Elements of National

Power

Population, Geography, Resources, Economy,

Technology and Military
National power can be equated with the entirety of a state’s effectiveness in international
politics. The content of National power relies on the combination of so many elements and
relative factors that it is very difficult to find out any accurate and final list at any given period
of time. Despite this difficulty there has been some agreement about certain elements of
national power and even about their classification into stable and unstable, tangible and
intangible, human and non-human etc. What determines power is the proper and efficient
utilization of these elements. At best they can be called as elements or factors or components
of national power.
Certain facts regarding the Elements of National Power:
1) All elements are interrelated and interdependent
2) These cannot be measured with a high degree of accuracy. These can simply be estimated.
3)Even a precise estimate of these elements is not always possible as they are undergoing
constant structural and relative changes due to natural and technological reasons.
4)National power is never based on any single factor, but on a combination of all these
elements under a set of circumstances.
5) These can be broadly classified on the basis of their nature such as stable and unstable,
tangible and intangible.
Noted authors of international relations have clarified these elements differently.
Morgenthau has divided them into two categories-permanent and changeable. Relatively
stable elements are geography and natural resources whereas elements subject to constant
change are military preparedness, population, national character and morale, diplomacy and
government.

Organski classified them into natural and social determinants.The natural determinants are
geography, natural resources and population. Social determinants are economic
development, political structure and national morale.

E.H Carr gave three categories : military power, economic power and power over opinion.

Mahendra Kumar broadly divided them into three categories: natural, social and ideational.
First covers the elements of geography, resources and population, while the second includes
economic development, political structure and national morale. The third category consists of
ideals, intelligence and wisdom of leadership.
Palmer and Perkins divided them into tangible and intangible. Geography, raw material, natural
resources and population are tangible whereas morale and ideology are intangible.Many other scholars
have also preferred to classify them into tangible and intangible elements. These scholars are Lerche
and Said, Coulombs and Wolfe, Adi H. Doctor, AnamJaitly etc.

Broadly these elements will be comprehensively divided into five categories These are:

I. Natural Elements. Geography, natural resources and population.

II. Scientific and Technological Elements. Technology and industrial capacity, agricultural capacity and
military strength.

III. Political Elements. Type of government, bureaucratic organization and efficiency, wisdom of
leadership and quality of diplomacy.

IV. Social and Ideological Elements. Ideologies, national morale, national character, social structure and
social cohesiveness.

V. External and other Elements. Reputation and image, foreign support, international strategic position
and intelligence.
Natural Elements
They are so called because they are endowed by nature and not man made. These elements
are:

1. Geography:

Since time immemorial the most stable element upon which a nation’s power depends is geography.
Geographical factors such as climate, topography, location and size influence the power potential of a
nation. Climate for example acts as one of the determinants of the culture and economy of a country. If
the climate is good, there would be a better work culture leading to more productivity. Great powers of
modern times have been situated in those regions blessed with a temperate climate. Topography plays
an important role in the defense of nations. Topographical features such as mountains, valleys, rivers
may determine natural boundaries between nations and set limits to their natural expansion.Mountains
like Himalayas the Alps and the Pyrenees and rivers like the Rhine the Rio Grande and Yale served as
guards on the boundaries between nations. The Chinese aggression on India in 1962 shattered this
belief and necessitated a rethinking on the question whether topography is important as natural guard
or not.
Location determines the extent of a country’s vulnerability to invasion. It is a major determinant of
whether a country is a sea-power or a land-power.The achievements of England and Japan on the seas
have been owing to the fact of their being islands. Land locked countries like Austria, Hungary, Nepal,
Bhutan etc, are at a disadvantage when compared to states having outlets to sea. States that are
located far away from the fiction zones of power can pursue an independent or neutral policy in world
affairs, but the same is not true with those states who are close to the epicenter of world politics. Size
is yet another natural and tangible factor of power though it is the most deceptive of the physical
foundations of power. A large territory-if hospitable and fertile can accommodate more people and
give more natural resources. In the past, the vast size of the territory of a state was of great help to its
security. It was difficult for the enemy to win and occupy a large territory. But size matters very little
now a days Japan for instance even though comparatively small defeated China and Russia. Moreover,
utility of larger territories has also diminished due to the technological revolution and the invention of
Inter Continental Ballistic Missiles.

A new discipline has emerged that enables us to understand the application of the knowledge of
political geography to statecraft. It is known as Geopolitics. It is the study of geography as it may
influence foreign policy and political phenomena.
2. Natural Resources.
Natural as well as quantifiable and stable element of power is natural resources which include raw
materials, agricultural products like food and fiber, forests, minerals, waterfall, fertility of soil etc. It
is evident that the possession of resources such as coal, iron, uranium, oil, rubber, bauxite,
manganese, other ferrous and non-ferrous metals, non-metallic minerals and natural gas is essential
to industrial and defense production in nation-states. More recently, it has been proved that the
availability of petroleum at reasonable prices is important to the good economic health of industrial
nations. The contemporary prosperity of many Arab countries is due to the availability of plenty of
oil there.However, it may be said that the mere possession of natural resources does not
automatically generate power. Their proper utilization through advanced technology is also
essential. Secondly, previously the rigid raw material theory of international politics was very
popular but now its popularity is on decline. Invention of synthetics and other new industrial
processes, development of synthetics and the unexpectedly high capacity of embattled populations
to endure chronic shortages have all served to liberate states from the more absolutes of the
theory.Despite these limitations natural resources and raw materials continue to-serve a nation in
its economic and military development.
3. Population.
It seems a large population is an asset for the state. But it is not really so. For example, China
with the largest population in the world is not as powerful as the United States and the
Soviet Union are. On the other hand Israel, Japan and Germany are powerful in spite of their
small population. That is why quality of population is as important as its quantity. From
quantity three point of view it is a tangible element whereas it is intangible qualitatively.
Thus population can serve both as an assert and as a liability. If the people are well-fed,
educated and properly trained, they are a great source of power. But if they are ignorant,
poor and illiterate, they are a big burden on the state. Many qualities of population, such as
unity, literacy, loyalty, character and Spirit of love, sacrifice and duty are crucial for making a
country powerful but they are difficult to measure. A good population serves as good military
personnel, civilians, workers, producers and consumers.
Scientific and Technological Elements
1. Industrial Capacity.
Technology may be said to be a nation’s capacity to convert the endowed resources into
actual power. It can be applied in the economic and industrial sphere which means better
machines and better and abundant products. No nation in the present world can become a
great power unless it has the capacity to produce tremendous quantities of goods and
services. If a country does not have the technology, industry and markets to process natural
resources efficiently, it is reduced to the position of a weak raw-material exporting state. On
the contrary, a country with developed technology but without natural resources is greatly
dependent on the importation of raw materials from other countries. For example, many
Western countries with the exception of the US are critically dependent upon the supply of
Middle East oil. They do not have any firm control over its supply and price fluctuations. It can
be safely said that those countries which have both important raw materials and developed
technologies for processing are fully developed and powerful countries.
Technology helps a nation to have stronger economy, stronger industrial base,
stronger system of transport and communication, stronger military, greater
capacity to win war and influence nations during peace. Industrial capacity
contributes towards the production of weapons that are required for modern
warfare. It provides international rewards in the form of consumer goods and in
the shape of markets for foreign goods. It enables a nation to persuade other
nations by providing technical and economic assistance in the name of soft loans,
aid, grants etc. Industrial capacity of a nation, thus is a great source of wealth and
power.
2. Agricultural Capacity:

Agriculture is a crucial component of national power. It is more relevant for developing countries
where agriculture tends to be the major sector of national economy. In the words of Couloumbis and
Wolfe, “This is also a tangible element of power. Countries that can feed themselves, especially over
the course of a long war will be relatively more powerful than countries that are not self sufficient.”
International trade of a developing country heavily depends upon agricultural products and products
manufactured with agricultural content (e.g. jute, cloth and sugar) as these become goods for export
and these facilitate imports of machinery and raw material for industrial sector. In India, agriculture
products constitute about fifty percent of the total . Indian exports while goods manufactured with
agricultural content constitute another twenty percent of the total exports thus constituting nearly 70
per cent of the total Indian exports.Thus India being an industrially less advanced country, relies greatly
on agriculture and allied products. Agriculture contributes about 35 percent of the national income and
provides livelihood to about three-fourth of the population.
In 1950 India was faced with the food problem and suffered from agricultural
backwardness. For food it was depending on Western nations and particularly US
which through PL 480 pressurized India off and on. But with the help of modern
technology India succeeded in Green Revolution and became self-sufficient in food.
With this its dependence on the US for food ended and it became more self confident
in diplomatic activities. Scientific and technological methods can thus help in
increasing the agricultural capacity of a nation that further enhances a nation’s
power.
3. Military Strength.
Scientific and technological development is the sustaining factor for the armed forces without
which the military strength cannot be dependable and self-reliant. Indigenous capacity to produce
different kinds of modern and sophisticated weapons is necessary, otherwise the nation cannot
sustain prolonged warfare. Consequently, notwithstanding their technological backwardness,
many countries have acquired military strength by buying weapons from the advanced countries
which has contributed to their military might. In the beginning, most of the states increase their
strength in this way and later on build up their technological capability for defense production and
forces.

Military strength is relevant both in war and peace. No one can win a war without a strong military
base. In peace time also, diplomacy is significantly affected by the leverages that rivals wield owing
to their respective military might. Military strength involves two main things-armed forces and
weapons. To analyze their role in national power one has to take into consideration their size and
quantity, their quality and technological sophistication, their mobility and deployment, their
leadership and morale.
The size and number of armed forces are of great importance. Even the age of space battles and
push-button warfare has not undermined the general importance of number. Therefore, a country
with a large size of defense forces will be always relatively in a better position. Equally important is the
weapons and equipments supplied to them. A state with a small armed force, but armed with
sophisticated weapons and quality equipment can easily defeat another state which has a much larger
armed force using old weapons. Thus the quality of the army and arms-ammunition is also very crucial
along with their quantity. The quality of forces depends on the nature of the training, the physical
endurance and the morale of troops. Next is the question of mobility and deployment. It stands for the
ability of a state to deploy its armed might in locations inside and outside its territory.The chief
indicator of mobility is a state’s ability to transport and effectively support military operations on land,
sea and air. Military leadership also plays a great role in the actual military operations during a war. By
their skill military commanders can jolt a superior enemy and term the defeat of his side into victory.
Morale of forces i.e. their willingness to sacrifice for nation is no less a factor in contributing to military
strength. The military alliances and bases also contribute important aspect of the military element. A
state with a number of such alliances and bases is potentially stronger. Lastly, military component of
national power is dependent upon the financial resources of nation as well as its technological,
industrial and economic development.
Political Elements
1. Type of Government.
States formulate and conduct their foreign policy through their governments. If a
government’s foreign policy is unified, specific, representative of the popular will, stable, and
at the same time flexible, it can do wonders for the nation, and its power position.
Government also regulates social discipline, which is based on the coordination of all efforts in
its community. Good rapport between the government and people bring greater allegiance of
people towards the country. Such an allegiance is a prime factor in the development of
national power.It is not easy to say which type of government is the most powerful. The issue
of relationship between type of government and national power has not been resolved since
Aristotle’s times. There are various forms of government in the present world such as
communist, democratic, authoritarian etc. Past international relations prove that both
democratic and authoritarian types of governments have been successful in effectively
regulating the behavior of other states, and, therefore, to that extent both of them have been
The features of checks and balances of democratic governments subject
decisions to greater scrutiny and presumably guard against whimsical and
hasty decisions. The yardstick to measure superiority of a type of
government can be its efficiency to achieve set national goals and ability to
mobilize people’s support. Democratic and constitutional government is
based on consensus of fundamentals, it is likely to operate with a
sustained popular support. In this way, it will be in a better position to
impose greater discipline and persuade people to make sacrifices for
achieving national objectives and national growth.
2. Bureaucratic Efficiency.
If the bureaucracy is impartial, honest, clean and efficient, it will generate more power for a nation.
Corruption and inefficiency will always cost a nation much both in peace and war. In peace, it will
stall development and progress. in war, it will set at naught all coordinated efforts and prepare the
ground for eventual capitulation. Rich, well-armed, and even wisely governed countries cannot
work effectively unless they have efficient bureaucracies with which to execute their policies. There
are four views regarding the proper role, method of operation, and adequate functioning of
bureaucracies. First, communist states believe in large-scale bureaucratization not only in political
but also in economic and social sectors. But by now it has been realized that over bureaucratization
in communist countries has proved counterproductive. Second, democratic-competitive countries
seek to encourage private initiative and limit the role of governmental bureaucracies to defense,
taxation, and other regulatory functions. Third, there are those who argue for the complete
detachment of politics from professional bureaucracies. Fourth, few people are interested to have
political control over the bureaucracies, plug leaks, and ensure that political decisions are carried
out faithfully by the professional bureaucrats. Each of these theories has its own advantages and
disadvantages.
3. Leadership.
Leadership is of great significance to any analysis of national power because it is leadership that
utilizes the national resources to build up power. Morale of the people also revolves around
leadership. It is important for many reasons. First, leadership utilizes the other components of
national power like geography, resources, population, industrial capacity, technology etc, and this it
does with the qualities that it possesses. Second, it coordinates other elements of national power.
Third, it allocates resources between military and civilian programmes. Fourth, it decides the nature
of relations with other states and declares war and peace. Decisions and actions of leaders have a
direct bearing on the power of the state. Couloumbis and Wolfe rightly observe: Undoubtedly,
greatness or incompetence, wisdom or irrationality, effectiveness or impotence in leadership
considerably affects the power that a country has. Leaders such as Napoleon, Hitler, Churchill,
Roosevelt, Stalin, Mao, Gandhi, Kennedy, de Gaulle, Khrushchev, and Nixon have made a deep
impact on world history. An able leadership serves as a source of great inspiration to a people. Such
an inspiration is crucial both in the realization of national development programmes and in the
assumption of initiative in foreign affairs.
Social and Ideological Elements
1. Ideology.
Ideology has remained a very vital aspect in the power of a nation especially in the twentieth
century. An ideology is a body of ideas and beliefs concerning certain values and usually
suggesting a certain political and economic order in order to accomplish these values. Richard
Snyder and Hubert Wilson presents a comprehensive definition of ideology. In their own
words, it is a cluster of ideas about life, society or government, which originate in most cases
as consciously advocated or dogmatically asserted social, political or religious slogans or battle
cries , which become the characteristic beliefs or dogmas of a particular group, party or
nationality. Ideologies can be of different types-social, political, economic, religious, racial and
so on.Other important ideologies of the twentieth century are: liberalism, constitutionalism,
Nazism, fascism, communism, socialism, nationalism, internationalism etc.
Experience reveals that in the past ideologies have provided a tremendous philosophical, psychological
and moral power for the policies and programmes of men. They have gradually been a guiding force for
policy goals and activities of nations. Often nation have utilized ideologies as a source of moral
justification for the pursuit of their policy goals. As an element of national power, these can boost
people’s morale. An ideology if it is followed by a majority of citizens or is indoctrinated into them can
act as a powerful factor making for unity and power. Ideology is thus a significant element
strengthening the power-base of a state as also it foreign policy.

Ideologies have their own merits as well as demerits. They give strength to worthy causes, unity to
nation and a sense of common interest to peoples in many parts of the world. The objective of human
brotherhood and world peace can be realized by ideological motivation. On the other hand, experience
demonstrates a good part of the evils and miseries characterizing international relations is brought into
existence by ideologies as initiators and determinants of nation’s policies and efforts. Ideologies
sometime act as part of national egos and lead various nations into confrontation and wars. Different
nations pursuing conflicting ideologies have tended to add to the tensions of the modern world
particularly before and after the Second World War. The task of peace-makers is generally made
difficult by the opposing ideologies.
2. National Morale.
National Morale and national character are the historical-psychological sociological element of national
power. These are unstable, intangible and cannot be measured easily. Lerche and Said used this term
“to describe the mass state of mind in action, with particular reference to the extent to which the
society feels itself committed to the government’s policy “. In the words of Morgenthau, “National
morale is the degree of determination with which a nation supports the foreign policies of its
government in peace or war. It permeates all activities of a nation, its agricultural and industrial
production as well as its military establishment and diplomatic service. In the form of public opinion, it
provides an intangible factor without whose support no government, democratic or autocratic, is able
to pursue its policies with full effectiveness, if it is able to pursue them at all.”Palmer and Perkins
define it as a thing of the spirit made up of loyalty, courage, faith, the impulse to the preservation of
personality and dignity. It can make men and women work harder, sacrifice more, and fight harder.
Mohendra Kumar observes that willingness to sacrifice is the core of national morale of the armed
forces as well as the people at large. In his own words, the sum total of the individual qualities of men
in a nation in the form of their willingness to put the nation’s welfare above their own personal welfare.
A high national morale or willingness to sacrifice contributes towards the building of national power in
peacetime, in national crisis and in wars. It has a direct impact on the vigor and human dynamics with
which government mobilize and utilize the other tangible elements of power.

National morale is significantly influenced by national character and the cultural background of the
individuals. For instance, the German character can be said to impart efficiency and thoroughness to the
morale of German soldiers; the Russian character provided doggedness and endurance to the morale of
Russian soldiers; while the American character gave inventiveness and resourcefulness to the morale of
American soldiers. The morale of an advanced nation is likely to be higher than the morale of a
background nation due to the difference of cultural background.

National morale is never permanent and static. It changes with time and conditions. Sometime, there
comes a point when it breaks. Generation and maintenance of morale often depend upon technological
advance, the development of the means of transport and communication, the flow of information and
ideas and the exposure of the people to them and so on. It can also be stimulated by the techniques of
propaganda and qualities of leadership.
4. Social System and Cohesiveness.
This social element is also unstable as well as intangible. If the society is integrated and coordinated
then it will be capable of unified effort that will further consolidate its power. On the other hand if it is
disintegrated and suffers from internal dissensions it will dilute nation’s power and prestige. Lerche
rightly observes: “that social system is best for power purposes which is the most homogeneous and
united behind the political leadership of the country and which embodies the minimum amount of
stress and strain.” A society stricken with communal tension, rural urban tension, or with dissatisfied
minorities, will have a low morale and will adversely affect the power status of the nation. Many
scholars believe that internally unified nations are strong whereas divided ones are weak.

The reasons for disunity or unity can vary from ethnic, linguistic, racial, and religious diversity all the way
to economic, political, ideological and foreign-inspired divisions. Some plausible indicators of disunity
are terrorism, number of political prisoners, riots, demonstrations, paralyzing strikes, media censorship,
insurgency, and even civil war. The most recent example of this factor is the Soviet Union which has
been a victim of internal tensions, disunity and ethnic problem. All these factors have adversely affected
its power position in the world. India too has been riddled with communal tensions, terrorism, casteism,
riots, strikes, violence for the last many years. That stood in its way to become a powerful nation.
External Elements

1. Image and Reputation.

If a state has a favorable image, its voice would be heard at the international level. For example,
India under Nehru had a good image albeit its backwardness and military weakness. It enjoyed a
good prestige-owing to Gandhian heritage, policy of non-alignment and Nehru’s dynamic
leadership. Both the super-powers tried to befriend it. Many third world countries sought its
guidance on important international issues. After Nehru, there was some setback to this image.

Similarly reputation of a state also matters. If some state has the reputation of being a good fighter,
the rival would think hundred times before attacking it. Reputation acts as a deterrent and enables
a state to achieve some power position. In various wars Israel has subdued Arabs and won the
reputation of a tough fighter. This reputation deters potential Arab invaders and is a strong
diplomatic card for Israel vis-a-vis Arabs. Couloumbis and Wolfe rightly say, “Power, therefore,
should be evaluated not only in terms of each country’s ability and willingness to use its capabilities
when challenged, but also in terms of its reputation for action in response to previous challenges”.
2. Foreign Support and Dependency.
Another element which is not being touched upon by scholars is foreign support
and dependency. This factor comprises of international connections such as
alliances, foreign economic and military aid, the leasing or granting of strategic
bases to the great powers, and participation in regional and universal international
organization and action. To overlook these aspects would leave us measuring the
power of Syria and Israel, for example, without considering Soviet and American
aid and commitments to these two countries. Too much support from outside
render a country totally dependent. When this happens, the sovereignty and
strategic flexibility of the dependent nation-state vis-a-vis its supporter become
seriously limited in this way, foreign support and dependency remains a crucial,
although intangible element.
3. Intelligence.
Intelligence in this context implies complete knowledge of the strength and weakness of
external foes and friends. Different nations employ various secret agencies and spies to
obtain this knowledge. Sherman Kent explains, the idea is to produce “the kind of
knowledge our states must possess regarding other states in order to assure itself that its
cause will not suffer nor its undertakings fail because its statesmen and soldiers plan and
act in ignorance.” This knowledge and information serves the purpose of power. Such an
information can be useful both in times of war and peace. In war, advance information
about the strength and strategy of the enemy greatly helps to effectively deal with the
eventuality. During peacetime, prior knowledge about the other party’s plus and minus
points enables a country to extract maximum benefit to itself on the bargaining table.
Keeping in view the significance of this element different nations have their own network
of intelligence agencies and spies such as USA’s CIA, USSR’s KGB and India’s RAW.