PREHISTORY

• Prehistory literally means "before history“

• It can refer to the vast span of time since the beginning of the Universe

• But more often it refers to the period since life appeared on Earth, or even more
specifically to the time since human-like beings appeared

• There are no written records from human prehistory

• Human prehistory is the time since behaviorally and anatomically modern humans
first appear until the beginning of recorded history

PREHISTORY
(Three Age System)
STONE AGE

Lower Paleolithic

• Homo

• Homo erectus

Middle Paleolithic

• Early Homo sapiens

Upper Paleolithic

• Behavioral modernity

Neolithic

• Cradle of civilization

BRONZE AGE

• China, Europe, India, Near East

IRON AGE

• Bronze Age collapse

• China , Europe, India, Japan, Korea, Near East, Nigeria

STONE AGE

• PALEOLITHIC AGE

• MESOLITHIC AGE

• NEOLITHIC AGE

PALEOLITHIC AGE

• "Paleolithic" means "Old Stone Age," and

begins with the first use of stone tools. The
Paleolithic is the earliest period of the Stone
Age.
• The early part of the Paleolithic is called
the Lower Paleolithic, which predates Homo
sapiens, beginning with Homo habilis (and
related species) and with the earliest stone
tools, dated to around 2.5 million years ago.
Early Homo sapiens originated some 200,000
years ago, ushering in the Middle Paleolithic.
• Anatomic changes indicating modern language capacity also arise during the Middle Paleolithic. The
systematic burial of the dead, the music, early art, and the use of increasingly sophisticated multi-part tools
are highlights of the Middle Paleolithic.
• Throughout the Paleolithic, humans generally lived as nomadic hunter-gatherers. Hunter-gatherer societies
tended to be very small and egalitarian, though hunter-gatherer societies with abundant resources or
advanced food-storage techniques sometimes developed sedentary lifestyles with complex social structures
such as chiefdoms, and social stratification. Long-distance contacts may have been established.

MESOLITHIC AGE

• The "Mesolithic," or "Middle Stone

Age" (from the Greek "mesos,"
"middle," and "lithos," "stone")
was the period in the development
of human technology between the
Paleolithic and Neolithic periods of
the Stone Age.

• The Mesolithic period began at the

end of the Pleistocene epoch,
some 10,000 BP, and ended
with the introduction of
agriculture, the date of which
 varied by geographic region. In some areas, such as the Near East, agriculture was already underway by
the end of the Pleistocene, and there the Mesolithic is short and poorly defined. In areas with
limited glacial impact, the term “Epipaleolithic” is sometimes preferred.

• Regions that experienced greater environmental effects as the last ice age ended have a much more
evident Mesolithic era, lasting millennia. In Northern Europe, societies were able to live well on rich
food supplies from the marshlands fostered by the warmer climate. Such conditions produced
distinctive human behaviours that are preserved in the material record, such as the Maglemosian and
Azilian cultures. These conditions also delayed the coming of the Neolithic until as late as 4000 BC in
northern Europe.

• Remains from this period are few and far between. In forested areas, the first signs
of deforestation have been found, although this would only begin in earnest during the Neolithic, when
more space was needed for agriculture.

• The Mesolithic is characterized in most areas by small composite flint tools. Fishing tackle,
stone adzes and wooden objects, e.g. canoes and bows, have been found at some sites. These
technologies first occur in Africa, associated with the Azilian cultures, before spreading to Europe
through the Ibero-Maurisian culture of Northern Africa and the Kebaran culture of the Levant.
Independent discovery is not always ruled out.

NEOLITHIC AGE

"Neolithic" means "New Stone Age."

This was a period of primitive technological and social development,

toward the end of the "Stone Age".

The Neolithic period saw the development of

early villages, agriculture, animal domestication, tools and the onset of
the earliest recorded incidents of warfare.

The Neolithic term is commonly used in the Old World, as its application
to cultures in the Americas and Oceania that did not fully develop metal-
working technology raises problems.

LASCAUX

• Lascaux is the setting of a complex of caves in southwestern France famous for

its Paleolithic cave paintings.

• They contain some of the best-known Upper Paleolithic art. These paintings are
estimated to be 17,300 years old.
 • They primarily consist of images of large animals, most of which are known from fossil evidence to have
lived in the area at the time.

La Chapelle-aux-Saints

• La Chapelle-aux-Saints, cave site near the village of La

Chapelle-aux-Saints in central France where the bones of
an adult Neanderthal male were found in 1908

• Evidence of Neanderthals as apelike and evolutionarily

divergent from modern humans. Despite decades of
subsequent research that has revised and rejected this
semihuman.

• The well-preserved skull and less-complete trunk and limb

bones exhibit a suite of characteristics in common with other Neanderthals: stocky, cold-adapted body
proportions; a skull with a large and projecting midface (especially the teeth and nose), a rounded
browridge, and a large but long, low, and rounded braincase; and stout limb bones with strongly marked
attachments for the arm and hand muscles.

• The La Chapelle-aux-Saints skeleton shows evidence that

Neanderthals led stressful lives with high risk of injury and
that they experienced considerable bodily degeneration
from daily activities. Such evidence includes the loss of most
of the cheek teeth and associated degeneration of the jaw
joint; inflammation of the ear canals, indicating a possible
loss of hearing; serious osteoarthritis of one shoulder;
massive osteoarthritic degeneration of the neck vertebrae; a
damaged hip joint; and a healed rib fracture.

• Though this individual died in his 30s, he survived for years with these degenerative conditions and
injuries. The skeleton therefore demonstrates not only that Neanderthals had the physical strength
partly to compensate for limitations in their technology but also that they had a social network that
enabled long-term survival of injured and infirm members of the group.

• The skeleton also provided the first evidence of mortuary ritual among the Neanderthals, as the body
was intentionally buried in a pit in the middle of the small cave.
FIRST ATTEMPTS AT MARKING NATURE

Terra Amata

• Terra Amata is an archeological site in

open air located on the slopes of Mount
Boron in Nice, at a level 26 meters (85 ft)
above the current sea level of the
Mediterranean.

• The site, originally on a prehistoric beach,

contained tools of the
lower Paleolithic period, dated to about
400,000 BC, as well as traces of some of the
earliest domestication of fire in Europe.

• The site contained a settlement with

several layers of habitation located on a fossil beach.

• The habitations dated to 380,000 BC, and included remnants which suggested that the inhabitants lived
in huts on the beach. In the center of each
hut was a fireplace, with ashes showing that
the inhabitants had domesticated fire.
These signs of fire, along with those at
Menez Dregan in the Finistere in France,
at Beeches Pit in Suffolk, England, and at
Vertesszollos in Hungary, are the earliest
evidence of the domestication of fire known
in Europe.

• These vestiges included low walls of stones

and beach pebbles, placed to the northwest
of the fireplaces, which would have sheltered the fire from the strong Mistral wind. The inhabitants built
the huts of animal skins supported by poles, with a hole in the center for the smoke to escape. Twenty
to forty people could gather in such a shelter

• Terra Amata is one of the first discoveries of man-made human habitations in Europe.

• The site also included evidence that the inhabitants had manufactured tools out of the beach stones,
including tools with two cutting faces and a particular kind of stone pick which was given the name '"Pics
de Terra Amata." They also discovered a large number of stone tools and scrapers in the dunes above
the beach.

Skara Brae

• Skara Brae is a stone-built Neolithic settlement, located on the Bay of Skaill on the west coast
of Mainland, the largest island in the Orkney archipelago of Scotland.
 • It consists of eight clustered houses, and was
occupied from roughly 3180 BCE–2500 BCE.

• It is Europe's most complete Neolithic village.

• Older than Stonehenge and the Great Pyramids, it

has been called the "Scottish Pompeii" because of its
excellent preservation.

Megaliths

• A megalith is a large stone that has been used to construct a structure or monument, either alone or
together with other stones. The word "megalithic" describes structures made of such large stones,
utilizing an interlocking system without the use of mortar or concrete, as well as representing periods
of prehistory characterized by such constructions. For later periods the term monolith, with an
overlapping meaning, is more likely to be used.

• The word "megalith" comes from Ancient Greeks words mega meaning "great" and lithos meaning
"stone". Megalith also denotes an item consisting of rock(s) hewn in definite shapes for special
purposes.

• It has been used to describe buildings built by people from many parts of the world living in many
different periods. A variety of large stones are seen as megaliths, with the most widely known megaliths
not being sepulchral. The construction of these structures took place mainly in the Neolithic (though
earlier Mesolithic examples are known) and continued into the Chalcolithic and Bronze Age.
Stonehenge

• Stonehenge is
a prehistoric monument located
in Wiltshire, England.

• One of the most famous sites in

the world, Stonehenge is the
remains of a ring of standing
stones set within earthworks.

• Archaeologists believe it was built

anywhere from 3000 BC to 2000
BC. Archaeological evidence
indicates that Stonehenge could
have been a burial ground from its
earliest beginnings.

• The dating of cremated remains found on the site indicate that deposits contain human bone from as
early as 3000 BC, when the ditch and bank were first dug. Such deposits continued at Stonehenge for at
least another 500 years.

Beginnings of Agriculture and Settled Life

• Forest gardening, originating in prehistory, is thought to be the world's oldest known form of agriculture
(or agro ecosystem).

• An "Agricultural Revolution" occurred about the 10th millennium BCE with the adoption of
agriculture and domestication of plants and animals. The Sumerians first began farming c. 9500 BC. By
7000 BC, agriculture had been developed in India and Peru separately; by 6000 BC, in Egypt; by 5000 BC,
in China. About 2700 BC, agriculture had come to Mesoamerica.

• Although attention has tended to concentrate on the Middle East's Fertile Crescent, archaeology in
the Americas, East Asia and Southeast Asia indicates that agricultural systems, using different crops and
animals, may in some cases have developed there nearly as early. The development of
organized irrigation, and the use of a specialized workforce, by the Sumerians, began about 5500 BC.

• Stone was replaced by bronze and iron in implements of agriculture and warfare

• In Eurasia, copper and bronze tools, decorations and weapons began to be commonplace about 3000
BC. After bronze, the Eastern Mediterranean region, Middle East and China saw the introduction
of iron tools and weapons.
 • The Americas developed metallurgy for decorative objects, but did not use metal extensively for
utilitarian purposes

• The cradles of early civilizations were river valleys, such as the Euphrates and Tigris valleys
in Mesopotamia, the Nile valley in Egypt, the Indus valley in the Indian subcontinent, and
the Yangtze and Yellow River valleys in China.

• Some nomadic peoples, such as the Indigenous Australians and the Bushmen of southern Africa, who
did not practice Agriculture, made possible complex societies — civilizations in many climates. States
and markets emerged. Technologies enhanced people's ability to harness nature and to
develop transport and communication. "The city represented a new degree of human concentration, a
new magnitude in settlement“. Cities relied on agricultural surplus. "since the inhabitants of a city do
not produce their own food...cities cannot support themselves...thus exist only where agriculture is
successful enough to produce agricultural surplus." actice agriculture until relatively recent times.

First Settlements

Jericho

• Jericho is a city located near the Jordan

River in the West Bank

• Archaeologists have unearthed the remains of

more than 20 successive settlements in
Jericho, the first of which dates back 11,000
years (9000 BCE), almost to the very
beginning of the Holocene epoch of the
Earth's history.

• Jericho is described in the Hebrew Bible as the

"City of Palm Trees". Copious springs in and
around the city attracted human habitation
for thousands of years.

• The city may be the oldest continuously

occupied city in the world.

Evidences of city dwelling have been seen in

Jericho in the following dates:

• Natufian Hunter-Gatherers c. 10,000

BCE
• Pre-Pottery Neolithic Age, c. 9600 BCE
• Bronze Age
• Iron Age
Natufian Hunter-Gatherers c. 10,000 BCE:

• Jericho has evidence of settlement dating back to 10,000 BCE.

• Due to being a period of cold and drought, permanent habitation of
any one location was not possible.
• The spring at Jericho was a popular camping ground for
Natufian hunter-gatherer groups, who left a scattering of crescent
microlith tools behind.
•

Pre-Pottery Neolithic Age, c. 9600 BCE

• The first permanent settlement on the site of

Jericho developed near the Ein as-Sultan spring
between 10,000 and 9000 BCE.
• As the world warmed, a new culture based on
agriculture and sedentary dwelling emerged,
which archaeologists have termed "Pre-Pottery
Neolithic A" (abbreviated as PPNA).
• PPNA villages are characterized by
• small circular dwellings, burials of the dead within
the floors of buildings
• reliance on hunting wild game, the cultivation of
wild or domestic cereals, and
• no use of pottery.

Pre-Pottery Neolithic Age, c. 9600 BCE

• The dwellings at Jericho had the following characteristics:

• They were circular in form and were built of clay and straw bricks left to dry in the sun
• These were plastered together with a mud mortar.
• Each house measured about 5 metres (16 ft) across, and was roofed with mud-smeared brush.
• Hearths were located within and outside the homes.

Pre-Pottery Neolithic Age, c. 9600 BCE

• By about 9400 BCE the town had grown to more than 70 modest dwellings.
• The population could have been as high as two to three thousand people and as low as two to three
hundred.
• This early town featured a massive stone wall over 3.6 metres (12 ft) high and 1.8 metres (5 ft 11 in)
wide at the base.
• Inside this wall stood a tower over 3.6 metres (12 ft) high, containing an internal staircase with 22 stone
steps
• The wall and tower would have taken a hundred men more than a hundred days to construct.
 • The wall may have served as a defense against flood-water, with the tower used for ceremonial
purposes.

Pre-Pottery Neolithic Age, c. 9600 BCE

• After a few centuries the first settlement was abandoned. A second

settlement, established in 6800 BCE, perhaps represents the work of
an invading people who absorbed the original inhabitants into their
dominant culture.
• Artifacts dating from this period include ten plastered human skulls,
painted so as to reconstitute the individuals' features
• It is thought that they were kept in people's homes while the bodies
were buried.
• A succession of settlements followed from 4500 BCE onward, the largest constructed in 2600 BCE.
•

Bronze Age

Iron Age

Catalhuyuk

• Catalhuyuk was a very large Neolithic and Chalcolithic proto-city settlement in southern Anatolia, which
existed from approximately 7500 BC to 5700 BC, and flourished around 7000BC. It is the largest and
best-preserved Neolithic site found to date.

• It is located overlooking the Konya Plain, southeast of the present-day city of Konya in Turkey.
• The eastern settlement
forms a mound which
would have risen about
20 m (66 ft) above the
plain at the time of the
latest Neolithic
occupation.
• There is also a smaller
settlement mound to the
west and
a Byzantine settlement a
few hundred meters to
the east.
• The prehistoric mound
settlements were
abandoned before the Bronze Age.
• A river channel once flowed between
the two mounds, and the settlement
was built on alluvial clay which may
have been favorable for
early agriculture.
• Çatalhöyük was composed entirely of domestic buildings, with no obvious public buildings.

• Some of the larger ones have rather ornate murals, while the purpose of some rooms remains unclear.

• The population of the eastern mound has been estimated to be, at maximum, 10,000 people, but the
population likely varied over the community’s history. An average population of between 5,000 to 7,000
is a reasonable estimate.

• The sites were set up as large numbers of buildings clustered together.

• Households looked to their neighbours for help, trade, and possible marriage for their children.

• The inhabitants lived in mud-brick houses that were crammed together in an aggregate structure.

• No footpaths or streets were used between the dwellings, which were clustered in a honeycomb-like
maze.

• Most were accessed by holes in the ceiling, with doors reached by ladders and stairs.

• The rooftops were effectively streets.

• The ceiling openings also served as the only source of ventilation, allowing smoke from the houses'
open hearths and ovens to escape.

• Houses had plaster interiors characterized by squared-off timber ladders or steep stairs.
• These were usually on the
south wall of the room, as
were cooking
hearths and ovens.

• The main rooms contained

raised platforms that may have
been used for a range of
domestic activities.

• Typical houses contained two

rooms for everyday activity,
such as cooking and crafting.

• All interior walls and platforms

were plastered to a smooth
finish.

• Ancillary rooms were used as storage, and were accessed through low openings from main rooms.

• All rooms were kept scrupulously clean.

• Archaeologists identified very little rubbish in the buildings,

finding middens outside the ruins, with sewage and food
waste, as well as significant amounts of wood ash.

• In good weather, many daily activities may also have taken

place on the rooftops, which may have formed a plaza.

• In later periods, large communal ovens appear to have

been built on these rooftops.

• Over time, houses were renewed by partial demolition

and rebuilding on a foundation of rubble.

• As many as eighteen levels of settlement have been

uncovered.

• Apart of ritual life, the people of Çatalhöyük buried their

dead within the village.
• Human remains have been found in pits beneath the
floors and, especially, beneath hearths, the platforms
within the main rooms, and under beds.
• Bodies were tightly flexed before burial and were often placed in baskets or wound and wrapped in
reed mats.
• Disarticulated bones in some graves suggest that bodies may have been exposed in the open air for a
time before the bones were gathered and buried.
• In some cases, graves were disturbed, and the individual’s head removed from the skeleton.
• These heads may have
been used in rituals, as
some were found in other
areas of the community.
• In a woman's grave
spinning whorls were
recovered and in a man's
grave, stone axes.
• Some skulls were
plastered and painted
with ochre to recreate
faces, a custom more
characteristic of Neolithic
sites in Syria and at
Neolithic Jericho than at
sites closer by.

• Vivid murals and figurines are found throughout the settlement, on interior and exterior walls.

• Although no identifiable temples have been found, the graves, murals, and figurines suggest that the
people of Çatalhöyük had a religion rich in symbols.

• Rooms with concentrations of these items may have been shrines or public meeting areas.

• Predominant images include hunting scenes, red images of the now extinct aurochs (wild cattle)
and stags, and vultures swooping down on headless figures.

• Relief figures are carved on walls, such as of lionesses facing one another.

• Heads of animals, especially of cattle, were mounted on walls.

• Çatalhöyük had no apparent social classes, as no houses with distinctive features (belonging
to royalty or religious hierarchy, for example) have been found so far.

• The most recent investigations also reveal little social distinction based on gender, with men and
women receiving equivalent nutrition and seeming to have equal social status, as typically found
in Paleolithic cultures.

• Children observed domestic areas.

• They learned how to perform rituals and how to build or repair houses by watching the adults make
statues, beads and other objects.

• Çatalhöyük's spatial layout may be due to the close kin relations exhibited amongst the people.

• It can be seen, in the layout, that the people were "divided into two groups who lived on opposite sides
of the town, separated by a gully." Furthermore, because no nearby towns were found from which
 marriage partners could be drawn, "this spatial separation must have marked two intermarrying kinship
groups." This would help explain how a settlement so early on would become so large.

• In upper levels of the site, it becomes apparent that the people of Çatalhöyük were gaining skills
in agriculture and the domestication of animals.

• Female figurines have been found within bins used for storage of cereals, such as wheat and barley, and
the figurines are presumed to be of a deity protecting the grain. Peas were also grown,
and almonds, pistachios, and fruit were harvested from trees in the surrounding hills. Sheep were
domesticated and evidence suggests the beginning of cattle domestication as well.
However, hunting continued to be a major source of food for the
community. Pottery and obsidian tools appear to have been major industries; obsidian tools were
probably both used and also traded for items such as Mediterranean sea shells and flint from Syria.

River Valley Civilizations

• A river civilization or river culture is an agricultural nation or civilization situated beside (and often
drawing sustenance from) a river.

• Historically the first great civilizations all grew up in river valleys.

• The oldest, 3500 to 2000 B.C.E., was along the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in the Middle East; the name
given to that civilization, Mesopotamia, means "between the rivers".

• The Nile valley in Egypt had been home to agricultural settlements as early as 5500 B.C.E., but the
growth of Egypt as a civilization began around 3100 B.C.E.

River Valley Civilization of Egypt

• Ancient Egypt was a civilization of ancient Northeastern Africa,

concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now the
modern country of Egypt. It is one of six civilizations globally to arise
independently.

• The Nile has been the lifeline of its region for much of human history. The
fertile floodplain of the Nile gave humans the opportunity to develop a
settled agricultural economy and a more sophisticated, centralized society
that became a cornerstone in the history of human civilization.

• Nomadic modern human hunter-gatherers began living in the Nile valley

through the end of the Middle Pleistocene some 120,000 years ago.
 • By the late Paleolithic period, the arid climate of Northern Africa became increasingly hot and dry,
forcing the populations of the area to concentrate along the river region.

Reasons for the Success of Egyptian Civilization

• The success of ancient Egyptian civilization came partly from its ability to adapt to the conditions of
the Nile River valley for agriculture.

• The predictable flooding and controlled irrigation of the fertile valley produced surplus crops, which
supported a more dense population, and social development and culture.

• With resources to spare, the administration sponsored mineral exploitation of the valley and
surrounding desert regions.

• The early development of an independent writing system, the organization of collective construction
and agricultural projects, trade with surrounding regions, and a military intended to defeat foreign
enemies asserted Egyptian dominance.

• Motivating and organizing these activities was a bureaucracy of elite scribes, religious leaders, and
administrators under the control of a pharaoh, who ensured the cooperation and unity of the Egyptian
people in the context of an elaborate system of religious beliefs.

• The many achievements of the ancient Egyptians include the quarrying, surveying and construction
techniques that supported the building of monumental pyramids, temples, and obelisks; a system
of mathematics, a practical and effective system of medicine, irrigation systems and agricultural
production techniques, the first known ships, Egyptian faience and glass technology, new forms
of literature, and the earliest known peace treaty, made with the Hittites.

Social Structure of Ancient Egypt

• Egyptian society was highly stratified, and social status was expressly displayed.

• Farmers made up the bulk of the population, but agricultural produce was owned directly by the state,
temple, or noble family that owned the land. Farmers were also subject to a labor tax and were required
to work on irrigation or construction projects.

• Artists and craftsmen were of higher status than farmers, but they were also under state control,
working in the shops attached to the temples and paid directly from the state treasury.

• Scribes and officials formed the upper class in ancient Egypt, known as the "white kilt class" in reference
to the bleached linen garments that served as a mark of their rank.

• The upper class prominently displayed their social status in art and literature. Below the nobility were
the priests, physicians, and engineers with specialized training in their field.

• Slavery was known in ancient Egypt, but the extent and prevalence of its practice are unclear.
• The ancient Egyptians viewed men
and women, including people from
all social classes except slaves, as
essentially equal under the law, and
even the lowliest peasant was
entitled to petition the vizier and his
court for redress.

• Although, slaves were mostly used as

indentured servants. They were able
to buy and sell, or work their way to
freedom or nobility, and usually
were treated by doctors in the
workplace.

• Both men and women had the right to own and sell property, make contracts, marry and divorce,
receive inheritance, and pursue legal disputes in court.

• Married couples could own property jointly and protect themselves from divorce by agreeing to
marriage contracts, which stipulated the financial obligations of the husband to his wife and children
should the marriage end.

• Compared with their counterparts in ancient Greece, Rome, and even more modern places around the
world, ancient Egyptian women had a greater range of personal choices and opportunities for
achievement. Women such as Hatshepsut and Cleopatra VI even became pharaohs, while others
wielded power as Divine Wives of Amun. Despite these freedoms, ancient Egyptian women did not often
take part in official roles in the administration, served only secondary roles in the temples, and were not
as likely to be as educated as men.

Egyptian Architecture

The architecture of Egypt has been divided into three

great periods:

First comes the Ancient Empire, from about 5000 B.C.

to about 3000 B.C. This was the period of the Pyramids.

The next period is called the Middle Empire, and

extends from about 3000 B.C. to about 1700 B.C. This is
the period of the rock-cut tombs.

The third, and last, of the great periods is the one called
the New Empire, which extends from about 1700 B.C. to
about 350 B.C., and this is the period during which the
great temples were built, such as Karnak, Luxor, and Edfou.
The period of the temples is often regarded to be the greatest, and produced lasting monuments of the
greatest beauty.

Chief Characteristics of Egyptian Architecture

• Great mass and size. A single stone was sometimes over twenty-five feet long,
and it had to be brought miles from the quarry.

• Peculiar style of column.

• All of their works were covered with the greatest profusion of color. They had
their own ideas about decoration, and often covered every inch of a building
with pictures, symbols, and designs. Many were carved, some only painted, and
all of them had some meaning connected either with religion or with the rulers.
The rawness of the colors, most of them the crude primary colors, is also
characteristic of the Egyptian style.
• The structure of their buildings was almost always that which is described as the architecture of the
beam or lintel. We define a lintel as a beam of wood, or iron, or stone, or some other substance, over
the top of a door, or window, or any other opening, to carry the weight of the wall above.
• Fifth, characteristic in Egyptian architecture is the slope or slant so often given to the walls, where ours
would be exactly upright or vertical.

Pyramids: Tomb Architecture

• The most ancient monuments of the world, the

Pyramids, were built as burial places for the kings.

• They consist of masses of stone and brick raised

up around the chamber where the body of the
king was to lie.

• The tomb was made so that the place where the

body lay would be secret, and secure from thieves.

• The material used was limestone cased over with

granite, and the passages were lined with granite.

• The outside was cased with polished stone, perhaps of many different colors.

• The largest of the

Pyramids was the tomb of King
Cheops. It was 76o feet at the
base, 484 feet high, and had an
area of 577,000 square feet.
The angle of the slope was
about 50 degrees, but the angle
of slope of the different
Pyramids is never alike.

• The jointing of the

stones was done with the
greatest nicety, and the
construction throughout shows
wonderful scientific skill.

• The Egyptians' looked

upon their houses as
temporary abodes, but upon
 their tombs as permanent dwellings.

• This fitness of things is essential to the beauty of any object, be it building, painting, or anything under
the sun. There is a solemnity about Egyptian architecture, and great strength. Repetition and variety, for
instance, are not among their qualities. However, there are two elements of beauty that are always in
the Pyramids; namely, symmetry and simplicity. The Pyramids present an almost perfect symmetry,
and yet perfect symmetry in buildings, as in pictures, may make them seem monotonous, but if there is
not perfect symmetry, there must be at least a feeling of balance.

• The most important thing that the Egyptians sought for in their works was durability; and so dry is the
climate that not only the monuments of stone, but many of the most fragile cloths and woods, have
withstood destruction to this day.

Mastaba

• A mastaba (meaning "house for eternity" or

"eternal house" in Ancient Egyptian), is a type
of ancient Egyptian tomb in the form of a flat-
roofed, rectangular structure with outward sloping
sides, constructed out of mud-bricks (from the Nile
River) or stone.

• Mastabas marked the burial sites of many eminent Egyptians during Egypt's Early Dynastic
Periodand Old Kingdom.

• During the Old Kingdom, kings began to be buried in pyramids instead of mastabas, although non-royal
use of mastabas continued for more than a thousand years.
• The afterlife was a main focus of Egyptian civilization and ruled every aspect of the society.

• This is reflected in their architecture

and most prominently by the
enormous amounts of time, money,
and manpower involved in the
building of their tombs. Ancient
Egyptians believed the soul could
live only if the body was preserved
from corruption and depredation as
well as fed.

• Starting from the Predynastic Era

and into the later dynasties, the
ancient Egyptians developed
increasingly complex and effective
methods for preserving and
protecting the bodies of the dead. The Ancient Egyptians initially began by burying their dead in pit
graves dug out from the sand. The body of the deceased was buried inside the pit on a mat, usually
along with some items believed to help them in the afterlife.

• The first tomb structure that the Egyptians built was the mastaba.

• Mastabas provided better protection from scavenging animals and grave robbers. However, the human
remains were not in contact with the dry desert sand, so natural mummification could not take place.

• Use of the more secure mastabas required Ancient Egyptians to devise a system of artificial
mummification.

• Until at least the Old Period or First Intermediate Period, only high officials and royalty would be
buried in these mastabas.

Saqqara
• Saqqara is a vast, ancient burial ground
in Egypt, serving as the necropolis for
the Ancient Egyptian capital, Memphis.

• Saqqara features numerous pyramids, including

the world famous Step pyramid of Djoser,
sometimes referred to as the Step Tomb due to
its rectangular base, as well as a number of
mastabas (Arabic word meaning 'bench').

• Located some 30 km (19 mi) south of modern-

day Cairo, Saqqara covers an area of around 7
by 1.5 km (4.35 by 0.93 mi).

• At Saqqara, the oldest complete stone building

complex known in history was built: Djoser’s step
pyramid, built during the Third Dynasty.
• Another 16 Egyptian kings built pyramids at
Saqqara, which are now in various states of preservation
or dilapidation.
• High officials added private funeral monuments
to this necropolis during the entire pharaonic period .
• It remained an important complex for non-royal
burials and cult ceremonies for more than 3,000 years,
well into Ptolemaic and Roman times.

• The earliest burials of nobles can be traced back

to the First Dynasty, at the north side of the Saqqara
plateau. During this time, the royal burial ground was
at Abydos.

• The first royal burials at Saqqara, comprising underground galleries, date to the Second Dynasty.

• The last Second Dynasty king Khasekhemwy was buried in his tomb at Abydos, but also built a funerary
monument at Saqqara consisting of a large rectangular enclosure, known as Gisr el-Mudir .

• Fourth Dynasty kings chose to have a different location for their pyramids.

• During the Fifth and Sixth Dynasties, Saqqara was again the royal burial ground.

• The Fifth and Sixth Dynasty pyramids are not built of massive stone, but with a core consisting of
rubble. They are consequently less well preserved than the world famous pyramids built by the Fourth
Dynasty kings at Giza.

• Unas , the last ruler of the Fifth Dynasty, was the first king to adorn the chambers in his pyramid
with Pyramid Texts.
• Courtiers during the Old Kingdom were customarily buried in mastaba tombs close to the pyramid of
their king.

• Clusters of private tombs were thus formed in Saqqara around the pyramid complexes of Unas and
Teti.

• From the Middle Kingdom onwards, Memphis was no longer the capital of the country, and kings built
their funerary complexes elsewhere.

• Few private monuments from this period have been found at Saqqara.

• During the New Kingdom Memphis was an important administrative and military centre.

• From the Eighteenth Dynasty onwards many high officials built tombs at Saqqara.

• When still a general, Horemheb built a large tomb here, though he was later buried as Pharaoh in
the Valley of the Kings at Thebes.

• Other important tombs belong to the vizier Aperel , the vizier Neferrenpet, the artist Thutmose and to
Maia , the wet-nurse of Tutankhamun.

• Prince Khaemweset, son of Pharaoh Ramesses II, made repairs to buildings at Saqqara. Among other
things, he restored the Pyramid of Unas and added an inscription to its south face to commemorate the
restoration. He enlarged the Serapeum, the burial site of the mummified Apis bulls, and was later buried
in the catacombs.

• After the New Kingdom, when several cities in the Delta served as capital of Egypt, Saqqara remained in
use as a burial ground for nobles.

• Saqqara became an important destination for pilgrims to a number of cult centres.

• Extensive underground galleries were cut into the rock as burial sites for large amounts of mummified
ibises, baboons, cats, dogs, and falcons.

Meidum

• Meidum is the location of a large pyramid, and several large mud-

brick mastabas . It is located about 62 miles (100 km) south of
modern Cairo.
• The pyramid at Meidum is
thought to originally have
been built for the last
pharaoh of the Third
Dynasty, and was continued
by Sneferu.

• The architect was a

successor to the
famous Imhotep, the
inventor of the stone built
pyramid.

• The collapse of the pyramid

is likely due to the
modifications made to
Imhotep's pyramid design as well as the decisions taken twice during construction to extend the
pyramid.

• Due to its unusual appearance, the pyramid is called el-heram el-kaddaab — (Pseudo Pyramid)
in Egyptian Arabic.
• The second extension turned the original step pyramid design into a true pyramid by filling in the steps
with limestone encasing.

• Meidum was affected by construction errors.

• Firstly, the outer layer was founded on sand and not on rock, like the inner layers.

• Secondly, the inner step pyramids had been designed as the final stage. Thus the outer surface was
polished and the platforms of the steps were not horizontal, but fell off to the outside. This severely
compromised the stability and is likely to have caused the collapse of the Meidum Pyramid in a
downpour while the building was still under construction.

• The Meidum Pyramid seems never to have been completed. The usual valley temple of pyramids is
missing at Meidum.

• The mortuary temple, which was found under the rubble at the base of the pyramid, apparently never
was finished.

• Walls were only partly polished.

• The burial chamber inside the pyramid itself is uncompleted, with raw walls and wooden supports still
in place which are usually removed after construction.

• Affiliated mastabas were never used or completed and none of the usual burials have been found.

• The first examinations of the Meidum Pyramid found everything below the surface of the rubble mound
fully intact
• The collapse of this pyramid during the reign of Sneferu is the likely reason for the change from the
usual 52 to 43 degrees of his second pyramid at Dahshur, the Bent Pyramid.

Giza

• The Great Pyramid of Giza (also known as the Pyramid of

Khufu or the Pyramid of Cheops) is the oldest and largest of
the three pyramids in the Giza Necropolis bordering what is
now El Giza, Egypt. It is the oldest of the Seven Wonders of
the Ancient World, and the only one to remain largely intact.

• It is believed that the pyramid was built as a tomb over a 10

to 20-year period concluding around 2560 BC.

• Originally, the Great Pyramid was covered by casing stones that formed a smooth outer surface; what
is seen today is the underlying core structure. Some of the casing stones that once covered the structure
can still be seen around the base.

• Most accepted construction hypotheses are based on the idea that it was built by moving huge stones
from a quarry and dragging and lifting them into place.

• There are three known chambers inside the Great Pyramid.

• The lowest chamber is cut into the bedrock upon which the pyramid was built and was
unfinished. The

• Queen's Chamber and King's Chamber are higher up within the pyramid structure.

• The main part of the Giza complex is a setting of

buildings that included two mortuary temples in
honour of Khufu (one close to the pyramid and one
near the Nile), three smaller pyramids for Khufu's
wives, an even smaller "satellite" pyramid, a raised
causeway connecting the two temples, and small
mastaba tombs surrounding the pyramid for nobles.

• the Great Pyramid was originally 146.5 metres (480.6 ft)) tall ,
but with erosion and absence of its pyramkdion its present height is 138.8 metres (455.4 ft).

• Each base side was 230.4 metres (755.9 ft) long.

• The mass of the pyramid is estimated at 5.9 million tonnes.

• The volume, including an internal hillock, is roughly 2,500,000 cubic metres (88,000,000 cu ft).
• Additionally, since it consists of an estimated 2.3 million blocks, completing the building in 20 years
would involve moving an average of more than 12 of the blocks into place each hour, day and night.

• Many of the casing stones and inner chamber blocks of the Great Pyramid fit together with extremely
high precision.

• Based on measurements taken on the north eastern casing stones, the mean opening of the joints is
only 0.5 millimetres wide (1/50th of an inch). The pyramid remained the tallest man-made structure in
the world for over 3,800 years, unsurpassed until the 160-metre-tall (520 ft) spire of Lincoln
Cathedral was completed c. 1300. The accuracy of the pyramid's workmanship is such that the four sides
of the base have an average error of only 58 millimetres in length. The base is horizontal and flat to
within ±15 mm (0.6 in).

• The sides of the square base are closely aligned to the four cardinal compass points (within four minutes
of arc) based on true north, not magnetic north, and the finished base was squared to a mean corner
error of only 12 seconds of arc.

• The completed design dimensions, as suggested by Petrie's survey and subsequent studies, are
estimated to have originally been 280 Royal cubits high by 440 Royal cubits long at each of the four
sides of its base.

• The ratio of the perimeter to height of 1760/280 Royal cubits equates to 2π to an accuracy of better
than 0.05% (corresponding to the well-known approximation of π as 22/7).

Great Pyramid of Giza: Interior

• The original entrance to the Great Pyramid is 17 metres (56 ft) vertically above ground level and 7.29
metres (23.9 ft) east of the center line of the pyramid.

• From this original entrance, there is a Descending Passage 0.96 metres (3.1 ft) high and 1.04 metres
(3.4 ft) wide, which goes down at an angle of 26° 31'23" through the masonry of the pyramid and then
into the bedrock beneath it.

• After 105.23 metres (345.2 ft), the passage becomes level and continues for an additional 8.84 metres
(29.0 ft) to the lower Chamber, which appears not to have been finished.

• There is a continuation of the horizontal passage in the south wall of the lower chamber; there is also a
pit dug in the floor of the chamber.

• At 28.2 metres (93 ft) from the entrance is a square hole in the roof of the Descending Passage.

• Originally concealed with a slab of stone, this is the beginning of the Ascending Passage.

• The Ascending Passage is 39.3 metres (129 ft) long, as wide and high as the Descending Passage and
slopes up at almost precisely the same angle.

• The lower end of the Ascending Passage is closed by three huge blocks of granite, each about 1.5 metres
(4.9 ft) long. At the start of the Grand Gallery on the right-hand side there is a hole cut in the wall. This is
the start of a vertical shaft which follows an irregular path through the masonry of the pyramid to join
the Descending Passage.

• Also at the start of the Grand Gallery there is the Horizontal Passage leading to the "Queen's Chamber".
The passage is 1.1m (3'8") high for most of its length, but near the chamber there is a step in the floor,
after which the passage is 1.73 metres (5.7 ft) high.

Queen’s Chamber

• The Queen's Chamber is exactly half-way between the north and south faces of the pyramid and
measures 5.75 metres (18.9 ft) north to south, 5.23 metres (17.2 ft) east to west, and has a pointed roof
with an apex 6.23 metres (20.4 ft) above the floor. At the eastern end of the chamber there is
a niche 4.67 metres (15.3 ft) high.

• In the north and south walls of the Queen's Chamber there and a bronze implement of unknown
purpose.

• Both objects are currently in the British Museum. are shafts, which unlike those in the King's Chamber
that immediately slope upwards, are horizontal for around 2 m (6.6 ft) before sloping upwards.

Grand Gallery

• The Grand Gallery continues the slope of the Ascending Passage, but is 8.6 metres (28 ft) high and 46.68
metres (153.1 ft) long. At the base it is 2.06 metres (6.8 ft) wide, but after 2.29 metres (7.5 ft) the blocks
of stone in the walls are corbelled inwards by 7.6 centimetres (3.0 in) on each side.
• There are seven of these steps, so, at the top, the Grand Gallery is only 1.04 metres (3.4 ft) wide.
• It is roofed by slabs of stone laid at a slightly steeper angle than the floor of the gallery, so that each
stone fits into a slot cut in the top of the gallery like the teeth of a ratchet.
 • The purpose was to have each block supported by the wall of the Gallery rather than resting on the
block beneath it, which would have resulted in an unacceptable cumulative pressure at the lower end of
the Gallery.
• At the upper end of the Gallery on the right-hand side there is a hole near the roof that opens into a
short tunnel by which access can be gained to the lowest of the Relieving Chambers.
• The floor of the Grand Gallery consists of a shelf or step on either side, 51 centimetres (20 in) wide,
leaving a lower ramp 1.04 metres (3.4 ft) wide between them. In the shelves there are 54 slots, 27 on
each side matched by vertical and horizontal slots in the walls of the Gallery. These form a cross shape
that rises out of the slot in the shelf. The purpose of these slots is not known, but the central gutter in
the floor of the Gallery, which is the same width as the Ascending Passage, has led to speculation that
the blocking stones were stored in the Grand Gallery and the slots held wooden beams to restrain them
from sliding down the passage. This, in turn, has led to the proposal that originally many more than 3
blocking stones were intended, to completely fill the Ascending Passage.
• At the top of the Grand Gallery, there is a step giving onto a horizontal passage some meters long and
approximately 1.02 metres (3.3 ft) in height and width, in which can be detected four slots, three of
which were probably intended to hold granite portcullises. Fragments of granite found by Petrie in the
Descending Passage may have come from these now-vanished doors.

King's Chamber

• The King's Chamber is 10.47 metres (34.4 ft) from east to west and 5.234 metres (17.17 ft) north to
south.
• It has a flat roof 5.974 metres (19.60 ft) above the floor. 0.91 m (3.0 ft) above the floor there are two
narrow shafts in the north and south walls (one is now filled by an extractor fan in an attempt to
circulate air inside the pyramid).
• The purpose of these shafts is not clear: they appear to be aligned toward stars or areas of the northern
and southern skies, yet one of them follows a dog-leg course through the masonry, indicating no
intention to directly sight stars through them.
• The shafts served a ritualistic purpose associated with the ascension of the king’s spirit to the heavens.

• The King's Chamber is entirely faced with granite.

• Above the roof, which is formed of nine slabs of stone weighing in total about 400 tons, are five
compartments known as Relieving Chambers.

• The first four, like the King's Chamber, have flat roofs formed by the floor of the chamber above, but the
final chamber has a pointed roof.

• It is believed that the compartments were intended to safeguard the King's Chamber from the possibility
of a roof collapsing under the weight of stone above the Chamber. As the chambers were not intended
to be seen, they were not finished in any way and a few of the stones still retain masons' marks painted
on them.

• One of the stones in Campbell's Chamber bears a mark, apparently the name of a work gang
 • The only object in the King's Chamber is a rectangular granite sarcophagus, one corner of which is
broken.

• The sarcophagus is slightly larger than the Ascending Passage, which indicates that it must have been
placed in the Chamber before the roof was put in place.

• Unlike the fine masonry of the walls of the Chamber, the sarcophagus is roughly finished, with saw
marks visible in several places. This is in contrast with the finely finished and decorated sarcophagi
found in other pyramids of the same period.

Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut

• The Mortuary Temple of Queen Hatshepsut,

the Djeser-Djeseru ("Holy of Holies"), is
located beneath the cliffs at Deir el Bahari on
the west bank of the Nile near the Valley of
the Kings in Egypt.

• The mortuary temple is dedicated to the sun

god Amon-Ra and is located next to the
mortuary temple of Mentuhotep II, which
served both as an inspiration, and later, a quarry. It is considered one of the "incomparable monuments
of ancient Egypt.".

• Hatshepsut's chancellor, royal architect Senenmut oversaw construction.

• Although the
adjacent, earlier
mortuary temple
of Mentuhotep
was used as a
model, the two
structures are
nevertheless
significantly
different in many
ways.

• Hatshepsut's
temple employs a
lengthy,
colonnaded
terrace that
deviates from the
centralised
 structure of Mentuhotep’s model – an anomaly that may be caused by the decentralized location of her
burial chamber.

• There are three layered terraces reaching 97 feet tall.

• Each story is articulated by a double colonnade of square piers, with the exception of the northwest
corner of the central terrace, which employs Proto Doric columns to house the chapel.
• These terraces are connected by long ramps which were once surrounded by gardens with foreign
plants including frankincense and myrrh trees.
• The layering of Hatshepsut's temple corresponds with the classical Theban form,
employing pylons, courts, hypostyle hall, sun court, chapel and sanctuary.

• The relief sculpture within Hatshepsut’s temple recites the tale of the divine birth of a female pharaoh –
the first of its kind.

• The text and pictorial cycle also tell of an expedition to the Land of Punt, an exotic country on the Red
Sea coast.

• The temple once was home to two statues of Osiris, a sphinx avenue as well as many sculptures of the
Queen in different attitudes – standing, sitting, or kneeling. Many of these portraits were
destroyed after her death.
Luxor

• The Luxor Temple is a

huge ancient
Egyptian temple complex
located on the east bank of
the River Nile in the city
today known
as Luxor(ancient Thebes).

• Construction work on the

temple began during the
reign of Amenhotep III in
the 14th century BC.

• Horemheb and Tutankhamun added columns, statues, and friezes – and Akhenaten had earlier
obliterated his father's cartouches and installed a shrine to the Aten – but the only major expansion
effort took place under Ramesses II some 100 years after the first stones were put in place.

• Luxor is thus unique among the main Egyptian temple complexes in having only two pharaohs leave
their mark on its
architectural structure.

• The temple proper begins

with the 24 meter(79 ft)
high First Pylon, built by
Ramesses II.

• The pylon was decorated

with scenes of
Ramesses's military
triumphs (particularly
the Battle of Qadesh);
later pharaohs,
particularly those of the Nubian and Ethiopian dynasties, also recorded their victories there.

• This main entrance to the temple complex was originally flanked by six colossal statues of Ramesses –
four seated, and two standing – but only two (both seated) have survived.

• Modern visitors can also see a 25-meter (82 ft) tall pink granite obelisk: this one of a matching pair until
1835, when the other one was taken to Paris where it now stands in the centre of the Place de la
Concorde.

• Through the pylon gateway leads into a peristyle courtyard, also built by Ramesses II.

• This area, and the pylon, were built at an oblique angle to the rest of the temple, presumably to
accommodate the three pre-existing barque shrines located in the northwest corner.
 • After the peristyle courtyard comes the processional colonnade built by Amenhotep III – a 100-meter
(328 ft) corridor lined by 14 papyrus-capital columns.

• Friezes on the wall describe the stages in the Opet Festival, from sacrifices at Karnak at the top left,
through Amun's arrival
at Luxor at the end of
that wall, and
concluding with his
return on the opposite
side. The decorations
were put in place by
Tutankhamun: the boy
pharaoh is depicted,
but his names have
been replaced with
those of Horemheb.

• Beyond the colonnade

is a peristyle courtyard,
which also dates back
to Amenhotep's
original construction.

• The best preserved

columns are on the
eastern side, where
some traces of original
color can be seen.

• The southern side of

this courtyard is made
up of a 36-column
hypostyle court that
leads into the dark
inner rooms of the
temple.

Karnak

• The temple complex of Karnak is located on the banks of the River Nile some 2.5 kilometers (1.5 mi)
north of Luxor.

• It consists of four main parts,

• the Precinct of Amon-Re,

• the Precinct of Montu,

 • the Precinct of Mut and

• the Temple of Amenhotep IV (dismantled),

• as well as a few smaller temples and sanctuaries located outside the enclosing walls of the four
main parts, and several avenues of ram-headed sphinxes connecting the Precinct of Mut, the
Precinct of Amon-Re and Luxor Temple.

• The key difference

between Karnak and
most of the other
temples and sites in
Egypt is the length of
time over which it was
developed and used.

• Construction work
began in the 16th
century BC.

• Approximately 30
pharaohs contributed
to the buildings,
enabling it to reach a
size, complexity and
diversity not seen
elsewhere.

• Few of the individual

features of Karnak are
unique, but the size
and number of
features is
overwhelming.

Precinct of Amun-Re

• This is the largest of the precincts of the temple complex, and is dedicated to Amun Ra , the chief deity
of the Theban Triad.

• There are several colossal statues including the figure of Pinedjem I which is 10.5
meters tall.

• The sandstone for this temple, including all the columns, was transported from
Gebel Silsila 100 miles (161 km) south on the Nile river.

• It also has one of the largest obelisks, weighing 328 tonnes and standing 29
meters tall.
Precinct of Mut

• Located to the south of the newer Amen-

Re complex, this precinct was dedicated
to the mother goddess, Mut , who
became identified as the wife of Amun-Re
in the eighteenth dynasty Theban Triad.

• It has several smaller temples associated

with it

• It has its own sacred lake, constructed in

a crescent shape.

• Six hundred black granite statues were

found in the courtyard to her temple.

• Temple excavations at Luxor discovered a "porch of drunkenness" built onto the temple by the pharaoh
Hatshepsut .

Precinct of Montu

• This portion of the site is dedicated to the son of Mut and Amun-Re, Montu , the
war-god of the Theban Triad.

• It is located to the north of the Amun-Re complex and is much smaller in size.

Temple of Amenhotep IV (destroyed)

• The temple that Akhenaten (Amenhotep IV) constructed on the site was located east of the main
complex, outside the walls of the Amun-Re precinct.

• It was destroyed immediately after the death of its builder.

River Valley Civilization of Mesopotamia

• Mesopotamia is a name for the

area of the Tigris–Euphrates river
system, corresponding to modern-
day Iraq, Kuwait, the northeastern
section of Syria, as well as parts of
southeastern Turkey and of
southwestern Iran.

• The architecture of
Mesopotamian encompassed
several distinct cultures and
spanned a period from the 10th
millennium BC, when the first
permanent structures were built, to
the 6th century BC.

• No architectural profession existed in Mesopotamia; however, scribes drafted and managed

construction for the government, nobility, or royalty. The Mesopotamians regarded 'the craft of
building' as a divine gift taught to men by the gods.

• Among the Mesopotamian architectural accomplishments are:

• the development of urban planning

• the courtyard house, and

• ziggurats.

• The Mesopotamian architecture begins in southeastern Turkey with the erection of large monoliths at
the site of Göbekli Tepe

• It is overwhelmingly one of clay masonry and of increasingly complex forms of stacked mud brick.

• Adobe-brick was preferred over vitreous brick because of its superior thermal properties and lower
manufacturing costs.

• Red brick was used in small applications involving water, decoration, and monumental construction.

• A late innovation was glazed vitreous brick.

• Sumerian masonry was usually mortarless although bitumen was sometimes used.

• Brick styles, which varied greatly over time, are categorized by period.

• Patzen 80×40×15 cm: Late Uruk period (3600–3200 BCE)

 • Riemchen 16×16 cm: Late Uruk period (3600–3200 BCE)

• Plano-convex 10x19x34 cm: Early Dynastic Period (3100–2300 BCE)

• Since rounded bricks are somewhat unstable, Mesopotamian bricklayers would lay a row of bricks
perpendicular to the rest every few rows. The advantages to plano-convex bricks were the speed of
manufacture as well as the irregular surface which held the finishing plaster coat better than a smooth
surface from other brick types.

• Because these bricks were sun baked, buildings eventually deteriorated.

• They were periodically destroyed, leveled, and rebuilt on the same spot.

• This planned structural life cycle gradually raised the level of cities, so that they came to be elevated
above the surrounding plain.

• The resulting hills are known as tells, and are found throughout the ancient Near East.

• Civic buildings slowed decay by using cones of colored stone, terracotta panels, and clay nails driven into
the adobe-brick to create a protective sheath that decorated the façade.

• Building materials such as cedar from Lebanon, diorite from Arabia, and lapis lazuli from India were
imported.

• Babylonian temples are massive structures of crude brick, supported by buttresses, the rain being
carried off by drains. One such drain at Ur was made of lead. The use of brick led to the early
development of the pilaster and column, and of frescoes and enamelled tiles. The walls were brilliantly
colored, and sometimes plated with zinc or gold, as well as with tiles. Painted terra-cotta cones for
torches were also embedded in the plaster. Assyria, imitating Babylonian architecture, also built its
palaces and temples of brick, even when stone was the natural building material of the country –
faithfully preserving the brick platform, necessary in the marshy soil of Babylonia, but little needed in
the north.

• As time went on, however, later Assyrian architects began to shake themselves free of Babylonian
influence, and to use stone as well as brick. The walls of Assyrian palaces were lined with sculptured and
coloured slabs of stone, instead of being painted as in Chaldea. Three stages may be traced in the art of
these bas-reliefs: it is vigorous but simple under Ashurnasirpal II, careful and realistic under Sargon II,
and refined but wanting in boldness under Ashurbanipal.

• Babylonian temples are massive structures of crude brick, supported by buttresses, the rain being
carried off by drains.

• One such drain at Ur was made of lead.

• The use of brick led to the early development of the pilaster and column, and of frescoes and
enamelled tiles.

• The walls were brilliantly colored, and sometimes plated with zinc or gold, as well as with tiles.
 • Painted terra-cotta cones for torches were also embedded in the plaster.

• Assyria, imitating Babylonian architecture, also built its palaces and temples of brick, even when stone
was the natural building material of the country – faithfully preserving the brick platform, necessary in
the marshy soil of Babylonia, but little needed in the north.

• As time went on, however, later Assyrian architects began to shake themselves free of Babylonian
influence, and to use stone as well as brick.

• The walls of Assyrian palaces were lined with sculptured and coloured slabs of stone, instead of being
painted as in Chaldea.

• In Babylonia, in place of the bas relief, there is greater use of three-dimensional figures in the round –
the earliest examples being the statues from Girsu, that are realistic if somewhat clumsy.

• The paucity of stone in Babylonia made every pebble precious, and led to a high perfection in the art of
gem-cutting.

• At a later epoch, great excellence was attained in the manufacture of such jewellery as earrings and
bracelets of gold. Copper, too, was worked with skill; indeed, it is possible that Babylonia was the
original home of copper-working.

• The people were famous at an early date for their embroideries and rugs.

• Stone was scarce, but was already cut into blocks and seals.

• Brick was the ordinary building material, and with it cities, forts, temples and houses were constructed.

• The city was provided with towers and stood on an artificial platform; the house also had a tower-like
appearance.

• It was provided with a door which turned on a hinge, and could be opened with a sort of key; the city
gate was on a larger scale, and seems to have been double. ... Demons were feared who had wings like a
bird, and the foundation stones – or rather bricks – of a house were consecrated by certain objects that
were deposited under them."

• Scholarly literature usually concentrates on the architecture of temples, palaces, city walls and gates,
and other monumental buildings, but occasionally one finds works on residential architecture as well.

Urban Planning

• The Sumerians were the first society to create the city itself as a built form.

• They were proud of this achievement as attested in the Epic of Gilgamesh which opens with a
description of Uruk its walls, streets, markets, temples, and gardens. Uruk itself is significant as the
center of an urban culture which both colonized and urbanized western Asia.

• The growth of the city was partly planned and partly organic.
• Planning is evident in the walls, high temple district, main canal with harbor, and main street.
• The finer structure of residential and commercial spaces is the reaction of economic forces to the spatial
limits imposed by the planned areas resulting in an irregular design with regular features.
• Because the Sumerians recorded real estate transactions it is possible to reconstruct much of the urban
growth pattern, density, property value, and other metrics from cuneiform text sources.

• The typical city divided space into residential, mixed use, commercial, and civic spaces. The residential
areas were grouped by profession. At the core of the city was a high temple complex always sited
slightly off of the geographical center. This high temple usually predated the founding of the city and
was the nucleus around which the urban form grew. The districts adjacent to gates had a special
religious and economic function.

• The city always included a belt of irrigated agricultural land including small hamlets. A network of roads
and canals connected the city to this land. The transportation network was organized in three tiers: wide
processional streets (Akkadian:sūquilāni u šarri), public through streets (Akkadian:sūqunišī), and private
blind alleys (Akkadian:mūṣû). The public streets that defined a block varied little over time while the
blind-alleys were much more fluid. The current estimate is 10% of the city area was streets and 90%
buildings.The canals; however, were more important than roads for transportation.
Houses

• The materials used to build a Mesopotamian house were the same as those used today: mud brick, mud
plaster and wooden doors, which were all naturally available around the city, although wood could not
be naturally made very well during the particular time period described.

• Most houses had a square center room with other rooms attached to it,

• A great variation in the size and materials used to build the houses suggest they were built by the
inhabitants themselves.

• The poorest people built houses out of perishable materials such as reeds on the outside of the city.

• Although Sumerian cylinder seals depict reed houses, the courtyard house was the predominant
typology, which has been used in Mesopotamia to the present day.

• This house called e faced inward toward an open courtyard which provided a cooling effect by creating
convection currents.

• This courtyard called tarbaṣu (Akkadian) was the primary organizing feature of the house.

• All the rooms opened into it.

• The external walls were featureless with only a single opening connecting the house to the street.
 • Movement between the house and street required a
90° turn through a small antechamber.

• From the street only the rear wall of the antechamber

would be visible through an open door, likewise there was
no view of the street from the courtyard.

• The Sumerians had a strict division of public and private

spaces.

• The typical size for a Sumerian house was 90 m2.

Palaces

• The palaces of the early Mesopotamian elites were

large-scale complexes, and were often lavishly decorated.

• These palaces functioned as large-scale socio-economic institutions, and therefore, along with
residential and private functions, they housed craftsmen workshops, food storehouses, ceremonial
courtyards, and are often associated with shrines.

• Assyrian palaces of the Iron Age have become famous due to the pictorial and textual narrative
programs on their walls, all carved on stone slabs known as orthostats.
 • These pictorial programs either incorporated cultic scenes or the narrative accounts of the kings' military
and civic accomplishments.

• Gates and important passageways were flanked with massive stone sculptures of apotropaic
mythological figures.

• The architectural arrangement of these Iron Age palaces were also organized around large and small
courtyards.

• Usually the king's throne room opened to a massive ceremonial courtyard where important state
councils met and state ceremonies were performed.

• Massive amounts of ivory furniture pieces were found in many Assyrian palaces pointing to an intense
trade relationship with North Syrian Neo-Hittite states at the time.

• There is also good evidence that bronze bands decorated the wooden gates.

Temples

• Temples often predated the creation of the urban settlement and grew from small one room structures
to elaborate multiacre complexes across the 2,500 years of Sumerian history.

• Sumerian temples,
fortifications, and
palaces made use of
more advanced
materials and
techniques, such
as buttresses, recesses,
and half columns.

• As the temple decayed it was ritually destroyed and a new temple built on its foundations.

• The successor temple was larger and more articulated than its predecessor temple.

• Many temples had inscriptions engraved into them, such as the one at Tell Uqair.

• Palaces and city walls came much later after temples in the Early Dynastic Period.

• The form of a Sumerian temple is described as a disc of land which was surrounded by a salt water
ocean, both of which floated on another sea of fresh water called apsu, above them was a hemispherical
firmament which regulated time.
• A world mountain formed an axis mundi that joined all three layers. The role of the temple was to act as
that axis mundi, a meeting place between gods and men.
• The plan of the temple was rectangular with the corners pointing in cardinal directions to symbolize the
four rivers which flow from the mountain to the four world regions.

• The orientation also serves a more practical purpose of using the temple roof as an observatory for
Sumerian timekeeping.

• The temple was built on a low terrace of rammed earth meant to represent the sacred mound of
primordial land which emerged from the water called dukug, 'pure mound' during creation.

• The doors of the long axis were the entry point for the gods, and the doors of the short axis the entry
point for men.

• This configuration was called the bent axis approach, as anyone entering would make a ninety degree
turn to face the cult statue at the end of the central hall

• Temples of the Uruk Period divided the temple rectangle into tripartite, T-shaped, or combined plans.

• The tripartite plan inherited from the Ubaid had a large central hall with two smaller flanking halls on
either side.

• The entry was along the short axis and the shrine was at the end of the long axis. The T-shaped plan,
also from the Ubaid period, was identical to the tripartite plan except for a hall at one end of the
rectangle perpendicular to the main hall.

• There was an
explosion of
diversity in temple
design during the
following Early
Dynastic Period.

• The temples still

retained features
such as cardinal
orientation,
rectangular plans,
and buttresses.

• Now however
they took on a variety new configurations including courtyards, walls, basins, and barracks

• The high temple was a special type of temple that was home to the patron god of the city.

• Functionally, it served as a storage and distribution center as well as housing the priesthood. The White
Temple of Anu in Uruk is typical of a high temple which was built very high on a platform of adobe-brick.

• In the Early Dynastic period high temples began to include a ziggurat, a series of platforms creating a
stepped pyramid. Such ziggurats may have been the inspiration for the Biblical Tower of Babel.
Ziggurat

• Ziggurats were huge pyramidal temple towers

built in the ancient Mesopotamian valley and
western Iranian plateau, having the form of a
terraced step pyramid of successively receding
stories or levels.

• There are 32 ziggurats known at, or near,

Mesopotamia—28 in Iraq and 4 in Iran.

• Notable ziggurats include the Great Ziggurat of

Ur near Nasiriyah, Iraq, the Ziggurat of Aqar
Quf near Baghdad, Iraq, Chogha
Zanbil in Khūzestān, Iran (the most recent to be discovered), and the Sialk near Kashan, Iran.

• Ziggurats were built by the Sumerians, Babylonians, Elamites, and Assyrians as monuments to local
religions.

• The earliest examples of the ziggurat were raised platforms that date from the Ubaid period during the
fourth millennium BC, and the latest date from the 6th century BC.

• The top of the ziggurat was flat, unlike many pyramids.

Ziggurat of Ur

• The Ziggurat (or Great Ziggurat) of Ur (meaning "temple whose foundation creates aura“) is a Neo-
Sumerian ziggurat in what was the city of Ur near Nasiriyah, in present-day Dhi Qar Province, Iraq.

• The structure was built during the Early Bronze Age (21st century BC), but had crumbled to ruins by the
6th century BC of the Neo-Babylonian period when it was restored by King Nabonidus.

• The ziggurat was built by King Ur-Nammu who dedicated the great ziggurat of Ur in honour
of Nanna/Sîn, in approximately the 21st century BC.

• The massive step pyramid measured

64 m (210 ft) in length, 45 m (148 ft) in
width and over 30 m (98 ft) in height.
The height is speculative, as only the
foundations of the Sumerian ziggurat
have survived.

• The ziggurat was a piece in a temple

complex that served as an
administrative center for the city, and
which was a shrine of themoon
god Nanna, the patron deity of Ur.

• Many ziggurats were made by stacking

mud-bricks up and using mud to seal
them together.

• King Nabonidus had it restored in seven stages.

Ziggurat of Choga Zanbil

• Chogha Zanbil is an ancient Elamite complex in the Khuzestan province of Iran. It is one of the few
existent ziggurats outside of Mesopotamia. It lies approximately 42 km (26 mi) south-southeast
of Dezful, 30 km (19 mi) south-east of Susa and 80 km (50 mi) north of Ahvaz.

• Chogha in Bakhtiari means "hill". Choga Zanbil means 'basket mound.' It was built about 1250 BC by the
king Untash-Napirisha, mainly to
honor the great god Inshushinak.

• It is unlikely that many people,

besides priests and servants, ever
lived there.

• The complex is protected by

three concentric walls which
define the main areas of the
'town'.

• The inner area is wholly taken up

with a great ziggurat dedicated to
the main god, which was built
over an earlier square temple with storage rooms also built by Untash-Napirisha.

• The middle area holds eleven temples for lesser gods. It is believed that twenty-two temples were
originally planned, but the king died before they could be finished, and his successors discontinued the
building work. In the outer area are royal palaces, a funerary palace containing five subterranean royal
tombs.

• The main building materials in Chogha Zanbil were mud bricks and occasionally baked bricks.

• The monuments were decorated with glazed baked bricks, gypsum and ornaments of faïence and
glass.

• Ornamenting the most important

buildings were thousands of baked
bricks bearing inscriptions with Elamite
cuneiform characters were all inscribed
by hand.

• Glazed terracotta statues such as bulls

and winged griffins guarded the
entrances to the ziggurat.

• Near the temples of Kiririsha and

Hishmitik-Ruhuratir, kilns were found
that were probably used for the
 production of baked bricks and decorative materials.

• It is believed that the ziggurat was built in two stages.

• It took its multi-layered form in the second phase.

• The ziggurat is considered to be the best preserved example in the world.

City of Ur

• Ur was an important Sumerian city-state in ancient Mesopotamia, located at the site of modern Tell el-
Muqayyar in south.

• The site is marked by the partially restored ruins of the Ziggurat of Ur, which contained the shrine of
Nanna, excavated in the 1930s.

• The temple was built in the 21st century BC, during the reign of Ur-Nammu and was reconstructed in the
6th century BC by Nabonidus, the Assyrian born last king of Babylon.

• Archaeologists have discovered the evidence of an early occupation at Ur during the Ubaid period (ca.
6500 to 3800 BC).

• The early levels were sealed off with a sterile deposit of soil that was interpreted by excavators of the
1920s as evidence for the Great Flood of the book of Genesis and Epic of Gilgamesh.

• Apparently the South Mesopotamian plain was exposed to regular floods from the Euphrates and
the Tigris rivers, with heavy erosion from water and wind.

• This was the most centralized bureaucratic state the world had yet known.

• Ur was a major urban center on the Mesopotamian plain.

• The discovery of the Royal Tombs have confirmed its splendour.

• These tombs, which date to approximately in the 25th or 24th century BC, contained immense amounts
of luxury items made out of precious metals, and semi-precious stones, all of which would have
required importation from long distances.

• This wealth, unparalleled up to then, is a testimony of Ur's economic importance during the Early
Bronze Age.

• Ur was the most important port on the Persian Gulf, which extended much further inland than it does
today.

• All the wealth which came to Mesopotamia by sea had to pass through Ur.

• Ur came under the control of the Akkadian Empire founded by Sargon the Great between the 24th and
22nd centuries BC.
 • The third dynasty was established when the king Ur-Nammu came to power, ruling between ca. 2047 BC
and 2030 BC.

• During his rule, temples, including the ziggurat, were built, and agriculture was improved
through irrigation.

• He and his successor Shulgi were both deified during their reigns, and after his death he continued as a
hero-figure: one of the surviving works of Sumerian literature describes the death of Ur-Nammu and his
journey to the underworld.

• According to one estimate, Ur was the largest city in the world from c. 2030 to 1980 BC.

• Its population was approximately 65,000.

• Research indicates that the area was struck by drought conditions from 2200 to 2000 BC.

• The population dropped by 93%.

• At the end of this drought, the use of the Sumerian language died out.

City of Babylon

• Babylon was a significant city in ancient Mesopotamia, in the fertile plain between
the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.

• The city was built

upon the Euphrates,
and divided in equal
parts along its left
and right banks,
with steep
embankments to
contain the river's
seasonal floods.

• Babylon was
originally a

small Semitic Akkadian city dating from the period of the Akkadian Empire c. 2300 BC.

• The town attained independence as part of a small city state with the rise of the
First Amorite Babylonian Dynasty in 1894 BC.

• After being destroyed and then rebuilt by the Assyrians, Babylon became the capital of the Neo-
Babylonian Empire from 609 to 539 BC.
 • The Hanging Gardens of Babylon was one
of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient
World.

• It has been estimated that Babylon was

the largest city in the world from c. 1770
to 1670 BC, and again between c. 612 and
320 BC.

• It was perhaps the first city to reach a

population above 200,000.

• Estimates for the maximum extent of its area range from 890 to 900 hectares (2,200 acres).

City of Khorsabad

• Dur-Sharrukin, present day Khorsabad, was the Assyrian capital in the time of Sargon II of Assyria.

• Khorsabad is a village in northern Iraq, 15 km northeast of Mosul.

• The great city

was entirely
built in the
decade
preceding
706 BCE.

• After the
unexpected
death of
Sargon in
battle, the
capital was
shifted 20 km
south
to Nineveh.

• The town
was of
rectangular layout and measured 1758.6 by 1635 metres.

• The enclosed area comprised 3 square kilometres, or 288 hectares.

 • The city walls were massive and 157 towers protected its sides.

• Seven gates entered the city from all

directions.

• A walled terrace contained temples and

the royal palace.

• The main temples were dedicated to the

gods Nabu,Shamash and Sin,
while Adad, Ningal and Ninurta had smaller
shrines.

• A temple tower, ziqqurat, was also

constructed.

• The palace was adorned with sculptures

and wall reliefs, and the gates were
flanked with winged-bull shedu statues
weighing up to 40 tons.

• In addition to the great city, there was a

royal hunting park and a garden that
included all the aromatic plants of Hatti and the fruit-trees of every mountain, a record of power and
conquest.

• There is also reference of transplanting of thousands of young fruit

trees, quinces, almonds, apples and medlars.

• On the central canal of Sargon's garden stood a pillared pleasure-pavilion which looked up to a great
topographic creation: a man-made Garden Mound.

• This Mound was planted with cedars and cypresses and was modelled after a foreign landscape,
the Amanus mountains in north Syria, which had so amazed the Assyrian kings.

• In their flat palace-gardens they built a replica of what they had encountered.

City of Persepolis

• Persepolis, literally meaning "city of Persians", was the ceremonial capital of the Achaemenid
Empire (ca. 550–330 BCE). Persepolis is situated 60 km northeast of city of Shiraz in Fars Province in Iran.

• The earliest remains of Persepolis date back to 515 BCE.

• It exemplifies the Achaemenid style of architecture.

• Archaeological evidence shows that the earliest remains of Persepolis date back to 515 BCE.

• Darius I (Daryush) built the terrace and the great palaces.

• Darius ordered the construction of the Apadana Palace and the Council Hall (the Tripylon or three-gated
hall), the main imperial Treasury and its surroundings.

• These were completed during the reign of his son, King Xerxes the Great.

• Further construction of the buildings on the terrace continued until the downfall of the Achaemenid
dynasty.

• The reasons behind the construction of Persepolis were the need for a majestic atmosphere, a symbol
for their empire, and to celebrate special events, especially the "Nowruz".

• Persepolitan architecture is noted for its use of wooden columns.

• Architects resorted to stone only when the largest cedars of Lebanon or teak trees of India did not fulfill
the required sizes.

• Column bases and

capitals were made of
stone, even on wooden
shafts, but the existence
of wooden capitals is
probable.

• Persepolis, literally
meaning "city of
Persians", was the
ceremonial capital of
the Achaemenid
Empire (ca. 550–330
BCE). Persepolis is
situated 60
km northeast of city
of Shiraz in Fars
Province in Iran.

• The earliest remains of Persepolis date back to 515 BCE.

• It exemplifies the Achaemenid style of architecture.

• Archaeological evidence shows that the earliest remains of Persepolis date back to 515 BCE.

• Darius I (Daryush) built the terrace and the great palaces.

• Darius ordered the construction of the Apadana Palace and the Council Hall (the Tripylon or three-gated
hall), the main imperial Treasury and its surroundings.

• These were completed during the reign of his son, King Xerxes the Great.
• Further construction of the buildings on the terrace continued until the downfall of the Achaemenid
dynasty.

• The reasons behind the construction of Persepolis were the need for a majestic atmosphere, a symbol
for their empire, and to celebrate special events, especially the "Nowruz".

• Persepolitan architecture is noted for its use of wooden columns.

• Architects resorted to stone only when the largest cedars of Lebanon or teak trees of India did not fulfill
the required sizes.

• Column bases and

capitals were made of
stone, even on wooden
shafts, but the
existence of wooden
capitals is probable.

• Persepolis, literally
meaning "city of
Persians", was the
ceremonial capital of
the Achaemenid
Empire (ca. 550–330
BCE). Persepolis is
situated 60 km northeast of city of Shiraz in Fars Province in Iran.

• The earliest remains of Persepolis date back to 515 BCE.

• It exemplifies the Achaemenid style of architecture.

• Archaeological evidence shows that the earliest remains of Persepolis date back to 515 BCE.

• Darius I (Daryush) built the terrace and the great palaces.

• Darius ordered the construction of the Apadana Palace and the Council Hall (the Tripylon or three-gated
hall), the main imperial Treasury and its surroundings.

• These were completed during the reign of his son, King Xerxes the Great.

• Further construction of the buildings on the terrace continued until the downfall of the Achaemenid
dynasty.

• The reasons behind the construction of Persepolis were the need for a majestic atmosphere, a symbol
for their empire, and to celebrate special events, especially the "Nowruz".

• Persepolitan architecture is noted for its use of wooden columns.

 • Architects resorted to stone only when the largest cedars of Lebanon or teak trees of India did not fulfill
the required sizes.

• Column bases and capitals were made of stone, even on wooden shafts, but the existence of wooden
capitals is probable.

• The buildings at Persepolis include three general groupings:

• military quarters,

• the treasury, and

• the reception halls and

• occasional houses for the King.

• Noted structures include the Great Stairway, the Apadana Palace of Darius, the Hall of a Hundred
Columns, the Tripylon Hall and Tachara Palace of Darius, the Hadish Palace of Xerxes, the palace
of Artaxerxes III, the Imperial Treasury, the Royal Stables, and the Chariot House.

• Persepolis is near the small river Pulvar, which flows into the river Kur.

• The site includes a 125,000 square metre terrace, partly artificially constructed and partly cut out of a
mountain, with its east side leaning on Kuh-e Rahmet ("the Mountain of Mercy").

• The other three sides are formed by retaining walls, which vary in height with the slope of the ground.

• From 5 to 13 metres on the west side a double stair.

• From there it gently slopes to the top.

• To create the level terrace, depressions were filled with soil and heavy rocks, which were joined
together with metal clips.

• Around 519 BC, construction of a broad stairway was begun.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
EARLY CIVILIZATION IN CHINA

 China’s earliest civilization developed along the Huang He (yellow river) river as well as the
Yangtze River. The yellow river flooded unpredictably and provided much needed fertile soil.
Levees keep the Huang River on its course but when it flooded, dams sometimes broke and
devastated crops and causing starvation. Due to this, was called China’s sorrow.
 People of China settled along the Huang He (River) despite the dangers of flooding.
 Huang He is also known as the Dragon River, its shape symbolically resembling a dragon.
 Huang He is also the Yellow River because it looks yellow from containing loess (a very fertile
fine yellow soil) that that blows away in the wind.

 This civilization remained isolated from other influences due to its geographical setting. The
Himalayas to the south kept China’s early civilization Isolated from the Indus valley civilization.
Also, the Gobi Desert in north, thick forests in south, Pacific Ocean in East kept it isolated.

 The Shang Dynasty .The Shang Dynasty was a powerful and important ruling dynasty of China.
Shang Tang was the first Shang Ruler and ruled for around 30 years ~ (circa 1675-1646 BCE)
after overthrowing the tyrant Jie, the last emperor of the Xia Dynasty.

 Tang was a popular ruler who lowered taxes and spread the influence of his kingdom along the
Yellow River. He established Anyang as the new capital and lowered the number of conscript
soldiers.

 Tang's reign was plagued by a series of droughts and, in the 21st year of his reign, he minted
gold coins to be given to the poor so they could buy back their children sold to finance their
survival.
 Religion and government strongly related in Ancient China.
 The ancient Chinese were like earlier other river valley civilizations in that they were
Polytheistic. They worshipped many gods and nature spirits, but believed that gods would not
respond to the pleas of mere mortals. Therefore, the Chinese began Ancestral Worship because
it was believed that they could get the ears of the gods.
 Religious ceremonies also featured human sacrifice when a king was buried or when a new
palace was being consecrated. Bad fortune such as crop failure, disease, drought or pestilence
was considered a sign that the gods were angry. In this instance, the king was expected to
determine which god was the unhappy one and make sacrifice to appease him! The god Shang
Di was the supreme being that ruled over the elements (e.g. rain, sun, wind) and could bring
disaster (drought, famine, disease etc) as well as good fortune in the form of favorable
conditions for the community. Shang Di was too powerful to communicate directly with so other
gods could intercede on behalf of the people.
 Aristocrats and bureaucrats directed the work and life of the Shang.
 Warfare a constant feature.
 Most commoners worked as semi free serfs in agriculture. Others were artisans, craftsmen.
 Stable agri-surplus, trade-centered N. China, walled cities, strong army, chariots “ The Middle
Kingdom” World View Bronze, pottery, silk, decimal system, calendar Patriarchal, polytheistic,
ancestor veneration, oracle bones.
 The Zhou Dynasty: In 1027 B.C a group of people claiming ancestry marched out of their
kingdom on the western frontier to overthrow the Shang. They set up the Zhou Dynasty.
 To justify their rebellion against the Shang, the Zhou promoted the idea of the Mandate of
Heaven, or the divine right to rule.
 The Zhou rewarded their supporters by granted them control over different regions. This is
called Feudalism in which local lords governed their own lands and owed loyalty in return. The
Zhou replaced Shang around 1100 BCE Ruled 900 years. The Zhou established early forms of
feudalism in which the King gave large tracts of land to loyal leaders who became lords. These
lords provided the king with military forces in exchange for the land. In this feudal system,
nobles gained, bureaucracies prevailed and war amongst feudal kingdoms. Eventually it
collapsed in 256 BCE.
 The Ch’in Dynasty. The Ch’in or Qin dynasty was the first imperial dynasty of Ancient China,
lasting from 221 to 206 BC. Qin Shi Huang was the First Emperor of Qin.

 The strength of the Qin state was greatly increased by the Legalist reforms of Shang Yang in the
fourth century BC, during the Warring States period. In the mid and late third century BC, the
Qin accomplished a series of swift conquests, first ending the powerless Zhou dynasty, and
eventually conquering the other six of the Seven Warring States to gain control over the whole
of China.

 During its reign over China, the Qin sought to create an imperial state unified by highly
structured political power and a stable economy able to support a large military.

 The Qin central government sought to minimize the role of aristocrats and landowners and
have direct administrative control over the peasantry, who comprised the overwhelming
 majority of the population, and control over whom would grant the Qin access to a large labor
force.

 This allowed for the construction of ambitious projects, such as a wall on the northern border,
now known as the Great Wall of China.

 The Qin dynasty introduced several reforms: currency, weights and measures were
standardized, and a uniform system of writing was established.

 An attempt to restrict criticism and purge all traces of old dynasties led to the infamous burning
of books and burying of scholars incident, which has been criticized greatly by subsequent
scholars.

 The Qin's military was also revolutionary in that it used the most recently developed weaponry,
transportation, and tactics, though the government was heavy-handed and bureaucratic.

 Despite its military strength, the Qin dynasty did not last long. When the first emperor died in
210 BC, his son was placed on the throne by two of the previous emperor's advisers, in an
attempt to influence and control the administration of the entire dynasty through him. The
advisors squabbled among themselves, however, which resulted in both their deaths and that of
the second Qin emperor.

 Popular revolt broke out a few years later, and the weakened empire soon fell to
a Chu lieutenant, who went on to found the Han dynasty. Despite its rapid end, the Qin dynasty
 influenced future Chinese empires, particularly the Han, and the European name for China is
thought to be derived from it.

 The Ming dynasty, or the Great, also called theEmpire of the Great Ming, was the ruling
dynasty of China for 276 years (1368–1644) following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan
dynasty.

 The Ming was one of the greatest eras of orderly government and social stability in human
history.

 It was the last dynasty in China ruled by ethnic Han Chinese.

 The Hongwu Emperor (ruled 1368–98) was the founder and first emperor of the Ming dynasty
and he attempted to create a society of self-sufficient rural communities ordered in a rigid,
immobile system that would guarantee and support a permanent class of soldiers for his
dynasty.

 The empire's standing army exceeded one million troops and the navy's dockyards in Nanjing
were the largest in the world.

 The Yongle Emperor The Yongle Emperor (the third emperor of the Ming dynasty in China,
reigning from 1402 to 1424) established Yan as a secondary capital and renamed it Beijing,
constructed the Forbidden City, and restored the Grand Canal and the primacy of the imperial
examinations in official appointments.

THE IMPERIAL CITY

 The Imperial City is a section of the city of Beijing in the Ming and Qing dynasties, with
the Forbidden City at its center.

 It refers to the collection of gardens, shrines, and other service areas between the
Forbidden City and the Inner City of ancient Beijing.

 The Imperial City was surrounded by a wall and accessed through six gates and it includes
such historical places as the Forbidden City, Tiananmen, Zongnanhai, Beihai Park,
Zhongshan Park, Jingshan, Imperial Ancestral Temple and the Xiancantan.
Fig. Location Imperial City

 To the west of the Forbidden City are the Zhongnanhai and Beihai, which were surrounded
by imperial gardens and collectively known as the Western Park.

 To the south of the Forbidden City are the Imperial Shrine of Family or Imperial Ancestral
Temple and Shrine of State. Further to the south was the "Corridor of a Thousand Steps", to
either side of which are the offices of the various government ministries.
 There are six gates in the walls of the Imperial City. To the south is the Great Ming Gate
(later renamed the Great Qing Gate, Gate of China). Behind the Great Ming Gate was the
Chengtianmen, (later renamed the Tian'anmen, "Gate of Heavenly Peace"). To either side of
the Tiananmen were the Left Chang'an Gate and the Right Chang'an Gate. To the east was
Donganmen ("Gate of Eastern Peace"); to the west was the Xi'anmen ("Gate of Western
Peace"). To the north was Houzaimen (later renamed the Di'anmen, "Gate of Earthly
Peace").

 Also housed in the Imperial City were a number of service buildings for the imperial palace,
warehouses, Taoist temples, and a palace for the Imperial Grandson.
FORBIDDEN CITY

 The Forbidden City was the Chinese imperial palace from the Ming dynasty to the end of the
Qing dynasty—the years 1420 to 1912. It is located in the centre of Beijing, China, and now
houses the Palace Museum.
 It served as the home of emperors and their households as well as the ceremonial and political
centre of Chinese government for almost 500 years.
 Built in 1406 to 1420, the complex consists of 980 buildings and covers 72 ha (180 acres).
 The palace complex exemplifies traditional Chinese palatial architecture, and has influenced
cultural and architectural developments in East Asia and elsewhere.
 The Forbidden City is a rectangle, with 961 metres (3,153 ft) from north to south and 753
metres (2,470 ft) from east to west.
 It consists of 980 surviving buildings with 8,886 bays of rooms; however this figure may not
include various antechambers.
 Another common figure points to 9,999 rooms including antechambers; although this number is
frequently cited, it is likely an oral tradition, and it is not supported by survey evidence.
 The Forbidden City was designed to be the centre of the ancient, walled city of Beijing. It is
enclosed in a larger, walled area called the Imperial City. The Imperial City is, in turn, enclosed
by the Inner City; to its south lies the Outer City.
 The Forbidden City remains important in the civic scheme of Beijing.
 The central north–south axis remains the central axis of Beijing. This axis extends to the south
through Tiananmen gate to Tiananmen Square, the ceremonial centre of the People's Republic
of China, and on to Yongdingmen. To the north, it extends through Jingshan Hill to the Bell and
Drum Towers.
 This axis is not exactly aligned north–south, but is tilted by slightly more than two degrees.
Fig. Plan of the Forbidden City. Labels in red are used to refer to locations throughout the article.

- – - Approximate dividing line between Inner (north) and Outer (south) Courts.

A. Meridian Gate H. Hall of Military Eminence

B. Gate of Divine Might J. Hall of Literary Glory
C. West Glorious Gate K. Southern Three Places
D. East Glorious Gate L. Palace of Heavenly Purity
E. Corner towers M. Imperial garden
F. Gate of Supreme Harmony N. Hall of Mental Cultivation
G. Hall of Supreme Harmony O. Palace of Tranquil Longevity
  The Forbidden City is surrounded by a 7.9 metres (26 ft) high city wall and a 6 metres (20 ft)
deep by 52 metres (171 ft) wide moat which is equivalent to a 13 floor building .
 The walls are 8.62 metres (28.3 ft) wide at the base, tapering to 6.66 metres (21.9 ft) at the
top.
 These walls served as both defensive walls and retaining walls for the palace.
 They were constructed with a rammed earth core, and surfaced with three layers of specially
baked bricks on both sides, with the interstices filled with mortar.

Fig. Forbidden City: Moat. Boundary wall with corner tower is seen in the background.
  At the four corners of the wall sit towers (E) with intricate roofs boasting 72 ridges,
reproducing the Pavilion of Prince Teng and the Yellow Crane Pavilion as they appeared in Song
dynasty paintings. These towers are the most visible parts of the palace to commoners outside
the walls, and much folklore is attached to them.

Fig. Forbidden City: Tower

 The wall is pierced by a gate on each side.

 At the southern end is the main Meridian Gate (A).
 To the north is the Gate of Divine Might (B), which faces Jingshan Park.
 The east and west gates are called the "East Glorious Gate" (D) and "West Glorious Gate" (C).
 All gates in the Forbidden City are decorated with a nine-by-nine array of golden door nails,
except for the East Glorious Gate, which has only eight rows.

Fig. West Glorious Gate.

Fig. Forbidden City: View showing part of Outer (South) Court along the central north-south axis.

Inner Court or the Northern Section

 Traditionally, the Forbidden City is divided into two parts.

 The Outer Court or Front Court includes the southern sections, and was used for ceremonial
purposes.
 The Inner Court or Back Palace includes the northern sections, and was the residence of the
Emperor and his family, and was used for day-to-day affairs of state.
 Generally, the Forbidden City has three vertical axes.
 The most important buildings are situated on the central north–south axis.

Fig. The Meridian Gate.

 The Meridian Gate has two protruding wings forming three sides of a square (Wumen, or
Meridian Gate, Square) before it. The central gateway is part of the Imperial Way, a stone
 flagged path that forms the central axis of the Forbidden City and the ancient city of Beijing
itself.
 Only the Emperor may walk or ride on the Imperial Way, except for the Empress on the
occasion of her wedding, and successful students after the Imperial Examination.

Fig. Forbidden City: Inner Golden Water River crossed by Five Bridges. (Seen beyond is the Gate of
Supreme Harmony) The stone flagged path is the central gateway , a part of the Imperial Way, that
forms the central axis of the Forbidden City

 Entering from the Meridian Gate, one encounters a large square, pierced by the meandering
Inner Golden Water River, which is crossed by five bridges.
 Beyond the square stands the Gate of Supreme Harmony (F).
 Behind that is the Hall of Supreme Harmony Square.
 A three-tiered white marble terrace rises from this square.
 Three halls stand on top of this terrace, the focus of the palace complex.
 From the south, these are
o the Hall of Supreme Harmony ,
o the Hall of Central Harmony , and
o the Hall of Preserving Harmony
Fig. Forbidden City: Gate of Supreme Harmony

 The Hall of Supreme Harmony (G) is the largest, and rises some 30 metres (98 ft) above the
level of the surrounding square.
 It is the ceremonial centre of imperial power, and the largest surviving wooden structure in
China. It is nine bays wide and five bays deep, the numbers 9 and 5 being symbolically
connected to the majesty of the Emperor.
Fig. Forbidden City: Hall of Supreme Harmony

Fig. “Xuanyuan Mirror".

  Set into the ceiling at the centre of the hall is an intricate caisson decorated with a coiled
dragon, from the mouth of which issues a chandelier-like set of metal balls, called the
“Xuanyuan Mirror".
 In the Ming dynasty, the Emperor held court here to discuss affairs of state. During the Qing
dynasty, as Emperors held court far more frequently, a less ceremonious location was used
instead, and the Hall of Supreme Harmony was only used for ceremonial purposes, such as
coronations, investitures, and imperial weddings.
 The Hall of Central Harmony is a smaller, square hall, used by the Emperor to prepare and rest
before and during ceremonies.
 Behind it, the Hall of Preserving Harmony, was used for rehearsing ceremonies, and was also
the site of the final stage of the Imperial examination.
 All three halls feature imperial thrones, the largest and most elaborate one being that in the
Hall of Supreme Harmony.

Fig. Forbidden City: Hall of Central Harmony. (Seen in the background is the Hall of Preserving Harmony)
Fig. Forbidden City: Throne of Hall of Preserving Harmony

 At the centre of the ramps leading up to the terraces from the northern and southern sides
are ceremonial ramps, part of the Imperial Way, featuring elaborate and symbolic bas-relief
carvings. The northern ramp, behind the Hall of Preserving Harmony, is carved from a single
piece of stone 16.57 metres (54.4 ft) long, 3.07 metres (10.1 ft) wide, and 1.7 metres (5.6 ft)
thick. It weighs some 200 tonnes and is the largest such carving in China. The southern ramp, in
front of the Hall of Supreme Harmony, is even longer, but is made from two stone slabs joined
together – the joint was ingeniously hidden using overlapping bas-relief carvings.

Fig. Marble ramp

  In the south west of the Outer Court is the hall of Military Eminence (H).
 It was used at various times for the Emperor to receive ministers and hold court,

Fig. Forbidden City: Military Eminence

 In the south east of the Outer Court is the hall of Literary Glory (J).
 It housed the Palace's own printing house. It was used for ceremonial lectures by highly
regarded Confucian scholars, and later became the office of the Grand Secretariat.

Fig. Forbidden City: Hall of Literary Glory

 To the north-east are the Southern Three Places (K), which was the residence of the Crown
Prince.
Inner Court or the Northern Section

 The Inner Court is separated from the Outer Court by an oblong courtyard lying orthogonal to
the City's main axis.
 It was the home of the Emperor and his family.
 In the Qing dynasty, the Emperor lived and worked almost exclusively in the Inner Court, with
the Outer Court used only for ceremonial purposes.
 At the centre of the Inner Court is another set of three halls (L).
 From the south, these are
o the Palace of Heavenly Purity,
o the Hall of Union and
o the Palace of Earthly Tranquility.
  Smaller than the Outer Court halls, the three halls of the Inner Court were the official
residences of the Emperor and the Empress.
 The Emperor, representing Yang and the Heavens, would occupy the Palace of Heavenly
Purity.

Fig. Forbidden City: The Palace of Heavenly Purity

Fig. Forbidden City: Throne in the Palace of Heavenly Purity

Fig. Forbidden City: Hall of Union

 The Empress, representing Yin and the Earth, would occupy the Palace of Earthly Tranquility.
 In between them was the Hall of Union, where the Yin and Yang mixed to produce harmony.

Fig. Forbidden City: Palace of Earthly Tranquility

  The Palace of Heavenly Purity is a double-eaved building, and set on a single-level white
marble platform.
 It is connected to the Gate of Heavenly Purity to its south by a raised walkway.
 In the Ming dynasty, it was the residence of the Emperor.
 However, beginning from the Yongzheng Emperor of the Qing dynasty, the Emperor lived
instead at the smaller Hall of Mental Cultivation (N) to the west, out of respect to the memory
of the Kangxi Emperor.
 The Palace of Heavenly Purity then became the Emperor's audience hall.
 A caisson is set into the roof, featuring a coiled dragon. Above the throne hangs a tablet reading
"Justice and Honour"

Fig. Forbidden City: Palace of Mental Cultivation

 The Palace of Earthly Tranquility is a double-eaved building, 9 bays wide and 3 bays deep.
 In the Ming dynasty, it was the residence of the Empress.
 In the Qing dynasty, large portions of the Palace were converted for Shamanist worship by the
new Manchu rulers.
 From the reign of the Yongzheng Emperor, the Empress moved out of the Palace.
 However, two rooms in the Palace of Earthly Harmony were retained for use on the Emperor's
wedding night.
  Between these two palaces is the Hall of Union, which is square in shape with a pyramidal
roof. Stored here are the 25 Imperial Seals of the Qing dynasty, as well as other ceremonial
items.
 Behind these three halls lies the Imperial Garden (M).
 Relatively small, and compact in design, the garden nevertheless contains several elaborate
landscaping features.

Fig. Forbidden City: Imperial Garden

 The north-eastern section of the Inner Court is taken up by the Palace of Tranquil Longevity
(O), a complex built by the Qianlong Emperor in anticipation of his retirement. It mirrors the
set-up of the Forbidden City proper and features an "outer court", an "inner court", and gardens
and temples.

Fig. Forbidden City: Palace of Tranquil Longevity

 The entrance to the Palace of Tranquil Longevity is marked by a glazed-tile Nine Dragons Screen.
Fig. Forbidden City: Nine Dragon glazed tile screen

 To the north of the garden is the Gate of Divine Might.

Fig. Forbidden City: Gate of Divine Might

ALTARS AND TEMPLES

 As early as the prehistoric age, there had been worship of natural gods and ancestors, which
thus developed into a primitive religion.
 China is an early-maturing society but this primitive worship was retained when it entered into
a civilized society, and was carefully transformed by the Confucian school and thereby
intensified. The imperial authority was set off by religious authority and clan power, which thus
became an important spiritual pillar safeguarding the feudal hierarchy.
 Altar: The sacrificial methods of these two types of worship are often different.
o Generally speaking, ceremonies for worshipping the natural god, such as Heaven, Earth
and the God of land and grain, were held mostly on a high terrace in the open, called
an "altar", such as Tian Tan (Temple of Heaven), Di Tan (Temple of Earth), Ri Tan
(Temple of Sun) and Yue Tan (Temple ofMoon). The four altars lie in the south, north,
east and west of Beijing respectively. Tian Tan is in a plane round shape, and Di Tan
square shape -- In ancient China, this means Heaven is round and Earth is square.

Fig. Temple of Heaven

 Temple. The worship of ancestors was done mostly in "temples", such as Tai Miao
(Imperial AncestralTemple), Kong Miao (Confucian Temple) and Guandi Miao. It was often called
an ancestral hall, such as Sima Qian Ancestral Hall, Wuhou Ancestral Hall, as well as wise men's
ancestral halls and clan halls. Temples fall into three categories:
o Tai Miao, or the Imperial Ancestral Temple, is the highest class of Temple, with existing
representative Beijing Tai Miao Palace of the Ming and Qing dynasties (1368-1911).
o Wise Men's Ancestral Hall is the place to worship some famous people in history. The
most famous of this kind is Confucius temple, the largest of which is in Qufu, Confucius'
(ancient Chinese philosopher and educator) hometown. Guandi Temple, also called Wu
Miao inXiezhou, Shanxi Province, worships the famous general Guan Yu in the Three
Kingdoms Period (220-280).
o Ancestor's Hall, or ancestral hall, is the place to worship clan ancestors, for instance, Zu
Miao in Foshan, Guangdong Province. The construction and decoration styles similar to
that of Zu Miao are very common in areas south of the Five
Ridges, Guangdong, Fujian and Taiwan.
 Fig. Tai Miao Temple

 Altar temple. Some natural gods were more personified, and worshipping was often
performed indoors, the site was also called a temple, such as Dai Miao, temple for worshipping
the Mount Tai; and Zhongyue Miao, for worshipping Songshan Mountain.
 When put together they became "altar and temple", a type of architecture unique to China.
They were different from both religious temples and from palaces directly used for human
existence.
 Altars in residences or gardens could be regarded as a para-religious building, while a temple, in
most cases, has the meaning of a memorial hall. © http://www.china cul ture.org

Fig. Dai Temple at Mount Tai

IMPERIAL TOMBS

 The Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties were built between 1368 and 1915 AD in
Beijing Municipality, Hebei Province, Hubei Province, Jiangsu Province and Liaoning Province of
China.
 The Ming and Qing imperial tombs are located in topographical settings carefully chosen
according to principles of geomancy (Fengshui) and comprise numerous buildings of
traditional architectural design and decoration.
 The tombs and buildings are laid out according to Chinese hierarchical rules and incorporate
sacred ways lined with stone monuments and sculptures designed to accommodate ongoing
royal ceremonies as well as the passage of the spirits of the dead.
 They illustrate the great importance attached by the Ming and Qing rulers over five centuries to
the building of imposing mausolea, reflecting not only the general belief in an afterlife but also
an affirmation of authority.
 The tomb of the first Ming Emperor, the Xiaoling Tomb broke with the past and established the
basic design for those that followed in Beijing, and also the Xianling Tomb of the Ming Dynasty
in Zhongxiang, the Western Qing Tombs and the Eastern Qing Tombs. The Three Imperial Tombs
of the Qing Dynasty in Liaoning Province (Yongling Tomb, Fuling Tomb, and Zhaoling Tomb) were
all built in the 17th century for the founding emperors of the Qing Dynasty and their ancestors,
integrating the tradition inherited from previous dynasties with new features from the Manchu
civilization.
 The Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties are masterpieces of human creative genius
by reason of their organic integration into nature, and a unique testimony to the cultural and
architectural traditions of the last two feudal dynasties (Ming and Qing) in the history of China
between the 14th and 20th centuries.
 They are fine works combining the architectural arts of the Han and Manchu civilizations. Their
siting, planning and design reflect both the philosophical idea of “harmony between man and
nature” according to Fengshui principles and the rules of social hierarchy, and illustrate the
conception of the world and power prevalent in the later period of the ancient society of China.

Fig. The East Tombs

 Fig. Changling Tomb

Fig. Spirit way of a Ming Tomb

 These are the Imperial Tombs of the Ming (1368-1644) and Qing (1644-1911) dynasties including
the Xiaoling Tomb, the Xian-ling Tombs and the Ming Tombs of the Ming Dynasty, the Three
Imperial Tombs of the Qing Dynasty in Shenyang, the Eastern Tombs and the Western Tombs of
the Qing Dynasty. The main buildings are well preserved and retain a great deal of their original
appearance.
 Zhu Yuanzhang (1328-1398), the founder of the Ming Dynasty, made great reforms of the
imperial tombs system. He changed the hillock above the ground from the previous traditional
style to a rounded shape, canceled the bedroom palace, and expanded the building for offering
sacrifice, thus initiating the imperial tomb style of the Ming and Qing dynasties. After his death,
he was buried in the Xiaoling Tomb on the eastern surburb of Nanjing, Jiangsu Province.
INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION

 The Indus Valley Civilization was a Bronze Age civilization (3300–1300 BCE; mature period
2600–1900 BCE, pre-Harappan cultures starting c.7500 BCE) in northwest Indian
subcontinent (including present day Pakistan, northwest India) and also in some regions in
northeast Afghanistan. Along with Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, it was one of three early
civilisations of the Old World, and the most widespread among them, covering an area of
1.25 million km2. It flourished in the basins of the Indus River, one of the major rivers of Asia,
and the now dried up Sarasvati River.

Fig. Map showing delineation of Indus Valley Civilization

 At its peak, the Indus Civilization may have had a population of more than 5 million.
 Inhabitants of the ancient Indus river valley developed new techniques in handicraft
(carnelian products, seal carving) and metallurgy (copper, bronze, lead, and tin).
 The Indus cities are noted for their :
o urban planning, baked brick houses,
o elaborate drainage systems,
o water supply systems, and
o clusters of large non-residential buildings.
 The Indus Valley Civilization encompassed most of Pakistan and parts of western India, and
Afghanistan, extending from Pakistani Baluchistan in the west to Uttar Pradesh in the east,
northeastern Afghanistan to the north and Maharashtra to the south.
 The geography of the Indus Valley put the civilizations that arose there in a highly similar
situation to those in Egypt and Peru, with rich agricultural lands being surrounded by
highlands, desert, and ocean.
 The Indus Valley Civilization confirms a sophisticated and technologically advanced urban
culture
 This made them the first urban centres in the region.
 The quality of municipal town planning suggests the knowledge of urban planning and
efficient municipal governments which placed a high priority on hygiene, or, alternatively,
accessibility to the means of religious ritual.
 Major cities of the Indus Valley Civilization (Harappa and Mohenjo daro) were built with blocks
divided by a grid of straight streets, running north-south and east-west.
 Each block was subdivided by small lanes.
 Both at Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro and also at Kalibangan, the city was divided into two main
parts. The higher and upper portion of the city was protected by a construction which looks like
a fort. The ruling class of the towns perhaps lived in the protected area. The other part of the
towns was lower in height than the former and common men lived in this area. The lower area
of the towns generally spread over one square mile.
 The rich and the ruling class lived in the multi-roomed spacious houses and the poorer section
lived in small tenements. The public building and big houses were situated on the streets. The
modest houses were situated on the lanes. Encroachment on public roads or lanes by building
houses was not permitted. The houses can be divided into three main groups viz.

o dwelling houses,
o larger buildings,
o Public baths.
Fig. Layout of Dholavira

 Smaller houses had two rooms, while larger houses had many rooms.
 There were courtyards attached to big buildings. There was little artistic touch in the
architectural design of the buildings belonging either to the rich or the poor.
 They were plain, utilitarian and comfortable to live. Some of the buildings were probably multi-
storied.
 Most of the houses had baths, wells and covered drains connected with street drains.
 Each house had horizontal and vertical drains. There were underground drains for the streets.
These drains were covered by stone slabs. The soak pits were made of bricks. The house drains
were connected with road drains.
Fig. Illustration of a house in Indus Valley Civilization

 From the room that appears to have been set aside for bathing; waste water was directed to
covered drains, which lined the major streets.
 Ordinary buildings had little ventilation arrangements, as doors and windows were rarely fixed
in the outer walls. Doors of entrance were fixed not on the front wall but on the side walls. One
could enter a house by the door facing the side lanes of the house. The doors were made of
wood. Large buildings had spacious doors.
 The main streets of Indus Valley ran from north to south and east to west intersecting one
another at right angles.
 The streets were broad varying from 9 feet to 34 feet. They ran straight to a mile.
 They were suitable for wheeled traffic.
 Lanes were joined with the streets.
 As seen in Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro and the recently partially excavated Rakhigarhi, the urban
plan included the world's first known urban sanitation systems.
 Within the city, individual homes or groups of homes obtained water from wells.
 Houses opened only to inner courtyards and smaller lanes.
 The ancient Indus systems of sewerage and drainage that were highly developed and efficient
and were used in cities throughout the Indus region.
 Their advanced architecture is shown by their impressive
o dockyards,
o granaries,
o warehouses,
o brick platforms, and
o protective walls.

 The massive walls of Indus cities most likely protected them from floods and may have
dissuaded military conflicts.
 No large monumental structures were built.
 There is no conclusive evidence of palaces or temples—or of kings, armies, or priests.
 Some structures are thought to have been granaries.
 Found at one city is an enormous well-built bath, the "Great Bath", which may have been a
public bath.
 Although the citadels were walled, it is far from clear that these structures were defensive.
They may have been built to divert flood waters.
 Most city dwellers appear to have been traders or artisans, who lived with others pursuing the
same occupation in well-defined neighbourhoods.
 Materials from distant regions were used in the cities for constructing seals, beads and other
objects.
 Among the artefacts discovered were beautiful glazed faïence beads. Steatite seals have
images of animals, people (perhaps gods), and other types of inscriptions, including the yet un-
deciphered writing system of the Indus Valley Civilization. Some of the seals were used to stamp
clay on trade goods and most probably had other uses as well.
 Although some houses were larger than others, Indus Civilization ci ties were remarkable for
their apparent, if relative, egalitarianism.
 All the houses had access to water and drainage facilities.
 This gives the impression of a society with relatively low wealth concentration, though
clear social levelling is seen in personal adornments.
 The prehistory of Indo-Iranian borderlands shows a steady increase over time in the number and
density of settlements.
 There are no immediate answers for a centre of power or for depictions of people in power in
Harappan society. But, there are indications of complex decisions being taken and
implemented. For instance, the extraordinary uniformity of Harappan artefacts as evident in
pottery, seals, weights and bricks. These are the major theories:
 o There was a single state, given the similarity in artefacts, the evidence for planned
settlements, the standardised ratio of brick size, and the establishment of settlements
near sources of raw material.
o There was no single ruler but several: Mohenjo-daro had a separate ruler, Harappa
another, and so forth.
o Harappan society had no rulers, and everybody enjoyed equal status.

Fig. Map of an area of Mohenjo daro

 The people of the Indus Civilization achieved great accuracy in measuring length, mass, and
time.

 They were among the first to develop a system of uniform weights and measures.

 They evolved some new techniques in metallurgy and produced copper, bronze, lead, and tin.

 The engineering skill of the Harappans was remarkable, especially in building docks.

 Various sculptures, seals, pottery, gold jewellery, and anatomically detailed figurines
in terracotta, bronze, and steatite have been found at excavation sites.
 A number of gold, terracotta and stone figurines of girls in dancing poses reveal the presence of
some dance form.

 The Great Bath of Mohenjodaro is called the "earliest public water tank of the ancient world.

Fig. The Great Bath: Mohenjo daro

 The Great Bath measures 11.88 meters x 7.01 meters, and has a maximum depth of 2.43
meters.

 Two wide staircases, one from the north and one from the south, served as the entry to the
structure.

 A 1 meter wide and 40 centimeters mound is present at end of these stairs.

 A hole was also found at one end of the Bath which might have been used to drain the water
into it.

 The floor of the tank is water tight due to finely fitted bricks laid on edge with gypsum plaster
and the side walls were constructed in a similar manner.

 To make the tank even more water tight, a thick layer of bitumen (natural tar) was laid along
the sides of the tank and presumably also beneath the floor.

 Brick colonnades were discovered on the eastern, northern and southern edges.

 The preserved columns have stepped edges that may have held wooden screens or window
frames.
 Two large doors lead into the complex from the south and other access was from the north and
east.

 A series of rooms are located along the eastern edge of the building and in one room is a well
that may have supplied some of the water needed to fill the tank.

 Rainwater also may have been collected for this purpose, but no inlet drains have been found.

 Most scholars agree that this tank would have been used for special religious functions where
water was used to purify and renew the well being of the bathers.

Fig. The Great Bath: Mohenjo daro

  Timeline

Dates Phase Era

7570–6200 pre-Harappan Bhirrana (aceramic Neolithic ) Early Food-Producing

BCE Era

7000–5500 Mehrgarh I (aceramic Neolithic)

BCE

5500–3300 Mehrgarh II-VI (ceramic Neolithic) Regionalization Era

3300–2800 Early Harappan Harappan 1 (Ravi Phase)

2800–2600 Harappan 2 (Kot Diji Phase, Nausharo I,

Mehrgarh VII)

2600–2450 Mature Harappan 3A (Nausharo II) Integration Era

Harappan
(Indus Valley
2450–2200 Harappan 3B
Civilization)

2200–1900 Harappan 3C

1900–1700 Late Harappan Harappan 4 Localization Era

(Cemetery
H); Ochre
1700–1300 Harappan 5
Coloured
Pottery

1300–300 Post-Harappan Painted Gray Ware, Northern Black Vedic period, Second
Polished Ware (Iron Age), Indo-Gangetic urbanization
Tradition
VEDIC PRINCIPLES FOR PLANNING OF CITIES

Fig. Allocation based on Varnashrama Dharma

Fig. Classification of Landuse as per Kautilya’s Arthashastra