Thermal conductivity of liquids

(Guarded plate method)

Objective: Experimental Investigation of thermal conductivity of the liquids by Guarded Hot

Plate Method.
Aim: To determine the thermal conductivity of glycerol.
Introduction:
The dependence of thermal conductivity of a material on temperature depends on the
degree with the molecules of material are strongly bound to. Thermal conductivity of gases
increases with temperature due to increase in thermal energy that increases the molecular
velocity. In liquids, the temperature dependence of thermal conductivity depends on the viscosity
also. The physical properties of fluids, such as thermal conductivity, play an important role in the
design of a wide variety of engineering applications, including heat exchangers and electronic
cooling [1].
Also, in many cooling applications ranging from micro-electronics to automotive or aero-spatial
industries, one of the key elements is the use of advanced fluids, with increased thermal
conductivity beside to classical cooling fluids. In such situations, the measurement of the thermal
conductivity of fluids is very important in evaluating the thermal transfer efficiency in thermal
equipment and in cooling systems. The guarded hot plate method is a steady state absolute
method suitable for material which can be laid flat between two parallel plates & can be adopted
for loose fill materials which can be filled between such plates. In the present study the work
undertaken to measure the thermal conductivity of glycerol.
Theory:
For thermal conductivity of liquid using Fourier’s law, the heat flow through the liquid
from hot fluid to cold is the heat transfer through conduction fluid medium.
Fourier’s equation:
−kA
Q= ( T −T 1 )
∆x 2
At steady state the average face temperatures are recorded (Th and Tc) along with the rate
of heat transfer (Q), knowing the heat transfer area( A h) and the thickness of the sample (dx)
across which heat the transfer takes place, the thermal conductivity of the sample can be
calculated using Fourier’s law of heat conduction.

( T h−T c )
Q=k A h
∆x
Heat transfer area = Ah (area perpendicular to direction of heat flow)
Experimental setup:
The apparatus is based on well established “Guarded hot plate” method. It is a steady
state absolute method suitable for materials, which can be fixed between two parallel plates. The
essential components of the setup are the hot plate, the cold plates, and heater assembly, cold
water supply for the cold plate, RTD PT-100 sensors and the liquid specimen holder. In the
setup, a uni-directional heat flow takes place across the liquid whose two faces are maintained at
different temperature by the hot plate on one end and by the cold plate at the other end.
A heater heats hot plate and voltage to the heater is varied with the help of the variac to
conduct the experiment on different voltages as well as different heat inputs. Temperature are
measured by RTDPT-100 sensor attached at three different places on the hot plate as well as on
the cold plate. These sensor readings are used as T hand T cat steady state condition. Heat is
supplied by an electric heater for which, we have to record the voltmeter reading (V) and
ammeter reading (A) after attaining the steady state condition. The temperature of the cold
surface is maintained by circulating cold water at 60 lph. The gap between the hot plate and cold
plate forms the liquid cell, in which liquid sample is filled. The depth of the liquid in the
direction of the flow must be small to ensure the absence of convection currents and the heat
transfer can be safely assumed to takes place by conduction alone.
Experimental Procedure:
1. Fill the liquid cell with the sample liquid (glycerol) through the inlet port, keeping the
apparatus tilted towards upper side so that there is complete removal of air through the
outlet port.
2. Liquid filling should be continued till there is complete removal of air and also liquid
glycerol comes out of the outlet port. close the outlet port followed by the inlet port.
3. Allow cold water to flow through the cold water inlet @ 1-5 lpm. Measure the water flow
rate with the help of stopwatch and a measuring cylinder.
4. Start the electric heater to heat hot plate. Adjust the voltage of hot plate heater in the
range of 80-100 volts.
5. Adjust the cold-water flow rate such that there is change in the outlet temperature of cold
water.
6. Go on recording the sensor readings on hot side as well as on cold side, and once steady
state is achieved (minimum changes in the sensor readings). Record the three sensor
readings on the hot side and three sensor readings on the cold side on temperature
indicator along with the voltmeter (V) and ammeter (A) readings.
7. Stop electricity supply to the heater.
8. Open the liquid outlet valve slightly in the downward tilt position and drain the sample
liquid is a receiver, keeping liquid inlet part open.
Specification:
1. Hot plate material : Copper
Diameter: 160 mm
2. Cold plate material: Aluminum
Diameter: 160 mm
3. Sample liquid depth: 17 mm
4. Temperature sensors: RTD PT-100
Quantity: 6 nos. (No. 1 to no.3 mounted on hot plate and no. 4 to no. 6 mounted
on cold plate)
 5. Digital temperature indicator range: 0 - 199.9 oC
Least count: 0.1 oC
6. Variac: 2 amp, 230 V (AC)
7. Digital voltmeter: 0 – 250 Volts
8. Digital ammeter: 0 – 1.99 Amp
9. Heater: Nichrome heater 400 watt
Observation and calculation:
At steady state: Record the following measurements:
i. Sample liquid:
ii. Voltmeter reading:
iii. Ammeter reading:
iv. Flow rate readings:
a. Volume of water:
b. Time taken:
( T h1 +T h 2+T h 3 )
v. Hot face average temperature( T h ):
3
( T c1 +T c2 +T c 3)
vi. Cold face average temperature( T c ):
3

Case V(v) I(A) W(watt) T h 1 T h2 T h3 T c1 T c2 T c3

1
2
3

Results: Report all the results that you have obtained in your experiment and write down the
discussions in your journal.
Conclusions: Using the results obtained from your experiment comment on the thermal
conductivity of liquids with respect to temperature.
Precaution:
i. Use the stabilize AC single phase power supply only.
ii. Do not disturb any electrical connections of the experimental setup.
 Thermal Conductivity of metals

Objective: Experimental Investigation of thermal conductivity of the solids.

Aim: To determine the thermal conductivity of given test metal rod.
Introduction:
Conduction is a process of heat transfer through solids, liquids and gases. When the
temperature gradient exists in a body, experience has shown that there is a transfer of heat from
high temperature region to the low temperature region. The heat transfer rate per unit is
proportional to the temperature gradient in the direction of heat flow:
Q ∆T
α
A ∆X
Where ‘Q ‘is the heat transfer in (watts),’A’ is the area of heat transfer (m2), ΔT/ΔX is the
temperature gradient in the direction of heat flow (⁰C/m). Where the proportionality constant is a
property of a material and is known as thermal conductivity.
Q ∆T
=−K
A ∆X
The positive constant ‘k’ is called the coefficient of thermal conductivity of material. The
negative sign indicates that heat transfer takes place in the direction of decreasing temperature.
Coefficient of thermal conductivity has the units of W/m⁰C. Note that heat flow rate is involved
and the numerical value of the coefficient of thermal conductivity indicates how fast heat will
flow in a given material.
Thermal conductivity is a physical property of the material. Although it is fairly constant
in narrow temperature range, it varies over a wide temperature range. Metals, which are good
conductors of heat, have high values of thermal conductivity. Insulating material have low values
of thermal conductivity. In any conduction heat transfer problem, it is essential to have the
knowledge of thermal conductivity of the material involved in the heat transfer process. This
study has been designed to measure the temperature gradient along the length of the given metal
rod and to determine its thermal conductivity.

1
Experimental Setup:
It consists of a metal rod horizontally placed in a M.S. cylinder (insulating jacket) and is
insulated by covering the metal rod by insulating powder. An electric heating coil is fixed at one
end of rod while the other end protrudes in to a water jacket. The heat flow through the metal rod
by mode of conduction. A number of thermocouple are fixed alone the length of rod.
Six k-type thermocouple i.e. T1 to T6 are embedded along the length of the rod to measure
the temperature distribution. Four more thermocouples T7 to T10 are placed within the insulating
powder at specific distance, while two thermocouple are placed in the water jacket T11& T12.
The equipment consists of following parts:
Base stand: This is made up of S.S square tubes & euro bound sheets. This is painted
specially with powder coating. All equipments are mounted on base stand.
Insulating Jacket: It is cylinder made up off M.S. It consists of a metal rod, which is
surrounded with a thick layer of insulating material (Asbestos powder).
Water Jacket: We are using water jacket for the cooling of one end of metal rod continues
flow of water is takes place in this jacket with very low discharge. Measure the inlet and outlet
temperature of this water.
Heater: This is a clamp type heater fabricated from aluminum strips. One end of this bar
is heated with heating coil so that this heat is transfer from this end to other end by conduction.
Temperature Sensors: We are using k-type sensor for the measurement of temperature in
which six sensors are used for the measurement the temperature of heating bar. Four sensors are
used to measure the temperature of insulation to find out temperature loss. Two sensors are used
to measure the temperature of inlet and outlet water.
Dimmer state: It is used to control the wattage of the heater. We can adjust wattage as per
our requirement by controlling the current supplied to the heater. The voltage supplied to the
heater is kept constant.
PROCEDURE:
 Start the water circulation through the water jacket.
 Switch on the heater supply. Adjust the current supply with the help of Dimmer stat.
 Wait for steady state. Steady state can be observed by the temperature reading at one or
all points on the surface of the metal rod. Steady state is reached when these temperatures
stop changing with time.

2
  Under steady state conditions note down the temperature of each point on the surface of
the rod as well as temperature of surrounding. Repeat above procedure for several power
input.

Figure: Experimental setup of thermal conductivity of metal rod

3
SPECIFICATIONS:
 Temperature indicator: 0 to 400◦C
 Voltmeter: 0 to 1000V
 Ammeter: 0 to 10A
 Heater: 500 watt
 Dimmer stat: 0 to 500 watt
 Diameter of metal rod: 30mm
 Length of metal rod:500mm
 Radial distance of thermocouple: T7 to T9 : 25mm
 Length between T1 to T6 : 250 mm
 Insulating material: Asbestos powder

Observation Table:

Sr. T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 T11 T12 V I

no ◦C ◦C ◦C ◦C ◦C ◦C ◦C ◦C ◦C ◦C ◦C ◦C (V) (A)
1

Results: Report all the results that you have obtained in your experiment and write down the
discussions in your journal.
Conclusions: Using the results obtained from your experiment comment on the thermal
conductivity of given metal rod with respect to temperature.
Precaution:
i. Use the stabilize AC single phase power supply only.
ii. Do not disturb any electrical connections of the experimental setup.

4
 Heat transfer in Natural Convection

Objective: Study of convective heat transfer coefficient in natural convection

Aim: To find out the heat transfer coefficient of vertical cylinder in natural convection in
stagnant air.

Introduction:

Convective heat transfer is one of the major modes of heat transfer encountered in day to
day life. It occurs due to the bulk motion of the fluid. Natural convection is associated with the
molecular transport mechanism occurring due to buoyancy. This arises due to the temperature
effects giving rise to the density difference. If the bulk motion is induced by some external
means such as a pump or blower then the process is known as heat transfer by forced convection.

Theory:

Natural Convection phenomena is due to temperature difference between the surface and the
fluid and if not treated by any external energy .The setup is designed and fabricated to study the
natural convection phenomenon from a vertical cylinder in terms of average heat transfer
coefficient .The heat transfer Coefficient is given by

Q
h= kcal/m 2 hr ° C
A ( T s −T a)

Where

Q = Rate of heat transfer (kcal/hr)

h = heat transfer coefficient (kcal /m2 hr ° C ¿

A = Area from which heat transfer is taking place (m2)

T s= Temperature of the heat transfer surface (° C ¿

T a= Temperature of the surrounding fluid (° C ¿

Experimental setup:

The Apparatus consists of a Brass tube fitted in a rectangular duct in a vertical

fashion .Duct is open at the top and bottom, and form an inclosure and serves the purpose of
undisturbed surroundings. One side of the duct is fitted with a transparent acrylic window for
visualization. An electric heating element is kept in the vertical tube that in turns heats the tube
surface. The heat is lost from the tube to the surrounding air by natural convection. The
temperature of the vertical tube is measure by temperature sensors and displayed by a Digital
Temperature Indicator with multi-channel switch. A PID Controller is provided for controlling
the heat input. Electronic energy meter will be provided to measure the heat input. The tube
surface is polished to minimize the radiation losses. The heat input to the heater is measured by
Digital ammeter and digital voltmeter and can be varied by dimmer stat.

Figure: Heat transfer in natural convection setup

Specifications:

1. Diameter of tube = 38 mm
2. Length of tube = 50 mm
3. Size of tube = 20 x 20 x 6 cm
4. Temp of sensors ,RTD PT 100 Types
5. No. of RTD temp. sensors = 8
6. Digital voltmeter = 0 to 250V
7. Digital ammeter = 0 to 2.5 Amp
8. Dimmer stat = 2 Amp/220V
9. Temperature indicator: Digital temperature indication 0 to 200 ºC with multi panel
switch.

Experimental procedure:

1. Clean the Apparatus and make it free from dust particle.

2. Ensure that all on/ off switches given on the panel at off position.

3. Ensure that variac knob is at 0 position, given on the panel.

4. Now switch on the main power supply (220 volt AC, 50 Hertz).

5. Switch on the panel with the help of main on /off switch given on the panel.
 6. Fix the power input to the heater with the help of variac, voltmeter and
ammeter provided.

7. After 30 min, the temperature in the test section was recorded at various points in each
5 min interval.

8. It was assumed that steady state was achieved if temperature readings were same for 3
times.

Closing procedure:

1. When experiment is over, switch off heater first.

2. Adjust variac at 0.
3. Switch off panel with the help of main on/ off switch given on the panel.
4. Switch off power supply to panel.

Formula:-

1. Heat transfer co efficient: (Experimental)

Q
h= kcal/m 2 hr ° C
A ( T s −T a)

.
2. Heat input: Q = V. I (watt)
3. Heat transefer Area : A = π.d.L m2
4. Mean surface temperature:
Ts = (T1 + T2 + T3 + T4 + T5 + T6 + T7) / 7 ºC
5. Theoretical heat transfer coefficient can be calculated from the correlation:
1 2

{ }
6
h LC 0.387 Ra L
Nu= = 0.825+
k 9 8
0.492
[ ( )]
1+
Pr
16 27

Where, Lc - is the characteristic length

RaL - is Rayleigh number
Pr – is the Prandtl number

Observation table:
SI No. V I T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8

1.

2.

3.

Results: Report all the results that you have obtained in your experiment and write down the
discussions in your journal.
Conclusions: Compare the experiment heat transfer coefficient that you have obtained with the
theoretical heat transfer coefficient.

Precautions:

1. Use the stabilizer AC single phase supply only.

2. Never switch on mains power supply before measuring that all On/off switches given on
the panel are at off position.
3. Voltage to Heater start and increase slowly.
4. Keep all the Assembly undisturbed.
5. Operate selector switch of temperature in indicator gently.
6. Always keep the operators free from dust.
7. There is possibility of getting abrupt result if the supply voltage is fluctuating or the
satisfactory steady state condition is not reached.

Applications:

Natural convection heat transfer is extensively used in the following areas of engineering:
1. Cooling of commercial high voltage electrical power transformers.
2. Heating of houses by electrical baseboard heaters.
3. Heat loss from steam pipe lines in power plants and heat gain in refrigerant pipe lines
in air conditioning applications.
4. Cooling of reactor cores in nuclear power plants, though often the coolant is driven by
pumps, resulting in more efficient heat transfer by forced convection.
5. Cooling of electronic devices (chips, transistors) by finned heat sinks, though a fan is
often present to augment the natural convection with forced convection.
 Heat transfer in forced convection

Objective: Study of convective heat transfer coefficient in forced convection

Aim: To determine the heat transfer coefficient in forced convection for hot air flowing through
horizontal tube.
Introduction:
It is well know that a hot plate of metal will cool faster in from a fan than when exposed
to still air. We say that the heat is convected away and we call the process as convective heat
transfer. The velocity at which air blows over the hot plate obviously influences the heat transfer
rate.
Convection is defined as process of heat transfer by combined action of heat conduction and
mixing motion. Convection heat transfer is further classified as Natural Convection and Forced
convection. Natural convection is associated with the molecular transport mechanism occurring
due to buoyancy. This arises due to the temperature effects giving rise to the density difference.
If the bulk motion is induced by some external means such as a pump or blower then the process
is known as heat transfer by forced convection.
In many practical situations and equipment, we invariably deal with flow of fluids in
tubes like in boiler, super heaters and condensers of a power plant, automobile radiators, water
and air heaters or coolers etc. The knowledge and evaluation of forced convection heat transfer
coefficient for fluid flow in tubes is essentially a prerequisite for an optimal design of all thermal
systems.
Theory:
Air flows into the heated pipe with very high flow rate, the heat transfer rate increases.
The temperature taken by the cold air from the bulk temperature rises its temperature. Thus, for
the tube the total energy that can be expressed in terms of bulk temperature difference by:
q = m Cp (Tb2 – Tb1)
Bulk temperature difference in terms of heat transfer coefficient:
q = h A (Tb2 – Tb1)
A traditional expression for calculation of heat transfer in fully turbulent flow in a smooth tube is
that recommended by Dittus and Boelter equation:
NuD =¿ 0.023 ℜ0.8
D Pr
n
 n = 0.4 for heating and 0.3 for cooling of the fluid.

Experimental setup:
The apparatus consists of a blower unit fitted with the test pipe. The test section is
surrounded by a Nichrome band heater. Four thermocouples are embedded on the test pipe
section and two thermocouples are placed in the air stream at the entrance and exit of the test
pipe section to measure the air temperature. Test pipe is connected to the delivery side of the
blower along with the orifice to measure flow of air through the pipe. Input to the heater is given
through a dimmer stat and measured by voltmeter and ammeter. It is to be noted that a part of the
total heat supplied is utilized in heating the air. A temperature indicator is provided to measure
temperature of pipe wall in the test section is measured.
Temperature sensors:
T1= Air inlet temperature
T2, T3, T4, T5 = Surface temperature of test section
T6 = Air outlet temperature
Utilities required:
Electricity supply: 1 phase, 220V AC, 10 Amp
Floor area of 1.2 m * 0.5 m
Experimental procedure:
Starting procedure:-
1) The apparatus is cleaned and made free from dust.
2) The manometer fluid (water) is put in manometer connected to Pitot tube.
3) It is ensured that all ON/OFF switches given on the panel are at OFF position.
4) It is ensured that variac knob is at zero position given on the panel.
5) Then the main power supply (220V AC, 50 Hz) was switched on.
6) The panel was switched on with the help of mains ON/OFF switch given on the panel.
7) The power input to the heater was fixed with the help of variac, voltmeter and ammeter
provided.
8) Blower was switched ON by operating Rotary switch given on the panel.
9) Air flow rate was adjusted with the help of air flow control valve given in the air line.
10) After 30 min, the temperature in the test section was recorded at various points in each 5
min interval.
11) It was assumed that steady state was achieved if temperature readings were same for 3
times.
 12) The final temperature was recorded.
13) The manometer readings were recorded.

Closing procedure:-
1) When experiment was over, the heater was switched off first.
2) Then the blower was switched off.
3) The variac was adjusted at zero.
4) The panel was switched off with the help of mains on/off switch given on the panel.
5) The power supply to panel was switched off.

Specifications:-
Length of test section = 400 mm
I.D. of test section = 32 mm
O.D. of test section = 38 mm
No. of RTD temperature sensors = 6 Nos
Dimmer stat = 2 Amps, 220V
Digital temperature indicator with multi-channel switch. Digital voltmeter and digital
ammeter are also provided.
Formula:
Qa 2
1) U = Watt /m °C
A ( T s−T a )
ρm
2) ΔH =R [ ]
ρa
−1 m of air

C d∗π 2
3) Q= [
4 ]
∗d p∗ √ 2 gΔH m3/s (where, C d=0.85)

4) m=Q∗ρakg/s
5) Qa=m∗C p∗( T 6−T 1 )Watt

Observation and calculations:-

Inner diameter of test section, di =
Outer diameter of test section, do =
Length of test section, L =
Specific heat of air, Cp = 1003.2 J/kg °C
Density of air, ρa = 1.205 kg/m3
Density of manometric fluid, ρm=
 T 1 +T 6
Average temperature of air, Ta = °C
2
T 2 +T 3+ T 4 + T 5
Average surface temperature, Ts = °C
4
Manometer reading R =
Observation table:-
Voltage I T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 Manometer
(V) (Amp) °C °C °C °C °C °C reading (cm)

Results: Report all the results that you have obtained in your experiment and write down the
discussions in your journal.
Conclusions: Compare the experiment heat transfer coefficient that you have obtained with the
theoretical heat transfer coefficient.
Precautions and maintenance instructions:-
1) Use the stabilize A.C. single phase supply only.
2) Never switch on mains power supply before ensuring that all the ON/OFF switches
given on the panel are at OFF position.
3) Voltage to heater starts and increases slowly.
4) Keep all the assembly undisturbed.
5) Never run the apparatus if power supply is less than 180V and above 240V.
6) Operate selector switch off temperature indicator gently.
7) Always keep the apparatus free from dust.
8) There is a possibility of getting abrupt result if the supply voltage is fluctuating or if the
satisfactory steady state condition is not reached.

Trouble shooting:
1) If electric panel is not showing the input on the mains light, check the fuel and also
check the main supply.
2) If 'D.T.I' displays 'I' on the screen. Check the computer socket. If loose tight it.
3) If temperature of any sensor is not displayed in D.T.I. Check the connection and rectify
that.
4) Voltmeter showing the voltage given to heater by ampere meter does not, tight the heater
socket and switch. If OK it means heater burnt.
 Drop wise & Film wise condensation

Objective: To study heat transfer in the process of condensation.

Aim: To find heat transfer coefficient for dropwise & filmwise condensation process.
Introduction:
In all applications, the steam must be condensed as it transfers heat to a cooling medium, e.g.
Cold water in the condensers of a generation station, hot water in a heating clarifier, sugar
solution in a sugar refinery etc. During condensation very high heat fluxes are possible and
provided the heat can quickly transferred from the condensing surface to the cooling medium,
heat exchangers using steam can be compact and effective.
Theory:
Steam may condense on a surface in two distinct modes, known as film wise and drop wise
condensation. For same temperature between the steam and surface dropwise condensation is
much more effective than film wise condensation and for this reason, the former is desirable
although in practical plants, it rarely occurs for prolonged period.
Film wise condensation: Unless specially treating, most materials are wet table and as
condensation occurs as film condensate spreads over the surface. The thickness of the film
depends upon a number of factors, e.g. the rate of condensation, the viscosity of the fluid, the
surface orientation and nature.
Fresh vapor condenses on to the outside of the film and heat is transferred by conduction through
the film to metal surface beneath, as the film thickness increases it flows downward drips from
the low points leaving the film intact and at an equilibrium thickness. The film of liquid is a
barrier to the heat transfer and its resistance accounts for most of the difference between the
effectiveness of the film wise and drop wise condensation.
Drop wise condensation: By specially treating the condensing surface, the contact angle can be
changed and the surface become not wettable. As steam condense, a large number of generally
spherical beads cover the surface. As condensation proceeds, the beads become larger, coalesce,
and then strike downwards over the surface. The moving bead gathers on the static beads along
its downward in its tail. The bare surface offers very little resistance to the transfer of heat and
very high heat fluxes are therefore possible. Unfortunately, due to nature of material used in
construction of condensing heat exchangers, film wise condensation is normal.
Experimental setup:
The equipment consists of a metallic container in which steam generation takes place.
The lower portion houses suitable electric heater for steam generation. A cover is provided for
filling water. The glass cylinder houses two water cooled copper condensers, one of which is
chromium coated to promote drop wise condensation and other is in its natural state to give film
wise condensation. A pressure gauge is provided to measure steam pressure. Separate
connections of two condensers for passing water are provided. One Rota meter is provided to
measure flow rate of water through the condenser. A multi-channel digital temperature indicator
is provided to measure temperature of steam, condensers, and water inlet and outlet from
condenser.
Specifications:
1. Condensers - one chromium plated for drop wise condensation and one having natural
finish for film wise condensation. Both condensers are identical in construction.
Dimensions:
Outer diameter: 20.4 mm
Inner diameter: 20 mm
Length: 150 mm
Material: Copper
2. Main unit: M.S. fabricated construction comprising of test section and steam generator.
Test section is provided with glass cylinder for visualization of the process. It also houses
Rota meter and necessary piping and valves to connect any one condenser in operation
3. Steam generator: Suitable for above experiment with electric heater.
4. Instrumentation:
a) Multy-channel digital temperature indicator with cold junction
compensation with thermocouples. Range 0 to 300° C.
b) Rota meter to measure flow rate of water flowing through condenser.
Range 10 to 100 Lph.
c) Pressure gauge to measure steam pressure. Dial type, range 0 to 2.1
kg/cm2
5. Control panel: Separate control panel to house temperature indicator, necessary switches,
steam generator etc.
Procedure:
1) Fill up the water in steam generator by opening the valve
2) Switch ON the heater switch.
3) After filling the water close to the top cover of steam generator. Start water flow through
one of the condensers which is to be tested and note down the water flow rate in Rota
meter. Ensure that during measurement, water is flowing only through the condenser
under test.
 4) Slowly steam generation will start in the steam generator of the unit and as the steam
rises to the test section, gets condensed and falls down in the cylinder.
5) Depending upon type of condenser under test drop wise or film wise condensation can
visualized.
6) If the water flow rate is low then steam pressure is changed then condensation will occur
at more or less atmospheric pressure.
7) Observations like temperature, water flow rate, pressure, are noted down in the
observation table at the end of each test.

FORMULAE:-
Heat loss from steam : Qs =Ms .θ
Heat taken by cold water: Qw = Mw .Cp.(T5-T4)
Average heat transfer: Q= (QS+QW) /2
Inside heat transfer coefficient: Hi = Q/(Ai.∆Tm )
Outside heat transfer coefficient: Ho= Q/(Ao.∆Tm)
Experimental overall heat transfer coefficient: 1/Uex= 1/hi+ (Di/Do).(1/ho)
Nusset number: Nu = 0.023 (Re)0.8 (Pr)0.4
Theoritically heat transfer coefficient: 1/Uth= 1/hi + (Di/Do).(1/ho)

Observation table:

Water Steam Time Temperature

flow condense (min) T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7
SI.No rate d
. (lph) (ml)
Film 1
wise 2
Drop 1
wise 2
Results: Do calculations and report all the results that you have obtained in your experiment and
write down the discussions in your journal.
Conclusions: Compare the experiment heat transfer coefficient that you have obtained for
different conditions.
Precautions:
1. Do not start heater supply unless water is filled in the steam generator.
2. Operate all the switches and controls gently.
3. Never allow steam to enter the cylinder unless the water is flowing through condenser.
4. Always ensure that the equipment is earthed properly before switching on the supply.  
 Unsteady state heat transfer

Aim: Study of unsteady state heat transfer at varying fluid temperature.

Introduction:

In heat transfer analysis, some bodies are observed to behave like a “lump” whose
interior temperature remains essentially uniform at all times during a heat transfer process. The
temperature of such bodies can be taken to be a function of time only, T(t). Heat transfer analysis
that utilizes this idealization is known as lumped system analysis, which provides great
simplification in certain classes of heat transfer problems without much sacrifice from accuracy.

Theory:

Consider a body of arbitrary shape of mass m, volume V, surface area A s, density ρ, and specific
heat Cp initially at a uniform temperature Ti. At time t = 0, the body is placed into a medium at
temperatureT ∞, and heat transfer takes place between the body and its environment, with a heat
transfer coefficient h. For the sake of discussion, we will assume that T ∞ >T i, but the analysis is
equally valid for the opposite case. We assume lumped system analysis to be applicable, so that
the temperature remains uniform within the body at all times and changes with time only,
T =T ( t ). Then the temperature variation is given by:

−h As
T −T ∞ ρV C p
=e
T i−T ∞

Experimental setup:

This accessory designed to allow exercises and also to be performed in unsteady state
heat transfer. A set of solid shapes are supplied comprising a rectangular slab, long cylinder and
sphere, each shape manufactured from brass and stainless steel and instrumented with a
thermocouple to examine the temperature at the center of the shape. A heated water bath with
integral flow duct and external circulating pump ensures that hot water flows through solid shape
under evaluation, at constant velocity and constant temperature.
Operational procedure:

1. Connect the unit to the heat transfer service unit for performing unsteady state heat
transfer experiment.
2. Fill the outer tank with water.
3. Switch on the main supply.
4. Due to heater water gets heated and the hot water passes to the inner tank with the help of
pump.
5. Insert the material of which temperature is to be measured.
6. Sensors sense the temperature of material which displays on temperature indicator.

Observation table:

SI.No Temperature Initial Material Final Time

of controller temperatur temperatur (min)
(° C ¿ e e
(° C ¿ (° C ¿

Calculations:

If Biot number is less than 0.1, then the value for coefficient of heat transfer calculated as
follows:

h×L
Bi=
k

Where, h – is the heat transfer coefficient,

L – is the characteristic length of the test piece

k – is the thermal conductivity (for S.S-14.9, Brass-110.7 W/mK)

The temperature distribution is given by:

−h A s
T −T ∞ ρV C p
=e
T i−T ∞

Where, volume V, surface area A s, densityρ, and specific heat Cp

Results: Report all the results that you have obtained in your experiment and write down the
discussions in your journal.
Conclusions: Using the results obtained from your experiment comment on the unsteady state
temperature distribution of the test material.

Precautions:

1. Keep the system in clean and dry place

2. Use single phase 230 V AC and 50 Hz supply for the unit.
3. Check for wire connection visually.
4. Do not touch the wires when the system is ON position.
5. After completion of experiments switch off the load.
6. Clean the equipment before and after the experiment with dry cloths.
 Stefan Boltzmann Apparatus

Objective:- Study of radiation heat transfer.

Aim: To find out the Stefan Boltzmann constant.
Introduction:
All substances at all temperature emit thermal radiation. Thermal radiation is an
electromagnetic wave and does not require any material medium for propagation. All bodies
can emit radiation and have also the capacity to absorb all of a part of the radiation coming
from the surrounding towards it.
Theory:-
The most commonly used law of thermal radiation is the Stefan Boltzmann law which states
that thermal radiation heat flux or emissive power of a black surface is proportional to the
fourth power of absolute temperature of the surface and is given by
Q
=Eb =σ∗T 4 W/m2 K4
A
The constant of proportionality is called the Stefan Boltzmann constant and has the value of
5.67 * 10-8 W/m2 K4. The Stefan Boltzmann law can be derived by integrating the Planck’s
law over the entire spectrum of wavelength from 0 to ∞ . The objective of this experimental
setup is to measure the value of this constant fairly closely by an easy arrangement.

Experimental setup:
The apparatus is centered on a flanged copper hemisphere B. It is fixed on a flat non-
conducting plat A. The outer surface of B is enclosed in a metal water jacket used to heat B
to some suitable constant temperature. One RTD PT-100 type temperature sensor is attached
to the inner wall of hemisphere B to measure its temperature and to read by a temperature
indicator.
The disc D which is mounted in an insulating bakelite sleeves S is fitted in a hole
drilled in the centre of the base plate A. A chromel/Alumel temperature sensor is used to
measure the temperature of D i.e TD. The temperature sensor is mounted on the disc to study
the rise of its temperature. The emissivity of the enclosure and the disc are assumed unity
because of black surface characteristics. The radiation energy emitted by the disc to the
enclosure is given by

mC p ( dTdt )
t =0
=σ A D ( T 4s −T 4D )

dT
Where , is the rate of increase in temperature (℃ / s ¿ at the instant when the disc
dt
is inserted in to the setup. The Stefan Boltzmann constant is obtained using the relationship.
 σ =¿
mC p ( dTdt )
t=0

A D ( T −T 4D )
4
s

Utilities required:
Electric supply: 1st phase, 220 V AC, (2 W). Table for set-up support.
Experimental procedure:-

1) Heat the water in the tank by the immersion heater up to a temperature of about 90 o
C.
2) The disc D is removed before pouring the hot water in the Jacket.
3) The hot water is poured in the water Jacket.
4) The hemispherical enclosure B and A will come to some uniform temperature in a
short time after filling the hot water in the Jacket. The thermal inertia of hot water is
quite adequate to prevent significant cooling in the time required to conduct the
experiment.
5) The disc D is now inserted in A at a time when its temperature is TD.
6) Start noting the temperature change for every five second for a minute.

Specification:-
Hemispherical enclosure diameter =200 mm
Hemisphere base plate bakelite dia= 250 mm
No. of temperature sensor mounted on B = 1
No. of temperature sensor mounted on D = 1
Test disc dia. =
Mass of test disc, m = 5.1 g
Specific heat of the test disc, S = 418 J/kg ℃
Observation table:

SI.No Time (s) Temperature (TD) °C

Precautions:

1) Start the cooling circuit before switching ON the heaters and adjust the flow rate so
that practically there is no temperature rise in the circuiting fluid.
2) The apparatus should be cleaned before and after the experiment, clean water should
be used.
3) The black body should be removed when not heated.

Applications:

1) Determination of temperature of Sun from its energy flux density.

2) Temperature of stars other than Sun, and also their radius relative to the Sun, can be
approximated by similar means.
3) We can find the temperature of Earth, by equating the energy received from the Sun
and the energy transmitted by the Earth under black body approximation.
 Emissivity measurement apparatus

Objective

Study of radiation heat transfer by black body and test plate.

Aim: To find out the emissivity of a test plate.

Introduction:

Radiation is one of the modes of heat transfer, which does not require any material
medium for its propagation. The mechanism is assumed to be electromagnetic in nature is the
result of temperature difference. Thermodynamic considerations show that an ideal radiator or
black and will emit energy at a rate proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature
of the body. When two bodies will exchange heat by radiation, the net heat exchange is given by,

Q=σA T 4

All the bodies emit and absorb the thermal radiation to and from surroundings. The rate
of thermal radiation depends upon the temperature of body. When thermal radiation strikes a
body, part of it is reflected, part of it is absorbed and part of it is transmitted through body. The
fraction of incident energy, reflected by the surface is called reflectivity (ρ). The fraction of
incident energy, absorbed by the surface is called absorptivity (α) and the fraction of incident
energy transmitted through body is called transmissivity (τ). The surface which absorbs all the
incident radiation is called a black surface. For a black surface, ρ+ α + τ = 1. The radiant flux,
emitted from the surface is called emissive power (E).

Theory:

An idealized black body is one, which absorbs all the incident radiation with
reflectivity and transmittivity equals to zero. The radiant energy per unit time per unit area from
the surface of the body is called as the emissive power & is usually denoted by e. The emissivity
of a surface is ratio of emissive power of a surface to that of black surface at the same

E
temperature. Thus, ϵ= . For black body absorptivity =1 and by the knowledge of Kirchhoff’s
Eb
law of the emissivity of black body become unity. Emissivity being a property of the surface
depend on the nature of the surface and temperature. The present experimental set up is designed
and fabricated to measure the property of the test plate surface at various temperatures.

Experimental setup:

The experimental setup consists of two circular copper plates identical in size and is
provided with heat coils stacked between them. The plates are mounted on bracket and are kept
in an enclosure so as to provide undisturbed natural convection surroundings. The heating input
to the heater is varied by dimmer stat and is measured by using an ammeter and a voltmeter with
the help of double pole double throw switch. The temperature of the plate is measured by Pt-100
sensor. Another Pt-100 sensor is kept in the enclosure to read the ambient temperature of
enclosure during experiment.

Experimental procedure:

1. We gradually increase the input to the heated to black plate, adjust it to some value and
adjust heater input to test plate slightly less than the black plate.
2. Check the temperature of two plates with regular interval and adjust the input of the test
plate. This requires trial and error method.
3. After attaining steady state, record all the reading.

Observation table:

SI.No Heat input to heaters Test Black surrounding

plate plate (Ts)
Black body Test plate
(T1) (T2)
V(v) I(Amp) Q b=V × I V(v) I Q g=V × I
(Amp)
1
2

From steady state readings:

 T1 =

T2=

Ts=

Emissivity = Egrey body/ Eblack body

Results: Report all the results that you have obtained in your experiment and write down the
discussions in your journal.
Conclusions: Using the results obtained from your experiment comment on the emissivity of the
radiating surface.
Precautions:
1. Keep the system in clean and dry place
2. Use single phase 230 V AC and 50 Hz supply for the unit.
3. Check for wire connection visually.
4. Do not touch the wires when the system is ON position.
5. After completion of experiments switch off the load.
6. Clean the equipment before and after the experiment with dry cloths.
 Shell and tube heat exchanger

Objective: - Determination of the overall heat transfer coefficient and study the effect of
fluid velocity on the heat transfer coefficient in heat exchangers.
Aim: To calculate overall heat transfer coefficient for shell and tube heat exchanger.
Introduction:
Heat exchanger is a device in which heat is transfer from a hot to a cold fluid across a
separating wall. This is an important component of any thermal system; such as condenser in
a thermal power plant, evaporate and condensers in refrigerator, radiator of a motorcar etc.
The heat transfer process is dominated by convection in fluid – solid boundaries and
conduction through the separating wall. The size and weight are the important aspects in the
design of the heat exchangers. The important performances parameter is the overall heat
transfer co-efficient which determines the heat transfer rate in the equipment.
One of the important classifications of the heat exchangers is based on the direction of the
flow of hot and cold fluids. In the parallel flow heat exchangers, both hot and cold fluids flow
in the same direction, whereas in the counter flow type, fluid flow in opposite direction.
Theory:
The most common type of heat exchanger in industrial applications is the shell-and-
tube heat exchanger, shown in figure below. Shell-and-tube heat exchangers contain a large
number of tubes (sometimes several hundred) packed in a shell with their axes parallel to that
of the shell. Heat transfer takes place as one fluid flows inside the tubes while the other fluid
flows outside the tubes through the shell. Baffles are commonly placed in the shell to force
the shell-side fluid to flow across the shell to enhance heat transfer and to maintain uniform
spacing between the tubes. Despite their widespread use, shell and tube heat exchangers are
not suitable for use in automotive and aircraft applications because of their relatively large
size and weight. Note that the tubes in a shell-and-tube heat exchanger open to some large
flow areas called headers at both ends of the shell, where the tube-side fluid accumulates
before entering the tubes and after leaving them. Shell-and-tube heat exchangers are further
classified according to the number of shell and tube passes involved. Heat exchangers in
which all the tubes make one U-turn in the shell, for example, are called one-shell-pass and
two tube-passes heat exchangers. Likewise, a heat exchanger that involves two passes in the
shell and four passes in the tubes is called a two-shell-passes and four-tube-passes heat
exchanger.

1
Experimental setup:
The apparatus consists of 1-2 pass shell and tube heat exchanger. The hot fluid is hot
water, which is attained from an insulating water bath using a magnetic drive pump and it
flow through the inner tube while the cold water flowing through the shell side (annulus). For
flow measurement Rota meters are provided at inlet of cold water and outlet of hot water line.
The hot water bath is of recycled type with digital temperature controller 0 to 100 ℃.

Operational procedure:

1. Clean the apparatus and make water bath free from dust.
2. Close all the drain valves provided.
3. Fill water bath ¾ with clean water and ensure that no foreign particles are there.
4. Connect cold water supply to the inlet of cold water rota meter line.
5. Connect outlet of cold water from shell to drain.
6. Ensure that all ON/Off switches given on the panel are at off position.
7. Now switch on the main power supply.
8. Switch on heater by operating rotary switch given on the panel.
9. Set temperature of the water bath with the help of digital temperature controller.
10. Open flow control valve and By-pass valve for hot water supply.
11. Switch on magnetic pump for hot water supply.
12. Adjust hot water flow rate with the help of flow control valve and rota meter.
13. Record the temperatures of hot and cold water inlet and outlet when steady state is
achieved

2
Closing Procedure:

1. When the experiment is over, switch off heater first.

2. Switch off magnetic pump for hot water supply.
3. Switch off power supply to panel.
4. Stop cold and hot water supply with the help of flow control valve
5. Drain cold and hot water from the shell with the help of given drain valves.
6. Drain water bath with the help of drain valve.

Specification:

1. Shell:
Material: Stainless steel
Diameter: 220 mm
Length: 500 mm
25 % cut baffles at 100 mm distance 4 nos.
2. Tube side:

Material: Stainless steel

Outer diameter: 16 mm
Inner diameter: 13 mm
Length: 500 mm
Number of tubes: 24

3. Temperature controller : Digital 0 – 199.9 ℃

4. Temperature sensors: RTD PT-100 type (5 nos.)
5. Temperature indicator: Digital 0 to 200 ℃with multi-channel switch.
6. Electric heater: 2 kW (2 nos.)
7. Flow measurement: Rota meter (2 nos.)
8. Pump: FHP magnetic drive pump

3
OBSERVATION TABLE
SI. No. Hot water side Cold water side
Flow rate Inlet Outlet Flow rate Inlet Outlet
( mh ) temperature temperatur ( mc ) temperature temperature
e

Data:
Inside heat transfer area, Ai = 3.187 ×10−3 m2
Outside heat transfer area, Ao =4.827 × 10−3 m2
Calculations:
Rate of heat transfer from hot water: Q h=mh C ph ( T hi −T ho) Watt
Rate of heat transfer from cold water: Qc =mc C pc ( T co −T ci ) Watt
( Qh +Qc )
Average heat transfer: Q= Watt
2
( ∆T 2−∆ T 1 )
∆ T m=
LMTD: ∆ T2 , Choose the expression for ∆ T 1 , ∆T 2 depending upon the flow
ln
∆ T1
pattern (counter flow or co-current flow).
Q Q
Overall heat transfer coefficient: U i= , Uo=
Ai ∆ T m Ao ∆ Tm
Results: Report all the results that you have obtained in your experiment and write down the
discussions in your journal.
Conclusions: Using the results obtained from your experiment comment on shell side and
tube side overall heat transfer coefficients.
Precautions:
1. Never switch on main power supply before ensuring that all the on/off switches on the
panel are at off position.
2. Never switch on heaters before filling water bath with clean water.
3. Never fully close the delivery and by-pass line valves simultaneously.