSS PRODUCT 39
2.14 THE CROSS PRODUCT

Given two nonzero vectors a = ha1 , a2 , a3 i and b = hb1 , b2 , b3 i,it is very useful
to be able to find a nonzero vector that is perpendicular to both a and b.If
c = hc1 , c2 , c3 i is such a vector, then a · c = 0 and b · c = 0 and so
a1 c 1 + a2 c 2 + a3 c 3 = 0 (2.1)
b1 c 1 + b 2 c 2 + b3 c 3 = 0 (2.2)
To eliminate c3 we multiply (2.1) by b3 and (2.2) a3 and subtract:
(a1 b3 − a3 b1 )c1 + (a2 b3 − a3 b2 )c2 = 0 (2.3)
Equation (2.3) has the form pc1 + qc2 = 0,for which an obvious solution is
c1 = q and c2 = −p.So a solution of (2.3) is
c 1 = a2 b 3 − a3 b 2 c 2 = a3 b 1 − a1 b 3 (2.4)
Substituting these values into (2.1) and (2.2),we then get
c 3 = a1 b 2 − a2 b 1
This means that a vector perpendicular to both a and b is
hc1 , c2 , c3 i = ha2 b3 − a3 b2 , a3 b1 − a1 b3 , a1 b2 − a2 b1 i
The resulting vector is called the cross product of a and b and is denoted by
a × b.
2.15 DEFINITION 4
If a = ha1 , a2 , a3 i and b = hb1 , b2 , b3 i,then the cross product of a and b is the
vector
a × b = ha2 b3 − a3 b2 , a3 b1 − a1 b3 , a1 b2 − a2 b1 i
Notice that the cross product a × b of two vectors a and b,unlike the dot
product, is a vector. For this reason it is also called the vector product. Note
that a×b is defined only when and are three-dimensional vectors. In order to
make Definition 4 easier to remember, we use the notation of determinants.
A determinant of order 2 is defined by

a b
c d = ad − bc

For example,

2 1
−6 4 = 8 − (−6) = 14

A determinant of order 3 can be defined in terms of second-order determi-

nants as follows:

a1 a2 a3
b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2
c 2 c 3 − a2 c 1 c 3 + a3 c 1 c 2
b 1 b 2 b 3 = a1 (2.5)

c1 c2 c3
If we now rewrite Definition 4 using second-order determinants and the stan-

dard basis vectors i,j and k, we see that the cross product of the vectors
a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k and a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k is

a2 a3 a1 a3 a1 a2
a × b = i −
b1 b 3 j + b1 b2 k
(2.6)
b2 b 3
In view of the similarity between Equations (2.5) and (2.6), we often write

i j k

a × b = a1 a2 a3 (2.7)
b1 b2 b3
Although the first row of the symbolic determinant in Equation (2.7) consists
of vectors, if we expand it as if it were an ordinary determinant using the
rule in Equation (2.5), we obtain Equation (2.6). The symbolic formula in
Equation (2.7) is probably the easiest way of remembering and computing
cross products.
1. EXAMPLE 1:
If a = h1, 3, 4i and b = h2, −7, −5i,then

i j k
3 4 1 4 1 3
a × b = 1 3 4 = i −
2 −5 j + 2 7 k

2 7 −5 7 −5
= (−15 − 28)i − (−5 − 8)j + (7 − 6)k = −43i + 13j + k

2.16. THEOREM 3 41
2. EXAMPLE 2:
Show that a × a = 0 for any vector in v3 .
SOLUTION:
If a = ha1 , a2 , a3 i,then

i j k

a × b = a1 a2 a3 = (a2 a3 − a3 a2 )i − (a1 a3 − a3 a1 )j + (a1 a2 − a2 a1 )k
a1 a2 a3
= 0i − 0j + 0k = 0
We constructed the cross product a × b so that it would be perpendicular

to both a and b. This is one of the most important properties of a cross
product, so let’s emphasize and verify it in the following theorem and give a
formal proof.
2.16 THEOREM 3
The vector a × b is orthogonal to a and b.
PROOF:
In order to show that a × b is orthogonal to a, we compute their dot product

as follows:

a2 a3 a1 a3 a1 a2
(a × b) · a = a × b = a − a + a
b2 b3 1 b1 b3 2 b1 b2 3

= a1 (a2 b3 − a3 b2 ) − a2 (a1 b3 − a3 b1 ) + a3 (a1 b2 − a2 b1 )

= a1 a2 b 3 − a1 b 1 a3 − a1 a2 b 3 + b 1 a2 a3 + a1 b 2 a3 − b 1 a2 a3 = 0
A similar computation shows that (a × b) · b = 0.Therefore a × b is orthogonal

to both a and b.
2.17 THEOREM 4
If θ is the angle between a and b (so 0 ≤ θ ≤ π),then
| a × b |=| a || b | sinθ
2.18 COROLLARY
Two nonzero vectors a and b are parallel if and only if
a×b=0
PROOF:
Two nonzero vectors a and b are parallel if and only if θ = 0 or π.In ei-
ther case sinθ = 0,so | a × b |= 0 and therefore a × b = 0.
2.19 LEMMA 1(GEOMETRICAL APPLICA-

TION OF VECTOR PRODUCT)
1. The area of a parallelogram with adjacent sides a and b is given by
| a × b |.
1
2. The area of a triangle with adjacent sides a and b is given by 2
| a×b |
3. Two vectors a and b are collinear (linear dependent) if a × b = 0
EXAMPLE 3:
(a) Find a vector perpendicular to the plane that passes through the points
P (1, 4, 6),Q (−2, 5, −1),R (1, −1, 1).
SOLUTION:
−→ −→ −→ −→
The vector P Q × P R is perpendicular to both P Q and P R and is there-
fore perpendicular to the plane through P ,Q,and R.
−→
P Q = (−2 − 1)i + (5 − 4)j + (−1 − 6)k = −3i + j − 7k
−→
P R = (1 − 1)i + (−1 − 4)j + (1 − 6)k = −5j − 5k
2.19. LEMMA 1(GEOMETRICAL APPLICATION OF VECTOR PRODUCT)43
We compute the cross product of these vectors:

i j k
−→ −→
P Q × P R = −3 1 −7 = (−5 − 35)i − (15 − 0)j + (15 − 0)k = −40i − 15j + 15k.
0 −5 −5
So the vector h−40, −15, 15i is perpendicular to the given plane. Any
nonzero scalar multiple of this vector, such as h−8, −3, 3i ,is also per-
pendicular to the plane.
(b) Find the area of the triangle with vertices P (1, 4, 6),Q (−2, 5, −1),R (1, −1, 1).
SOLUTION:
−→ −→
In the previous example we computed that P Q×P R = h−40, −15, 15i.The
area of the parallelogram with adjacent sides P Q and P Q is the length
of this cross product:
−→ −→ p √
| P Q × P R |= (−40)2 + (−15)2 + (15)2 = 5 82
The area√A of the triangle P QR is half the area of this parallelogram,
that is, 25 82.
If we apply Theorems 3 and 4 to the standard basis vectors i,j,and k using
θ = π/2,we obtain
i×j =k j×k =i k×i=j
j × i = −k k×j =i i × k = −j
Observe that
i × j 6= j × i
1. Thus the cross product is not commutative. Also
i × (i × j) = i × k = −j
whereas
(i × i) × j = 0 × k = 0
2. So the associative law for multiplication does not usually hold; that is,
in general,
(a × b) × c 6= a × (b × c)
However, some of the usual laws of algebra do hold for cross products. The
following theorem summarizes the properties of vector products.
2.20 THEOREM 5
If a,b,and c are vectors and k is a scalar,then
1. a × b = −b × a
2. (ka) × b = k(a × b) = a × (kb)
3. a × (b + c) = a × b + a × c
4. (a + b) × c = a × c + b × c
5. a · (b × c) = (a × b) · c
6. a × (b × c) = (a · c)b − (a · b)c
2.21 TRIPLE PRODUCTS

The product a·(b×c) is called the scalar triple product of the vectors a,b,and
c.We can write the scalar triple product as a determinant:

a1 a2 a3

a · (b × c) = b1 b2 b3 (2.8)
c1 c2 c3
2.22 DEFINITION 5
1. Three vectors a,b,and c (in the given order)are said to constitute a
right-handed system if the scalar triple product a · (b × c) > 0
2. Three vectors a,b,and c (in the given order)are said to constitute a

left-handed system if the scalar triple product a · (b × c) < 0
2.23 CRITERION FOR LINEAR INDEPEN-

DENCE/DEPENDENCE
1. The vectors a,b,and c are linearly independent or non-coplanar if and
only if a · (b × c) 6= 0.
2. The vectors a,b,and c are linearly dependent or coplanar or even collinear

if and only if a · (b × c) = 0.
2.24. GEOMETRICAL APPLICATION OF SCALAR TRIPLE APPLICATION45
2.24 GEOMETRICAL APPLICATION OF SCALAR

TRIPLE APPLICATION
1. The volume of a parallelepiped with adjacent edges a,b,and c is given
by | a · (b × c) |.
2. The volume of a tetrahedron with adjacent edges a,b,and c is given by

1
6
| a · (b × c) |.
EXAMPLE 4:
Use the scalar triple product to show that the vectors a = h1, 4, −7i,b =
h2, −1, 4i,and c = h0, −9, 18i are coplanar.
SOLUTION:
compute their scalar triple product:

1 4 −7
−1 4 2 4 2 −1
a · (b × c) = 2 −1 4 = 1 − 4
0 18 − 7 0 −9 = 1(18) − 4(36) − 7(−18) = 0

0 −9 18 −9 18
Therefore,the volume of the parallelepiped determined by a,b,and c is 0.This

means that a,b,and c are coplanar.
EXERCISES:
1. Find the cross product a × b and verify that it is orthogonal to both a

and b.
(a) a = h6, 0, −2i, b = h0, 8, 0i

(b) a = h1, 1, −1i, b = h2, 4, 6i
(c) a = ht, 1, 1/ti, b = ht2 , t2 , 1i
(d) a = i + 3j − 3k,b = −i + 5k
(e) j + 7k, b = 2i − j + 4k
(f) a = ti + costj + sintk, b = i − sintj + costk
2. If a = h2, −1, 3i and b = h4, 2, 1i,find a × b and b × a.
3. If a = h1, 0, 1i,b = h2, 1, −1i,and c = h0, 1, 3i,show that (a × b) × c 6=

a × (b × c)
4. Find the volume of the parallelepiped determined by the vectors a,b,and

c.
(a) a = h1, 2, 3i and b = h−1, 1, 2i, c = h2, 1, 4i.

(b) a = i + j, b = j + k ,c = i + j + k
5. Find a nonzero vector orthogonal to the plane through the points

P ,Q,and R and the area of the triangle P QR
(a) P (1, 2, 3),Q = (−2, 1, 3),R = (4, 2, 5)

(b) P (0, 0, −3),Q = (4, 2, 0),R = (3, 3, 1)
(c) P (0, −2, 0),Q = (4, 1, −2),R = (5, 3, 1)
(d) P (−1, 3, 1),Q = (0, 5, 2),R = (4, 3, −1)
2.25. EQUATION OF LINES AND PLANES 47
2.25 EQUATION OF LINES AND PLANES

A line in the xy−plane is determined when a point on the line and the
direction of the line(its slope or angle of inclination) are given. The equation
of the line can then be written using the point-slope form.
Likewise, a line L in three-dimensional space is determined when we know
a point Po (x0 , yo , zo ) on L and the direction of L.In three dimensions the
direction of a line is conveniently described by a vector, so we let v be a
vector parallel to L.Let P (x, y, x) be an arbitrary point on L and let r0 and
r be the position vectors of Po and P (that is, they have representations
−−→ −→ −−→
OPo and OP ).If a is the vector with representation Po P ,then the Triangle
Law for vector addition gives r = ro + tv.But, since a and v are are parallel
vectors,there is a scalar t such that a = tv.Thus
r = ro + tv (2.9)
which is a vector equation of L.Each value of the parameter t gives the

position vector r of a point on L.In other words, as t varies, the line is
traced out by the tip of the vector r.If the vector v that gives the direction
of the line L is written in component form as v = ha, b, ci,then we have
tv = hta, tb, tci.We can also write r = hx, y, zi and ro = hxo , yo , zo i, so the
vector equation (2.9) becomes
hx, y, zi = hxo + ta, yo + tb, zo + cti
Two vectors are equal if and only if corresponding components are equal.
Therefore we have the three scalar equations:
xo + ta yo + tb zo + ct (2.10)
where t ∈ R.These equations are called parametric equations of the line L

through the point Po (x0 , yo , zo ) and parallel to the vector v = ha, b, ci.Each
value of the parameter t gives a point (x, y, x) on L.
EXAMPLE 1:
(a) Find a vector equation and parametric equations for the line that passes
through the point (5, 1, 3) and is parallel to the vector i + 4j − 2k.
(b) Find two other points on the line.
SOLUTION:
(a) Here ro = h5, 1, 3i = 5i + j + 3k and v = i + 4j − 2k,so the vector

equation becomes
r = (5i + j + 3k) + t(i + 4j − 2k)

r = (5 + t)i + (1 + 4t)j + (3 − 2t)k
Parametric equations are
x=5+t y = 1 + 4t z = 3 − 2t
(b) Choosing the parameter value t = 1 gives x = 6,y = 5,and z = 1,so

(6,5,1)is a point on the line. Similarly, t = −1 gives the point
(4,-3,5).
The vector equation and parametric equations of a line are not unique.
If we change the point or the parameter or choose a different parallel
vector, then the equations change. For instance, if, instead of (5,1,3),we
choose the point (6,5,1),hen the parametric equations of the line become
x=6+t y = 5 + 4t z = 1 − 2t
Or, if we stay with the point (5,1,3) but choose the parallel vector 2i +
8j − 4k,we arrive at the equations
x = 5 + 2t y = 1 + 8t z = 3 − 4t
In general, if a vector v = ha, b, ci is used to describe the direction of a

line L,then the numbers a,b,and c are called direction numbers of L.Since
any vector parallel to v could also be used, we see that any three numbers
proportional to a,b,and c could also be used as a set of direction numbers
for L. Another way of describing a line L is to eliminate the parameter t
2.25. EQUATION OF LINES AND PLANES 49
Equation(2.10).If none of a,b,or c is 0, we can solve each of these equations

for t,equate the results, and obtain
x − x0 y − y0 z − z0
= = (2.11)
a b c
These equations are called symmetric equations of L.Notice that the
numbers a,b,and c that appear in the denominators of Equations(2.11)are
direction numbers of L,that is, components of a vector parallel to L.If
one of a,b,or c is 0,we can still eliminate t.For instance, if a = 0,we could
write the equations of L as
y − y0 z − z0
x − x0 = =
b c
This means that L lies in the vertical plane x − x0 .
EXAMPLE 2:
(a) Find parametric equations and symmetric equations of the line that
passes through the points A (2, 4, −3) and B (3, −1, 1).
(b) At what point does this line intersect the xy−plane?
SOLUTION:
(a) We are not explicitly given a vector parallel to the line, but observe that
−→
the vector v with representation AB is parallel to the line and
v = h3 − 2, −1 − 4, 1 − (−3)i = h1, −5, 4i
Thus direction numbers are a = 1,b = −5,and c = 4.Taking the point

(2,4,-3) as Po we see that parametric equations (2.10)are
x=2+t y = 4 − 5t z = −3 + 4t
and symmetric equations (2.11) are
x−2 y−4 z+3

= =
1 −5 4
(b) The line intersects the xy−plane when z = 0 in the symmetric equations
and obtain
x−2 y−4 3
= =
1 −5 4
11 1
This gives x = 4 and y = 4 ,so the line intersects the xy−plane at the
11 1
point 4 , 4 , 0 .
In general, the procedure of Example 2 shows that direction numbers of the

line L through the points Po (x0 , yo , zo ) and P1 (x1 , y1 , z1 ) are x−x0 = y −y0 =
z − z0 nd so symmetric equations of L are
x − x0 y − y0 z − z0
= =
x1 − x0 y1 − y0 z1 − z0
Often, we need a description, not of an entire line, but of just a line segment.
How, for instance, could we describe the line segment AB in Example 2? If
we put t = 0 in the parametric equations in Example 2(a),we get the point
(2,4,-3)and if we put t = 1 we get (3,-1,1).So the line segment AB is described
by the parametric equations
x=2+t y = 4 − 5t z = −3 + 4t 0 ≤ t ≤ 1.
or by the corresponding vector equation
r(t) = h2 + t, 4 − 5t, −3 + 4ti 0 ≤ t ≤ 1.
In general, we know from Equation (2.9) that the vector equation of a line
through the (tip of the) vector ro in the direction of a vector v is r = ro +tv.If
the line also passes through(the tip of ) r1 ,then we can take r1 − ro and so
its vector equation is
r = ro + t(r1 − ro ) + tr1
The line segment from ro to r1 is given by the parameter interval 0 ≤ t ≤ 1.

The line segment from ro to r1 is given by the parameter interval
r = ro + t(r1 − ro ) + tr1 0≤t≤1 (2.12)

2.26. PLANES 51
EXAMPLE 3:
Show that the lines L1 and L2 with parametric equations

x=1+t y = −2 + 3t z = 4 − t
x = 2s y = 3 + s z = −3 + 4s
are skew lines; that is, they do not intersect and are not parallel (and there-
fore do not lie in the same plane).
SOLUTION:
The lines are not parallel because the corresponding vectors h1, 3, −1i and
h2, 1, 4i are not parallel. (Their components are not proportional.) If L1 and
L2 had a point of intersection, there would be values of t and s such that
1 + t = 2s
−2 + 3t = 3 + s
4 − t = −3 + 4s
But if we solve the first two equations, we get t = 11
5
and s = 85 ,and these
values don’t satisfy the third equation. Therefore there are no values of t
and s that satisfy the three equations, so L1 and L2 do not intersect.Thus
L1 and L2 are skew lines.
2.26 PLANES
Although a line in space is determined by a point and a direction, a plane in
space is more difficult to describe. A single vector parallel to a plane is not
enough to convey the ”direction” of the plane, but a vector perpendicular
to the plane does completely specify its direction. Thus a plane in space
is determined by a point Po (x0 , yo , zo ) in the plane and a vector n that is
orthogonal to the plane. This orthogonal vector n is called a normal vector.
Let P (x, y, z) be an arbitrary point in the plane, and let ro and r be the
position vectors of Po and P . Then the vector r − ro is represented by
−−→
P0 P .The normal vector n is orthogonal to every vector in the given plane.
In particular, n is orthogonal to r − ro and so we have
n · (r − ro ) = 0 (2.13)
which can be rewritten as
n · r = n · ro (2.14)
Either Equation (2.13) or Equation (2.14) is called a vector equation of the

plane. To obtain a scalar equation for the plane, we write n = ha, b, ci,r =
hx, y, zi and r0 = hxo , yo , zo i Then the vector equation (2.13) becomes
ha, b, ci · hx − x0 , y − y0 , z − z0 i = 0
or
a(x − x0 ) + b(y − y0 ) + c(z − z0 ) = 0 (2.15)
Equation (2.15) is the scalar equation of the plane through Po (x0 , yo , zo ) with
normal vector n = ha, b, ci
EXAMPLE 4:
Find an equation of the plane through the point (2,4,-1) with normal vector
n = h2, 3, 4i.Find the intercepts.
SOLUTION:
Putting a = 2,b = 3,c = 4,xo = 2,yo = 4,and zo = −1 in Equation (2.15),we

see that an equation of the plane is
2(x − 2) + 3(y − 4) + 4(z + 1) = 0
or
2x + 3y + 4z = 12
To find the x− intercept we set y = z = 0 in this equation and obtain

x = 6.Similarly, the y− intercept is 4 and z− intercept is 3. By collecting
terms in Equation (2.15) as we did in Example 4, we can rewrite the equation
of a plane as
ax + by + cz + d = 0 (2.16)
where d = −(axo + byo + czo ).Equation (2.16) is called a linear equation in

x,y,and z.Conversely,it can be shown that if a,b,and c are not all 0, then the
linear equation (2.16) represents a plane with normal vector ha, b, ci.
2.26. PLANES 53
EXAMPLE 5:
1. Find an equation of the plane that passes through the points P (1, 3, 2),Q (3, −1, 6),and
R (5, 2, 0).
SOLUTION:
−→ −→
The vectors a and b corresponding to P Q and P R are
a = h2, −4, 4i b = h4, −1, −2i
Since both a and b lie in the plane, their cross product a×b is orthogonal
to the plane and can be taken as the normal vector. Thus

i j k

n = a × b = 2 −4 4 = 12i + 20j + 14k
4 −1 −2
With the point P (1, 3, 2) and the normal vector n, an equation of the
plane is
12(x − 1) + 20(y − 3) + 14(z − 2) = 0
or
6x + 10y + 7z = 50
2. Find the point at which the line with parametric equations x = 2 +

3t,y = −4t,z = 5 + t intersect the plane 4x + 5y − 2z = 18.
SOLUTION:
We substitute the expressions for x,y,and z from the parametric equa-

tions into the equation of the plane:
4(2 + 3t) + 5(−4t) − 2(5 + t) = 18
This simplifies to −10t = 20,so t = −2.Therefore the point of intersec-
tion occurs when the parameter value is t = −2.Then x = 2 + 3(−2) =
−4,y = −4(−2) = 8,z = 5 − 2 = 3 and so the point of intersection is
(−4, 8, 3). Two planes are parallel if their normal vectors are parallel.
For instance, the planes x + 2y − 3z = 4 and 2x + 4y − 6z = 3 are paral-
lel because their normal vectors are n1 = h1, 2, −3i and n2 = h2, 4, −6i
and n2 = 2n1 .If two planes are not parallel, then they intersect in a
straight line and the angle between the two planes is defined as the
acute angle between their normal vectors.
3. Find the angle between the planes x + y + z = 1 and x − 2y + 3z = 1

and Find symmetric equations for the line of intersection L of these
two planes.
SOLUTION:
(a) The normal vectors of these planes are
n1 = h1, 1, 1i n2 = h1, −2, 3i
and so, if θ is the angle between the planes,gives
n1 · n2
cosθ =
| n1 || n2 |
1(1) + 1(−2) + 1(3) 2
=√ √ =√
1+1+1 1+4+9 42

2
θ = cos−1 √ = 72o
42
(b) We first need to find a point on L.For instance, we can find the
point where the line intersects the xy−plane by setting z = 0 in
the equations of both planes. This gives the equations x + y = 1
and x − 2y = 1,whose solution is x = 1,y = 0.So the point (1,0,0)
lies on L. Now we observe that, since L lies in both planes, it
is perpendicular to both of the normal vectors. Thus a vector v
parallel to L is given by the cross product

i j k

v = n1 × n2 = 1 1 1 = 5i − 2j − 3k
1 −2 3
and so the symmetric equations of L can be written as

x−1 y z
= =
5 −2 −3
4. Find a formula for the distance D from a point P1 (x1 , y1 , z1 ) to the
plane ax + by + cz + d = 0
SOLUTION:
Let Po (xo , yo , zo ) be any point in the given plane and let b be the vector
−−→
corresponding to Po P1 .Then
b = hx1 − x0 , y1 − y0 , z1 − z0 i
2.26. PLANES 55
We can see that the distance D from P1 to the plane is equal to the
absolute value of the scalar projection of b onto the normal vector
n = ha, b, ci
|n·b|
D =| compn b |=
|n|
| a(x1 − x0 ) + b(y1 − y0 ) + c(z1 − z0 ) |
= √
a2 + b 2 + C 2
| (ax1 + by1 + cz1 ) − (axo + by0 + cz0 ) |
= √
a2 + b 2 + C 2
Since Po lies in the plane, its coordinates satisfy the equation of the
plane and so we have axo + by0 + cz0 + d = 0. Thus the formula for D
can be written as
| (ax1 + by1 + cz1 ) |
D= √ (2.17)
a2 + b 2 + C 2
5. Find the distance between the parallel planes 10x + 2y − 2z = 5 and

5x + y − z = 1.
SOLUTION:
First we note that the planes are parallel because their normal vectors
h10, 2, −2i and h5, 1, −1i are parallel. To find the distance D between
the planes, we choose any point on one plane and calculate its distance
to the other plane. In particular if we put y = z = 0 in the equa-
tion of the first plane, we get 10x = 5 and so (1/2, 0, 0) and the plane
5x + y − z − 1 = 0 is
√
| 5(1/2) + 1(0) − 1(0) − 1 3/2 3
D= p = √ =
2 2
5 + 1 + (−1) 1 3 3 6
√
So the distance between the planes is 3/6.
EXERCISE:
1. Determine whether each statement is true or false.
(a) Two lines parallel to a third line are parallel.

(b) Two lines perpendicular to a third line are parallel
(c) Two planes parallel to a third plane are parallel.
(d) Two planes perpendicular to a third plane are parallel.
(e) Two lines parallel to a plane are parallel
(f) Two lines perpendicular to a plane are parallel.
(g) Two planes parallel to a line are parallel.
(h) Two planes perpendicular to a line are parallel.
(i) Two planes either intersect or are parallel.
(j) Two lines either intersect or are parallel.
(k) A plane and a line either intersect or are parallel.
2. Find a vector equation and parametric equations for the line.
(a) The line through the point (6, −5, 2) and parallel to the vector
h1, 3, −2/3i
(b) The line through the point (2, 2.4, 3.5) and parallel to the vector
3i + 3j − k.
(c) The line through the point (1, 0, 6) and perpendicular to the plane
x + 3y + z = 5
3. Find parametric equations and symmetric equations for the line.
(a) The line through the origin and the point (4, 3, −1)
(b) The line through the points (0, 1/2, 1) and (2, 1, −3)
(c) The line through the points (1.0, 2.4, 4.6) and (2.6, 1.2, 0.3)
(d) The line through the points (−8, 1, 4) and (3, −2, 4)
(e) The line of intersection of the planes x+2y +3z = 1 and x−y +z =
1.
2.27. VECTOR SPACES 57
4. Find an equation of the plane.
(a) The plane through the origin and perpendicular to the vector h1, −2, 5i.
(b) The plane through the point (5, 3, 5) and with normal vector 2i +
j−k
(c) The plane through the point (−1, 1/2, 3) and with normal vector
i + 4j + k
5. Find the point at which the line with parametric equations x = 2 +

3t,y = −4t,z = 5 + t intersect the plane 2x + y − z = 18.
6. Find the angle between the planes x + y − z = 1 and x − 2y − 3z = 1
2.27 VECTOR SPACES

Let V be a set on which addition and scalar multiplication are defined (this
means that if u and v are objects in V and c is a scalar then we’ve defined
u + v and cu in some way). If the following axioms are true for all objects
u, v, and w in V and all scalars c and k then V is called a vector space and
the objects in V are called vectors.
(a) u + v is in V − This is called closed under addition
(b) cu is in V − This is called closed under scalar multiplication.
(c) u + v = v + u
(d) u + (v + w) = (u + v) + w
(e) There is a special object in V , denoted 0 and called the zero vector, such
that for all u in V we have u + 0 = 0 + u = u .
(f) For every u in V there is another object in V , denoted −u and called the
negative of u, such that u − u = u + (−u) = 0 .
(g) c(u + v) = cu + cv
(h) (c + k)u = cu + ku
(i) c(ku) = (ck)u
(j) 1u = u
2.28 LINEAR COMBINATION

We say the vector w from the vector space V is a linear combination of the
vectors v1 , v2 , · · · , vn ,all from V if there are scalars c1 , c2 , · · · , cn so that w
can be written
w = c1 v1 + c2 v2 + · · · + cn vn
EXAMPLE 1:
Determine if the vector is a linear combination of the two given vectors.
1. Is w = (−12, 20) a linear combination of v1 = (−1, 2) and v2 = (4, −6)?
2. Is w = (1, −4) a linear combination of v1 = (2, 10) and v2 = (−3, −15)?
SOLUTION:
1. In each of these cases we’ll need to set up and solve the following
equation,
w = c1 v1 + c2 v2
(−12, 20) = c1 (−1, 2) + c2 (4, −6)
Then set coefficients equal to arrive at the following system of equations
−c1 + 4c2 = −12

2c1 − 6c2 = 20
If the system is consistent (i.e. has at least one solution then w is

a linear combination of the two vectors. If there is no solution then
w is not a linear combination of the two vectors. We’ll leave it to
you to verify that the solution to this system is c1 = 4 and c2 = −2
Therefore,w is a linear combination of v1 and v2 and we can write
w = 4v1 − 2v2 .
2. Here is the system we’ll need to solve for this part.
2c1 − 3c2 = 1
10c1 − 15c2 = −4
This system does not have a solution and so w is not a linear combi-
nation of v1 and v2 .
2.29. DEFINITION 6 59
2.29 DEFINITION 6
Suppose S = {v1 , v2 , · · · , vn } is a non-empty set of vectors and form the
vector equation,
c1 v1 + c2 v2 + · · · + cn vn = 0
This equation has at least one solution, namely c1 = 0, c2 = 0, · · · ,

cn = 0.This solution is called the trivial solution.If the trivial solution is the
only solution to this equation then the vectors in the set S are called linearly
independent and the set is called a linearly independent set.
If there is another solution then the vectors in the set S are called linearly
dependent and the set is called a linearly dependent set.
EXERCISE:
Determine if each of the following sets of vectors are linearly independent or
linearly dependent
1. v1 = (3, −1) and v2 = (−2, 2)
2. v1 = (12, −8) and v2 = (−9, 6)
3. v1 = (1, 0, 0) , v2 = (0, 1, 0),and v3 = (0, 0, 1).
4. v1 = (2, −2, 4) , v2 = (3, −5, 4),and v3 = (0, 1, 1).
EXAMPLES:
1. (Simplest linear independent set)

A single nonzero vector v is linearly independent.
PROOF:
indeed, suppose kv = 0,then k = 0. since v 6= 0. Thus according to the
above definition, v must be linearly independent.
2. (Simplest linear dependent set)

The zero vector 0 is linear dependent.
PROOF:
c0 = 0,does not necessarily imply that k = 0. Thus according to the
above definition, 0 must be linearly dependent.
2.30 DEFINITION 8
Vectors v1 , v2 , · · · , vn ,all from V are said to constitute a basis for w if
1. They are linearly independent
2. For every vector w ∈ V ,there exist scalars c1 , c2 , · · · , cn so that w can

be written
w = c1 v1 + c2 v2 + · · · + cn vn
c1 , c2 , · · · , cn are called coordinates of w relative to the given basis.

Chapter 3
MATRIX ALGEBRA
A matrix is rectangular array of numbers arranged in m horizontal rows and

n vertical columns,For example,
 
a11 · · · a1n
 .. ... .. 
 . . 
am1 · · · amn
We say A is an m × n matrix.aij in the ith row and jth column of A is

called the (i, j)th element of A and we write the matrix A = (aij )m×n . Two
matrices A = (aij )m×n and B = (bij )m×n are equal if aij = bij for all i, j. If
m = n,then A is called a square matrix of order n.aii ,i = 1, 2, · · · , n are called
the diagonal elements of the square matrix.A square matrix A = [aij ]n×m
such that aij = 0 for i 6= j is called a diagonal matrix. A square matrix
A = (aij )m×n such that aij = 0 for i 6= j is called a diagonal matrix.
3.1 ADDITION OF MATRICES

Let A = [aij ]m×n and B = [bij ]m×n be two matrices.The sum is defined as
A+B =C
where C = [cij ]m×n and cij = aij + bij .That is C is obtained by adding
corresponding elements of A and B.For example,

2 3 −1 3 4 2
A= and B =
4 0 3 1 −1 0
61
62 CHAPTER 3. MATRIX ALGEBRA
Then

5 7 1
A+B =
5 −1 3
observe that the matrix sum or difference is defined only when the two ma-
trices have the same number of rows and same number of columns.
A matrix such that all its entries are zero is called a zero matrix and is
denoted by 0.That is in a zero matrix aij = 0 for all i and j.
3.2 PROPERTIES OF MATRIX ADDITION

Let A,B,C are three matrix of the order m × n is a null matrix of the same
order.Then
1. A + B = B + A
2. (A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
3. A + 0 = 0 + A = A
3.3 MULTIPLICATION OF A MATRIX BY

A SCALAR
Let A = [aij ]m×n and α is a scalar(a real number).Then αA = [αaij ]m×n is
called the scalar multiplication of A by α.
3.4 MULTIPLICATION OF MATRICES

Let A = [aij ] be an m × p matrix and B = [bij ] be a p × m matrix.Then the
product of A and B denoted by AB is the m × n matrix C = [cij ],where
cij = ai1 b1j + ai2 b2j + · · · + aip bpj
for 1 ≤ i ≤ m,1 ≤ j ≤ n.cij can be computed in the following way
1. Select ith row in A and jth column in B and place them side by side.
2. Multiply the corresponding entries and add all the products

3.5. PROPERTIES OF MATRIX MULTIPLICATION 63
B is defined only when the number of columns in A is equal to the number

of rows in B.We write A · B only when it is defined .If A · B is defined then
B · A may not be defined.
EXAMPLE 1:
If A and B be two matrices of order 2 × 3 and 3 × 2 respectively, such

as
 
0 1
2 1 3
A= and B = 1 2
4 1 −2
2 3
Then

7 13
AB =
−3 0
and
 
4 1 −2
BA = 10 3 −1
16 5 0
3.5 PROPERTIES OF MATRIX MULTIPLI-

CATION
Let A ,B,C be three matrices of order m × n.Then
1. A · (B · C) = (A · B) · C
2. A · (B + C) = A · B + A · C
3. (A + B) · C = A · C + B · C Then n × n diagonal matrix ,where aij = 1

for all i is called the identity matrix of order n and is denoted by In .For
example,
 
1 0 0
1 0
I2 = and I3 = 0 1 0
0 1
0 0 1
4. If A is n × n matrix then A · In = In · = A.
5. If A is a square matrix of order n then we define Ap = A · A, · · · , A (p

factor) and A0 = I.Then we have
Ap Aq = Ap+q
for non-negative integers P, q.
3.6 TRANSPOSE OF A MATRIX

If A = [aij ] is an m × n matrix then the n × m matrix AT = [aTij ],where
aTij = aji ,1 ≤ i ≤ m,1 ≤ j ≤ n is called the transpose of A.For example,if

1 −3 4
5 6 −2
Then
 
1 5
−3 6 
4 −2
That is AT is obtained by interchanging rows and column of A.
3.7 PROPERTIES OF TRANSPOSE

If A and B are two matrices then
1. (AT )T = A
2. (A + B)T = AT + B T
3. (AB)T = B T AT
3.8 TRACE
If A is a square matrix,then the trace of A,denoted by tr(A) is defined by
the entries of the main diagonal of A.The trace of A is undefined if A is not
a square matrix.
 
a11 a12 a13
A = a21 a22 a23  , tr(A) = a11 + a22 + a33
a31 a32 a33
3.9. SYMMETRIC MATRIX 65
EXAMPLE 2:
If
 
4 1 −2
A = 10 3 −1 , then tr(A) = 4 + 3 + 0 = 7
16 5 0
EXERCISE 1: If

1 0 3 −4 2 5 2 1
A= , B= , C=
0 2 4 2 2 0 1 2
,the evaluate the following where possible

1. A + B
2. B − A
3. A + C
4. A − B
5. B − A
6. A − C
7. B − C
8. tr(C)
3.9 SYMMETRIC MATRIX

A matrix A = [aij ] is called symmetric if A = AT .That is A is symmetric if
and only if aij = aji for 1 ≤ i ≤ m,1 ≤ j ≤ n.If A = −AT then A is called
skew symmetric.
EXAMPLE 3:
 
2 −3 4
1. A = −3 1 2
4 2 3

1 0
2. B =
0 1
are symmetric.Note if A is symmetric,then for all positive integers n ,An is

symmetric.
 
0 2 1
1. A = −2 0 −3
−1 3 0
 
0 1 0
2. B = −1 0 −1
−1 1 0
are skew symmetric.
3.10 THEOREM 2
Let A and B be symmetric matrices of the same size and C is any scalar
then,
1. A + B is symmetric.
2. A − B is symmetric.
3. AB is symmetric if and only if AB = BA.
4. cA is symmetric.
5. AT is symmetric
3.11 THEOREM 3
Let A and B be skew symmetric matrices and scalar k,then
1. A + B is skew symmetric.
2. A − B is skew symmetric.
3. kA is skew symmetric.
4. If A is n × n matrix,then A − AT is skew symmetric.
5. AT = −A, then BAB T is skew symmetric matrix for all B.

3.12. UNITARY MATRIX 67
3.12 UNITARY MATRIX

A square matrix A with the property that A−1 = AT is said to be unitary.
EXAMPLE 4:

i 0
A=
0 1
3.13 SKEW HERMITIAN MATRIX

T
A matrix is said to be skew hermitian if A = −A
EXAMPLE 5:
 
i 2 + i 3 + 2i
A =  −2 + i 3i −3i 
−3 + 2i −3i 0
3.14 ORTHOGONAL MATRIX

A square matrix with the property that A−1 = AT is said to be orthogonal.It
follows from this definition that a square matrix A is orthogonal if and only
if AAT = AT A = I.
EXAMPLE 3:

cosθ −sinθ
A=
sinθ −cosθ
3.15 HERMITIAN MATRICES

T
A matrix is said to be hermitian if A = A
 
2 1−i 0
3 2+i
A = 1 + i −1 i  and B=
2 − i −12
0 −i 2
3.16 INVERSE MATRICES

DEFINITION:If A is a square matrix and we can find another matrix of the
same size, say B, such that
AB = BA = I
then we call A invertible and we say that B is an inverse of the matrix A.If
we can’t find such a matrix B we call A a singular matrix (det(A) = 0).
3.17 THEOREM 1
Suppose that A is invertible and that both B and C are inverses of A. Then
B = C and we will denote the inverse as A−1 .
EXAMPLE 1:Given the matrix A verify that the indicated matrix is in fact
the inverse.

−4 −2 −1 −1/2 −1/5
A= A =
5 5 1/2 2/5
SOLUTION:
To verify that we do in fact have the inverse we’ll need to check that
AA−1 = A−1 A = I
This is easy enough to do and so we’ll leave it to you to verify the multipli-
cation.

−1 −4 −2 −1/2 −1/5 1 0
AA = =
5 5 1/2 2/5 0 1
and

−1 −1/2 −1/5 −4 −2 1 0
A A= =
1/2 2/5 5 5 0 1
3.18 DEFINITION 2
If A is a square matrix and n > 0 then,
A−n = (A−1 )n = A−1 A−1 · · · A−1
3.19 THEOREM 1
Suppose that A and B are invertible matrices of the same size. Then,
(a) AB is invertible and (AB)−1 = B −1 A1

3.20. FINDING INVERSE MATRICES 69
(b) A−1 is invertible and (A−1 )−1 = A.
(c) For n = 0, 1, 2, · · · An is invertible and (An ) = A−n = (A−1 )n .
(d) If c is any non-zero scalar then cA is invertible and (cA)−1 = 1c A−1 .
(e) AT is invertible and (AT )−1 = (A−1 )T .
3.20 FINDING INVERSE MATRICES

If A is an n × n matrix then the following statements are equivalent.
1. A is invertible.
2. The only solution to the system Ax = 0 is the trivial solution.
3. A is row equivalent to In .
4. Ax = b has exactly one solution for every n × 1 matrix b.
5.
6. Ax = b is consistent for every n × 1 matrix b.
3.21 THEOREM 2

a b
The matrix A = is invertible if ad−bc 6= 0 and singular if ad−bc = 0.If
c d
the matrix is invertible its inverse will be,

−1 1 d −b
A =
ad − bc −c a
EXAMPLE 4:Use the fact to show that

−4 −2
A=
5 5
is an invertible matrix and find its inverse.
SOLUTION:
We’ve already looked at this one above, but let’s do it here so we can contrast
the work between the two methods. First, we need,
ad − bc = (−4)(5) − (5)(−2) = −10 6= 0
So, the matrix is in fact invertible by the fact and here is the inverse,

−1 1 5 2 −1/2 −1/5
A = =
−10 −5 −4 1/2 2/5
. EXAMPLE 5:Determine if the following matrix is singular.

−4 −2
A=
6 3
SOLUTION:
Not much to do with this one.
(−4)(3) − (−2)(6) = 0
So, by the fact the matrix is singular.
3.22 DETERMINANT
DEFINITION:If A is square matrix then the determinant function is denoted
by det and det(A) is defined to be the sum of all the signed elementary
products of A.
Note that often we will call the number det(A) the determinant of A. Also,
there is some alternate notation that is sometimes used for determinants. We
will sometimes denote determinants as det(A) =| A | and this is most often
done with the actual matrix instead of the letter representing the matrix.
1. Determinant function for a 2 × 2 matrix

a11 a12
det(A) =

a21 a22
2. Determinant function for a 3 × 3 matrix

a11 a12 a13
a22 a23 a21 a23 a21 a22
det(A) = a21 a22 a23 = a11 − a12 a31 a33 + a13 a31 a32

a31 a32 a33 a 32 a 33
3.23. PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANT 71
EXAMPLE 7:Compute the determinant of each of the following matrices.

3 2
(a) A =
−9 5
 
3 5 4
(b) B =  −2 −1 8
−11 1 7
 
2 −6 2
(c) C =  2 −8 3
−3 1 1
SOLUTION:

3 2
(a) A = , det(A) = (3)(5) − (2)(−9) = 33
−9 5
 
3 5 4
−1 8 −2 8 −2 −1
(b) B = −2 −1 8 , det(B) = 3
  −5 +4
1 7 −11 7 −11 1
−11 1 7
= 3(−7 − 8) − 5(−14 + 88) + 4(−2 − 11) = −467
 
2 −6 2
−8 3 2 3 2 −8
(c) C =  2 −8 3 , det(C) = 2 +6 +2
1 1 −3 1 −3 1
−3 1 1
= 2(−8 − 3) + 6(2 + 9) + 2(2 − 24) = 0
3.23 PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANT

In this section we’ll be taking a look at some of the basic properties of
determinants and towards the end of this section we’ll have a nice test for the
invertibility of a matrix. In this section we’ll give a fair number of theorems
(and prove a few of them) as well as examples illustrating the theorems.
Most of the theorems in this section will not help us to actually compute
determinants in general.Most of these theorems are really more about how
the determinants of different matrices will relate to each other. We will take a
look at a couple of theorems that will help show us how to find determinants
for some special kinds of matrices.
3.24 THEOREM 1
let A be an n × n matrix and c be a scalar then,
det(cA) = cn det(A)
EXAMPLE 1:For the given matrix below compute both det(A) and det(2A).
 
4 −2 5
A = −1 −7 10 
0 1 −3
SOLUTION:
We’ll leave it to you to verify all the details of this problem. First the
scalar multiple.
 
8 −4 10
2A = −2 −14 20 
0 2 −6
The determinants.
det(A)45 det(2A) = 23 det(A)
Now, let’s investigate the relationship between det(A), det(B) and det(A+B).
3.25 THEOREM 2
Suppose that A, B, and C are all n × n matrices and that they differ by
only a row,say the k th row. Let’s further suppose that the k th row of C can
be found by adding the corresponding entries from the k th rows of A and B.
Then in this case we will have that
det(C) = det(A) + det(B)
EXAMPLE 3:Consider the following three matrices.

     
4 2 −1 4 2 −1 4 2 −1
A= 6 1 7 B = −2 −5 3  ; C =  4 −4 10 
−1 −3 9 −1 −3 9 −1 −3 9
3.26. THEOREM 3 73
First, notice that we can write C as,

   
4 2 −1 4 2 −1
C =  4 −4 10  = 6 + (−2) 1 + (−5) 7 + 3
−1 −3 9 −1 −3 9
All three matrices differ only in the second row and the second row of C can
be found by adding the corresponding entries from the second row of A and
B. The determinants of these matrices are,
det(A) = 15, det(B) = −115 and det(C) = −100 = 15 + (−115)
3.26 THEOREM 3
If A and B are matrices of the same size then
det(AB) = det(A)det(B)
EXAMPLE 4:For the given matrices compute det(A), det(B), and det(AB).
   
1 −2 3 0 1 8
A = 2 7 4 B = 4 −1 1
3 1 4 0 3 3
SOLUTION:
Here’s the product of the two matrices.

 
−8 12 15
AB =  28 7 35
4 14 37
Here are the determinants.
det(A) = −41, det(B) = 84 and

det(AB) = −3444 = (−41)(84) = det(A)det(B)
3.27 THEOREM 4
A square matrix A is invertible if and only if det(A) 6= 0. A matrix that is
invertible is often called non-singular and a matrix that is not invertible is
often called singular.
3.28 THEOREM 5
If A is a square matrix then,
det(A) = det(AT )
EXAMPLE 5:Compute det(A) and det(AT ) for the following matrix.
 
5 3 2
A = −1 −8 −6
0 1 1
SOLUTION:
We’ll leave it to you to verify that

det(A) = det(AT ) = −9
3.29 THEOREM 6
If A is a square matrix with a row or column of all zeroes then
det(A) = 0
and so A will be singular.
It is actually very easy to compute the determinant of any triangular (and
hence any diagonal) matrix. Here is the theorem that tells us how to do that.
3.30 THEOREM 7
Suppose that A is an n × n triangular matrix then,
det(A) = a11 a22 · · · ann
EXAMPLE 6:Compute the determinant of each of the following matrices
 
5 0 0
(a) A = 0 −3 0,det(A) = −60
0 0 4

6 0
(b) B = ,det(B) = −6
2 −1
 
10 5 1 3
 0 0 −4 9
 0 0 6 4,det(C) = 0
(c) C =  
0 0 0 5
3.31. THE METHOD OF COFACTORS 75
3.31 THE METHOD OF COFACTORS

In this section we’re going to examine one of the two methods that we’re
going to be looking at for computing the determinant of a general matrix.
We’ll also see how some of the ideas we’re going to look at in this section can
be used to determine the inverse of an invertible matrix.
So, before we actually give the method of cofactors we need to get a couple
of definitions taken care of.
3.32 DEFINITION 1
If A is a square matrix then the minor of aij ,denoted by Mij ,is the determi-
nant of the submatrix that results from removing the ith row and j th column
of A.
3.33 DEFINITION 2
If A is a square matrix then the cofactor of aij ,denoted by Cij ,is the number
(−1)i+j Mij .
It turns out that we can also use cofactors to determine the inverse of an
invertible matrix. To see how this is done we’ll first need a quick definition.
3.34 DEFINITION 3
lET A be an n × n matrix and Cij be the cofactors of aij .The matrix of
cofactors from A is,
 
C11 C12 · · · C1n
 C21
 C22 · · · C23 

 .. .. ... .. 
 . . . 
Cn1 Cn2 · · · ann
The adjoint of A is the transpose of the matrix of cofactors and is denoted
by adj(A).
EXAMPLE 1:Compute the adjoint of the following matrix.

 
3 2 −1
A= 1 6
 3
2 −4 0
SOLUTION:
We need the cofactors for each of the entries from this matrix.

2 6 3 3 1 3 4 1 6
A11 = (−1) = 12, A12 = (−1) = 6, A13 = (−1) = −16,
−4 0 2 0 2 −4

3 2 −1 4 3 −1 5 3 2
A21 = (−1) = 4, A22 = (−1) = 2, A23 = (−1) = 16,
−4 0 2 0 2 −4

4 2 −1 5 3 −1 6 3 2
A31 = (−1) = 12, A32 = (−1) = −10, A33 = (−1) = 16
6 3 1 3 1 6
The matrix of the cofactors is

 
12 6 −16
A=4 2 −10
12 −10 16
The Adjoint of A is the transpose of the cofactors

 
12 4 12
adj(A) =  6 2 −10
−16 16 16
3.35 THEOREM 8
If A is an invertible matrix then
1
A−1 = adj(A)
det(A)
EXAMPLE 2:Use the adjoint matrix to compute the inverse of the following
matrix.
 
3 2 −1
A = 1 6 3
2 −4 0
SOLUTION:
det(A) = 64
3.36. THEOREM 9 77
 
12 4 12
adj(A) =  6 2 −10
−16 16 16
Therefore,the inverse of the matrix is,

 
12 4 12
1 
A−1 = 6 2 −10
64
−16 16 16
3.36 THEOREM 9
Let A be a square matrix.
(a) If B is the matrix that results from multiplying a row or column of A by

a scalar, c, then det(B) = cdet(A).
(b) If B is the matrix that results from interchanging two rows or two
columns of A then det(B) = −det(A).
(c) If B is the matrix that results from adding a multiple of one row of A
onto another row of A or adding a multiple of one column of A onto
another column of A then det(B) = det(A).
(d) If A is a square matrix and that two of its rows are proportional or two
of its columns are proportional. Then det(A) = 0 .
3.37 SYSTEM OF EQUATIONS

Let’s start off this section with the definition of a linear equation. Here are
a couple of examples of linear equations.
5
6x8 y + 10z = 3 7x1 − x2 = −1
9
In the second equation note the use of the subscripts on the variables. This
is a common notational device that will be used fairly extensively here. It
is especially useful when we get into the general case(s) and we won’t know
how many variables (often called unknowns) there are in the equation.So,
just what makes these two equations linear? There are several main points
to notice. First,the unknowns only appear to the first power and there aren’t
any unknowns in the denominator of a fraction. Also notice that there are
no products and/or quotients of unknowns. All of these ideas are required
in order for an equation to be a linear equation. Unknowns only occur in

numerators, they are only to the first power and there are no products or
quotients of unknowns.The most general linear equation is,
a1 x 1 + a2 x 2 + · · · an x n = b (3.1)
where there are n unknowns, x1 + x2 + · · · , xn and a1 + a2 + · · · , an ,b are all

known numbers.Next we need to take a look at the solution set of a single
linear equation. A solution set (or often just solution) for (3.1) is a set of
numbers t1 + t2 + · · · , tn so that if we set x1 = t1 + x2 = t2 + · · · , xn = tn then
(3.1) will be satisfied. By satisfied we mean that if we plug these numbers
into the left side of (3.1) and do the arithmetic we will get b as an answer.The
first thing to notice about the solution set to a single linear equation that
contains at least two variables with non-zero coefficients is that we will have
an infinite number of solutions. We will also see that while there are infinitely
many possible solutions they are all related to each other in some way.Note
that if there is one or less variables with non-zero coefficients then there will
be a single solution or no solutions depending upon the value of b. Let’s find
the solution sets for the two linear equations given at the start of this section.
EXAMPLE 1:
Find the solution set for each of the following linear equations.
(a) 7x1 − 95 x2 = −1
(b) 6x8 y + 10z = 3
SOLUTION:
(a) 7x1 − 95 x2 = −1
The first thing that we’ll do here is solve the equation for one of the two
unknowns. It doesn’t matter which one we solve for, but we’ll usually
try to pick the one that will mean the least amount (or at least simpler)
work. In this case it will probably be slightly easier to solve for x1 so
let’s do that.
5
7x1 − x2 = −1
9
5
7x1 = x2 − 1
9
5 1
x1 = x2 −
63 7
3.37. SYSTEM OF EQUATIONS 79
Now, what this tells us is that if we have a value for x2 then we can deter-
mine a corresponding value for x1 .Since we have a single linear equation
there is nothing to restrict our choice of x2 and so we we’ll let x2 be any
number. We will usually write this as x2 = t,where t is any number.
Note that there is nothing special about the t, this is just the letter that
I usually use in these cases. Others often use s for this letter and, of
course, you could choose it to be just about anything as long as it’s not a
letter representing one of the unknowns in the equation ( x in this case).
Once we’ve ”chosen” x2 we’ll write the general solution set as follows,
5 1
x1 = x2 − x2 = t
63 7
So, just what does this tell us as far as actual number solutions go? We’ll
choose any value of t and plug in to get a pair of numbers x1 and x2 that
will satisfy the equation. For instance picking a couple of values of t
completely at random gives,
1
t=0: x1 = − x2 = 0
7
5
t = 27 : x1 = (27) x2 = 27
63
We can easily check that these are in fact solutions to the equation by
plugging them back into the equation.
1 5
t=0: 7(− ) − (0) = −1
7 9
5
t = 27 : 7(2) − (27) = −1
9
So, for each case when we plugged in the values we got for x1 and x2 we
got -1 out of the equation as we were supposed to. Note that since there
an infinite number of choices for t there are in fact an infinite number of
possible solutions to this linear equation.
(b) 6x8 y + 10z = 3 We’ll do this one with a little less detail since it works in
essentially the same manner. The fact that we now have three unknowns
will change things slightly but not overly much. We will first solve the
equation for one of the variables and again it won’t matter which one we
chose to solve for.
10z = 3 − 6x8 y
3 3 4
z= − x+ y
10 5 5
In this case we will need to know values for both x and y in order to
get a value for z. As with the first case, there is nothing in this problem
to restrict out choices of x and y. We can therefore let them be any
number(s). In this case we’ll choose x = t and y = 5. Note that we chose
different letters here since there is no reason to think that both x and y
will have exactly the same value(although it is possible for them to have
the same value).
The solution set to this linear equation is then,
3 3 4
x=t y=s z= − x+ y
10 5 5
So, if we choose any values for t and s we can get a set of number solutions
as follows.
3 3 4 13
x=0 y = −2 z= − (0) + (−2) = −
10 5 5 10
3 3 3 3 4 3 26
x=− y=5 z= − (− ) + (− ) =
2 10 5 2 5 2 5
As with the first part if we take either set of three numbers we can plug
them into the equation to verify that the equation will be satisfied. We’ll
do one of them and leave the other to you to check.

−3 26
6 − 8 (5) + 10 = −9 − 40 + 52 = 3
2 5
The variables that we got to choose values for ( x2 in the first example and x
and y in the second)are sometimes called free variables.We now need to start
talking about the actual topic of this section, systems of linear equations. A
system of linear equations is nothing more than a collection of two or more
linear equations.Here are some examples of systems of linear equations.
2x + 3y = 9
x − 2y = −13,
2x1 + 3x2 + 3x3 = 9

x1 + 9x2 + x3 = 26
7x1 − 5x2 + 2x3 = 29
3.38. THEOREM 1 81
3.38 THEOREM 1
Given a system of n equations and m unknowns there will be one of three
possibilities for solutions to the system.
1. There will be no solution.
2. There will be exactly one solution.
3. There will be infinitely many solutions
If there is no solution to the system we call the system inconsistent and
if there is at least one solution to the system we call it consistent.
Now that we’ve got some of the basic ideas about systems taken care of we
need to start thinking about how to use linear algebra to solve them. Actu-
ally that’s not quite true. We’re not going to do any solving until the next
section. In this section we just want to get some of the basic notation and
ideas involved in the solving process out of the way before we actually start
trying to solve them.
We’re going to start off with a simplified way of writing the system of equa-
tions. For this we will need the following general system of n equations and
m unknowns.
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + · · · + a1m xm = b1

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + · · · + a2m xm = b2
..
.
an1 x1 + an2 x2 + · · · + anm xm = bn
In this system the unknowns are x1 + x2 + · · · , xn and aij and bi are known
numbers. Note as well how we’ve subscripted the coefficients of the unknowns
(the aij ).The first subscript, i,denotes the equation that the subscript is in
and the second subscript, j, denotes the unknown that it multiplies. For
instance,a36 would be in the coefficient of x6 in the third equation.
Any system of equations can be written as an augmented matrix. A matrix
is just a rectangular array of numbers and we’ll be looking at these in great
detail in this course so don’t worry too much at this point about what a
matrix is. Here is the augmented matrix for the general system in
 
a11 a12 · · · a1m b1
 a21 a22 · · · a2m b2 
 
 .. .. .. .. 
 . . . .
an1 an2 · · · anm bn
Each row of the augmented matrix consists of the coefficients and constant
on the right of the equal sign from a given equation in the system. The first
row is for the first equation, the second row is for the second equation etc.
Likewise each of the first m columns of the matrix consists of the coefficients
from the unknowns.The first column contains the coefficients of x1 ,the second
column contains the coefficients of x2 ,etc. The final column contains all the
constants on the right of the equal sign. Note that the augmented part of
the name arises because we tack the bi ’s onto the matrix. If we don’t tack
those on and we just have
 
a11 a12 · · · a1m
 a21 a22 · · · a2m 
 
 .. .. .. 
 . . . 
an1 an2 · · · anm
and we call this the coefficient matrix for the system.
EXAMPLE 2:
Write down the augmented matrix for the following system.
3x1 − 10x2 + 6x3 − x4 = 3

x1 + 9x3 − 5x4 = −12
−4x1 + x2 − 9x3 + 2x4 = 7
SOLUTION:
There really isn’t too much to do here other than write down the system.
 
3 −10 6 −1 3
1 0 9 −5 −12
−4 1 −9 2 7
Notice that the second equation did not contain an x2 and so we consider its
coefficient to be zero.
Note as well that given an augmented matrix we can always go back to a
system of equations.
3.38. THEOREM 1 83
EXAMPLE 3:
For the given augmented matrix write down the corresponding system of
equations.
 
4 −1 1
−5 −8 4 
9 2 −2
SOLUTION:
So since we know each row corresponds to an equation we have three equa-

tions in the system.Also, the first two columns represent coefficients of un-
knowns and so we’ll have two unknowns while the third column consists of the
constants to the right of the equal sign. Here’s the system that corresponds
to this augmented matrix.
4x1 − x2 = 1
−5x1 − 8x2 = 4
9x1 + 2x2 = −2
There is one final topic that we need to discuss in this section before we move
onto actually solving systems of equation with linear algebra techniques. In
the next section where we will actually be solving systems our main tools
will be the three elementary row operations. Each of these operations will
operate on a row (which shouldn’t be too surprising given the name) in the
augmented matrix and since each row in the augmented matrix corresponds
to an equation these operations have equivalent operations on equations.
Here are the three row operations, their equivalent equation operations as
well as the notation that we’ll be using to denote each of them.
Row Operation Equation Operation Notation

Multiply row i by the constant c Multiply equation i by the constant c cRi
Interchange rows i and j Interchange equations i and j Ri ↔ Rj
Add c times row i to row j Add c times equations i to equation j Rj + cRi
3.39 SOLVING SYSTEMS OF EQUATIONS

In this section we are going to take a look at using linear algebra techniques
to solve a system of linear equations. Once we have a couple of definitions
out of the way we’ll see that the process is a fairly simple one. Well, it’s
fairly simple to write down the process anyway. Applying the process is
fairly simple as well but for large systems it can take quite a few steps. So,
let’s get the definitions out of the way. A matrix (any matrix, not just an
augmented matrix) is said to be in reduced row-echelon form if it satisfies all
four of the following conditions.
1. If there are any rows of all zeros then they are at the bottom of the
matrix.
2. If a row does not consist of all zeros then its first non-zero entry ( i.e.
the left most non-zero entry) is a 1. This 1 is called a leading 1.
3. In any two successive rows, neither of which consists of all zeroes, the
leading 1 of the lower row is to the right of the leading 1 of the higher
row.
4. If a column contains a leading 1 then all the other entries of that column
are zero.
A matrix (again any matrix) is said to be in row-echelon form if it satisfies

items 1-3 of the reduced row-echelon form definition.
Notice from these definitions that a matrix that is in reduced row-echelon
form is also in row echelon form while a matrix in row-echelon form may or
may not be in reduced row-echelon form
3.39. SOLVING SYSTEMS OF EQUATIONS 85
EXAMPLE 1:
The following matrices are all in row-echelon form.

 
1 −6 9 1 0
1. 0 0 1 −4 −5
0 0 0 1 2
 
1 0 5
2. 0 1 3
0 0 1
 
1 −8 10 5 −3
0 1 13 9 12 
3. 
0 0 0 1 1 

0 0 0 0 0
None of the matrices in the previous example are in reduced row-echelon

form. The entries that are preventing these matrices from being in reduced
row-echelon form are underlined In order for these matrices to be in reduced
row-echelon form all of these underlined entries would need to be zeroes.
Notice that we didn’t underline the entries above the 1 in the fifth column
of the third matrix.Since this 1 is not a leading 1 (i.e. the leftmost non-zero
entry) we don’t need the numbers above it to be zero in order for the matrix
to be in reduced row-echelon form.
EXAMPLE 2:
The following matrices are all in row-echelon form.

1 0
1.
0 1

0 0
2.
0 0
 
0 1 0 −8
3. 0 0 1 5 
0 0 0 0
 
1 −7 10
4. 0 0 0 
0 0 0
 
1 9 0 0 −2
0 0 1 0 16 
5. 
0

0 0 1 1
0 0 0 0 0
In the second matrix on the first row we have all zeroes in the entries. This is
perfectly acceptable and so don’t worry about it. This matrix is in reduced
row-echelon form, the fact that it doesn’t have any non-zero entries does not
change that fact since it satisfies the conditions.Also, in the second matrix
of the second row notice that the last column does not have zeroes above the
1 in that column. That is perfectly acceptable since the 1 in that column is
not a leading 1 for the fourth row.
Notice from Examples 1 and 2 that the only real difference between row-
echelon form and reduced row-echelon form is that a matrix in row-echelon
form is only required to have zeroes below a leading 1 while a matrix in re-
duced row-echelon from must have zeroes both below and above a leading 1.
Okay, let’s now start thinking about how to use linear algebra techniques
to solve systems of linear equations. The process is actually quite simple.
To solve a system of equations we will first write down the augmented ma-
trix for the system. We will then use elementary row operations to reduce
the augmented matrix to either row-echelon form or to reduced row-echelon
form. Any further work that we’ll need to do will depend upon where we stop.
If we go all the way to reduced row-echelon form then in many cases we

will not need to do any further work to get the solution and in those times
where we do need to do more work we will generally not need to do much
more work. Reducing the augmented matrix to reduced row-echelon form is
called Gauss-Jordan Elimination.
If we stop at row-echelon form we will have a little more work to do in

order to get the solution,but it is generally fairly simple arithmetic. Reduc-
ing the augmented matrix to row-echelon form and then stopping is called
Gaussian Elimination.
At this point we should work a couple of examples.

EXAMPLE 3:
Use Gaussian Elimination and Gauss-Jordan Elimination to solve the fol-

lowing system of linear equations.
−2x1 + x2 − x3 = 4
x1 + 2x2 + 3x3 = 13
3x1 + x3 = −1
SOLUTION:
Since we’re asked to use both solution methods on this system and in or-
der for a matrix to be in reduced row-echelon form the matrix must also be
in row-echelon form. Therefore, we’ll start off by putting the augmented ma-
trix in row-echelon form, then stop to find the solution. This will be Gaussian
Elimination. After doing that we’ll go back and pick up from row-echelon
form and further reduce the matrix to reduced row echelon form and at this
point we’ll have performed Gauss-Jordan Elimination.
So, let’s start off by getting the augmented matrix for this system.
 
−2 1 −1 4
 1 2 3 13 
3 0 1 −1
As we go through the steps in this first example we’ll mark the entry(s) that
we’re going to be looking at in each step underlined so that we don’t lose
track of what we’re doing. We should also point out that there are many
different paths that we can take to get this matrix into row-echelon form
and each path may well produce a different row-echelon form of the matrix.
Keep this in mind as you work these problems. The path that you take to
get this matrix into row-echelon form should be the one that you find the
easiest and that may not be the one that the person next to you finds the
easiest. Regardless of which path you take you are only allowed to use the
three elementary row operations that we looked in the previous section.
So, with that out of the way we need to make the leftmost non-zero entry
in the top row a one. In this case we could use any three of the possible
row operations. We could divide the top row by -2 and this would certainly
change the red -2 into a one. However, this will also introduce fractions into
the matrix and while we often can’t avoid them let’s not put them in before
we need to.
Next, we could take row three and add it to row one, or we could take three
times row 2 and add it to row one. Either of these would also change the red
-2 into a one. However, this row operation is the one that is most prone to
arithmetic errors so while it would work let’s not use it unless we need to.
This leaves interchanging any two rows. This is an operation that won’t
always work here to get a 1 into the spot we want, but when it does it will
usually be the easiest operation to use. In this case we’ve already got a one
in the leftmost entry of the second row so let’s just interchange the first and
second rows and we’ll get a one in the leftmost spot of the first row pretty
much for free.Here is this operation.
   
−2 1 −1 4 1 2 3 13
 1 2 3 13  R1 ↔ R2 −2 1 −1 4 
3 0 1 −1 −3 0 1 −1
Now, the next step we’ll need to take is changing the two numbers in the
first column under the leading 1 into zeroes. Recall that as we move down
the rows the leading 1 MUST move off to the right. This means that the two
numbers under the leading 1 in the first column will need to become zeroes.
Again, there are often several row operations that can be done to do this.
However, in most cases adding multiples of the row containing the leading 1
(the first row in this case) onto the rows we need to have zeroes is often the
easiest. Here are the two row operations that we’ll do in this step.
   
1 2 3 13 1 2 3 13
−2 1 −1 4  R2 + 2R1 , R3 − 3R1 → 0 5 5 30 
−3 0 1 −1 0 −6 −8 −40
Notice that since each operation changed a different row we went ahead
and performed both of them at the same time. We will often do this when
multiple operations will all change different rows.
We now need to change the red ”5” into a one. In this case we’ll go ahead
and divide the second row by 5 since this won’t introduce any fractions into
the matrix and it will give us the number we’re looking for.
   
1 2 3 13 1 2 3 13
1
0 5 5 30  R2 → 0 1 1 6 
5
0 −6 −8 −40 0 −6 −8 −40
Next, we’ll use the third row operation to change the red ”-6” into a zero so
the leading 1 of the third row will move to the right of the leading 1 in the
second row. This time we’ll be using a multiple of the second row to do this.
Here is the work in this step.

   
1 2 3 13 1 2 3 13
0 1 1 6  R3 + 6R2 → 0 1 1 6
0 −6 −8 −40 0 0 −2 −4
Notice that in both steps were we needed to get zeroes below a leading 1 we
added multiples of the row containing the leading 1 to the rows in which we
wanted zeroes. This will always work in this case. It may be possible to use
other row operations, but the third can always be used in these cases.
The final step we need to get the matrix into row-echelon form is to change
the red ”-2” into a one. To do this we don’t really have a choice here. Since
we need the leading one in the third row to be in the third or fourth column
(i.e. to the right of the leading one in the second column) we MUST retain
the zeroes in the first and second column of the third row.
Interchanging the second and third row would definitely put a one in the
third column of the third row, however, it would also change the zero in the
second column which we can’t allow.Likewise we could add the first row to
the third row and again this would put a one in the third column of the third
row, but this operation would also change both of the zeroes in front of it
which can’t be allowed.
Therefore, our only real choice in this case is to divide the third row by -2.
This will retain the zeroes in the first and second column and change the
entry in the third column into a one. Note that this step will often introduce
fractions into the matrix, but at this point that can’t be avoided.Here is the
work for this step.
   
1 2 3 13 1 2 3 13
1
0 1 1 6  − R2 → 0 1 1 6 
2
0 0 −2 −4 0 0 1 2
At this point the augmented matrix is in row-echelon form. So if we’re going
to perform Gaussian Elimination on this matrix we’ll stop and go back to
equations. Doing this gives,
 
1 2 3 13
0 1 1 6 
0 0 1 2
⇒
x1 + 2x2 + 3x3 = 13
x2 + x3 = 6
x3 = 2
At this point solving is quite simple. In fact we can see from this that
x3 = 2.Plugging this into the second equation gives x2 = 4.Finally, plugging
both of these into the first equation gives x1 = −1.Summarizing up the
solution to the system is,
x1 = −1, x2 = 4, x3 = 2
This substitution process is called back substitution. Now, let’s pick back
up at the row-echelon form of the matrix and further reduce the matrix into
reduced row-echelon form. The first step in doing this will be to change
the numbers above the leading 1 in the third row into zeroes. Here are the
operations that will do that for us.
   
1 2 3 13 1 2 0 7
0 1 1 6  R1 − 3R3 , R2 − R3 → 0 1 0 4
0 0 1 2 0 0 1 2
The final step is then to change the red ”2” above the leading one in the
second row into a zero.Here is this operation
   
1 2 0 7 1 0 0 −1
0 1 0 4 R1 − 3R3 → 0 1 0 4 
0 0 1 2 0 0 1 2
We are now in reduced row-echelon form so all we need to do to perform

Gauss-Jordan Elimination is to go back to equations.
 
1 0 0 −1
0 1 0 4 
0 0 1 2
⇒
x1 = −1, x2 = 4, x3 = 2
We can see from this that one of the nice consequences to Gauss-Jordan
Elimination is that when there is a single solution to the system there is no
work to be done to find the solution. It is generally given to us for free. Note
as well that it is the same solution as the one that we got by using Gaussian
Elimination as we should expect.
EXAMPLE 4:
Solve the following system of linear equations.
x1 − x2 + x3 = −2
−x1 + x2 − 2x3 = 3
2x1 − x2 + 3x3 = 1
SOLUTION:
First, the instructions to this problem did not specify which method to use
so we’ll need to make a decision. No matter which method we chose we will
need to get the augmented matrix down to row-echelon form so let’s get to
that point and then see what we’ve got. If we’ve got something easy to work
with we’ll stop and do Gaussian Elimination and if not we’ll proceed to re-
duced row-echelon form and do Gauss-Jordan Elimination.
So, let’s start with the augmented matrix and then proceed to put it into
row-echelon form and again we’re not going to put in quite the detail in this
example as we did with the first one. So,here is the augmented matrix for
this system.
 
1 −2 3 −2
−1 1 −2 3 
2 −1 3 1
and here is the work to put it into row-echelon form.
     
1 −2 3 −2 1 −2 3 −2 1 −2 3 −2
−1 1 −2 3  R2 + R1 , R3 − 2R1 → 0 −1 1 1  − R2 → 0 1 −1 −1
2 −1 3 1 0 3 −3 5 0 3 −3 5
   
1 −2 3 −2 1 −2 3 −2
1
R3 − 3R2 → 0 1 −1 −1 R3 → 0 1 −1 −1
8
0 0 0 8 0 0 0 1
Okay, we’re now in row-echelon form. Let’s go back to equation and see what
we’ve got.
x1 − x2 + x3 = −2
x2 − x3 = −1
0=1
That last equation doesn’t look correct. We’ve got a couple of possibilities
here.We’ve either just managed to prove that 0=1 (and we know that’s not
true), we’ve made a mistake (always possible, but we haven’t in this case) or
there’s another possibility we haven’t thought of yet.
Recall from Theorem 1 in the previous section that a system has one of three
possibilities for a solution. Either there is no solution, one solution or in-
finitely many solutions. In this case we’ve no solution. When we go back to
equations and we get an equation that just clearly can’t be true such as the
third equation above then we know that we’ve no solution.
Note as well that we didn’t really need to do the last step above. We could
have just as easily arrived at this conclusion by looking at the second to last
matrix since 0=8 is just as incorrect as 0=1.
So, to close out this problem, the official answer is that there is no solution
to this system.
EXERCISES: Solve the following system of linear equations.
1. x1 − 2x2 + 3x3 = −2
− x1 + x2 − 2x3 = 3
2x1 − x2 + 3x3 = −7
2. 3x1 − 4x2 = 10
− 5x1 + 8x2 = −17
− 3x1 + 12x2 = −12
3. 7x1 + 2x2 − 2x3 − 4x4 + 3x5 = 8

− 3x1 − 3x2 + 2x4 + x5 = −1
4x1 − x2 − 8x3 + 20x5 = 1
3.40. HOMOGENEOUS SYSTEM OF LINEAR EQUATIONS 93
3.40 HOMOGENEOUS SYSTEM OF LIN-

EAR EQUATIONS
We’ve got one more topic that we need to discuss briefly in this section. A
system of n linear equations in m unknowns in the form
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + · · · + a1m xm = 0

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + · · · + a2m xm = 0
..
.
an1 x1 + an2 x2 + · · · + anm xm = 0
is called a homogeneous system. The one characteristic that defines a homo-

geneous system is the fact that all the equations are set equal to zero unlike a
general system in which each equation can be equal to a different (probably
non-zero) number. Hopefully, it is clear that if we take
x1 = 0, x2 = 0, · · · , xm = 0
we will have a solution to the homogeneous system of equations. In other

words, with a homogeneous system we are guaranteed to have at least one
solution. This means that Theorem 1 from the previous section can then be
reduced to the following for homogeneous systems.
3.41 THEOREM 2
Given a homogeneous system of n equations and m unknowns there will be
one of two possibilities for solutions to the system.
1. There will be exactly one solution,x1 = 0, x2 = 0, · · · , xm = 0.This
solution is called the trivial solution.
2. There will be infinitely many non-zero solutions in addition to the triv-

ial solution.
Note that when we say non-zero solution in the above fact we mean that at
least one of the xi s in the solution will not be zero. It is completely possible
that some of them will still be zero, but at least one will not be zero in a
non-zero solution.
We can make a further reduction to Theorem 1 from the previous section if
we assume that there are more unknowns than equations in a homogeneous
system as the following theorem shows.
3.42 THEOREM 3
Given a homogeneous system of n linear equations in m unknowns if m > n
(i.e.there are more unknowns than equations) there will be infinitely many
solutions to the system.
3.43 THE RANK OF MATRIX

DEFINITION:The rank of a matrix A,denoted rank(A) is the maximum
number of linearly independent rows vectors or columns in the matrix. If a
vector is linearly independent of a set of other vectors that means it cannot
be written as a linear combination of them.
3.44 THEOREM 4
If A is any matrix,then rank(A) = rank(AT ).
3.45 THEOREM 5
If A is an m × n matrix,then:
(a) rank(A)=the number of leading variable in the solution of Ax = 0.
(b) nullity(A)=the number of parameters in the solution Ax = 0.

3.46. THEOREM 6 95
3.46 THEOREM 6
If A is a matrix with n columns then,n = rank(A) + nullity(A)
EXAMPLE 1:
Find the rank and nullity of
 
1 2 0 −1
A = 2 6 −3 −1
3 10 −6 −5
SOLUTION:
By using the elementary row operation we have

 
1 2 0 −1
A = 2 6 −3 −1
3 10 −6 −5
to
 
1 2 0 −1
0 2 −3 −1
0 4 −6 −2
to
 
1 2 0 −1
0 2 −3 −1
0 0 0 0
Rank(A) = 2, nullity(A) = 4 − 2 = 2.
EXERCISE:
Find the rank and nullity of
 
1 3 1 −2 −3
1 4 3 −1 −4
1. A = 
2 3 −4 −7 −3

3 8 1 −7 −8
 
1 3 −3
2 1 0
2. B = 
−2 −1 3 

−1 4 −2
 
1 −2 0 3 −4
3 2 8 1 4
3. C = 
2

3 7 2 3
−1 2 0 4 −3
 
1 3 2 −1
−2 2 3 2
 
0
4. D =  8 7 0

3 1 2 4
−4 4 3 −3
 
1 3
0 −2
5. E =  
5 −1
−2 3
3.47 THE CONSISTENT THEOREM

If Ax = b is a linear system of m equations in n unknowns,then the following
are equivalent
(a) Ax = b is consistent
(b) The coefficient matrix A and the augmented matrix [A | b] have the same
rank.In other words,A linear system is said to be consistent if and only
if the rank is equal of the augmented matrix [A | b].
(c) The system has a solution if and only if rank(A) = rank[A | b]. If the
rank is equal to n, then the system has a unique solution.If the rank
is equal to n, then the system has a unique solution. If rank(A) =
rank[A | b] but the rank < n, there are an infinite number of solutions.
If we denote the rank by r, then r of the unknown variables can be
expressed as linear combinations of nr of the other variables.
3.47. THE CONSISTENT THEOREM 97
EXAMPLE 2:
Find k such that the following system is consistent
x − 2y − z = 1
−x − 3y + z = −1
−5x − 8y + 5z = k
SOLUTION:
We first put the above system in the augmented form.Thus

 
1 2 −1 1
−1 −3 1 −1
−5 −5 5 k
We can then apply row operations and reduced the augmented matrix to
echelon form.This
 
1 2 −1 1
0 1 0 1 
0 0 0 k+3
From the above results, the rank of A is 2 and for consistency,the rank 0f
[A | B].This is possible k + 3 = 0 ⇒ k = −3.
x − 2y − z = 1
−x − 3y + z = −1
−5x − 8y + 5z = k
is consistent if and only if k = −3.

EXAMPLE 3:
Show that
x1 − 2x2 − 3x3 + x4 = −4
−3x1 + 7x2 − x3 + x4 = −3
2x1 − 5x2 + 4x3 − 3x4 = 7
−3x1 + 6x2 + 9x3 − 6x4 = −1
is inconsistent.
SOLUTION:
The augment form is

 
1 −2 −3 2 | −4
−3 7 −1 1 | −3
 
 2 −5 4 −3 | 7 
−3 6 9 −6 | −1
which has a reduced row echelon form

 
1 0 −23 16 | 0
0 1 −10 7 | 0
 
0 0 0 0 | 1
0 0 0 0 | 0
the system is inconsistent because rank(A) 6= rank[A | b]

3.47. THE CONSISTENT THEOREM 99
EXAMPLE 3:
Find the general solution
4x + 3y + 2z = 0
−x + 2y + 2z + w = 0
3x + 5y + 4z + w = 0
The coefficient matrix is

 
4 3 2 0
−1 2 2 1
3 5 4 1
R2 = R2 − 4R1 ,R3 = R3 − 3R1

     
1 −2 −2 −1 1 −2 −2 −1 1 −2 −2 −1
0 11 10 4  ⇒ 0 11 10 4  ⇒ 0 1 10/11 4/11
0 11 10 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
The above is equivalent to
x − 2y − 2z − w = 0
y + 10/11z + 4/11w = 0
Let z = 11s and w = 11t where s and t arbitrary real numbers then we have
x − 2y = 22s + 11t = 0
y = −10s − 4t = 0
x = −20s − 8t + 22s + 11t = 2s + 3t
     
x 2 3
 y  −10 −4
 s
 z   11  + t  0 
  
w 0 11
EXERCISE:
Solve the systems
1. x + 3y − 3z = 6
2x − y + 4z = 2
4x + 3y − 3z = 14
2. x + y − z = 1
2x + 3y + 9z = −3
x + 3y + 3z = 2
3. x − y + 2z = 4
2x − 3y − 11z = −6
x − 2y + 7z = 7
Find all values of a for which the resulting linear system has
(a) no solution
(b) a unique solution
(c) infinitely many solutions
of the following
1. x + y − z = 2
x + 2y + z = 3
x + y + 86z = a
2. x + y = 3
x + (92 − 8)y = a
3. x + y − z = 2
x + 2y + z = 3
x + y + (92 − 5)z = a
4. x + y + z = 2
2x + 3y + 2z = 5
2x + 3y + (92 − 1)z = a + 1
Chapter 4
EIGENVALUES AND
EIGENVECTORS
4.1 DEFINITION 1
Suppose that A is an n × n matrix.Also suppose that x is a non-zero vector
from Rn and that λ is any scalar (this can be zero) so that,
Ax = λx
We then call x an eigenvector of A and λ an eigenvalue of A.

We will often call x the eigenvector corresponding to or associated with λ
and we will often call λ the eigenvalue corresponding to or associated with
x.
Note that eigenvalues and eigenvectors will always occur in pairs. You can’t
have an eigenvalue without an eigenvector and you can’t have an eigenvector
without an eigenvalue.
4.2 FINDING EIGENVALUES

EXAMPLE 1:
6 16 −8
Suppose A = then x = is an eigenvector with corresponding
−1 −4 1
eigenvalue 4 because

6 16 −8 −32 −8
Ax = = =4 = λx
−1 −4 1 4 1
101
102 CHAPTER 4. EIGENVALUES AND EIGENVECTORS
Okay, what we need to do is figure out just how we can determine the
eigenvalues and eigenvectors for a given matrix. This is actually easier to do
than it might at first appear to be. We’ll start with finding the eigenvalues
for a matrix and once we have those we’ll be able to find the eigenvectors
corresponding to each eigenvalue.
Let’s start with Ax = λx and rewrite it as follows,
Ax = λIx
Note that all we did was insert the identity matrix into the right side. Doing
this will allow us to further rewrite this equation as follows,
Ax − λIx = 0
(A − λI)x = 0
Now, if λ is going to be an eigenvalue of A this system must have a non-zero

solution, x, since we know that eigenvectors associated with λ cannot be the
zero vector.
The Fundamental Subspaces section tells us that this system will have a
non-zero solution if and only if
det(A − λI)x = 0
So, eigenvalues will be scalars,λ for which the matrix A − λI will be singular,
i.e. det(A − λI)x = 0.
4.3 DEFINITION 2
Suppose A is an n × n matrix then, det(A − λI)x = 0 is called the charac-
teristic equation of A.When computed it will be an nth degree polynomial in
λ of the form,
p(λ) = λn + cn−1 λn−1 + · · · + c1 λ + c0
called the characteristic polynomial of A.

4.4 DEFINITION 3
Suppose A is an n × n matrix and that λ1 , λ2 , · · · , λn is the complete list of
all the eigenvalues of A including repeats. If λ occurs exactly once in this
list then we call λ a simple eigenvalue.If λ occurs k ≥ 2 times in the list we
say that λ has multiplicity of k.
EXAMPLE 2:
Find all the eigenvalues for the given matrices.

6 16
1. A =
−1 −4

−4 2
2. A =
3 −5

7 −1
3. A =
4 3
SOLUTION:

6 16
1. A =
−1 −4
We’ll do this one with a little more detail than we’ll do the other two.
First we’ll need the matrix A − λI.

6 16 λ 0 6−λ 16
A − λI = − =
−1 −4 0 λ −1 −4 − λ
Next we need the determinant of this matrix, which gives us the char-
acteristic polynomial.
det(A − λI) = (6 − λ)(−4 − λ) + 16 = λ2 − 2λ − 8
Now, set this equal to zero and solve for the eigenvalues
λ2 − 2λ − 8 = (λ − 4)(λ + 2) ⇒ λ1 = −2, λ2 = 4
So, we have two eigenvalues and since they occur only once in the list
they are both simple eigenvalues.

−4 2
2. A =
3 −5
Here is the matrix A − λI and its characteristic polynomial.

−4 − λ 2
A − λI = det(A − λI) = λ2 + 9λ + 14
3 −5 − λ
We’ll leave it to you to verify both of these. Now, set the characteristic
polynomial equal to zero and solve for the eigenvalues.
λ2 + 9λ + 14 = (λ + 7)(λ + 2) ⇒ λ1 = −7, λ2 = −2

7 −1
3. A =
4 3
Here is the matrix A − λI and its characteristic polynomial.

7 − λ −1
A − λI = det(A − λI) = λ2 − 10λ + 25
4 3−λ
We’ll leave it to you to verify both of these. Now, set the characteristic
polynomial equal to zero and solve for the eigenvalues
= λ2 − 10λ + 25 = (λ − 5)2 = 0 ⇒ λ1,2 = 5
In this case we have an eigenvalue of multiplicity two. Sometimes we

call this kind of eigenvalue a double eigenvalue. Notice as well that
we used the notation λ1,2 to denote the fact that this was a double
eigenvalue.
Now, let’s take a look at some 3 × 3 matrices.

If A = [aij ] is a 3 × 3 ,then the calculation of det(A − λI) can be done
directly,or the following formulas for the coefficients can be used.By collecting
terms we can put the determinant of (A − λI) into form
det(A − λI) = −λ3 + tr(A)λ2 − pm(A)λ + det(A)
Where the coefficients of λ2 and λ are as follows:
tr(A) = a11 + a22 + a33
is the sum of the diagonal entries,called the trace of A, and

a22 a23 a11 a13 a11 a12
pm(A) = M11 + M22 + M33 = det + det + det
a32 a33 a31 a33 a21 a22
If the sum of the minors of the main diagonal entries, called the principal
minors of A.
EXAMPLES:
1. Find the Eigenvalues

 of the matrix A.
3 −1 2
A = −1 1 0
2 0 1
SOLUTION:
The characteristic equation of A is
 
3 − λ −1 2
det(A − λI) = det  −1 1 − λ 0  = −λ3 + 5λ2 − 2λ − 2 = 0
2 0 1−λ
multiplying by −1, we get the cubic equation λ3 − 5λ2 + 2λ + 2 = 0

Testing the possible integer roots ±1, ±2 ,we find that λ = 1 is a root.
Dividing by λ − 1, we obtain the factored form
(λ − 1)(λ2 − 4λ − 2 = 0)
Using
√ the quadratic formula on the second factor,√ we get λ =√ 2 ±
6.Thus the eigenvalues of A are λ1 = 1, λ2 = 2 + 6, λ3 = 2 − 6.
 
6 3 −8
2. A = −0 −2 0 
1 0 −3
Here is (A − λI) and the characteristic polynomial for this matrix.
 
6−λ 3 −8
det(A − λI) =  −0 −2 − λ 0  = λ3 − λ2 − 16λ − 20
1 0 −3 − λ
Now, in this case the list of possible integer solutions to the character-
istic polynomial are,
±1,±2,±4,±10, ±20
Again, if we start with the smallest integers in the list we’ll find that -2
is the first integer solution. Therefore,λ−(−2) = λ+2 must be a factor
of the characteristic polynomial. Factoring this out of the characteristic
polynomial gives,
4.5. FINDING EIGENVECTORS 107
λ3 − λ2 − 16λ − 20 = (λ + 2)(λ2 − 3λ − 10)
Finally, factoring the quadratic and setting equal to zero gives us,
(λ + 2)2 (λ − 5) ⇒ λ1,2 = −2,λ3 = 5
So, we have one double eigenvalue λ1,2 = −2 and one simple eigenvalue
λ3 = 5.
 
4 0 −1
3. A = 0 3 0 
1 0 2
Here is (A − λI) and the characteristic polynomial for this matrix.
 
4−λ 0 −1
det(A − λI) =  0 3−λ 0  = λ3 − 9λ2 − 27λ − 27
1 0 2−λ
Okay, in this case the list of possible integer solutions is,
±1,±3,±9,±27
The smallest integer that will work in this case is 3. We’ll leave it to
you to verify that the factored form of the characteristic polynomial is,
λ3 − 9λ2 − 27λ − 27 = (λ − 3)3
and so we can see that if we set this equal to zero and solve we will have
one eigenvalue of multiplicity 3 (sometimes called a triple eigenvalue),
λ1,2,3 = 3
4.5 FINDING EIGENVECTORS

We now turn to the problem of finding the eigenvectors associated with the
eigenvalues of a matrix.If λ is an eigenvalue of a matrix A, then its associ-
ated eigenvectors are the non zero solutions of the homogeneous system of
equations.
(A − λI)x = 0
The solution space of the system, which is the same as the null space of the
matrix A − λI, is a subspace consisting of the eigenvectors associated with
λ together with the zero vector. This subspace is called the Eigen space for
the Eigenvalue λ .
To find the Eigenvector for a given eigenvalue,we simply apply the method
of solving a homogeneous system and represent the solution vectors as linear
combinations of the basis vectors.
The technique is illustrated in the example that follow.Since a matrix will
usually have more than one eigenvalue, the procedure must be applied to
each of the eigenvalues in turn.
EXAMPLE 5:
1. The Eigenvalues of the matrix

1 4
A=
3 2
are λ1 = 5 and λ2 = −2.Find the associated eigenvectors for each
eigenvalue.
SOLUTION:
First we take λ1 = 5, which gives us the homogeneous system,

1−5 4 −4 4 x 0
(A − λI)x = = = 1 =
3 2−5 3 −3 x2 0
The solution space consists of all vectors x = (x1 , x2 ) such that

x1 1
=t
x2 1
When λ1 = −2 the solution space consists of all vectors x = (x1 , x2 )

such that

x1 −4
=t
x2 3
2. The Eigenvalues of the matrix

7 −1
A=
3 2
is λ1,2 = 5 .Find the associated eigenvector.

2 −1 x1 0
=
−4 −3 x2 0
The solution to this system is,
x1 = 21 t and x2 = t
The general eigenvector and a basis for the eigenspace corresponding

λ1,2 = 5 is then,
1 1 1
t
x = 2 = t 2 and v1 = 2
t 1 1
In this case we get only a single eigenvector and so a good eigen-

value/eigenvector pair is,
1
λ1,2 = 5 v1 = 2
1
EXAMPLE 6:
1. Find the Eigenvalues and the corresponding Eigenvectors of the matrix.

 
3 −2 −2
A = −2 3 2
3 −3 −2
SOLUTION:
We calculate the determinant

 
3 − λ −2 −2
det(A − λI) = det  −2 2 − λ 2  = −λ3 + 4λ2 − 5λ + 2 = 0
3 −3 −2 − λ
Then multiplying by -1, we get cubic equation
λ3 − 4λ2 + 5λ − 2 = 0
Testing the numbers ±1, ±2 for roots, we find that λ1 = 1 and λ2 = 2

are roots, and we obtain the factored form
(λ − 1)2 (λ − 2) = 0
Thus we have the eigenvalues λ1 = 1 and λ2 = 2,where λ1 = 1 has

multiplicity two.
(a) For λ1 = 1
We get the system
     
2 −2 −2 x1 0
(A − 1I)x = −2 2
 2 = x2 = 0 The coefficient ma-
   
3 −3 −3 x3 0
trix has the echelon form
 
1 −1 −1
0 0 0
0 0 0
Therefore we may set x3 = t,x2 = s and get x1 = s + t.
Thus the eigenvector for For λ1 = 1 consists of all vectors of the
form
   
0 1
x = s 0 + t 0
  
0 1
The eigenvector is therefore 2-dimensional.
(b) For λ2 = 2
We get the system
     
1 −2 −2 x1 0
(A − 2I)x = −2 1 2  = x2  = 0
3 −3 −4 x3 0
We leave it to the reader to verify that the solutions are all vectors
of the form.
 
2
x = t −2
3
 
2 3 5
2. A = 0 2 −1
0 0 3
 
2−λ 3 5
det(A − λI) = det  0 2 − λ −1 
0 0 3−λ
Thus the characteristic equation, which can be written as
(λ − 2)2 (λ − 3) = 0
The eigenvalues for this matrix are λ1,2 = 2 and λ3 = 3 so well have
three eigenvectors to find.
(a) Starting with λ1 = 2 we’ll need to find the solution to the following
system,
    
0 3 5 x1 0
(A − 2I)x = 0 0 −1 x2 = 0
    
0 0 1 x3 0
The reduced echelon form of the coefficient matrix is
 
0 1 0
0 0 1
0 0 0
so that x3 = 0,x2 , and x1 = t is arbitrary.Thus the eigenspace for
λ1 = 2 consist of all vectors
 
1
x = t 0

0
consequently,the eigenspace has dimension 1 even though λ1 = 2
has multiplicity two as a root of the characteristic equation.
(b) For λ3 = 3 will necessarily have a 1-dimensional eigenspace. The
homogeneous system
    
−1 3 5 x1 0
(A − 3I)x = 0 −1 −1 x2 = 0
    
0 0 0 x3 0
Has a coefficient matrix whose reduced echelon form is
 
1 0 2
0 1 1
0 0 0
Thus if we let x3 = t,we get x2 = −t, and x1 = 2t,so that the
solutions are given by
 
2
x = t −1

1
Thus the eigenspce for λ3 = 3 is 1-dimensional.
EXERCISES:
Determine the characteristic equation, the eigenvalues, and the eigenvector
for each eigenvalue of the given matrix.
 
4 2 −3
1. 2 1 −1
4 4 −4

−3 5
2.
−10 12
 
−4 4 −1
3.  6 −2 3 
10 −8 −
 
−2 5 1
4. −2 4 1
6 −9 2

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Chapter 1

1.1 REAL NUMBERS

Natural numbers is 1,2,3,· · · , also called positive integers, are used in

Negative integers and zero denoted by -1,-2,-3,· · · and 0,respectively,

(c) RATIONAL NUMBERS

Rational numbers or fractions such as 23 , −5

(d) IRRATIONAL NUMBERS

1.2 THE PRINCIPLE OF MATHEMATICAL

1. Prove the statement for n = 1 (some other positive integer).

2. Assume the statement true for n = k ; where k is any positive integer.

This formula is easily verified for small numbers such as n = 1, 2, 3,

If we have verified the first k cases, then

2. Prove that for all integers n ≥ 3, 2n > n + 4.

Since 8 = 23 > 3 + 4 = 7; the statement is true for n0 = 3.

Assume that 2k > k + 4 for k ≥ 3.

then ,2k+1 = 2 · 2k > 2(k + 4)

But 2(k + 4) = 2k + 8 > k + 5 = (k + 1) + 4.

Since k is positive. Hence, by induction, the statement holds for all

1.4 PRINCIPLE OF WELL ORDERING:

• If x ∈ R, y ∈ R ,and x < y,then there is a p ∈ Q such that x < p < y.

2. Prove that 2n < n! for n ≥ 4

4. Show that n3 + 2n is divisible by 3.

5. Prove Bernoullis inequality (1 + x)n > 1 + nx for n = 2, 3, · · ·

1.6 ALGEBRA OF COMPLEX NUMBERS

Equation (1.1) has two solutions, z1 and z2 , such that

Both solutions contain the square root of a negative number. However, it is

where the components of z may be thought of as coordinates in an xy-plot.

Our particular example of a quadratic equation may be generalised readily

(a) ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION

z1 + z2 = (x1 , y1 ) + (x2 , y2 ) = (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 ).

By straightforward application of the commutativity and associativity of

Thus it is immaterial in what order complex numbers are added.

(a) Sum the complex numbers 1 + 2i, 3 − 4i, −2 + i.

The subtraction of complex numbers is very similar to their addition.

Let z1 = x1 + y1 i and z2 = x2 + y2 i be complex numbers, then:

Given z1 = 2 + 4i , z2 = 3 − i and z3 = −3i

(c) MODULUS AND ARGUMENT

The modulus of the complex number z is denoted by | z | and

arg z= θ = tan−1 ( 43 ) = 53.13o

Since x = 3 and y = 4, z clearly lies in the first quadrant

arg z = θ = tan−1 34 = 53.13o

Since x = −3 and y = 4, z clearly lies in the second quadrant;

(d) Determine the modulus and argument of the complex number

arg z = θ = tan−1 34 = 53.13o

Since x = −3 and y = −4, z clearly lies in the third quadrant;

Complex numbers may be multiplied together and in general give a com-

= (x1 x2 − y1 y2 ) + (x1 y2 + y1 x2 )i.

(a) Multiply the complex numbers z1 = 3 + 2i and z2 = −1 − 4i.

(d) Find (1 − 8i)(1 + 8i)

(1 − 8i)(1 + 8i) = 1 + 8i − 8i − 64i2 = 1 + 64 = 65

The multiplication of complex numbers is both commutative and asso-

Verify that (1.10) holds for the product of z1 = 3 + 2i and z2 = −1 − 4i

(e) COMPLEX CONJUGATE

If z has the convenient form x + yi then the complex conjugate, de-

Find the complex conjugate of z = a + 2i + 3ib

The complex number is written in the standard form

Then, replacing i by −i, we obtain

In some cases, however, it may not be simple to rearrange the expres-

Find the complex conjugate of the complex number z = w(3y+2ix) where