6th Conference on Nuclear and Particle Physics

17-21 Nov. 2007 Luxor, Egypt

STATUS OF NUCLEAR POWER REACTOR

DEVELOPMENT

M.N.H. Comsan

Egyptian Nuclear Physics Association, Cairo, Egypt

Abstract

Worldwide there are now 439 operating nuclear reactors working in 31

countries with 361 GWe installed power representing ~17% of world
demand on electricity. Most of these reactors were designed and developed
during the 1960s. For almost five decades, the nuclear power industry has
been developing and improving nuclear design and technology towards safer
and more reliable operation. With the increase of world demand on energy,
136 new reactors are needed just to maintain the nuclear energy share at the
same level by 2025. Several generations of nuclear reactors are commonly
distinguished. Generation I reactors were developed in 1950-60s and except
for UK, none of them are in operation now. Generation II reactors are
typified by the present PWR, BWR, PHWR and LWCR of which most
reactors are in operation. With Chernobyl accident in 1986, demand on
increasing safety and security opened the door towards generation III
reactors. Generation III and (3+) reactors are of advanced design, some of
them started operation, and others are under construction or ready to be
ordered. Generation IV designs are in the developmental stage and are not
expected to be operational before 2030.
The article discusses current status of electricity production, its generation
by type and comparative costs, worldwide existing and under construction
NPPs and nuclear power reactor generation development.

WORLD DEMAND ON ENERGY

World demand in electricity generation is increasing due to factors including

both population and economic growth. This is attributed to: i) world population is
expected to increase from 6.7 billion at 2007 to 9.5 billion by 2030, ii) share of
developing countries in world energy consumption is growing rapidly due to their
increasing industrialization and economic growth. Based on that, the world will need
greatly increased energy supply in the next 25 years, from 1.7 PWh in 2007 to 3.3
PWh in 2030.
The main primary sources of energy currently in use on a global scale are: fossil
fuels (gas, oil, coal) - accounting for 65%, hydropower and nuclear power accounting
for 16% each and others (wood and renewables) accounting for 3%. Fig.1 shows the

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 Fig. 1. World electricity demand, 1970-2030

Fig.2. World electricity generation by type

world demand on energy during the period 1970-2030, while Fig. 2 shows world
electricity generation by type in 1997 and that projected in 2010.

The Importance of Nuclear Power

Nuclear power is an important ingredient of primary energy sources due to the
following: i) increase of demand on electricity generation, ii) need for continual base
load electricity, iii) depleting oil and gas resources, iv) nuclear power is
environmentally friendly, v) nuclear power has good safety record, vi) nuclear power
in economically competitive and vii) new designs are prolifiration resistant.

Energy Costs Comparison

Table 1 gives electricity production costs for most important generating methods.

Table 1. Energy cost comparison (2004)

Resource Average Cost Resource Average Cost
(c$/kWh) (c$/kWh)
Hydro 2-5 Wind 4-10
Nuclear 2-3 Geothermal 6-10
Coal 3-5 Biofuel 8-12
Natural Gas 5-7 Hydrogen Fuel Cell 10-15
Oil 6-8 Solar 15-32

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 Variation of electricity production average costs (in US$) from different primary
energy sources is displayed in Fig. 3 for the period 1995-2005. As is seen only coal
and nuclear provide the least accosts.(1995-2005). Numbers in the box are for 2005.

Fig. 3. Electricity production average cost (US$), 1995-2005.

WORLDWIDE EXISTING NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

Worldwide in 2007, 31 countries are operating 439 nuclear units for electricity
generation with total net installed capacity of 361 GWe. This installed power
represents 16.7% of the world’s electricity generation. Almost half of the world’s
power reactors are in the U.S. (103 units/98 GWe), France (59 units/63 GWe), and
Japan (54 units/46 GWe). Fig. 4 shows the geographical distribution of operating NPP.
As is clear concentration is evident in developed countries of North America, Europe
and Asia.

Fig. 4. Geographic distribution of NPP.

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 Nuclear Power Units in Commercial Operation
Table 2 gives nuclear power reactors in commercial operation categorized by
type. Percentage distribution of reactor types are as follow: pressurized water reactors
(PWR) 59.9%, boiling water reactors (BWR) 21.0%, gas cooled reactors (CGR) 5.9%,
pressurized-heavy water reactors (PHWR) 8.7%, high power channel reactors
(HPCR) 3.9%, fast breeder reactors (FBR) 0.6%. Light water reactors which
comprise both PWR and BWR represent 80.9% of all commercially operating power
reactors, indicating the distinguished features of these reactors in availability,
reliability and safety.

Table 2. Nuclear power units in commercial operation

Reactor Main Num. GWe Fuel Coolant Moderator

Countries
PWR US, France, 263 237 enriched water water
Japan, Russia UO2
BWR US, Japan, 92 81 enriched water water
Sweden UO2
Gas UK 26 11 natural U CO2 graphite
cooled (metal),
(Magnox enriched
& AGR) UO2
PHWR Canada, India 38 19 natural heavy heavy
(CANDU) UO2 water water

RBMK Russia 17 13 enriched water graphite

UO2
FBR Japan, France, 3 1 PuO2 and liquid none
Russia UO2 sodium
TOTAL 439 361

Table 3. NPP under construction

Country China Finland India Iran Japan Korea N.

Number 7 1 8 1 2 1
of
reactors
MWe 6400 1600 3638 950 2227 950
Country Korea S. Pakistan Romania Russia Ukraine USA
Number 4 1 1 4 1 1
of
reactors
MWe 3800 300 650 3600 950 1065

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 NPP Under Construction, Planned, and Under Consideration
Worldwide, 12 countries are constructing 32 nuclear power units. Nine countries
are planning to construct 31 more nuclear power units. Fifteen countries are
considering whether to construct 73 more nuclear power units. If all these 136 units
are constructed, world nuclear capacity will increase to 484 GWe, a 30 percent
increase. The 136 units are needed to maintain nuclear energy’s 16% share of the
energy mix in 2025. Table 3 gives distribution by countries of NPP under construction
during the period 2006-2011. Eighteen of the reactors under construction are of the
PWR type. The total power of these units is 26.13 GWe.

NUCLEAR POWER REACTOR GENERATIONS

Four generations are distinguished in the design and construction of nuclear

power reactors::
• Generation I. Was developed in the 1950-60s, and outside UK non the reactors
are still running today.
• Generation II. Was developed in the 1970-80s. The generation constitutes
most of presently working reactors. Reactors of this generation have
demonstrated good record of safety, reliability and availability.
• Generation III. Is in advanced stage of design. Reactors of this generation are
of simpler and standardized design, higher availability and long operating time.
They incorporate passive or inherent safety features.
• Generation IV. Are at concept stage under international joint effort. The
reactors of this generation are expected to be available by 2030.
Table 4 summarizes evolution of nuclear power reactors with exmples for each
generation.

Table 4. Evolution of nuclear power reactors

Evolution Example
Generation I Early Prototypes:
Early 1950s to late 1960s - Shippingport / Dresden, Fermi I
- Magnox
- VK-50, BiNPP
Generation II Commercial power reactors:
(1970 – 90) - LWR (PWR & BWR) / - CANDU
- RBMK/WWER
Generation III Evolutionary and Advanced designs:
Improvements of designs - APWR. ABWR / WWER 1200
started in - AP 600/1000 / GT-MHR, PBMR
late 1980s
Generation IV Innovative designs

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 Generation II Nuclear Power Reactors
In what follows we summarize most important features of generation II reactors.
The importance of this generation is that it constitutes more than 99% of now running
reactors, and expected to be in operation for the next 20 years till their planned outage.

Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR)

Primary water pressurized to about 160 bar act as both the moderator and the
coolant. The fuel is up to 5% enriched UO2 in Zircaloy tubes. The primary water heats
water in a secondary circuit to produce steam. The reactor is housed in a containment
building. The thermal efficiency is about 32%.
Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)
Essentially is a PWR without the steam generator and the secondary circuit. Water
at a pressure of about 70 bar is pumped through the core and, since it is at a lower
pressure compared to the PWR, steam is generated in the primary circuit. About 10%
of the water is converted to steam and goes to the steam turbine. After condensing it is
pressurized and returned to the coolant. The power density of a BWR is about half
that of a PWR with lower temperature and pressure, but the efficiency is similar.
CANadian DeUterium Reactor (CANDU)
Heavy water is used as both the moderator and the coolant. Natural UO2 in
Zircaloy tubes is used as the fuel. The fuel tubes pass through a tank of heavy water.
Heavy water is pumped through the fuel tubes at about 90 bar pressure and then to a
steam generator as in a PWR. The power density is about 1/10th that of a PWR.
High Temperature Gas-cooled Reactor (HTGR)
These are graphite moderated, helium cooled reactors. The fuel is a coated particle
to contain the fission products. Water has been used in the secondary circuit to
generate steam. Recently a direct cycle (single loop) gas turbine concept has been
developed.
Liquid Metal Fast Reactor (LMFR):
Liquid metal transports heat very efficiently and only lightly moderates the
neutrons from fission. LMFRs consequently need more fissile material to keep the
chain reaction going. The core may also contain fertile material to produce new fuel.
Since they can breed fuel, they are also known as breeder reactors. Sodium has been
used as the most common form of liquid metal for the reactors. Enriched uranium and
Plutonium dioxide and metals have been used as fuel. Operate at a much lower
pressure compared to the common light water reactors.
Other Reactor Types:
There are two reactor types developed and built only in the UK, Magnox and
AGR, which are still operating.
Magnox is a carbon-dioxide cooled (at about 20 bar pressure), graphite moderated
reactor. It has natural uranium fuel in a Magnesium alloy cladding. Overall thermal
efficiency is about 30%.
The AGR, Advanced Gas Cooled Reactor, is a gas-cooled reactor with
graphite moderation and carbon-dioxide as the coolant at a pressure of about 40 bar.
The fuel is 3% enriched uranium-dioxide and clad in Stainless Steel. Its thermal
efficiency is about 40%. It is a unique UK design.
Similarly, the Graphite Moderated Boiling Water Reactor (RBMK) is an older
Russian design and built only in the former Soviet Union. The RBMK core is an
assembly of graphite blocks through which runs the pressure tubes containing the fuel.
Water is pumped through these tubes where it boils to steam. The fuel is 2% enriched

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uranium dioxide in Zircaloy tubes. Table 5 summarizes materials used in generation II
reactors.

Table 5. Generation II power reactor materials

Reactor PWR BWR CANDU HTGR LMFR

Fuel Form UO2 UO2 UO2 UO2, ThO2 PuO2, UO2

Enrichment 3.5% U235 2,5% U235 Natural U 93% U235 15% Pu239

Cladding Zircaloy Zircaloy Zircaloy Graphite Stainless

Steel
Control B4C or Ag- B4C rods Moderator B4C rods Tantalum or
In-Cd rods Level B4C rods

Moderator Water Water H. Water Graphite None

Coolant Water Water H. Water He-gas Liquid Na

Vessel Steel Steel Steel Prestressed Steel

Concrete

Generation III Nuclear Power Reactors

These are of advanced design based on the accumulated experience with
generation II reactors. Design goals aim at: i) component structure simplification, ii)
large margins to limit system challenges, iii) longer grace periods to response to
emergency situations, iv) high availability, v) competitive economics, vi) compliance
with internationally recognized safety objectives and vii) improving severe accident
prevention and mitigation. Third-generation reactors have: 1- a standardised design
for each type to expedite licensing, reduce capital cost and reduce construction time,
2- a simpler and more rugged design, making them easier to operate and less
vulnerable to operational upsets, 3- higher availability and longer operating life -
typically 60 years, 4- reduced possibility of core melt accidents, 5- minimal effect on
the environment, 6- higher burn-up to reduce fuel use and the amount of waste and
7- burnable absorbers ("poisons") to extend fuel life.
The greatest departure from second-generation designs is that many incorporate
passive or inherent safety features, which require no active controls or operational
intervention to avoid accidents in the event of malfunction, and may rely on gravity,
natural convection or resistance to high temperatures.
Table 6 summarizes major evolutionary designs as implemented in generation
III light water reactors

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Table 6. Gen. III major evolutionary designs of light water reactors

Reactor Power Organization Status/Significant Features

MWe
AP 600 600 Westinghouse (Former Design certified by US NRC in
ABB) 1999 (AP = Advanced Passive).
AP 1000 1000 Westinghouse Upgraded from AP 600, design
certified by NRC in Dec. 2005.
System 1350 Westinghouse Design certified by NRC in Dec.
80+ PWR 2005.
APWR 1530 Mitsubishi, Japan First unit planned at Tsuruga site
Westinghouse, USA in Japan.
EPR 1545 Framatome ANP, Meets EUR requirements. 60-year
France/Germany life. Under construction in
Finland, Olkiluoto3.
WWER 1000/640 Gidropress & Design complete for 640. Several
Atomenergoproject, 1000 under construction in
Russia Russia, China, India and Iran.
KSNP 1000 Korea Electric Power Six operating on ROK, and 2
Company, S. Korea under construction.
APR-1400 1400 KEPCO & Korean Based on System 80+ design, has
Industry received design certification. 60-
year plant life. Expected to be
built by 2010.
AC 600/ NPIC, China Similar to AP-600/1000 designs.
600/1000 1000 Expected in 2010.
ABWR 1360 GE, Hitachi and Two operating and ten planned in
Toshiba Japan. Design based on well-
proven active safety systems.
ABWR-II 1700 Japanese utilities and Economy of scale design under
GE- Hitachi- Toshiba consideration.
ESBWR 1380 GE, USA Incorporates economy of scale
with passive safety, Design life 60
years.
SWR 1000 Framatome ANP, Design complete based on
1000 Germany German utility experience. Active
and passive safety systems. 60
years design life.
BWR 90+ 1500 Westinghouse Atom, Evolutionary version of earlier
Sweden. ABB Atom design.

Small and Medium Sized Power Reactors

There is revival of interest in small and medium sized units for generating
electricity from nuclear power, and for dual purpose use. The interest is driven both
by a desire to reduce capital costs and to provide power away from main grid systems.
Currently ~ 150 SMRs are operational in the world: 41 with powers< 300 MWe, 109
with powers between 300 and 700 MWe. These are : 32 gas cooled reactors in UK

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(AGR and CGR), 32 PWR, 29 WWER and 27 HWR. Major drive has become
towards integral reactors, where the core, pumps, pressurizers and steam generators
are contained inside a single pressure vessel. SMRs are simpler in construction due to
smaller size, they better match smaller electric grids. The inherent reactor shutdown
and passive decay heat removal capability of some designs, in combination with
modern advanced control and communication systems mat even facilitate remote
operation with fewer operators. Table 7 summarizes information available on Gen. III
small and medium-sized reactors.

Table 7. Types and features of SMRs.

Reactor MWe Country of Status/

Origin Important Features
IRIS 100-300 USA-led Integral, 8-year core, under
Multinational design
SMART 300 MWt R. Of Korea Integral, 65 MWt pilot to be
built
VK-300 250 Russia Based on VK-50 BWR. Dual
use possible
IMR <300 Japan Integral PWR
HABWR 600 Japan Forced circulation BWR
HSBWR 300-600 Japan Natural circulation BWR
SSBWR 150 Japan Small nat. circ. BWR
LSBWR 100-300 Japan Long life core.

NHR-200 200 MWt China Upgrade from NHR-5 for non-

electricity use.

PBMR 110 Germany/S. Pebble-bed gas cooled reactor

Africa
GT-MHR 285 US, Japan. Gas cooled prismatic reactor,
France, Russia direct gas turbine
4S 50-100 Japan Sodium cooled fast reactor

BREST 300 Russia Lead cooled, mono-nitride fuel

ENHS 50 USA Lead-Bismuth cooled, modular

fast reactor.

Generation IV Nuclear Power Reactors

An international task force named Generation IV International Forum (GIF) has
been initiated in 2000 and formally chartered in 2001. The forum consists of 10
countries led by USA that are committed to joint development of the next generation
of nuclear technology. The GIF countries are: Argentina, Brazil, Canada, France,

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Japan, Korea (Rep. of), S. Africa, Switzerland, UK and USA, along with EU. They
agreed on six nuclear reactor technologies for development between 2010-2030. All
of the agreed technologies are based on reactors that operate at higher temperatures
than today’s reactors. In particular four of the systems are designed for hydrogen
production. The six systems are: Gas cooled Fast Reactors (GFR), Lead cooled Fast
Reactors (LFR), Sodium cooled Fast Reactors (SFR), Molten Salt Reactors (MSR),
Super critical Water cooled Reactors (SWR) and Very High temperature Gas cooled
Reactors (VHGR), see Table 8. All of them represent advanced features in
sustainability, economics, safety, reliability and proliferation resistance.

Table 8. Design information on Gen.IV reactros.

Reactor Gas cooled Fast Lead cooled Fast Sodium cooled
Reactors Reactors Fast reactors
Neutron Fast Fast Fast
Spectrum
Coolant Helium Pb.Bi Na

Temp. (oC) 850 550-800 550

Pressure High Low Low

(7-15 MPa)

Fuel U-238 battery U-238 battery model U-238 & MOX

model (15-20y) (15-20y)
Fuel Cycle Closed on site Closed regional closed

Power (MWe) 290 50-1200 150-1500

Uses Electricity & Electricity & Electricity

Hydrogen Hydrogen

Reactor Molten Salt Super critical Very High

Reactors Water cooled temperature Gas
Reactors Reactors
Neutron Epithermal Thermal or fast Thermal
Spectrum
Coolant Fluoride salts Water Helium

Temp. (oC) 700-800 510-550 1000

Pressure Low Very high High

Fuel UF in salt UO2 UO2 prism or

pebbles
Fuel Cycle Closed Open (thermal) Open
Closed (fast)

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 Power (MWe) 1000 1500 250

Uses Electricity & Electricity Hydrogen &

Hydrogen Electricity
Cost Comparison
Finally, Table 9 gives cost comparison between nuclear (Gen. II and III) and
conventional (coal) electricity generation options. The two options are good examples
for basic load electricity generation systems that are believed to dominate the
generation market in the after-oil future. Comparison is based on the 2005 cost
estimates.

Table 9. Cost Comparison ( c$/kWh)

Type Capital Op. & Main. Fuel Decomm. Total

Median 5.6 1.3 0.72 0.05 7.7

experience

Best 2.8 0.91 0.64 0.05 4.4

experience
APWR 2.2 0.91 0.64 0.05 3.8

AP- 600 2.2 1.04 0.64 0.07 4.0

Coal 2.1 0.59 2.1 0.01 4.8

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We acknowledge information providers mentioned in the references section for
the valuable information they provided, and conference organizers for the support.

REFERENCES
Our source of information was the data available on the internet as assessed
during 2007 on energy, electricity generation, nuclear power reactors, nuclear power
plants, etc. Sites are those of World Energy Council, World Nuclear Association, US
Department of Energy, International Atomic Energy Agency, Uranium Information
Center, Wikipedia, sites of nuclear power reactor vendors, other sites of relevant
importance. Other source was the attendance of selected conferences on nuclear
power generation and utilization.

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