INTERACTIVE ENGLISH (PRE-FINAL EXAMINATION)

1. Illustrate at least three types of communication models and expound each

element.

Linear Model of Communication is a simple one way communication model. The

message flows in a straight line from sender to the receiver. There is no concept of
feedback. The only task that a receiver does here is to receive the message. Linear
model is applied in mass communication like television, radio, etc. This model is not
applicable in general human communication as general human communication has to
have feedback and responses. Components of Linear Communication

Linear model has defined set of components required for a communication to be

established where

 Sender is the person who sends a message after encoding.

 Encoding is the process of converting the message into codes compatible with the
channel and understandable for the receiver.
 Decoding is the process of changing the encoded message into understandable
language by the receiver.
 Message is the information sent by the sender to the receiver.
 Channel is the medium through which the message is sent.
 Receiver is the person who gets the message after decoding.
 Noise is the disruptions that are caused in the communication process in channel
or in understandability of the message.

Types of Linear Communications

Different types of communication models based on linear model of communication are:

 Aristotle’s Model

Aristotle’s Model is a linear communication model which was made for public speaking.
In Aristotle’s model, the speaker sent message and the audience receive it. The model
was made to establish a propaganda.

 Shannon Weaver Model

The Shannon Weaver Model of Communication is a mathematical model used for

technical communication or machine communication like telegraph and telephone. In
Shannon Weaver’s model, if the channel does not have distorting elements or noise
producing elements, the communication is successful.

 Berlo’s SMCR Model

Berlo’s Model was made to understand general human communication. In Berlo’s

Model, communication depends on many factors: like communication skills, attitude,
knowledge, socio-cultural systems, the way in which the message has been sent, the
content of the message, senses of the receiver, etc.

Criticisms of Linear Model

 The model assumes that communication has a particular beginning and an end,
so it is not continuous.
 There is no concept of feedback which makes it inapplicable to direct human
communication and only applicable to mass communication like newspaper,
television, etc. There is no way to know if the communication was effective or not.
 Human communication is mostly circular rather than linear as audience is also an
active participant.
 Communication may not happen in turns and more than one message can be sent
at the same time.
 The sender must have the ability to encode and the receiver must have the ability
to decode.
 The model has become less relevant to electronic communication and internet
where it’s not clear who is the sender and who is the receiver.

Transactional model , senders and receivers both are known as communicators and
both play equally important role in communication. Transactional model relates
communication with social reality, cultural up-bringing and relational context
(relationships). Non-verbal feedback like gestures, body language, is also considered as
feedback in this model. Transactional model of communication is the exchange of
messages between sender and receiver where each take turns to send or receive
messages. Here, both sender and receiver are known as communicators and their role
reverses each time in the communication process as both processes of sending and
receiving occurs at the same time.
The communicators can be humans or machines but humans are taken as
communicators in this article to analyze general communication between humans. The
model is mostly used for interpersonal communication and is also called circular model
of communication.

Interactive model or convergence model is similar to transactional model as they are

both two way communication model. But, interactive model is mostly used for new
media like internet. Here, people can respond to any mass communications like videos,
news, etc. People can exchange their views and ideas. Interactive model (also known
as convergence model) deals with exchange of ideas and messages taking place both
ways from sender to receiver and vice-versa.The communication process take place
between humans or machines in both verbal or non-verbal way. This is a relatively
new model of communication for new technologies like web.
Components of Interactive Model

Interactive Model of Communication requires different following components for the

communication process to work:

 Encoder-Source-Decoder: The person who originates a message is the source.

The encoder and decoder are the same person/source. The second source is also
encoder as well as decoder. The source acts as an encoder while sending the
message and as decoder while receiving the message.
The second source decodes the message, then originates another message,
encodes it and sends it to the first source. The source is known to be encoder and
decoder during the act of encoding and decoding.
 Message: Message is the information sent during the interaction.
 Feedback: The decoder forms a second message after receiving the first which is
known as feedback.
 Field of Experience: Field of experience is the experience and knowledge that
the source possess which affects the message formation and interpretation. For
example, the source’s culture, social behavior, etc.

Concepts of Interactive Model

In Interactive model, whenever a source sends a message to a receiver (source),

he/she encodes the message first. The encoded message is then received by the
receiver where it is decoded to get the original information. Again, the receiver acts as a
source, encodes another message (also knows as a feedback) and sends it back to the
sender.The message formation of both sources are affected by their “field of
experience”. Field of Experience is a communication pattern alteration factor like
culture, social, psychology, situation and channels used. Overlapping field of
experiences initiates conversation and conversation, in turn, expands the
communicator’s field of experience. All these factors also affect the message
interpretation.
 The model also has a concept of noise and barriers to communications like
language, network problems, etc which affects the communication process. There is an
open line of communication in interactive communication model. Being interactive is
taken to be a very important aspect of effective communication.

Other Communication Models

 Dance’s Helical Spiral of Communication

In 1967, Dance made a communication model based on a helix known as helical model.
He explains how a child learns to communicate and the child grows up and continues to
communicate. Communication depends on previous experiences and activities of the
speaker according to this model.

 Westley and MacLean’s Conceptual Model

Westley and MacLean’s model explains the difference between interpersonal and mass
communication as feedback. Feedback can be direct in interpersonal communication
whereas indirect in mass communication. According to this model, communication starts
from the environment and not when the message is spoken or shown.

2. what are the similarities / difference of these three models of communication?

Interactive Model and Other Models Differences

Interactive Model of Communication Other Models of Communication

Indirect and slow feedback Direct and fast feedback
Feedback is a whole new process of Feedback is the part of a single
communication communication process
For all other kinds of media like print, news,
For new media
etc.
No engagement of sender and receiver in Engagement of sender and receiver in
communication communication
Sender is important and overpowering than
Sender and receiver is equally important
receiver
It can become linear if the receiver does The receiver is bound to give some kind of
not respond response verbal or non-verbal
 Differences Between Transactional and Other Communication Models

TRANSACTIONAL MODEL OTHER MODELS

Used for Intrapersonal, interpersonal, group
Used for interpersonal communication
or mass communications.
Senders and Receivers are known as
Communicators, they interchange their Senders and receivers are different people
roles
Includes the role of context and Role of context and environment are not
environment mentioned in other models
Includes noise and communication
Not necessarily have the concept of noise
barriers as factors
Talks about non-verbal communication Ignores non-verbal communication
Feedback comes later in interaction model
Simultaneous feedback
and is not included in linear model

3. Who proposed the interactive model of communication?

INTERACTIVE MODEL

The main flaw in the linear model is that it depicts communication as a one-way process
where speakers only speak and never listen. It also implies that listeners listen and
never speak or send messages. Schramm came out with a more interactive model that
saw the receiver or listener providing feedback to the sender or speaker. The speaker
or sender of the message also listens to the feedback given by the receiver or listener.
Both the speaker and the listener take turns to speak and listen to each other.
Feedback is given either verbally or non-verbally, or in both ways. This model also
indicates that the speaker and listener communicate better if they have common fields
of experience, or fields which overlap.

Concepts of Schramm’s Communication Model

Schramm’s model of communication includes the source which is also known as the
encoder, the message or the signal, and the destination which is also recognized as the
decoder. The model addresses the sociological aspects involved in communication.
Communication or commonness can take place if the fields of the source and
destination overlap as shown in the figure below as the field of experience.

It is a Circular Model, so that communication is something circular in nature

• Encoder – Who does encoding or Sends the message (message originates)
• Decoder – Who receives the message
• Interpreter – Person trying to understand (analyses, perceive) or interpret
Advantages
• Circular communication gives opportunity to both parties to give their opinion.
• As it is dynamic and ever changing model, it is helpful in general practice.
• Sender and receiver interchanges and both are equally active.
• Semantic noise included as a concept helps in understanding problems that can occur
during interpretation of message.
• Feedback makes it easier to know if the message is interpreted by the receiver as
intended or not.
• Concept of interpretation makes the communication effective.
• Field of experience (psychological effect) helps to understand the communication
process in many other ways than the traditional ones..
• Concept of context makes the environmental factor be included in interpretation of
message and brings change in the message value.

Disadvantages
• This model can not deal with multiple levels of communication and complex
communication processes.
• There can only be two sources communicating, many sources complicates the
process and the model can not be implemented.
• Message sent and received might be interpreted differently than intended.

REFERENCES :

https://www.businesstopia.net/communication/linear-model-communication
https://www.businesstopia.net/communication
https://www.businesstopia.net/communication/transactional-model-communication
https://www.businesstopia.net/communication/interactive-model-communication
http://www.simplinotes.com/communication-models/4/
 GEORGIA MAE F. LACSON BEED - II

DEVELOPMENTAL READING
( Pre-Final Examination)

1. What is reading?
 "Reading" is the process of looking at a series of written symbols and
getting meaning from them. When we read, we use our eyes to receive
written symbols (letters, punctuation marks and spaces) and we use our
brain to convert them into words, sentences and paragraphs that
communicate something to us.
 Reading can be silent (in our head) or aloud (so that other people can
hear).
 Reading is a receptive skill - through it we receive information. But the
complex process of reading also requires the skill of speaking, so that we
can pronounce the words that we read. In this sense, reading is also a
productive skill in that we are both receiving information and transmitting it
(even if only to ourselves).
 At the most basic level reading is the recognition of words. From simple
recognition of the individual letters and how these letters form a particular
word, to what each word means – not just on an individual level, but also
as part of a text. In English, as in many other languages, different
combinations of the same letters can be used to form different words with
completely different meanings. So, the letters t c a can make both cat(an
animal that goes miaow) and act (which has a number of meanings, from
‘do something', to ‘behave in certain ways‘, to ‘perform in a play or film‘).
Recognition of the actual word is not enough on its own to constitute
reading.
 Understanding what we are reading is key and is certainly the main point
of teaching reading in a class. It’s not much good if our students simply
stare at a text and say, ‘Well, I don’t understand it, but it looks nice!’
However, understanding a text is quite a complex issue and something
that we will try and examine in the rest of this article.

2. The three major theories of what reading is.

Just like teaching methodology, reading theories have had their shifts and transitions.
Starting from the traditional view which focused on the printed form of a text and moving
to the cognitive view that enhanced the role of background knowledge in addition to
what appeared on the printed page, they ultimately culminated in the metacognitive
view which is now in vogue. It is based on the control and manipulation that a reader
can have on the act of comprehending a text.

THE TRADITIONAL VIEW

According to Dole et al. (1991), in the traditional view of reading, novice readers acquire
a set of hierarchically ordered sub-skills that sequentially build toward comprehension
ability. Having mastered these skills, readers are viewed as experts who comprehend
what they read.
 Readers are passive recipients of information in the text. Meaning resides in the text
and the reader has to reproduce meaning.
 According to Nunan (1991), reading in this view is basically a matter of decoding a
series of written symbols into their aural equivalents in the quest for making sense of
the text. He referred to this process as the 'bottom-up' view of reading.
 McCarthy (1999) has called this view 'outside-in' processing, referring to the idea that
meaning exists in the printed page and is interpreted by the reader then taken in.
 This model of reading has almost always been under attack as being insufficient and
defective for the main reason that it relies on the formal features of the language, mainly
words and structure.
Although it is possible to accept this rejection for the fact that there is over-reliance on
structure in this view, it must be confessed that knowledge of linguistic features is also
necessary for comprehension to take place. To counteract over-reliance on form in the
traditional view of reading, the cognitive view was introduced.

THE COGNITIVE VIEW

The 'top-down' model is in direct opposition to the 'bottom-up' model. According to
Nunan (1991) and Dubin and Bycina (1991), the psycholinguistic model of reading and
the top-down model are in exact concordance.
 Goodman (1967; cited in Paran, 1996) presented reading as a psycholinguistic
guessing game, a process in which readers sample the text, make hypotheses, confirm
or reject them, make new hypotheses, and so forth. Here, the reader rather than the text
is at the heart of the reading process.
 The schema theory of reading also fits within the cognitively based view of reading.
Rumelhart (1977) has described schemata as "building blocks of cognition" which
are used in the process of interpreting sensory data, in retrieving information from
memory, in organising goals and subgoals, in allocating resources, and in guiding the
flow of the processing system.
 Rumelhart (1977) has also stated that if our schemata are incomplete and do not
provide an understanding of the incoming data from the text we will have problems
processing and understanding the text.
Cognitively based views of reading comprehension emphasize the interactive nature of
reading and the constructive nature of comprehension. Dole et al. (1991) have stated
that, besides knowledge brought to bear on the reading process, a set of flexible,
adaptable strategies are used to make sense of a text and to monitor ongoing
understanding.

THE METACOGNITIVE VIEW

According to Block (1992), there is now no more debate on "whether reading is a
bottom-up, language-based process or a top-down, knowledge-based process." It
is also no more problematic to accept the influence of background knowledge on both
L1 and L2 readers. Research has gone even further to define the control readers
execute on their ability to understand a text. This control, Block (1992) has referred to
as metacognition.

Metacognition involves thinking about what one is doing while reading. Klein et al.
(1991) stated that strategic readers attempt the following while reading:
 Identifying the purpose of the reading before reading
 Identifying the form or type of the text before reading
 Thinking about the general character and features of the form or type of the text. For
instance, they try to locate a topic sentence and follow supporting details toward a
conclusion
 Projecting the author's purpose for writing the text (while reading it),
 Choosing, scanning, or reading in detail
 Making continuous predictions about what will occur next, based on information
obtained earlier, prior knowledge, and conclusions obtained within the previous stages.
Moreover, they attempt to form a summary of what was read. Carrying out the previous
steps requires the reader to be able to classify, sequence, establish whole-part
relationships, compare and contrast, determine cause-effect, summarise, hypothesise
and predict, infer, and conclude.

3. Give the connection of reading to writing.

 Basically put: reading affects writing and writing affects reading. According
to recommendations from the major English/Language Arts professional
organizations, reading instruction is most effective when intertwined with
writing instruction and vice versa. Research has found that when children
read extensively they become better writers. Reading a variety of genres
helps children learn text structures and language that they can then
transfer to their own writing. In addition, reading provides young people
with prior knowledge that they can use in their stories. One of the primary
reasons that we read is to learn. Especially while we are still in school, a
major portion of what we know comes from the texts we read. Since
writing is the act of transmitting knowledge in print, we must have
information to share before we can write it. Therefore reading plays a
major role in writing.

 At the same time practice in writing helps children build their reading skills.
This is especially true for younger children who are working to develop
phonemic awareness and phonics skills. Phonemic awareness (the
understanding that words are developed from sound “chunks”) develops
as children read and write new words. Similarly, phonics skills or the ability
to link sounds together to construct words are reinforced when children
read and write the same words. For older children practice in the process
of writing their own texts helps them analyze the pieces that they read.
They can apply their knowledge about the ways that they chose to use
particular language, text structure or content to better understand a
professional author’s construction of his or her texts.

4. Identify at least five reading approaches.

1. Activating background knowledge

Research has shown that better comprehension occurs when students are engaged in
activities that bridge their old knowledge with the new. For example, a simple question
like “what do you know about … (a particular topic)” will stimulate students’ previous
knowledge of that topic. This will help them connect the current reading to their already
existing knowledge and make the new reading more stimulating and engaging. The
strategy allows students to work their way up from an already existing schema, instead
of starting a new one.

2. Questioning
Encourage students to frame questions before and after reading to increase their
comprehension. Each student should be able to reflect on three main questions,
namely, a right now question, an analytical question, and a research question.
A ‘right now question’ focuses on the material presented. What is the essence of the
material read? What are the facts that are being mentioned?
An ‘analytical question’ requires students to ponder over what they have learnt. What
does the author want me to understand from this material?
A ‘research question’ encourages the students to look for information beyond what is in
the text. This allows for more comprehensive active learning to occur.

3. Analyzing text structure

This requires students to learn how to analyze or comprehend the structure of a text.
Students are taught to identify the pattern by which writers organize their material. This
may be in the form of cause-effect pattern, problem-solution pattern, or a descriptive
pattern like a list, web or a matrix pattern. Understanding the pattern in which the
material is presented allows the students to comprehend the information better. It is
important to teach all the patterns of a text structure to the students, as each structure is
different and takes time to learn. They should also be taught to make use of
subheadings, labels, captions, tables, graphs, etc. as these help students to understand
the material better.

4. Visualization
The fourth strategy stresses on the importance of visualizing the material. Students
should be encouraged to form visual images in their head as they read the text, which
will help in better comprehension. Research suggests that students should visualize
them as structural images or diagrams instead of mere pictures, as pictures have a
tendency to fade.

5. Summarizing
The last technique is to summarize the material read. Research has indicated that the
ability to summarize enhances comprehension. Block and Pressley defined summarize
as “the ability to delete irrelevant details, combine similar ideas, condense main ideas,
and connect major themes into concise statements that capture the purpose of a
reading for the reader.” A student making use of the other four strategies will find it
easier to summarize the material. They can summarize the material in the form of
diagrams, either visually or in writing.

5. Give strategies that could be useful aids to comprehension among the

learners.

 Generate Questions
A good strategy to teach all readers is that instead of just rushing through a
passage or chapter, is to pause and generate questions. These can either be
questions about what has just happened or what they think might happen in the
future. Doing this can help them focus on the main ideas and increase the
student's engagement with the material. After reading, students can go back and
write questions that could be included in a quiz or test on the material. This will
require them to look at the information in a different manner. By asking questions
in this way, students can help the teacher correct misconceptions. This method
 Read Aloud and Monitor
While some might think of a teacher reading aloud in a secondary classroom as
an elementary practice, there is evidence that reading aloud also benefits middle
and high school students as well. Most importantly, by reading aloud teachers
can model good reading behavior.Reading aloud to students should also include
stops to check for understanding. Teachers can demonstrate their own think-
aloud or interactive elements and focus intentionally on the meaning “within the
text,” “about the text,” and “beyond the text” (Fountas & Pinnell, 2006) These
interactive elements can push students for deeper thought around a big idea.
Discussions after reading aloud can support conversations in class that help
students make critical connections.

 Promote Cooperative Talk

Having students stop periodically to turn and talk in order to discuss what has
just been read can reveal any issues with understanding. Listening to students
can inform instruction and help a teacher to can reinforce what is being
taught.This is a useful strategy that can be used after a read aloud (above) when
all students have a shared experience in listening to a text.This kind of
cooperative learning, where students learn reading strategies reciprocally, is one
of the most powerful instructional tools.

 Attention to Text Structure

An excellent strategy that soon becomes second nature is to have struggling
students read through all the headings and subheadings in any chapter that they
have been assigned. They can also look at the pictures and any graphs or
charts. This information can help them gain an overview of what they will be
learning as they read the chapter.The same attention to text structure can be
applied in reading literary works that use a story structure. Students can use the
elements in a story's structure (setting, character, plot, etc) as a means of helping
them recall story content.

 Take Notes or Annotate Texts

Students should read with paper and pen in hand. They can then take notes of
things they predict or understand. They can write down questions. They can
create a vocabulary list of all the highlighted words in the chapter along with any
unfamiliar terms that they need to define. Taking notes is also helpful in
preparing students for later discussions in class.Annotations in a text, writing in
the margins or highlighting, is another powerful way to record understanding.
This strategy is ideal for handouts.Using sticky notes can allow students to
record information from a text without damaging the text. Sticky notes can also
be removed and organized later for responses to a text.
 Use Context Clues
Students need to use the hints that an author provides in a text. Students may
need to look at context clues, that is a word or phrase directly before or after a
word they may not know.

Context clues may be in the form of:

 Roots and affixes: origin of the word;
 Contrast: recognizing how word is compared or contrasted with another
word in the sentence;
 Logic: considering the rest of the sentence to understand an unknown
word;
 Definition: using a provided explanation that follows the word;
 Example or Illustration: literal or visual representation of the word;
 Grammar: determining how the word functions in a sentence to better
understand its meaning.

 Use Graphic Organizers

Some students find that graphic organizers like webs and concept maps can
greatly enhance reading comprehension. These allow students to identify areas
of focus and main ideas in a reading. By filling in this information, students can
deepen their understanding of the author's meaning.
By the time students are in grades 7-12, teachers should allow students to
decide which graphic organizer would be most helpful to them in understanding a
text. Giving students the opportunity to generate representations of the material
is part of the reading comprehension process.

 Practice PQ4R
This consists of four steps: Preview, Question, Read, Reflect, Recite, and
Review.
Preview has students scan the material to get an overview. The question means
that students should ask themselves questions as they read.
The four R's have students read the material, reflect on what has just been
read, recite the major points to help learn better, and then return to the material
and see if you can answer the questions previously asked. This strategy works
well when coupled with notes and annotations.

 Summarizing
As they read, students should be encouraged to stop periodically stop their
reading and summarize what they have just read. In creating a summary,
students have to integrate the most important ideas and generalize from the text
information. They need to distill the important ideas from the unimportant or
irrelevant elements.This practice of integrating and generalizing in the creation of
summaries make long passages more understandable.
 Monitor Understanding
Some students prefer to annotate, while others are more comfortable
summarizing, but all students must learn how to be aware of how they read. They
need to know how fluently and accurate they are reading a text, but they also
need to know how they can determine their own understanding of the materials.
They should decide which strategies are most helpful in making meaning, and
practice those strategies, adjusting the strategies when necessary.

REFERENCES :
http://www.onestopenglish.com/skills/reading/reading-matters/reading-matters-
what-is-reading/154842.article
https://www.englishclub.com/reading/what.html
http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/18121/6/06_chapter%201.pdf
https://www.slideshare.net/angelicamaecornejo1/reading-theories-pp
https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/68f7/ee99b1f4baa84c5e9835ed4d69ebd74df6e
3.pdf
https://k12teacherstaffdevelopment.com/tlb/what-is-the-high-5-reading-strategy/