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Helium-3 Fusion

Danny Zaterman 22.012 Professor Molvig 5/18/06

Courtesy of EFDA-JET. Used with permission.

An Introduction to D An Introduction to D-He He-3 3 Fusion Fusion The basic goals in Deuterium
Helium The basic goals in Deuterium Helium-3 fusion 3 fusion are to use either a are to use
either a tokamak tokamakor inertial or inertial electrostatic confinement to control the fusion of
electrostatic confinement to control the fusion of D and He D and He-3 to produce an
energetically efficient 3 to produce an energetically efficient and minimally radioactive fusion
reaction as a and minimally radioactive fusion reaction as a source of electricity source of
electricity

(IEC) use orTo produceD + 3HE Æp (14.7MeV) + 4He (3.7MeV) + 18.4 MeV

Figure removed for copyright reasons.

Courtesy of ITER.

Fundementals Fundementalsof the Reaction of the Reaction

ƒ ƒThe Combination The Combination of nuclei of of nuclei of Deuterium and Deuterium and
Helium Helium-3 yields 3 yields Hydrogen and Hydrogen and Helium and an Helium and an
Energy of 18.4 Energy of 18.4 MeV MeVper reaction

Figure removed for copyright reasons. See Fig. 2 in Lecture 27 by G. L. Kulcinski(1996).

http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/neep602/LEC27/IMAGES/fig2.JPG

per reaction

Aneutronic AneutronicFusion Fusion

ƒ ƒThe notion of D The notion of D-T fusion being radioactively benign is a myth T fusion being
radioactively benign is a myth as the reaction produces high energy neutrons that activate as the
reaction produces high energy neutrons that activate the materials that compose the reactor,
forcing components, the materials that compose the reactor, forcing components, especially the
inner wall, to need frequent replacement. especially the inner wall, to need frequent
replacement.

ƒ ƒD D-He He-3 reactions produce 3 reactions produce no high energy neutrons, no high energy
neutrons, and consequently the and consequently the activation of metals is activation of metals
is drastically reduced. drastically reduced. (Stray D (Stray D-D reactions will D reactions will
generate some neutrons)
Figure removed for copyright reasons. See Fig. 3 in Lecture 27 by G. L. Kulcinski(1996).
http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/neep602/LEC27/IMAGES/fig3.GIF

generate some neutrons)

Energy Conversion Energy Conversion Another significant benefit of using Deuterium and Helium
Another significant benefit of using Deuterium and Helium-3 fuels is that 3 fuels is that the
reaction products, being charged particles, can be manipulat the reaction products, being
charged particles, can be manipulated by ed by electric and magnetic fields and can
consequently used for direc electric and magnetic fields and can consequently used for direct
energy t energy conversion. conversion.

Figure removed for copyright reasons. See Fig. 5 in Lecture 27 by G. L. Kulcinski(1996).

http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/neep602/LEC27/IMAGES/fig5.JPG

Electrical Power Electrical Power Experiments have Experiments have demonstrated that a blind
like demonstrated that a blind like series of water cooled ion series of water cooled ion collectors
can convert a high collectors can convert a high energy (100 energy (100 KeV KeV) beam of )
beam of ions into electrical energy with ions into electrical energy with efficiencies on the order
of 60 efficiencies on the order of 6070 percent. These efficiencies 70 percent. These efficiencies
are much greater than with DT are much greater than with DT fuel or with fission reactors.
Figure removed due to copyright reasons. See Fig. 8 in Lecture 27 by G. L. Kulcinski(1996).
http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/neep602/LEC27/IMAGES/fig8.GIF Figure removed due to copyright
reasons. See Fig. 7 in Lecture 27 by G. L. Kulcinski(1996).
http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/neep602/LEC27/IMAGES/fig7.JPG fuel or with fission reactors.

Conditions necessary for D Conditions necessary for D-He He-3 3 Fusion Fusion As we have
already learned, the amount of energy needed to fuse As we have already learned, the amount
of energy needed to fuse nuclei is proportional to the nuclei is proportional to the number of
protons involved in the reaction. Because D number of protons involved in the reaction. Because
D-He He-3 Fusion involves 3 protons as 3 Fusion involves 3 protons as opposed to 2 with DT
fusion, the amount of heat required for goo opposed to 2 with DT fusion, the amount of heat
required for good fusion parameters is 100 d fusion parameters is 100 keV keV. This is about 10
times greater than the amount needed for DT f . This is about 10 times greater than the amount
needed for DT fusion. At the Naka Fusion usion. At the Naka Fusion Center in Japan, scientists set
the world record for the hottest Center in Japan, scientists set the world record for the
hottestplasma in their advanced plasma in their advanced tokamak tokamakJT JT-60. This plasma
reached 520,000,000 Kelvin, which corresponds to 60. This plasma reached 520,000,000 Kelvin,
which corresponds toion energies of ion energies of 50 50 keV keV, showing that the energy
requirements for helium , showing that the energy requirements for helium-3 fusion are not so
farfetched. 3 fusion are not so farfetched.

Figure removed due to copyright reasons. See Fig. 9 in Lecture 27 by G. L. Kulcinski(1996).

http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/neep602/LEC27/IMAGES/fig9.JPG
Figure removed for copyright reasons.

Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Inertial Electrostatic Confinement At the University of

Wisconsin, researchers have developed a new At the University of Wisconsin, researchers have
developed a new small scale method of producing fusion. In electrostatic small scale method of
producing fusion. In electrostatic confinement, a small vacuum chamber is filled with gaseous
fuel confinement, a small vacuum chamber is filled with gaseous fuel at at a low pressure. An
outer and inner grid are contained in the a low pressure. An outer and inner grid are contained
in the chamber and are charged such that there is a potential differenc chamber and are charged
such that there is a potential difference o e o 100kV between them. Ions oscillate in the center
and reach very 100kV between them. Ions oscillate in the center and reach very high energies,
enough to force fusion upon high energies, enough to force fusion upon collisiding
collisidingwith other with other nuclei. nuclei.

Figure removed for copyright reasons. Source:

http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/iec/operation.htm(second image).

Electrostatic Confinement Electrostatic Confinement Using deuterium and helium Using

deuterium and helium-3 fuels, scientists have 3 fuels, scientists have shown successful fusion
and generation of high shown successful fusion and generation of high energy protons on a small
scale. The process would energy protons on a small scale. The process would need to be greatly
refined for energy production but need to be greatly refined for energy production but has
definitely been effective as a proof of concept. has definitely been effective as a proof of
concept.

Figure removed for copyright reasons. Source: http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/iec/operation.htm(first

image). F igure removed for copyright reasons.

Helium Helium-3 3

Helium Helium-3 is an a one neutron isotope of helium that is formed as cosmic 3 is an a one
neutron isotope of helium that is formed as cosmicrays rays bombard Helium bombard Helium-4
that is produced naturally through fusion in the sun. Unfortun 4 that is produced naturally
through fusion in the sun. Unfortunately ately the earth the earth’ ’s atmosphere and magnetic
field repel helium s atmosphere and magnetic field repel helium-3 and consequently there 3 and
consequently there are very minimal quantities in existence on earth. Beside primor are very
minimal quantities in existence on earth. Beside primordial deposits, small dial deposits, small
quantities of helium quantities of helium-3 can also be 3 can also be

attained as products of tritium decay attained as products of tritium decay from fission reactors
and nuclear from fission reactors and nuclear weapons. weapons. Although these deposits on
earth Although these deposits on earth provide us with a minimal amount of provide us with a
minimal amount of fuel to run small experiments with, fuel to run small experiments with,
another more abundant source of another more abundant source of helium helium-3 would be
needed for us to 3 would be needed for us to actually use helium actually use helium-3 for
energy

Figure removed for copyright reasons. See Fig. 15 in Lecture 27 by G. L. Kulcinski(1996).

http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/neep602/LEC27/IMAGES/fig15.JPG

3 for energy

The moon

Without a repulsive atmosphere, the moon has Without a repulsive atmosphere, the moon has
accumulated large amounts of helium accumulated large amounts of helium-3 on its 3 on its
surface. An interesting statistic is that the amount surface. An interesting statistic is that the
amount of energy stored in lunar helium is 10 times the of energy stored in lunar helium is 10
times the amount of energy stored in all of the fossil fuels amount of energy stored in all of the
fossil fuels on earth. Because the lunar helium on earth. Because the lunar helium-3 exists in 3
exists in concentrations of 13 parts per billion in the lunar concentrations of 13 parts per billion
in the lunar soil, a significant amount of refining would need soil, a significant amount of refining
would need to occur on the moon in order to extract the to occur on the moon in order to
extract the helium helium-3 and maximize the amount that could be 3 and maximize the amount
that could be returned to earth on each trip. When it is returned to earth on each trip. When it is
considered that the Saturn V rockets used in the considered that the Saturn V rockets used in the
Apollo program Apollo program

could lift could liftoff with a payload of 50 tons, the notion of a bringing mining e off with a
payload of 50 tons, the notion of a bringing mining equipment to the moon does quipment to
the moon does not seem completely unrealistic. In fact, the Chinese government not seem
completely unrealistic. In fact, the Chinese governmenthas outlined plans to send has outlined
plans to send astronauts to the moon to lay the groundwork for establishing mi astronauts to the
moon to lay the groundwork for establishing mining colonies for helium ning colonies for helium-
3. The 3. The plan is to have astronauts on the moon by 2009 and mining as ear plan is to have
astronauts on the moon by 2009 and mining as early as 2015. ly as 2015.

Outlook Outlook

Helium Helium-3 fusion is definitely a far distance away and 3 fusion is definitely a far distance
away and should best be considered as a second generation fuel, should best be considered as a
second generation fuel, something that may be exploited after current methods something that
may be exploited after current methods for confinement have been refined to the commercial
for confinement have been refined to the commercial reactor level. Nevertheless, helium reactor
level. Nevertheless, helium-3 3’ ’s benefits in terms s benefits in terms of energy conversion and
radioactivity are significant, of energy conversion and radioactivity are significant, and should be
further explored. Clearly mining the moon and should be further explored. Clearly mining the
moon is a crazy idea; however, the technology could be is a crazy idea; however, the technology
could be developed to make it a possibility. A great deal of capital developed to make it a
possibility. A great deal of capital would be required to get the ball rolling, but the value of
would be required to get the ball rolling, but the value of helium helium-3 if it could be used for
energy could be great 3 if it could be used for energy could be great enough to justify the
expenditure. enough to justify the expenditure.

Bibliography Bibliography

“ “Lunar Helium Lunar Helium-3 as an Energy Source, in a nutshell 3 as an Energy Source, in a

nutshell” ”2004. 14 May 2006. 2004. 14 May 2006. < <http://www.asi.org/adb/02/09/he3
http://www.asi.org/adb/02/09/he3-intro.html intro.html> >

“ “Fusion Plasma Research Fusion Plasma Research” ”2006. Japan Atomic Energy Agency. 14 May
2006.< 2006. Japan Atomic Energy Agency. 14 May 2006.<http://www
http://wwwjt60.naka.jaea.go.jp/ jt60.naka.jaea.go.jp/> >

“ “IEC Fusion Advanced Fuels Project IEC Fusion Advanced Fuels Project” ”2006. University of
Wisconsin. 14 May 2006. 2006. University of Wisconsin. 14 May 2006. <
<http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/iec/ftisite1.htm http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/iec/ftisite1.htm> >

Schmitt, Harrison H. Schmitt, Harrison H. “ “Mining the Moon. Mining the Moon.” ”12 October
2004. 14 May 12 October 2004. 14 May 2006.<
2006.<http://www.popularmechanics.com/science/space/1283056.html?page=
http://www.popularmechanics.com/science/space/1283056.html?page=1&c=y 1&c=y> >

Derzco Derzco, Walter , Walter “ “Mining the moon; Will China become the New Saudi Arabia of
the 2 Mining the moon; Will China become the New Saudi Arabia of the 21st 1st century?
century?” ”2 November 2005. 14 May 2 November 2005. 14 May 2006.<
2006.<http://smarteconomy.typepad.com/smart_economy/2005/11/mining_the
http://smarteconomy.typepad.com/smart_economy/2005/11/mining_the_moon.html
_moon.html> >

Kulcinski Kulcinski, G.L. , G.L. “ “3He Fusion: A Safe, Clean, and Economical Energy Source For
Futu 3He Fusion: A Safe, Clean, and Economical Energy Source For Future re Generations
Generations” ”29 March 1996. 14 May 2006< 29 March 1996. 14 May
2006<http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/neep602/lecture27.html
http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/neep602/lecture27.html> Helium-3 Fusion

Danny Zaterman 22.012 Professor Molvig 5/18/06

Courtesy of EFDA-JET. Used with permission.

An Introduction to D An Introduction to D-He He-3 3 Fusion Fusion The basic goals in Deuterium
Helium The basic goals in Deuterium Helium-3 fusion 3 fusion are to use either a are to use
either a tokamak tokamakor inertial or inertial electrostatic confinement to control the fusion of
electrostatic confinement to control the fusion of D and He D and He-3 to produce an
energetically efficient 3 to produce an energetically efficient and minimally radioactive fusion
reaction as a and minimally radioactive fusion reaction as a source of electricity source of
electricity

(IEC) use orTo produceD + 3HE Æp (14.7MeV) + 4He (3.7MeV) + 18.4 MeV

Figure removed for copyright reasons.

Courtesy of ITER.

Fundementals Fundementalsof the Reaction of the Reaction

ƒ ƒThe Combination The Combination of nuclei of of nuclei of Deuterium and Deuterium and
Helium Helium-3 yields 3 yields Hydrogen and Hydrogen and Helium and an Helium and an
Energy of 18.4 Energy of 18.4 MeV MeVper reaction

Figure removed for copyright reasons. See Fig. 2 in Lecture 27 by G. L. Kulcinski(1996).

http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/neep602/LEC27/IMAGES/fig2.JPG

per reaction

Aneutronic AneutronicFusion Fusion

ƒ ƒThe notion of D The notion of D-T fusion being radioactively benign is a myth T fusion being
radioactively benign is a myth as the reaction produces high energy neutrons that activate as the
reaction produces high energy neutrons that activate the materials that compose the reactor,
forcing components, the materials that compose the reactor, forcing components, especially the
inner wall, to need frequent replacement. especially the inner wall, to need frequent
replacement.

ƒ ƒD D-He He-3 reactions produce 3 reactions produce no high energy neutrons, no high energy
neutrons, and consequently the and consequently the activation of metals is activation of metals
is drastically reduced. drastically reduced. (Stray D (Stray D-D reactions will D reactions will
generate some neutrons)

Figure removed for copyright reasons. See Fig. 3 in Lecture 27 by G. L. Kulcinski(1996).

http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/neep602/LEC27/IMAGES/fig3.GIF

generate some neutrons)

Energy Conversion Energy Conversion Another significant benefit of using Deuterium and Helium
Another significant benefit of using Deuterium and Helium-3 fuels is that 3 fuels is that the
reaction products, being charged particles, can be manipulat the reaction products, being
charged particles, can be manipulated by ed by electric and magnetic fields and can
consequently used for direc electric and magnetic fields and can consequently used for direct
energy t energy conversion. conversion.

Figure removed for copyright reasons. See Fig. 5 in Lecture 27 by G. L. Kulcinski(1996).

http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/neep602/LEC27/IMAGES/fig5.JPG

Electrical Power Electrical Power Experiments have Experiments have demonstrated that a blind
like demonstrated that a blind like series of water cooled ion series of water cooled ion collectors
can convert a high collectors can convert a high energy (100 energy (100 KeV KeV) beam of )
beam of ions into electrical energy with ions into electrical energy with efficiencies on the order
of 60 efficiencies on the order of 6070 percent. These efficiencies 70 percent. These efficiencies
are much greater than with DT are much greater than with DT fuel or with fission reactors.
Figure removed due to copyright reasons. See Fig. 8 in Lecture 27 by G. L. Kulcinski(1996).
http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/neep602/LEC27/IMAGES/fig8.GIF Figure removed due to copyright
reasons. See Fig. 7 in Lecture 27 by G. L. Kulcinski(1996).
http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/neep602/LEC27/IMAGES/fig7.JPG fuel or with fission reactors.

Conditions necessary for D Conditions necessary for D-He He-3 3 Fusion Fusion As we have
already learned, the amount of energy needed to fuse As we have already learned, the amount
of energy needed to fuse nuclei is proportional to the nuclei is proportional to the number of
protons involved in the reaction. Because D number of protons involved in the reaction. Because
D-He He-3 Fusion involves 3 protons as 3 Fusion involves 3 protons as opposed to 2 with DT
fusion, the amount of heat required for goo opposed to 2 with DT fusion, the amount of heat
required for good fusion parameters is 100 d fusion parameters is 100 keV keV. This is about 10
times greater than the amount needed for DT f . This is about 10 times greater than the amount
needed for DT fusion. At the Naka Fusion usion. At the Naka Fusion Center in Japan, scientists set
the world record for the hottest Center in Japan, scientists set the world record for the
hottestplasma in their advanced plasma in their advanced tokamak tokamakJT JT-60. This plasma
reached 520,000,000 Kelvin, which corresponds to 60. This plasma reached 520,000,000 Kelvin,
which corresponds toion energies of ion energies of 50 50 keV keV, showing that the energy
requirements for helium , showing that the energy requirements for helium-3 fusion are not so
farfetched. 3 fusion are not so farfetched.

Figure removed due to copyright reasons. See Fig. 9 in Lecture 27 by G. L. Kulcinski(1996).

http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/neep602/LEC27/IMAGES/fig9.JPG

Figure removed for copyright reasons.

Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Inertial Electrostatic Confinement At the University of

Wisconsin, researchers have developed a new At the University of Wisconsin, researchers have
developed a new small scale method of producing fusion. In electrostatic small scale method of
producing fusion. In electrostatic confinement, a small vacuum chamber is filled with gaseous
fuel confinement, a small vacuum chamber is filled with gaseous fuel at at a low pressure. An
outer and inner grid are contained in the a low pressure. An outer and inner grid are contained
in the chamber and are charged such that there is a potential differenc chamber and are charged
such that there is a potential difference o e o 100kV between them. Ions oscillate in the center
and reach very 100kV between them. Ions oscillate in the center and reach very high energies,
enough to force fusion upon high energies, enough to force fusion upon collisiding
collisidingwith other with other nuclei. nuclei.

Figure removed for copyright reasons. Source:

http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/iec/operation.htm(second image).

Electrostatic Confinement Electrostatic Confinement Using deuterium and helium Using

deuterium and helium-3 fuels, scientists have 3 fuels, scientists have shown successful fusion
and generation of high shown successful fusion and generation of high energy protons on a small
scale. The process would energy protons on a small scale. The process would need to be greatly
refined for energy production but need to be greatly refined for energy production but has
definitely been effective as a proof of concept. has definitely been effective as a proof of
concept.

Figure removed for copyright reasons. Source: http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/iec/operation.htm(first

image). F igure removed for copyright reasons.

Helium Helium-3 3

Helium Helium-3 is an a one neutron isotope of helium that is formed as cosmic 3 is an a one
neutron isotope of helium that is formed as cosmicrays rays bombard Helium bombard Helium-4
that is produced naturally through fusion in the sun. Unfortun 4 that is produced naturally
through fusion in the sun. Unfortunately ately the earth the earth’ ’s atmosphere and magnetic
field repel helium s atmosphere and magnetic field repel helium-3 and consequently there 3 and
consequently there are very minimal quantities in existence on earth. Beside primor are very
minimal quantities in existence on earth. Beside primordial deposits, small dial deposits, small
quantities of helium quantities of helium-3 can also be 3 can also be

attained as products of tritium decay attained as products of tritium decay from fission reactors
and nuclear from fission reactors and nuclear weapons. weapons. Although these deposits on
earth Although these deposits on earth provide us with a minimal amount of provide us with a
minimal amount of fuel to run small experiments with, fuel to run small experiments with,
another more abundant source of another more abundant source of helium helium-3 would be
needed for us to 3 would be needed for us to actually use helium actually use helium-3 for
energy

Figure removed for copyright reasons. See Fig. 15 in Lecture 27 by G. L. Kulcinski(1996).

http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/neep602/LEC27/IMAGES/fig15.JPG

3 for energy

The moon
Without a repulsive atmosphere, the moon has Without a repulsive atmosphere, the moon has
accumulated large amounts of helium accumulated large amounts of helium-3 on its 3 on its
surface. An interesting statistic is that the amount surface. An interesting statistic is that the
amount of energy stored in lunar helium is 10 times the of energy stored in lunar helium is 10
times the amount of energy stored in all of the fossil fuels amount of energy stored in all of the
fossil fuels on earth. Because the lunar helium on earth. Because the lunar helium-3 exists in 3
exists in concentrations of 13 parts per billion in the lunar concentrations of 13 parts per billion
in the lunar soil, a significant amount of refining would need soil, a significant amount of refining
would need to occur on the moon in order to extract the to occur on the moon in order to
extract the helium helium-3 and maximize the amount that could be 3 and maximize the amount
that could be returned to earth on each trip. When it is returned to earth on each trip. When it is
considered that the Saturn V rockets used in the considered that the Saturn V rockets used in the
Apollo program Apollo program

could lift could liftoff with a payload of 50 tons, the notion of a bringing mining e off with a
payload of 50 tons, the notion of a bringing mining equipment to the moon does quipment to
the moon does not seem completely unrealistic. In fact, the Chinese government not seem
completely unrealistic. In fact, the Chinese governmenthas outlined plans to send has outlined
plans to send astronauts to the moon to lay the groundwork for establishing mi astronauts to the
moon to lay the groundwork for establishing mining colonies for helium ning colonies for helium-
3. The 3. The plan is to have astronauts on the moon by 2009 and mining as ear plan is to have
astronauts on the moon by 2009 and mining as early as 2015. ly as 2015.

Outlook Outlook

Helium Helium-3 fusion is definitely a far distance away and 3 fusion is definitely a far distance
away and should best be considered as a second generation fuel, should best be considered as a
second generation fuel, something that may be exploited after current methods something that
may be exploited after current methods for confinement have been refined to the commercial
for confinement have been refined to the commercial reactor level. Nevertheless, helium reactor
level. Nevertheless, helium-3 3’ ’s benefits in terms s benefits in terms of energy conversion and
radioactivity are significant, of energy conversion and radioactivity are significant, and should be
further explored. Clearly mining the moon and should be further explored. Clearly mining the
moon is a crazy idea; however, the technology could be is a crazy idea; however, the technology
could be developed to make it a possibility. A great deal of capital developed to make it a
possibility. A great deal of capital would be required to get the ball rolling, but the value of
would be required to get the ball rolling, but the value of helium helium-3 if it could be used for
energy could be great 3 if it could be used for energy could be great enough to justify the
expenditure. enough to justify the expenditure.

Bibliography Bibliography

“ “Lunar Helium Lunar Helium-3 as an Energy Source, in a nutshell 3 as an Energy Source, in a

nutshell” ”2004. 14 May 2006. 2004. 14 May 2006. < <http://www.asi.org/adb/02/09/he3
http://www.asi.org/adb/02/09/he3-intro.html intro.html> >

“ “Fusion Plasma Research Fusion Plasma Research” ”2006. Japan Atomic Energy Agency. 14 May
2006.< 2006. Japan Atomic Energy Agency. 14 May 2006.<http://www
http://wwwjt60.naka.jaea.go.jp/ jt60.naka.jaea.go.jp/> >

“ “IEC Fusion Advanced Fuels Project IEC Fusion Advanced Fuels Project” ”2006. University of
Wisconsin. 14 May 2006. 2006. University of Wisconsin. 14 May 2006. <
<http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/iec/ftisite1.htm http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/iec/ftisite1.htm> >

Schmitt, Harrison H. Schmitt, Harrison H. “ “Mining the Moon. Mining the Moon.” ”12 October
2004. 14 May 12 October 2004. 14 May 2006.<
2006.<http://www.popularmechanics.com/science/space/1283056.html?page=
http://www.popularmechanics.com/science/space/1283056.html?page=1&c=y 1&c=y> >

Derzco Derzco, Walter , Walter “ “Mining the moon; Will China become the New Saudi Arabia of
the 2 Mining the moon; Will China become the New Saudi Arabia of the 21st 1st century?
century?” ”2 November 2005. 14 May 2 November 2005. 14 May 2006.<
2006.<http://smarteconomy.typepad.com/smart_economy/2005/11/mining_the
http://smarteconomy.typepad.com/smart_economy/2005/11/mining_the_moon.html
_moon.html> >

Kulcinski Kulcinski, G.L. , G.L. “ “3He Fusion: A Safe, Clean, and Economical Energy Source For
Futu 3He Fusion: A Safe, Clean, and Economical Energy Source For Future re Generations
Generations” ”29 March 1996. 14 May 2006< 29 March 1996. 14 May
2006<http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/neep602/lecture27.html
http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/neep602/lecture27.html> Helium-3 Fusion

Danny Zaterman 22.012 Professor Molvig 5/18/06

Courtesy of EFDA-JET. Used with permission.

An Introduction to D An Introduction to D-He He-3 3 Fusion Fusion The basic goals in Deuterium
Helium The basic goals in Deuterium Helium-3 fusion 3 fusion are to use either a are to use
either a tokamak tokamakor inertial or inertial electrostatic confinement to control the fusion of
electrostatic confinement to control the fusion of D and He D and He-3 to produce an
energetically efficient 3 to produce an energetically efficient and minimally radioactive fusion
reaction as a and minimally radioactive fusion reaction as a source of electricity source of
electricity

(IEC) use orTo produceD + 3HE Æp (14.7MeV) + 4He (3.7MeV) + 18.4 MeV

Figure removed for copyright reasons.

Courtesy of ITER.

Fundementals Fundementalsof the Reaction of the Reaction

ƒ ƒThe Combination The Combination of nuclei of of nuclei of Deuterium and Deuterium and
Helium Helium-3 yields 3 yields Hydrogen and Hydrogen and Helium and an Helium and an
Energy of 18.4 Energy of 18.4 MeV MeVper reaction

Figure removed for copyright reasons. See Fig. 2 in Lecture 27 by G. L. Kulcinski(1996).

http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/neep602/LEC27/IMAGES/fig2.JPG

per reaction

Aneutronic AneutronicFusion Fusion

ƒ ƒThe notion of D The notion of D-T fusion being radioactively benign is a myth T fusion being
radioactively benign is a myth as the reaction produces high energy neutrons that activate as the
reaction produces high energy neutrons that activate the materials that compose the reactor,
forcing components, the materials that compose the reactor, forcing components, especially the
inner wall, to need frequent replacement. especially the inner wall, to need frequent
replacement.

ƒ ƒD D-He He-3 reactions produce 3 reactions produce no high energy neutrons, no high energy
neutrons, and consequently the and consequently the activation of metals is activation of metals
is drastically reduced. drastically reduced. (Stray D (Stray D-D reactions will D reactions will
generate some neutrons)

Figure removed for copyright reasons. See Fig. 3 in Lecture 27 by G. L. Kulcinski(1996).

http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/neep602/LEC27/IMAGES/fig3.GIF

generate some neutrons)

Energy Conversion Energy Conversion Another significant benefit of using Deuterium and Helium
Another significant benefit of using Deuterium and Helium-3 fuels is that 3 fuels is that the
reaction products, being charged particles, can be manipulat the reaction products, being
charged particles, can be manipulated by ed by electric and magnetic fields and can
consequently used for direc electric and magnetic fields and can consequently used for direct
energy t energy conversion. conversion.

Figure removed for copyright reasons. See Fig. 5 in Lecture 27 by G. L. Kulcinski(1996).

http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/neep602/LEC27/IMAGES/fig5.JPG

Electrical Power Electrical Power Experiments have Experiments have demonstrated that a blind
like demonstrated that a blind like series of water cooled ion series of water cooled ion collectors
can convert a high collectors can convert a high energy (100 energy (100 KeV KeV) beam of )
beam of ions into electrical energy with ions into electrical energy with efficiencies on the order
of 60 efficiencies on the order of 6070 percent. These efficiencies 70 percent. These efficiencies
are much greater than with DT are much greater than with DT fuel or with fission reactors.
Figure removed due to copyright reasons. See Fig. 8 in Lecture 27 by G. L. Kulcinski(1996).
http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/neep602/LEC27/IMAGES/fig8.GIF Figure removed due to copyright
reasons. See Fig. 7 in Lecture 27 by G. L. Kulcinski(1996).
http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/neep602/LEC27/IMAGES/fig7.JPG fuel or with fission reactors.

Conditions necessary for D Conditions necessary for D-He He-3 3 Fusion Fusion As we have
already learned, the amount of energy needed to fuse As we have already learned, the amount
of energy needed to fuse nuclei is proportional to the nuclei is proportional to the number of
protons involved in the reaction. Because D number of protons involved in the reaction. Because
D-He He-3 Fusion involves 3 protons as 3 Fusion involves 3 protons as opposed to 2 with DT
fusion, the amount of heat required for goo opposed to 2 with DT fusion, the amount of heat
required for good fusion parameters is 100 d fusion parameters is 100 keV keV. This is about 10
times greater than the amount needed for DT f . This is about 10 times greater than the amount
needed for DT fusion. At the Naka Fusion usion. At the Naka Fusion Center in Japan, scientists set
the world record for the hottest Center in Japan, scientists set the world record for the
hottestplasma in their advanced plasma in their advanced tokamak tokamakJT JT-60. This plasma
reached 520,000,000 Kelvin, which corresponds to 60. This plasma reached 520,000,000 Kelvin,
which corresponds toion energies of ion energies of 50 50 keV keV, showing that the energy
requirements for helium , showing that the energy requirements for helium-3 fusion are not so
farfetched. 3 fusion are not so farfetched.

Figure removed due to copyright reasons. See Fig. 9 in Lecture 27 by G. L. Kulcinski(1996).

http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/neep602/LEC27/IMAGES/fig9.JPG

Figure removed for copyright reasons.

Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Inertial Electrostatic Confinement At the University of

Wisconsin, researchers have developed a new At the University of Wisconsin, researchers have
developed a new small scale method of producing fusion. In electrostatic small scale method of
producing fusion. In electrostatic confinement, a small vacuum chamber is filled with gaseous
fuel confinement, a small vacuum chamber is filled with gaseous fuel at at a low pressure. An
outer and inner grid are contained in the a low pressure. An outer and inner grid are contained
in the chamber and are charged such that there is a potential differenc chamber and are charged
such that there is a potential difference o e o 100kV between them. Ions oscillate in the center
and reach very 100kV between them. Ions oscillate in the center and reach very high energies,
enough to force fusion upon high energies, enough to force fusion upon collisiding
collisidingwith other with other nuclei. nuclei.

Figure removed for copyright reasons. Source:

http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/iec/operation.htm(second image).

Electrostatic Confinement Electrostatic Confinement Using deuterium and helium Using

deuterium and helium-3 fuels, scientists have 3 fuels, scientists have shown successful fusion
and generation of high shown successful fusion and generation of high energy protons on a small
scale. The process would energy protons on a small scale. The process would need to be greatly
refined for energy production but need to be greatly refined for energy production but has
definitely been effective as a proof of concept. has definitely been effective as a proof of
concept.

Figure removed for copyright reasons. Source: http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/iec/operation.htm(first

image). F igure removed for copyright reasons.

Helium Helium-3 3

Helium Helium-3 is an a one neutron isotope of helium that is formed as cosmic 3 is an a one
neutron isotope of helium that is formed as cosmicrays rays bombard Helium bombard Helium-4
that is produced naturally through fusion in the sun. Unfortun 4 that is produced naturally
through fusion in the sun. Unfortunately ately the earth the earth’ ’s atmosphere and magnetic
field repel helium s atmosphere and magnetic field repel helium-3 and consequently there 3 and
consequently there are very minimal quantities in existence on earth. Beside primor are very
minimal quantities in existence on earth. Beside primordial deposits, small dial deposits, small
quantities of helium quantities of helium-3 can also be 3 can also be

attained as products of tritium decay attained as products of tritium decay from fission reactors
and nuclear from fission reactors and nuclear weapons. weapons. Although these deposits on
earth Although these deposits on earth provide us with a minimal amount of provide us with a
minimal amount of fuel to run small experiments with, fuel to run small experiments with,
another more abundant source of another more abundant source of helium helium-3 would be
needed for us to 3 would be needed for us to actually use helium actually use helium-3 for
energy

Figure removed for copyright reasons. See Fig. 15 in Lecture 27 by G. L. Kulcinski(1996).

http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/neep602/LEC27/IMAGES/fig15.JPG

3 for energy

The moon

Without a repulsive atmosphere, the moon has Without a repulsive atmosphere, the moon has
accumulated large amounts of helium accumulated large amounts of helium-3 on its 3 on its
surface. An interesting statistic is that the amount surface. An interesting statistic is that the
amount of energy stored in lunar helium is 10 times the of energy stored in lunar helium is 10
times the amount of energy stored in all of the fossil fuels amount of energy stored in all of the
fossil fuels on earth. Because the lunar helium on earth. Because the lunar helium-3 exists in 3
exists in concentrations of 13 parts per billion in the lunar concentrations of 13 parts per billion
in the lunar soil, a significant amount of refining would need soil, a significant amount of refining
would need to occur on the moon in order to extract the to occur on the moon in order to
extract the helium helium-3 and maximize the amount that could be 3 and maximize the amount
that could be returned to earth on each trip. When it is returned to earth on each trip. When it is
considered that the Saturn V rockets used in the considered that the Saturn V rockets used in the
Apollo program Apollo program

could lift could liftoff with a payload of 50 tons, the notion of a bringing mining e off with a
payload of 50 tons, the notion of a bringing mining equipment to the moon does quipment to
the moon does not seem completely unrealistic. In fact, the Chinese government not seem
completely unrealistic. In fact, the Chinese governmenthas outlined plans to send has outlined
plans to send astronauts to the moon to lay the groundwork for establishing mi astronauts to the
moon to lay the groundwork for establishing mining colonies for helium ning colonies for helium-
3. The 3. The plan is to have astronauts on the moon by 2009 and mining as ear plan is to have
astronauts on the moon by 2009 and mining as early as 2015. ly as 2015.

Outlook Outlook

Helium Helium-3 fusion is definitely a far distance away and 3 fusion is definitely a far distance
away and should best be considered as a second generation fuel, should best be considered as a
second generation fuel, something that may be exploited after current methods something that
may be exploited after current methods for confinement have been refined to the commercial
for confinement have been refined to the commercial reactor level. Nevertheless, helium reactor
level. Nevertheless, helium-3 3’ ’s benefits in terms s benefits in terms of energy conversion and
radioactivity are significant, of energy conversion and radioactivity are significant, and should be
further explored. Clearly mining the moon and should be further explored. Clearly mining the
moon is a crazy idea; however, the technology could be is a crazy idea; however, the technology
could be developed to make it a possibility. A great deal of capital developed to make it a
possibility. A great deal of capital would be required to get the ball rolling, but the value of
would be required to get the ball rolling, but the value of helium helium-3 if it could be used for
energy could be great 3 if it could be used for energy could be great enough to justify the
expenditure. enough to justify the expenditure.

Bibliography Bibliography

“ “Lunar Helium Lunar Helium-3 as an Energy Source, in a nutshell 3 as an Energy Source, in a

nutshell” ”2004. 14 May 2006. 2004. 14 May 2006. < <http://www.asi.org/adb/02/09/he3
http://www.asi.org/adb/02/09/he3-intro.html intro.html> >

“ “Fusion Plasma Research Fusion Plasma Research” ”2006. Japan Atomic Energy Agency. 14 May
2006.< 2006. Japan Atomic Energy Agency. 14 May 2006.<http://www
http://wwwjt60.naka.jaea.go.jp/ jt60.naka.jaea.go.jp/> >

“ “IEC Fusion Advanced Fuels Project IEC Fusion Advanced Fuels Project” ”2006. University of
Wisconsin. 14 May 2006. 2006. University of Wisconsin. 14 May 2006. <
<http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/iec/ftisite1.htm http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/iec/ftisite1.htm> >

Schmitt, Harrison H. Schmitt, Harrison H. “ “Mining the Moon. Mining the Moon.” ”12 October
2004. 14 May 12 October 2004. 14 May 2006.<
2006.<http://www.popularmechanics.com/science/space/1283056.html?page=
http://www.popularmechanics.com/science/space/1283056.html?page=1&c=y 1&c=y> >

Derzco Derzco, Walter , Walter “ “Mining the moon; Will China become the New Saudi Arabia of
the 2 Mining the moon; Will China become the New Saudi Arabia of the 21st 1st century?
century?” ”2 November 2005. 14 May 2 November 2005. 14 May 2006.<
2006.<http://smarteconomy.typepad.com/smart_economy/2005/11/mining_the
http://smarteconomy.typepad.com/smart_economy/2005/11/mining_the_moon.html
_moon.html> >

Kulcinski Kulcinski, G.L. , G.L. “ “3He Fusion: A Safe, Clean, and Economical Energy Source For
Futu 3He Fusion: A Safe, Clean, and Economical Energy Source For Future re Generations
Generations” ”29 March 1996. 14 May 2006< 29 March 1996. 14 May
2006<http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/neep602/lecture27.html
http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/neep602/lecture27.html> Helium-3 Fusion

Danny Zaterman 22.012 Professor Molvig 5/18/06

Courtesy of EFDA-JET. Used with permission.

An Introduction to D An Introduction to D-He He-3 3 Fusion Fusion The basic goals in Deuterium
Helium The basic goals in Deuterium Helium-3 fusion 3 fusion are to use either a are to use
either a tokamak tokamakor inertial or inertial electrostatic confinement to control the fusion of
electrostatic confinement to control the fusion of D and He D and He-3 to produce an
energetically efficient 3 to produce an energetically efficient and minimally radioactive fusion
reaction as a and minimally radioactive fusion reaction as a source of electricity source of
electricity

(IEC) use orTo produceD + 3HE Æp (14.7MeV) + 4He (3.7MeV) + 18.4 MeV

Figure removed for copyright reasons.

Courtesy of ITER.

Fundementals Fundementalsof the Reaction of the Reaction

ƒ ƒThe Combination The Combination of nuclei of of nuclei of Deuterium and Deuterium and
Helium Helium-3 yields 3 yields Hydrogen and Hydrogen and Helium and an Helium and an
Energy of 18.4 Energy of 18.4 MeV MeVper reaction

Figure removed for copyright reasons. See Fig. 2 in Lecture 27 by G. L. Kulcinski(1996).

http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/neep602/LEC27/IMAGES/fig2.JPG
per reaction

Aneutronic AneutronicFusion Fusion

ƒ ƒThe notion of D The notion of D-T fusion being radioactively benign is a myth T fusion being
radioactively benign is a myth as the reaction produces high energy neutrons that activate as the
reaction produces high energy neutrons that activate the materials that compose the reactor,
forcing components, the materials that compose the reactor, forcing components, especially the
inner wall, to need frequent replacement. especially the inner wall, to need frequent
replacement.

ƒ ƒD D-He He-3 reactions produce 3 reactions produce no high energy neutrons, no high energy
neutrons, and consequently the and consequently the activation of metals is activation of metals
is drastically reduced. drastically reduced. (Stray D (Stray D-D reactions will D reactions will
generate some neutrons)

Figure removed for copyright reasons. See Fig. 3 in Lecture 27 by G. L. Kulcinski(1996).

http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/neep602/LEC27/IMAGES/fig3.GIF

generate some neutrons)

Energy Conversion Energy Conversion Another significant benefit of using Deuterium and Helium
Another significant benefit of using Deuterium and Helium-3 fuels is that 3 fuels is that the
reaction products, being charged particles, can be manipulat the reaction products, being
charged particles, can be manipulated by ed by electric and magnetic fields and can
consequently used for direc electric and magnetic fields and can consequently used for direct
energy t energy conversion. conversion.

Figure removed for copyright reasons. See Fig. 5 in Lecture 27 by G. L. Kulcinski(1996).

http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/neep602/LEC27/IMAGES/fig5.JPG

Electrical Power Electrical Power Experiments have Experiments have demonstrated that a blind
like demonstrated that a blind like series of water cooled ion series of water cooled ion collectors
can convert a high collectors can convert a high energy (100 energy (100 KeV KeV) beam of )
beam of ions into electrical energy with ions into electrical energy with efficiencies on the order
of 60 efficiencies on the order of 6070 percent. These efficiencies 70 percent. These efficiencies
are much greater than with DT are much greater than with DT fuel or with fission reactors.
Figure removed due to copyright reasons. See Fig. 8 in Lecture 27 by G. L. Kulcinski(1996).
http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/neep602/LEC27/IMAGES/fig8.GIF Figure removed due to copyright
reasons. See Fig. 7 in Lecture 27 by G. L. Kulcinski(1996).
http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/neep602/LEC27/IMAGES/fig7.JPG fuel or with fission reactors.

Conditions necessary for D Conditions necessary for D-He He-3 3 Fusion Fusion As we have
already learned, the amount of energy needed to fuse As we have already learned, the amount
of energy needed to fuse nuclei is proportional to the nuclei is proportional to the number of
protons involved in the reaction. Because D number of protons involved in the reaction. Because
D-He He-3 Fusion involves 3 protons as 3 Fusion involves 3 protons as opposed to 2 with DT
fusion, the amount of heat required for goo opposed to 2 with DT fusion, the amount of heat
required for good fusion parameters is 100 d fusion parameters is 100 keV keV. This is about 10
times greater than the amount needed for DT f . This is about 10 times greater than the amount
needed for DT fusion. At the Naka Fusion usion. At the Naka Fusion Center in Japan, scientists set
the world record for the hottest Center in Japan, scientists set the world record for the
hottestplasma in their advanced plasma in their advanced tokamak tokamakJT JT-60. This plasma
reached 520,000,000 Kelvin, which corresponds to 60. This plasma reached 520,000,000 Kelvin,
which corresponds toion energies of ion energies of 50 50 keV keV, showing that the energy
requirements for helium , showing that the energy requirements for helium-3 fusion are not so
farfetched. 3 fusion are not so farfetched.

Figure removed due to copyright reasons. See Fig. 9 in Lecture 27 by G. L. Kulcinski(1996).

http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/neep602/LEC27/IMAGES/fig9.JPG

Figure removed for copyright reasons.

Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Inertial Electrostatic Confinement At the University of

Wisconsin, researchers have developed a new At the University of Wisconsin, researchers have
developed a new small scale method of producing fusion. In electrostatic small scale method of
producing fusion. In electrostatic confinement, a small vacuum chamber is filled with gaseous
fuel confinement, a small vacuum chamber is filled with gaseous fuel at at a low pressure. An
outer and inner grid are contained in the a low pressure. An outer and inner grid are contained
in the chamber and are charged such that there is a potential differenc chamber and are charged
such that there is a potential difference o e o 100kV between them. Ions oscillate in the center
and reach very 100kV between them. Ions oscillate in the center and reach very high energies,
enough to force fusion upon high energies, enough to force fusion upon collisiding
collisidingwith other with other nuclei. nuclei.

Figure removed for copyright reasons. Source:

http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/iec/operation.htm(second image).

Electrostatic Confinement Electrostatic Confinement Using deuterium and helium Using

deuterium and helium-3 fuels, scientists have 3 fuels, scientists have shown successful fusion
and generation of high shown successful fusion and generation of high energy protons on a small
scale. The process would energy protons on a small scale. The process would need to be greatly
refined for energy production but need to be greatly refined for energy production but has
definitely been effective as a proof of concept. has definitely been effective as a proof of
concept.

Figure removed for copyright reasons. Source: http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/iec/operation.htm(first

image). F igure removed for copyright reasons.
Helium Helium-3 3

Helium Helium-3 is an a one neutron isotope of helium that is formed as cosmic 3 is an a one
neutron isotope of helium that is formed as cosmicrays rays bombard Helium bombard Helium-4
that is produced naturally through fusion in the sun. Unfortun 4 that is produced naturally
through fusion in the sun. Unfortunately ately the earth the earth’ ’s atmosphere and magnetic
field repel helium s atmosphere and magnetic field repel helium-3 and consequently there 3 and
consequently there are very minimal quantities in existence on earth. Beside primor are very
minimal quantities in existence on earth. Beside primordial deposits, small dial deposits, small
quantities of helium quantities of helium-3 can also be 3 can also be

attained as products of tritium decay attained as products of tritium decay from fission reactors
and nuclear from fission reactors and nuclear weapons. weapons. Although these deposits on
earth Although these deposits on earth provide us with a minimal amount of provide us with a
minimal amount of fuel to run small experiments with, fuel to run small experiments with,
another more abundant source of another more abundant source of helium helium-3 would be
needed for us to 3 would be needed for us to actually use helium actually use helium-3 for
energy

Figure removed for copyright reasons. See Fig. 15 in Lecture 27 by G. L. Kulcinski(1996).

http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/neep602/LEC27/IMAGES/fig15.JPG

3 for energy

The moon

Without a repulsive atmosphere, the moon has Without a repulsive atmosphere, the moon has
accumulated large amounts of helium accumulated large amounts of helium-3 on its 3 on its
surface. An interesting statistic is that the amount surface. An interesting statistic is that the
amount of energy stored in lunar helium is 10 times the of energy stored in lunar helium is 10
times the amount of energy stored in all of the fossil fuels amount of energy stored in all of the
fossil fuels on earth. Because the lunar helium on earth. Because the lunar helium-3 exists in 3
exists in concentrations of 13 parts per billion in the lunar concentrations of 13 parts per billion
in the lunar soil, a significant amount of refining would need soil, a significant amount of refining
would need to occur on the moon in order to extract the to occur on the moon in order to
extract the helium helium-3 and maximize the amount that could be 3 and maximize the amount
that could be returned to earth on each trip. When it is returned to earth on each trip. When it is
considered that the Saturn V rockets used in the considered that the Saturn V rockets used in the
Apollo program Apollo program

could lift could liftoff with a payload of 50 tons, the notion of a bringing mining e off with a
payload of 50 tons, the notion of a bringing mining equipment to the moon does quipment to
the moon does not seem completely unrealistic. In fact, the Chinese government not seem
completely unrealistic. In fact, the Chinese governmenthas outlined plans to send has outlined
plans to send astronauts to the moon to lay the groundwork for establishing mi astronauts to the
moon to lay the groundwork for establishing mining colonies for helium ning colonies for helium-
3. The 3. The plan is to have astronauts on the moon by 2009 and mining as ear plan is to have
astronauts on the moon by 2009 and mining as early as 2015. ly as 2015.

Outlook Outlook

Helium Helium-3 fusion is definitely a far distance away and 3 fusion is definitely a far distance
away and should best be considered as a second generation fuel, should best be considered as a
second generation fuel, something that may be exploited after current methods something that
may be exploited after current methods for confinement have been refined to the commercial
for confinement have been refined to the commercial reactor level. Nevertheless, helium reactor
level. Nevertheless, helium-3 3’ ’s benefits in terms s benefits in terms of energy conversion and
radioactivity are significant, of energy conversion and radioactivity are significant, and should be
further explored. Clearly mining the moon and should be further explored. Clearly mining the
moon is a crazy idea; however, the technology could be is a crazy idea; however, the technology
could be developed to make it a possibility. A great deal of capital developed to make it a
possibility. A great deal of capital would be required to get the ball rolling, but the value of
would be required to get the ball rolling, but the value of helium helium-3 if it could be used for
energy could be great 3 if it could be used for energy could be great enough to justify the
expenditure. enough to justify the expenditure.

Bibliography Bibliography

“ “Lunar Helium Lunar Helium-3 as an Energy Source, in a nutshell 3 as an Energy Source, in a

nutshell” ”2004. 14 May 2006. 2004. 14 May 2006. < <http://www.asi.org/adb/02/09/he3
http://www.asi.org/adb/02/09/he3-intro.html intro.html> >

“ “Fusion Plasma Research Fusion Plasma Research” ”2006. Japan Atomic Energy Agency. 14 May
2006.< 2006. Japan Atomic Energy Agency. 14 May 2006.<http://www
http://wwwjt60.naka.jaea.go.jp/ jt60.naka.jaea.go.jp/> >

“ “IEC Fusion Advanced Fuels Project IEC Fusion Advanced Fuels Project” ”2006. University of
Wisconsin. 14 May 2006. 2006. University of Wisconsin. 14 May 2006. <
<http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/iec/ftisite1.htm http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/iec/ftisite1.htm> >

Schmitt, Harrison H. Schmitt, Harrison H. “ “Mining the Moon. Mining the Moon.” ”12 October
2004. 14 May 12 October 2004. 14 May 2006.<
2006.<http://www.popularmechanics.com/science/space/1283056.html?page=
http://www.popularmechanics.com/science/space/1283056.html?page=1&c=y 1&c=y> >

Derzco Derzco, Walter , Walter “ “Mining the moon; Will China become the New Saudi Arabia of
the 2 Mining the moon; Will China become the New Saudi Arabia of the 21st 1st century?
century?” ”2 November 2005. 14 May 2 November 2005. 14 May 2006.<
2006.<http://smarteconomy.typepad.com/smart_economy/2005/11/mining_the
http://smarteconomy.typepad.com/smart_economy/2005/11/mining_the_moon.html
_moon.html> >

Kulcinski Kulcinski, G.L. , G.L. “ “3He Fusion: A Safe, Clean, and Economical Energy Source For
Futu 3He Fusion: A Safe, Clean, and Economical Energy Source For Future re Generations
Generations” ”29 March 1996. 14 May 2006< 29 March 1996. 14 May
2006<http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/neep602/lecture27.html
http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/neep602/lecture27.html>