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Preliminary evaluation of GPR for nickel laterite exploration [4084-02]

Article · January 2000

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 A PRELIMINARY EVALUATION OF GPR FOR NICKEL LATERITE EXPLORATION

Jan C. Francké and David C. Nobes

Department of Geological Sciences, University of Canterbury
Private Bag 4800, Christchurch, New Zealand
jfrancke@groundradar.com

ABSTRACT nickel content in the ultramafic bedrock is typically low, the

weathering process concentrates certain elements including
With the dramatic growth of interest in nickel laterite oxides of iron, as well as nickel and cobalt.
resource exploration, fuelled by increased demand and new
processing technologies, the need for accurate resource As the process of weathering progresses, the redistribution
delineation and careful mine planning becomes paramount. of the liberated minerals produces compositional layering as
The traditional use of borehole grids to calculate ore reserves shown in the typical vertical profile in Figure 1. The
is neither sufficiently accurate nor cost-effective at many geology of laterite profiles is generally discussed upwards
sites due to the complexity of tropical weathering profiles. from bedrock to best emphasize the effects of the intense
Although an unconventional approach to laterite mine leaching of the peridotites.
planning and resource delineation, ground penetrating radar
(GPR) has shown tremendous potential for addressing The bedrock topography tends to be highly irregular, with
project geology, resource delineation, and mine planning numerous spires and trenches. In deposits such as Weda
issues. Bay in Indonesia, Ramu in Papua New Guinea, and Celestial
in the Philippines, pinnacles formed by bedrock resistive to
GPR processing techniques have been developed weathering extend tens of metres above the adjacent bedrock
specifically for laterite applications and utilized successfully topography and frequently outcrop. Preferential weathering
at a number of sites worldwide. Each site exhibits unique within the bedrock along joints and fractures produce narrow
geology, and thus radar characteristics. The GPR data have weathered zones that extend deep into the bedrock. The
shown excellent correlation with the weathering profile as narrow weathered zones are generally composed of saprolite
confirmed by boreholes and test pits. and are known to generally contain high nickel grades
(Golightly, 1978). An understanding of the frequency and
GPR has significantly increased the database of knowledge amplitude of these pinnacles and troughs is critical to
regarding project geology, as well as provided invaluable resource estimation and mine planning.
assistance to mine planning by imaging the bedrock
weathering texture, including the precise location of The topography of the transition from bedrock to saprolite is
subsurface pinnacle structures and fault planes. The similarly highly variable. A region of rocky saprolite exists
information provided by the GPR data, in concert with as a transition zone, and may be tens of metres thick. The
strategically placed boreholes based on these data, has rocky saprolite is comprised of ultramafic boulders
enabled a laterite project to be upgraded to the measured
category of mineral resource.

Key words: Nickel, Laterite, Francke, Nobes, Ore Reserve,

Limonite, Saprolite, Bauxite

INTRODUCTION

Nickel is generally found in either sulphide or laterite

deposits. Laterites occur almost exclusively in tropical
regions characterized by heavy seasonal rainfalls and intense
solar heat. The lateritization process involves the dissolution
of the most soluble minerals in the parent rock, thereby
increasing the relative concentration of the remaining
components. Nickel laterite deposits are derived from Figure 1: Typical Laterite Weathering Profile and
olivine-rich igneous rocks called peridotites. Although the Mineral Concentrations (courtesy L.D. Queen)
contained within a matrix of earthy saprolite. With Reserves. These definitions are relevant to the description
increasing depth, the proportion of rock in the rocky of laterite deposits in that they address and stress the issue of
saprolite increases until the cobbles and boulders merge into continuity. In laterite deposits, continuity of layer thickness
jointed bedrock. The rocky saprolite zone consists of is difficult to prove with drilling but is imaged directly with
objects varying in size from large boulders to gravels, where ground penetrating radar. The homogenous nature of
most of the parent rock minerals are present and the original limonite and its limited variability in radar velocity, grade
structures and textures are well preserved. Partly and density may allow a program of limited drilling
decomposed joint blocks in fracture zones may be separated combined with detailed radar to bring a deposit into the
by cracks or voids containing silica boxwork or nickel-rich measured category.
green garnierite. The accurate determination of the
composition and thickness of the transition from bedrock to The widespread nature of lateritization generally precludes
saprolite is important during both exploration and mining the need for geophysical exploration to determine the extent
phases. Large zones of boulders may cause drilling and of the region of mineralization. Although it may not be
sampling difficulties, and also may promote rapid wear of economically viable, lateritization over any peridotite
mining equipment or require blasting during mining adjacent to a known deposit usually contains appreciable
operations. The unweathered rocky saprolite rocks and nickel grades. Therefore, the responsibility of geophysics is
boulders commonly contain a thin weathered shell, which generally to assist the geologist in determining the amount of
has practical significance. Mined ore may be upgraded by resource known to be present. This may be accomplished by
tumbling unserpentinized boulders to remove the determining the lateral variability in grades, or in mapping
nickeliferous rims. the variability in thickness of the primary facies of the
lateritization. As no technology is known to exist that will
The alteration of rock to saprolite is iso-volumetic as the consistently and accurately determine mineralization grades
leaching process removes silica from the matrix without from the surface, geophysics must be directed towards the
affecting the volume. The resulting earthy saprolite zone imaging of the physical dimensions of the near surface
atop the rocky saprolite contains significant pore space. weathering layers.
Although it superficially resembles a clay due to its high
bound water, it is actually an open grain supported boxwork. Deposits of economic laterite ore vary from several metres
As a rock-free unit, drill holes and test pits indicate that the to over 100 m in thickness. For the purposes of mine
moisture content of the saprolite region averages 50% by planning, the highest resolution method that can penetrate
weight interstitial water. In addition to preserving rock the required depth is required. The widespread nature of
textures, the earthy saprolite exhibits well-preserved jointing laterite deposits dictates a method that ideally can be
which commonly may be traced downwards into the rocky interfaced with a GPS and which operates in a continuous
saprolite and bedrock zones. The earthy and rocky saprolite profiling mode.
units typically mark the zones of highest nickel
concentration in the laterite profile. Geophysical techniques useful for lateritic nickel exploration
must exploit the fundamental differences in physical
The zone atop the earthy saprolite is referred to as limonite. properties of the weathering profile:
This is generally distinguished from the saprolite by the
absence of parent rock textures, since these have usually Ferricrete: Very resistive, hard and dense, high in iron
been flattened dramatically by the volume collapse induced and low in water content.
during the weathering of the more soluble components. Limonite: Moderately resistive, soft and porous,
Limonite is primarily comprised of goethite with some uniform soil-like properties and a
chromite and quartz, and is usually depleted in nickel and moderate water content.
cobalt as compared to the saprolite zones. In the very near Saprolite: Moderately conductive, low porosity, firm
surface, the limonite may have been mobilized in surface and clay-like with high water content, relic
acid conditions and recrystallized in the form of ferricrete, structures.
which can form a hard surface layer. Rocky Saprolite: Boulders resistive but with conductive
weathering skins, low overall water
content.
INTEGRATION OF GEOPHYSICS IN RESERVE Bedrock: Usually relatively dense, resistive and with
ESTIMATES low water content relative to saprolite.

The Joint Ore Reserves Committee (AusIMM, 1999) has

made recommendations on Australian stock exchange listing Based on extensive experience, radar is the method of choice
requirements appropriate to mining companies reporting Ore if the laterite thickness is between zero and approximately
50 m. To some extent radar requires damp residual soils and wetting rarely completely saturates pore space. Saprolite
preferably an open level surface to attain its maximum has a higher typical total water content due to the large
capability. It is interesting to note that alluvial tropical soils, amount of bound water in the clay minerals which results
which superficially resemble laterites, are often nearly in a very low velocity. Rock has a low water content and
opaque to radar due to their high organic and clay content. thus has a high radar velocity, which is significantly
Reworked and transported limonite however is still different from the saprolite. As a result, rocks embedded
extremely transparent to radar energy. Radar can be used in the saprolite scatter strong reflections if they are larger
either in a step and measure mode in extremely rough terrain than a wavelength, or if they form an assemblage larger
for first exploration or in a continuously reading mode from than a wavelength.
GPS equipped vehicles to acquire data for detailed mining
panel layout. Borehole radar is also employed to 2) Conductivity: Surface deposits of conductive fine-
characterize velocities and to map the distribution of rocky grained clays from alluvial or lacustrine sediments can
saprolite. affect the passage of radar waves into deeper materials
and limit penetration. Radar energy is absorbed strongly
by conductive materials such as fine-grained, fresh
GPR IN LATERITIC WEATHERED clays, which can limit penetration to several meters.
ENVIRONMENTS Residual clays in tropical environments are typically
well leached of conductive minerals by heavy rainfalls at
Geophysical techniques such as ground penetrating radar, warm temperatures and as a result are less conductive.
have the ability to essentially continuously image the details
of the top of the rocky saprolite layer, which is the horizon 3) Percentage Iron: High concentrations of magnetic
that defines the maximum depth of economic ore in most minerals such as iron and possibly chromium as are
abundantly found in some paleoplacers, can lead to radar
lateritic nickel deposits. Radar images show that these
reflections in horizontal bands.
horizons have a surprising variability between boreholes,
which is completely undetectable by drilling at any
economic spacing. Conventional estimates of reserve
GPR PROJECT EXAMPLES
volumes based on the point sampling provided by boreholes
at commonly employed 200 m, 100 m and 25 m saturation Ramu – Papua New Guinea (Highlands Pacific Ltd.)
borehole grids do not often converge upon a single reliable
estimate. This situation occurs whenever the borehole The Ramu deposit consists of lateritization that can vary
spacing is greater than the spatial frequency of the variations between outcropping and up to 40 m thick. The peridotites
in the deposit. Overcoming this limitation of borehole have been strongly uplifted and extensively tectonically
laterite exploration requires an inferential statistical faulted to form plateaux, ridges and valley systems. A recent
approach to reserve estimation. resource definition program of drilling and over 100 km of
radar coverage has to date moved the reported resource of 70
Examples of changes that affect electrical impedance, and million tones into the measured / indicated category. A
thus radar reflections, in tropical weathering profiles are remarkable degree in correlation of layer elevations has been
listed in the order of their importance: observed with borehole elevations confirming that the
measured velocities of 85 m/µs for saprolite, 95 m/µs for
1) Water content: Variations in the percentage of bound limonite and 115 m/µs for overburden are highly constant
water present is the major controlling factor of the within the main resource area. Figure 2 displays a radar
impedance. Changes in mineralogy, porosity and grain profile that indicates a rocky saprolite rise not detected by
size are the major geological determiners of water two boreholes situated adjacent to it. The simplified
content. The high dielectric coefficient of water slows or borehole and interpretation legend relates limonite to red,
impedes the passage of the radar wave, shortening the earthy saprolite to yellow, rocky saprolite to green, and
wavelength. Unsaturated soil and limonite are porous bedrock to blue. This profile exemplifies the importance of
materials with relatively low bound water contents and geophysical imaging in concert with borehole drilling to
thus can have a higher velocity even when wet as adequately define deposit geometry.
 Figure 2: GPR data from Ramu showing bedrock rise not imaged by boreholes.

Loma de Níquel – Venezuela (Anglo American plc)

The nickel resource at Loma de Níquel is primarily located of bedrock resistant to weathering is clearly shown near
within the saprolite. A significant factor in mine planning is 1065m. Structures such as these are common in lateritic
the bedrock topography, which forms the base layer of the environments and have mine planning implications by
mining benches. Subdued bedrock topography is desirable impacting on bench design and traficability. A second
to reduce the need for blasting and costs for specialized example from Loma de Níquel demonstrates the extreme
equipment. Utilizing a GPR data processing scheme based variability in bedrock depths encountered in lateritic
on frequency content analysis, modified specifically for environments. The frequency plot in Figure 4 shows
laterite investigations, the bedrock topography and texture, bedrock outcropping near 1050m and plunging to over 40 m
as well as the relative distribution of rocky saprolite were near 1010m. Remobilized nickel mineralization is often
imaged over a significant portion of the deposit. The GPR deposited in the complex joints and fissures of the deeply
data correlates well with the available borehole information, weathered bedrock. Although further saturation drilling at
as demonstrated in Figure 3. The simplified lithology on the 12.5 or 25 metre centres would be required prior to mining
boreholes shows limonite as red, saprolites as green, and for grade control, a priori geophysical information may be
relatively unaltered bedrock as purple. A narrow pinnacle used for the strategic placement of individual holes.

Figure 3: Bedrock pinnacle imaged by analyzing frequency content of GPR data.

 Figure 4: Variability of bedrock topography and texture imaged by GPR data.

Celestial – Philippines (Mighty Beaut Minerals) CONCLUSION

The Celestial deposit on Palawan Island consists mainly of The application of geophysics in general, and GPR in
peridotites, harzburgite, and dunite, which are serpentinized specific, to nickel laterite deposits is the subject of an on-
to varying degrees. GPR data have been corroborated by going MSc. thesis at the University of Canterbury in New
test pit information in indicating a highly variable bedrock Zealand. Although significant research remains to be
topography with a thick transition zone of rocky saprolites, undertaken regarding the constituent electrical and chemical
which ranges in size from pebbles to boulders. Figure 5 properties of laterites that permit their transparency to radar
illustrates the thickness of the partially weathered zone and waves, extensive experience has shown GPR to be highly
the difficulty in assigning a simple curvilinear interpretation effective in imaging the complex subsurface structures of
to the weathering profile. A relatively indefinable zone of humid nickel laterite deposits. Based on previous projects,
partially weathered material, denoted green on the profile, GPR appears to be a more effective method of defining the
exists between 160m and 260m. Test pits are often gross lateritization sequence in some deposits than a linearly
ineffective at determining the extent of transitional zones interpolated model derived from borehole data alone.
due to their inability to penetrate beyond their first encounter Strategically placed boreholes based on geophysical
with sizable boulders. information may result in significant cost savings.

Figure 5: Data from the Philippines showing region of thick transition zone from weathered to un-weathered material.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors extend their sincere appreciation to Graham

Parkinson of Klohn Crippen Consultants Ltd., without whom
none of this would have been possible. Appreciation is also
extended to Highlands Pacific Ltd. of Brisbane, Anglo
American Base Metals of Caracas, and Mighty Beaut
Minerals of Manila for permission to include their respective
datasets in this paper.

REFERENCES

Golightly, J.P., 1981. Nickeliferous Laterite Deposits.

Economic Geology, 75th Anniversary Volume,
p.710.

Golightly, J.P., 1978. Nickeliferous Laterites: A General

Description. International Laterite Symposium,
New Orleans, p. 3.

Francké, J.C., And Parkingson, J.G., 2000. The New Role

of Geophysics in Nickel Laterite Exploitation and
Development. Mining Millennium / PDAC 2000
Conference Proceedings, Toronto.

Parkinson, J.G., 1998. Geophysical Site Characterization in

Tropical Weathering Profiles. 8th Congress of
International Association of Engineering Geology,
Vancouver, Vol 1, pp 103-110.

Queen, L. D., Parkinson J.G, Francké, J.C., And Brown,

E.A, 1998. The Integration Of Ground Penetrating
Radar In Resource Delineation For Nickel Laterites
In Papua New Guinea. Expanded Abstract For The
Pacific Exploration Technologies’98 Symposium,
Nadi, Fiji

The Australian Institute Of Mining And Metallurgy, 1999.

Australasian Code for Reporting of Mineral
Resources and Ore Reserves (The JORC Code).
pp.6-7.

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