Seminar 03

FRG II Project
Empowering Farmers' Innovation

Series No. 3
Ensuring Seed Quality

in
Cooperation
EIAR-JICA
Ethiopian Seed System
Status and Challenges

Edited by
Dawit Alemu
Shiratori Kiyoshi
Abebe Kirub
Kibebew Assefa
I

I
Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research
Ensuring Seed Quality
in
Ethiopian Seen System
Status and challenges
@EIAR / FRG II, 12012

Website:http://www.eiar.gov.et
Tel : +251-11-6462633
Fax: +251-11-6461294
P.O. Box: 2004
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
ISBN: 978-99944-53-63-4
Contents
Good Quality Seeds and Linking Formal Seed System with Farmers’ Own
Perspectives and Initiatives: A Japanese Experience
Yoshiaki Nishikawa 1
The Ethiopian Seed Quality Control System

Yonas Sahlu 9
Souse Seed Quality Assurance Mechanism in Ethiopia

Abebe Atilaw, Adefris Teklewold and Dawit Alemu 17
Forage Seed Production and Quality in Ethiopia

Getnet Assefa, Gezahegn Kebede and Fekede Feyssia 39
Rice Seed Production in Cambodia

Kunihiro Tokida 49
Preface
The Ethiopian Seed system has been evolving in attempt to ensure the availability
of required type of seed in the required quality and quality at affordable price. The
key milestones in the process are the decentralization of the system emergence of
regional seed enterprises, participation of private seed companies, and emergence of
regional agricultural research institute and agricultural universities, and above all
the tremendous trust and recognition given to the use of seeds of improved crop
varieties to achieve the targets set in the Growth and Transformation Plan.
However, the system still faces multiple challenges mainly related to the limited
capacity and lack of role clarity of the different actors, the focus of the system on
very few crops and varieties, mismatch between supply and demand resulting in
shortage and excess inventory, and degradation of seed quality because of
inappropriate production practices, storage and transport facilities.
Recognizing the importance of ensuring quality of seed in the system a one-day

workshop was organized by the project on Enhancing Development and
Dissemination of Agricultural Innovation through Farmer Research Groups (FRG II
Project) of the Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research (EIAR) in collaboration
with Quality Seed Promotion for Smallholder Farmers Project (QSPP) of the
Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) on 18 March 2011 at EIAR to discuss about the status
and challenges of the Ethiopian seed system to ensure seed quality. This publication
presents the proceedings of the mentioned workshop.
We believe that the information contained in this publication is a good reflection of

on-going efforts to inspire all actors in the seed system in ensuring the supply of
quality/good seed to farmers, and we trust that this work, together with other
studies, will provide a sound base for future efforts.
Dawit Alem
Coordinator, Agricultural Economics, Research Extension, and Farmers Linkage,
EIAR and Project Manager of FRG II
Kiyoshi Shiratori
Chief Advisor, FRG II project, EIAR/JICA 2011
Good Quality Seeds and Linking
Formal Seed System with Farmers’
Own Perspectives and Initiatives: A
Japanese Experience
Yoshiaki Nishikawa
Graduate School of International Development, Nagoya University, Japan
Email: nishikawa@gsid.nagoya-u.ac.jp
Introduction
Soil, water, and genetic resources constitute the foundation upon which
agriculture and world food security is based. Of these, the least
understood and most under-valued are crop genetic resources. They are
also the resources most dependent upon our care and safeguarding. And,
they are perhaps the most threatened (FAO1996).
It is well recognized that seeds are most important input for agricultural
production and they carry important genetic information of which the
desirable types can be expressed under good technical production know-
how. However, the benefits of good crop varieties cannot be realized
without the availability of seed to farmers. Furthermore, good varieties
for farmers need to be maintained under specific conditions to produce
good seeds for farmer use.
What are good seeds?

The question “what are good quality seeds?” can be answered in many
ways. Simple ideas will be based on genetic and/or physical purity,
health, and high germination rate. Among these, externally evaluated
qualities are purity in terms of lack of contamination of weeds, other
crop seeds, and non-biological contaminants such as stones, and
appropriate size and weight, and so on. Bigger seeds usually have better
yield, and the seed weight is also important for good seedling plant vigor
upon planting. For example, good quality wheat seeds weigh about 30-
55 g/1000 seeds and that for rice is about 30-35 g/1000 seeds. Color and
smell can also be seen as quality parameters since each crop/variety has
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normally got its own typical color, and healthy seeds have normally got
no smell.
Germination rate is another important attribute of seed quality. However,

for field practice, emergence rate is more important. Pieper (1952), as
cited by Kaoru Ehara (1971), showed that minor deterioration in seed
germination rate can affect the germination vigor and rate of emergence.
For instance, seeds of rye with 98%, 91%, and 80% germination rate had
97%, 82% and 58% germination vigor and 96%, 47% and 48%
emergence rates, respectively.
In addition, internal or invisible qualities of seeds include the value of

seeds that are usually recognized as quality of the variety coupled with
the quality of the seeds themselves. While proper varieties are usually
not replaced every year, good quality seeds need to be produced every
year. In this aspect, the importance of farmers’ role comes in.
Seed Certification and Replacement

Seed certification is one of the important mechanisms in order to provide
farmers with good quality seeds. For staple crops of a nation,
government or its designated agencies have the responsibility of this
role. In Japan, seeds of rice, wheat and soya beans are certified by
agencies designated by prefectural governments. Vegetable seeds are
often certified by producing companies themselves based on ISTA rules.
Seed certification and distribution system in case of rice and other main
staple crops in Japan is briefly explained below. First of all, required
characters for formal seed certification agencies are:
• The membership consists of seed growers, companies, and others

interested in producing pure seeds;
• They are governed by board of directors elected by members;
• They have legal status under state or national legislation with the
authority to set standards for certification; and
• They have close working relations with seed growers and
agricultural research, extension, and regulatory agencies.
Inspections are carried out at three stages: field designation, field

inspection, and product inspection.
[2]
Quality seeds and linking seed system with farmers’ perspectives
• The first step involves field designation along with growers’
registration with government and indication of location of seed fields;
• Field inspections are done twice at different maturity stages. The first
field inspection is done for checking proper management, variety
character, contamination, and pest/disease; and the second inspection is
carried out at seed maturity stage. The inspectors are researchers,
subject matter specialists, and development agents helped by assistants
from agronomic advisors of cooperatives; and
• Products inspection is also required under seed law. This is done in
order to confirm adequacy of germination rate, purity of crop and
variety, freedom from weeds, acceptable or little disease infection or
pest infestation, color and also requirement under products standard.
The acceptable seed moisture content is normally 14.5%.
In order for seeds to be certified, the first step is a decision made on seed
production fields. They need to be isolated chronologically, i.e. fields
should have not been planted for specified period to other varieties of the
same crop or other similar crops. Fields need to be isolated from other
varieties of the same crop with appropriate distance. Freedom from
noxious weeds is also important. In this sense, existing cooperative type
of farmers’ groups are not necessarily suitable for seed growers because
members of such general purpose or crop production purpose do not
necessarily hold and/or have access to fields suitable for seed
production.
Seed distribution mechanism in Japan is shown in Fig 1. Aichi

Prefecture, one of the agriculturally important areas in Japan, has eight
seed growers associations, and the characters of these associations are
summarized on Table 1. There are different types of associations either
within or independent from cooperatives. It can generally be said that
seed growers tend to establish their own associations with loose
cooperation with existing general purpose cooperatives. In order to
coordinate the balance between demand and supply, the prefectural
government bodies monitor these activities.
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Fig.1. An example of seed distribution mechanism on staple food at prefectural level in Ja

Japan
Table 1. Diversity of formal seed growers in Aichi Prefecture, Japan
Name of Location Character Number of farmers

cooperative (Woreda) Rice Wheat Soybean
A Ⅰ Association of seed growers 27
B Ⅱ Seed growers group within cooperative 69 47 32
C Ⅲ Association of seed growers 15 2 2

D Ⅳ Section of seed growers group within 15 4
cooperative
D Ⅴ Section of seed growers group within 17
cooperative
E Ⅵ Kabare production association 1 1 1
(judicial person)
E Ⅶ Association of Seed growers organized 11
within cooperative
F Ⅷ Seed growers group within cooperative 12
In Aichi Prefecture, replacement rates for seeds of major crops are

shown in Fig. 2. In the cases of rice and wheat, around 60% of seeds are
replaced every year, and these rates are in steadily increasing trend but
not drastically. For soy beans, less than 40% of the seeds were replaced
in 2005, and this may gradually increase in future to reach the 50%
target set by prefectural government.
[4]]
Fig. 2. Replacement rate for major crops grown in Aichi

Aichi-Prefecture
In the case of rice, the most important crop in Japan, varieties grown in
different prefectures have different tendencies (Fig. 3). In Miyagi and
Niigata, more than 80% of fields are sown to one variety, but in Gifu and
Okayama, relatively small portion of fields are sown to major varieties,
which are different from those of Miyagi or Niigata. This suggests that
farmers under different nt conditions, both naturally and socially, take
different strategies for variety choice,, and each prefecture provides the
necessary seeds based on the demands.
Yield
ield loss after self seed production by farmers is not serious up to
certain generations such
ch that the yield reductions amount to about 98%
after one year, 96% after two years, 90% after three years and 83% after
nine years. These data support the judgment of farmers who use their
own seeds for certain generations.
Fig. 3. Share of different

nt rice varieties grown in different regions in Japan
[5]]
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Promotion of Seed Production by

Farmers
Hiroshima Gene Bank promotes farmers own seed production in order to
distribute and/or re-introduce crop varieties in rural areas. There
minimum recommendations for beginner seed producers are:
• Protection from rain and proper drainage for higher fertilization and
less disease infection;
• Selection of mother plants in which case limited amount of diversity is
necessary as strength of local varieties, but there is a need to exclude
off-types;
• Mitigation of possibility of contamination based on the breeding
behavior of each crop;
• Proper timing of harvest;
• Drying under shade;
• Germination test; and
• Storage (cool, dark and dry storage, and in Japan, domestic fridge is
best choice)
In addition to the common characters as good quality seeds such as

purity, vigor, and health, farmers who produce seeds by themselves have
other criteria for their own good quality seeds. Examples are:
• Intentionally keeping variations within the limitation of practically

recognizable identity;
• Having deep insight on harvesting time and storage conditions; and
• Carefully choosing mother plants.
With such small additional technical considerations, some farmers in

Japan enjoy self harvesting of their seeds based on their own choice of
characters and suited to their environment. Although natural and social
conditions are different between Japan and Ethiopia, many of the criteria
for choosing and saving good quality seeds by farmers in Japan are
shared by farmers in Africa such as Ethiopia and Burkina Faso under
their own saving seeds traditions. This may confirm the importance and
possibility of inclusion of farmers in production and distribution of good
quality seeds in the Ethiopian context.
[6]
Conclusions and Recommendation

Access to ‘good seeds’ is certainly vital for farmers’ livelihood.
Characters of good seeds are universal in many aspects and should be
realized for better production. However, good varieties mean different
things for different stakeholders/farmers, and they are very much
location, timing and market specific. Therefore, promotion of good
(improved) varieties is a different issue from promoting and securing
good quality seeds. Integration between the two is necessary, but they
need to be clearly understood as separate matter.
Acknowledgements
The author wish to express his thanks to JICA FRG II project for providing him
with opportunities for experiencing farmers’ and researchers’ wisdom in good
quality seed production in Ethiopia. This study has been partly funded by
Mitsui Co., Environmental Fund.
References
Aichiken Beibaku Shinko-kai. 2003. Technical guideline for Seed production of Staple
Crops. Aichi Prefecture Rice and Wheat Promotion Association, Japan.
FAO. 1996. Report on the State of the World’s Plant Genetic Resources for Food and
Agriculture, Rome, Italy.
Funakoshi, T. 2008 How to harvest vegetable seeds? (Yasai no tane-ha koshite toro.)
Soshin-sha Publishing, Tokyo
Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (Japan) website.
http://www.maff.go.jp/j/tokei/sokuhou/syukaku_suitou_09/index.html (visited on
12.03. 2011)
Pieper, H. 1952 "Das Saatgut", cited by Ehara, K. (1971), Principles of cultivation
(Saibai-gaku Taiyo). Yoken-do Publishing, Tokyo
[7]
The Ethiopian Seed Quality
Control System
Yonas Sahlu
Ethiopian Seed Enterprise, P.O.Box 2453, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Email: Sahlu_yonas@yahoo.com
Introduction
In Ethiopia the formal seed sector has not developed as expected due to
multiple reasons. Lack of proper organizational set up, inadequacy in
trained manpower and limited private participation are some of the main
drawbacks. All of the components and segments of activities are
seriously affected with the overall weakness.
Seed quality control/assurance which is vital at every segment of the

activity is almost neglected by most of the stakeholders in the sector. It
was well known that the seed quality control was among the first
considerations in the Ethiopian seed system. Some records show that the
seed quality concept and rudimentary activities in seed quality aspects
were introduced to the seed system even before the present formal seed
production and distribution got its current shape some 30 years ago.
Since then, especially after the enforcement of the Ethiopian seed law
No. 206/2000, seed quality control showed some progress but it
gradually got weakened to its current alarming status.
This paper attempts to briefly review the system and identify points of
intervention to rehabilitate the seed quality aspect so as to serve the seed
system in the best way possible.
Historical Background
The formal seed quality system was partially exercised in a much
disorganized manner in some parts of the country as early as 1942.
According to Bishaw et al. (2008), the Ethiopian formal seed system was
introduced five decades ago with the activities of crop improvement
research by the existing research and higher learning institutes. The
activities were ad hoc in their nature that they did not serve the farming
communities in a sustainable way. Later on, however, the seed
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production showed a better organized fashion under the Chillalo
Agricultural Development Unit (CADU). Seed quality testing was
recorded to be conducted as early as 1972 by the CADU at its laboratory
in Kulumsa. It was also recorded to have been started in other
agricultural research centers like Debre Zeit, Holeta, Bako, Alemaya,
and Awassa. Nevertheless, the CADU activities were the pioneer in the
introduction of partial seed quality control in Ethiopia (FAO, 1972).
Seed quality testing which was introduced by CADU is only one of the
several activities in seed quality system. Other seed quality control/
assurance activities especially field quality inspections and the
applications of pre-and post-control methods were absent for longer
period of time after the introduction of seed testing. Before the
introduction of the seed law, the major seed producers conducted lab
seed tests just to know and let their clients know the planting values of
the seed produced and distributed. There were no seed certification
standard norms, written procedures and a coordinating body. These
activities have been continued with the introduction of some other field
quality inspections even after the establishment of the Ethiopian Seed
Enterprise (ESE). Immediately after its establishment, ESE had
introduced a department for its seed quality assurance which kept its
intended purpose till now. The first organized seed testing lab was
established and field and seed standard norms were introduced by the
department. The standard norms and the field inspection procedures
were used only internally at the ESE until the seed system was legally
enforced in 2000 through the seed law. However, the ESE was the first
to introduce field and seed standards and the system field quality
inspections to the formal seed system in the country.
Early Activities
As discussed above, the early seed quality assurance activities of the
ESE included seed testing and field quality inspections that are both used
for internal purposes. Besides, in order to disseminate the concept and
knowledge of seed quality to other stakeholders, the ESE coordinated
and conducted several seed quality trainings to the staffs of the then
Ministry of State Farms Development, Ministry of Agriculture, Institute
of Biodiversity Conservation and many others. Most of the in-country
trainings were sponsored by international organizations like ICARDA,
FAO and UNDP. In addition, some of the seed quality inspectors of the
ESE were trained outside the country. The Swedish International
Development Agency (SIDA) had remarkably contributed to such
undertakings in addition to its vital advisory roles in the introduction of
[10]
Ethiopian seed quality control system
seed quality system in Ethiopia. The trained seed quality inspectors were
assigned at each of the seed multiplication state farms where they shared
their knowledge thereby enabling the spread of the concept of seed
quality throughout the state farms in a very short period of time. Seed
samples were collected and were sent to the only lab at the head office of
the Ministry of State Farms while the field inspections were performed
at the level of the various branches after the erection of big seed
processing plants at different locations nearby the grain producing state
farms.
The ESE adopted the seed standard norms from other countries while
seed sampling intensities, procedures and many of the technical quality
assurance applications were adopted from the International Seed Testing
Association (ISTA). These technical applications were also adopted by
the current seed regulatory system, though Ethiopia either did not have
any ISTA accredited lab or did not join the ISTA. The ESE remained as
a sole seed producer in the country for longer period of time while
having an internal seed quality assurance system without any legal
backing.
Legalization of Seed Quality in Ethiopia

As with many of the other seed related activities in the formal system,
legal enforcement came at later scenario of development in Ethiopia.
The issuance of the draft Ethiopian Seed Policy was the prelude to the
first Ethiopian Seed Law which came into picture in 2000. The Ethiopian
Seed law (proclamation 206/2000) is a comprehensive legal document in
that it covers most of the seed related activities and actors. Seed
production processing and distribution have got legal grounds through
this proclamation. Variety release and seed quality control were also
legalized. The Ethiopian Field and Seed Quality Standards which were
formulated under the coordination of the then Ethiopian Quality and
Standards Authority (EQSA) were enforced following the seed
proclamation. Besides, with the financial support of the World Bank, one
central and several satellite seed testing labs were established at different
locations of the country to serve the seed regulation. All these labs were
meant for seed certification purposes and operated under the National
Seed Industry Agency (NSIA) for years. The NSIA, which was born
after the seed proclamation, was the legal body to execute the seed
quality control and certification. NSIA was also given the mandate to
regulate all other seed related activities and implement the Farmers-
Based Seed Production and Marketing Scheme Project. The agency
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employed seed quality inspectors and lab technicians who were engaged
in the seed quality control works.
The scope of activities of the NSIA in seed quality control were limited
to the then existing seed companies – the ESE and Pioneer Hi-bred
International- and to crop seeds of maize and bread wheat. The field and
seed quality standards were deficient and contain very high and
compelling seed standards for some crops and parameters. Although
their testing procedures were standardized in the document, the field
quality lack standards for some diseases which if neglected may cause
devastating consequences.. The results were that such diseases were not
considered in the official field quality inspection, and hence their
potential danger was overlooked. Besides, the high standards set for
some parameters limited the production of “certified” seeds of some
crops like sorghum, tef, and many of the beans and oil crop species
which suffered unattainable germination and isolation standards. The
ESE reflected its concerns on many of the standards especially in the
early generations. It was attempted several times to revisit and revise the
deficiencies in the standard setting, but this has not yet materialized.
This is one of the most important concerns in the current seed quality
system in the country. The introduction of the independent seed quality
tests was also limited to crude field inspection and seed tests of moisture,
physical purity, and germination capacities. This might have been due to
priority setting in light of the limited resources and shortage of
manpower. In spite of these, the activities of the NSIA, nevertheless,
marked the beginning of an independent seed quality control system in
the country.
The World Bank project supported several in-country seed quality

control trainings, and also assisted the ESE in establishing satellite labs
in all its seed processing and distribution branches. To-date, the ESE
owns five small and one main seed testing labs used for internal seed
quality assurance purposes (Table 1). These labs are the only seed labs
used for internal quality assurance available hitherto. All the seed
companies other than ESE depend upon the seed regulatory labs for their
internal seed quality assurance purposes.
In addition to the labs of the ESE, the MoA has one seed laboratory, and
regional bureaus of Agriculture have got ten laboratories at ten different
locations in various parts of the country (Table 1).
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Table 1. Seed Testing Laboratory Facilities in Ethiopia
Institution/location Seed testing laboratory Annual

Capacity (samples)
A. Ethiopian Seed Enterprise
Addis Ababa 5,000

Asela 2,500
Koffele 2,500
Awassa 2,500
Nekempte 2,500
Bahir Dar 2,500
Sub-total 17,500
B. Regional Bureaus of Agriculture
10 locations* 25,000
C. Federal Ministry of Agriculture
Addis Ababa 5,000
Total 30,000
* Ambo, Assela, Axum, Dessie, Durame, Durbete, Gondar, Markos,
Mekelle, and Wolaita
Reorganization of the executive body (NSIA)

In an attempt to coordinate the solitary activities of agricultural inputs,
the Government of Ethiopia took a major step towards the establishment
of the National Agricultural Inputs Authority (NAIA) in 2002. The rights
and responsibilities of the NSIA and the National Fertilizer Industry
Agency (NFIA) which was established in 1994 (Proc. 106/1994) were
transferred to the NAIA. This new development diminished the
importance of the young seed quality control and certification
undertaking while the seed sector continued its development.
While the situation continued further, a restructuring took place in 2004

when the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MoARD) was
formed to coordinate all the agricultural regulatory activities. The rights
and obligations of the NAIA were then transferred to MoARD. The seed
regulatory tasks were further shared among the different departments of
the MoARD. Seed quality control and certification were further
diminished in manpower and activities. Later on, the responsibility was
given to the bureaus of agriculture and rural development of the various
regions. This made the well-equipped central seed testing lab idle. The
regions, on the other hand, have to depend upon the ill-equipped small
labs scattered in different parts of the country to test the seeds produced
in their areas of domain. Besides, almost all of the regions lack adequate
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trained manpower, field vehicles and other facilities to handle the ever-
expanding seed production plots in their respective regions.
Status of Seed Quality and Certification

The current situation of the formal seed sector could be characterized
with the prolificacy of both private and public seed companies whose
interests are on the production and sales of hybrid maize seed associated
with very weak seed quality control setup. Seed quality is the most
neglected matter in the seed industry. Though remarkable progress was
recorded on the production of hybrid maize seed in the past cropping
season, it was achieved through a compromise in quality. Regional seed
quality control bodies are striving to reach the production premises of
several private and public seed production farms. The regional seed
quality control bodies are also expected to inspect and verify the seed
production plots of their regional seed enterprises. Since both the
regional seed enterprises and the seed regulatory bodies are mostly
affiliated to the regional bureaus of agriculture, compromise in quality
would not be unexpected under these situations. The year 2000 seed law
has now turned out obsolete in many respects such that it could not
match with the current development scenario in the sector especially in
the area of seed quality. The organizational set-up and the trans-regional
seed movements are becoming areas of controversy. While all of the
regional seed quality control bodies remained weak, some of them
demand certificates for any seed lot coming from other regions. This will
seriously affect the seed availability of varieties which are not produced
by the certificate-demanding region.
The other area of problem is the aggravated fraudulent crimes which

have the potential damage on the seed system. Both small farmers and
the seed companies are negatively affected by fake seed. Though fake
seed is a phenomenon in most developing countries, the strength of the
seed regulatory limits its danger. Hence, under the present
circumstances, those people who are engaged in this crime may find
themselves in a very favorable environment.
Conclusions
It seems that the seed quality control assurance system of Ethiopia has
not performed steadily since its inception some 30 years back. It has
reached its highest performance peak in the years following its legal
[14]
recognition. Soon after, it descended when its activities were denied

proper organization set-up. At present, seed quality has become the most
important concern in the formal seed industry. It is also highly affected
by serious capacity limitations. Structurally, the system lacks appropriate
guidelines and updated quality standards. The field and seed standards
need revision.
Immediate rehabilitation of the system is deemed necessary in the

following areas.
• The system should be organized in a sound manner both at the

federal and regional levels;
• Proper attention should be given to capacity building. It is very
much necessary to rehabilitate the seed testing labs which are
managed under the regional agricultural bureaus. Lab equipments
and proper manpower and vehicles are of immediate need;
• The current field and seed quality standards need revision. The
deficiencies and the unattainable standards should be revisited and
amended accordingly; and
• In the short term, the application of “quality declared system” may
be another option. Seed certification may go side by side with the
quality declared system provided that appropriate field and seed
standards are availed.
References
FAO. 1972. Legislation and Quality Control of Agricultural Seeds. Report to the
Government of Ethiopia. Food & Agriculture Organization of the United Nations,
Rome, Italy
Zewdie Bishaw, Yonas Sahlu and Belay Simane (2008). The Status of the Ethiopian
Seed Industry. In: Thijssen, M.H., Z. Bishaw, A. Beshir and W.S.de Boef, 2008
(eds.). Farmers, seed and varieties: supporting informal seed supply in Ethiopia.
Wageningen, Wageningen International.348p.
[15]
Source Seed
Seed Quality Assurance
Mechanisms in Ethiopia
Abebe Atilaw, Adefris Teklewold and Dawit Alemu
Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research, P.O.Box 2003, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Abebe.Atilaw@yahoo.com, adechere@yahoo.co.uk, dawit96@yahoo.com
Introduction
Seed is one of the most important sources of innovation, particularly in
resource-constrained small farm environments. It carries the genetic potential of
the crops, determining the upper limit on yield and, therefore, the ultimate
productivity of other inputs (Jaffee and Srivastava 1992). The responses of all
other inputs depend to a large extent upon the quality of seeds used. The direct
contribution of quality seed alone to the total production is estimated at 15 –
20% depending upon the crop and it can be further raised up to 45% with
efficient management of the other inputs. In addition, new roles of seeds are
rapidly recognized all over the world for the delivery systems of many
innovative biotechnological products, and as carriers of plant protection
chemicals, and biological and growth regulators.
In order to better understand what a seed system is, we need to look into its
three components-technological, economic, and legal. The technological
component has to do with variety selection; the economic one involves
production and marketing; and the legal component has to do with the rules and
regulations governing the previous two aspects. Over the centuries, selectors of
improved varieties and seed growers have become increasingly specialized.
The availability of quality seeds of a wide range of crop varieties is the key to
attain food security. Some of the direct benefits of quality seeds to farmers
include enhanced productivity, higher harvest index, reduced risks from pests
and other biotic factors and higher profits. Therefore, improving access to good
quality seed of improved and adapted cultivars is a critical requirement for
sustainable agricultural growth and food security. This paper presents a review
of machanisms of quality assurance for source seeds, i.e., breeder, pre-basic,
and basic seeds.
[17]
17]
Abebe et al
Source Seed Quality

The demand for seed in Ethiopia increased from time to time as farmers became
convinced of the role of quality seed in realizing the full potential of modern
high-yielding varieties. In the early years of Ethiopia’s seed supply system, the
Ethiopian Seed Enterprise (ESE) was the sole entity engaged in production and
supply of quality seed to farmers. Subsequently, additional three regional state
seed enterprises, namely: Oromia Seed Enterprise (OSE), Southern Seed
Enterprise (SSE), and Amhara Seed Enterprise (ASE) were set up to cater for
their own respective regions. Currently, 33 private seed growers are involved
mainly in hybrid maize multiplication and distribution. Despite these efforts,
substantial gap still exists in satisfying the quality seed demand by farmers
particularly for food grain crops. At present, mainly EIAR and higher learning
institutions (HLIs) are responsible for multiplication of source seeds.
The impact of investments on agricultural research can be realized only if

farmers have better access to high quality seed of new crop varieties. The seed
production process consists of a sequence of stages in which seed of a new
variety is multiplied to obtain sufficient quantities of commercial seed. Source
seeds include breeder, pre-basic and basic seed classes. In the case of breeder
and pre-basic seed classes, strong and comprehensive seed multiplication
program must be developed and interlocked with all other activities that can
assure seed quality standards. Source seed production is confronted with series
of bottlenecks in the national seed systems. Amongst these bottlenecks, seed
quality is the major one. The quality of the seed determines to a large extent the
success of the crop in terms of yield and product quality, and thereby in terms
of contribution to food security and the value of crop products in the market.
Seed quality is defined as standard of excellence in certain characteristics

and/or attributes that will determine the performance of the seed when sown or
stored (Hampton, 2002). Production of genetically pure and good quality
nucleus seed is a demanding task that requires high technical skills and
comparatively huge financial investment. During seed production, strict
attention must be given to the maintenance of genetic purity and other quality
parameters in order to fully exploit the genetic potential of the variety under
production. Seed quality is a total sum of different aspects of a seed including
genetic and physical purity, physiological quality and health quality (Cromwell,
1990).
[18]
18]
Seed quality assurance mechanisms
Genetic quality
The genetic purity (trueness to type) of a variety can be deteriorating due to
several factors during production cycles. The important factors are the inherent
genetic information contained in the seed which provides the potential for
higher yield, better grain quality, and greater tolerance to biotic or abiotic
stresses; and varietal identity, specifically the transfer of seed of desired variety
from the breeder to the farmer through successive generations of seed
multiplications.
Physiological quality
This refers to the viability, germination, and vigor of seed which determines the
germination and subsequent seedling emergence and crop establishment in the
field as well as the storage potential of the seed lot.
Physical quality
This refers to the analytical purity, freedom from contamination of other
crop/weed seeds, size and weight of seeds, and seed lot uniformity
Health quality
This refers to the absence of infection with seed-borne pests (fungi, bacteria,
virus, etc.) or contamination with noxious weeds. Seed quality can be affected
by environmental conditions under which the crop is grown and the cultural
practices employed (Agrawal, 1986).
Components of Quality Attributes

In Ethiopian seed system, field standard developed for certifying different crop
varieties considered are rotation, isolation distance, off-types and other
cultivars, and diseases and noxious weeds. At the same time for laboratory
standard, germination percent, moisture content, pure seed, weed seed, inert
matter and other crop seed. Rule for seed testing like seed sampling,
determination of moisture content, germination test, and biochemical tests are
also considered. However, in our condition most of the standards are not yet
tested due to limited capacities and experiences. Probably, hybrid maize is fully
certified with all labels and tags.
In Ethiopian research system, the production of quality source seed is subjected

to several crop production requirements. The broad steps of seed production in
the field are as follows:-
[19]
19]
Abebe et al
Field standard
Field selection and land preparation
Selection of appropriate field is the key to success of a seed production
program. The seed production must preferably be planted in the area of
adaptability where the soil and environmental conditions are most conducive. It
will help prevent gene shifts and excessive losses from environmental hazards
like frost and drought etc. Excess moisture or prolonged drought adversely
affects germination and frequently results in poor crop stands. Therefore, the
land in which the variety grown should have to get enough amount of rainfall
during the growing period. In addition, irrigation can be important at planting
for seed crops on dry soils to ensure good uniform germination and adequate
crop stands. Good land preparation helps in improved germination, good stand
establishment and destruction of potential weeds. It also aids in water
management and good uniform irrigation.
Previous cropping
The field should not have grown the same crop for the previous year unless the
variety was the same variety and met inspection requirements for varietal purity
the crop should be planted on a field with a known history to avoid
contamination from volunteer plants, noxious weeds, and soil-borne diseases
that are potentially seed transmitted. If the seed is grown through supplement of
irrigation, it must be irrigated 3 weeks before planting in order to pre-germinate
the probable seed from last season.
Isolations
Isolation means keeping the seed production plots distant from other fields of
the same crop. Seed production plots should be located in a distance that there
is no risk of contamination through cross fertilization by the pollen from the
neighboring plant. The distance for isolation is decided by the mode of
pollination and on the velocity and direction of weed. Isolation between seed
plots can be achieved by distance (spatial isolation) or time (temporal isolation).
When both time and space isolation are not possible, mechanical barriers may
be implemented. If the crop is self-pollinated often 2-3 meters around the edges
of the field are adequate to prevent taking in any plants from the neighboring
field during harvest. If the crop is cross-pollinated, the field should be either
located far enough from fields or volunteer plants of other varieties of the same
crop; or the field is planted at a different time, so that it will not cross-pollinate
with adjoining fields of other varieties of the same crop. The recommended
isolation distance for maize is 400-500 meters. If it is not possible to get the
required isolation distance, it would be advisable to plant the seed crop at a
[20]
20]
different time, so that the seed crop will not be flowering when other fields of
the same crop are shedding pollen
Roguing
Roguing is the removal of off – types and diseased plants from the seed field
before or after flowering. It is used to avoid genetic contamination, out-
crossing, and transmission of seed borne diseases. In self pollinated crops
rouging should be continuous, while in cross pollinated crops roguing should be
done before anthesis and it should be done in both seed parent and pollinator
rows. Rouging may be done at many of the following crop growing stages as
per needs of the seed crop.
Following recommended agronomy

Seed production must be done following the recommended agronomic package
of the given crop. Beginning from the recommended method of sowing through
appropriate fertilizer application, timely tinning, usage of appropriate seed rate,
the right depth of sowing, the right amount and frequency of irrigation , timely
de-tasseling, weed and pest control and till harvest the field condition must be
maintained around optimum.
Field inspection
The primary objective of field inspection is to ensure that the seed production
pertains to the designated variety and has not been contaminated genetically and
physically beyond minimum seed standards. Field inspection is done by a team
of researchers from respective research project. The number and the stage of
inspections may vary from crop to crop depending upon crop duration, mode of
pollination, nature of contaminating factors, susceptibility to contamination and
the stage of disease susceptibility. In general field inspections may be done
during vegetative or pre-flowering stage, flowering, post-flowering stage, pre-
harvest stage, and harvest stage.
Seed harvesting
It should be completed as soon as the moisture content decreases to an
appropriate level. Although germination potential and vigor are at their highest
when the seed reaches physiological maturity, the moisture level present at that
point makes it impractical to harvest and process the seed. After maturity,
germination potential and vigour begin to deteriorate, thus making the
timeliness of harvest fundamental to the quality of seed. Manual / Mechanical
harvest is essential in order to avoid damage to seed. Care is taken while
threshing to avoid mixing of off-types. Threshing can be done on a cement floor
or clean land.
[21]
21]
Abebe et al
Biotechnology
Recently in EIAR, rapid multiplication systems have been developed in potato
seed tuber production to provide large quantities of plantlets, micro-tubers and
mini-tubers of high quality. Micro-tubers, plantlets and mini-tubers are high
quality starting materials that can be produced year round in vitro conditions
(micro-tubers, plantlets) or ex vivo conditions (mini-tubers) at a high density.
Rapid multiplication is very flexible and gives a high rate of multiplication. It
also provides seed potato tubers free from seed borne diseases. In addition,
other stimulant and fruit crops like coffee, pine apple and grapes are also
multiplying through tissue culture. Currently, most of the coffee seedlings are
multiplied and distributed to farmers and other users through tissue culture.
Processing and quality control

In order to maintain varietal purity almost all research centers in EIAR lacks
mechanical drying equipment after harvest and are relying on the weather to dry
(commonly the sun), where unexpected rainfall can lead to seed spoilage and
low germination. In addition, most of the research centers lack cold storage if
needed to store source seed for more than a year.
Seed packaging and labeling is another area of weakness, as bags are only in 50
and 100 kg sizes, irrespective of farm size or seed rate. In almost all research
centres, seed packaging equipments are not available and seeds are not bagged
properly. Sometimes tags are not found on the sacks that lacks proper
morphological descriptions; therefore, producers are sometimes confused in
distinguishing which type of variety and what generation of seeds they acquire
from the respective research centre.
Contemporary ideas on seed supply emphasize labeling as a way to build

farmers’ confidence in formal seed, and to help them identify which types of
seed are likely to have physical and genetic value. There are concerns with the
quality of source seeds both at seed growers as well as farmers’ level and users
are confusing on which stage of seeds and from which seed source they
received.
Seed testing
Since the inception of research programs in the Ethiopian agricultural research
system (NARS), considerable efforts have been made to supply source seed to
seed producers. However, most of the seed supplied by the NARS lacks the
standard quality. This is mainly attributed to shortage of qualified personnel in
seed technology; lack of adequate facilities for internal quality control and short
term storage; lack of appropriate breeder seed maintenance storage facilities to
keep the quality standard; and inadequate budget for source seed multiplication.
[22]
22]
The purpose of seed inspection is to maintain and make available to producers,

high quality, and genetically pure seeds of superior cultivars. Only those
cultivars that are of superior genetic make-up ought to be multiplied to maintain
purity and identity of the variety and are normally eligible for internal
certification. Both the germination capacity and the status of the physical purity
of the raw seed affect the seed quality. Seed lots with lower physical purity
increased expenses through the resulted lower volume of cleaned seed and time
consuming and inefficient seed cleaning and processing operations. Thus, raw
seed tests shall be conducted for germination and physical purity before they
were paid for. Therefore, seed samples must be collected and submitted for
laboratory analysis after drying and processing. Laboratory tests to be
conducted include varietal purity, weed and other crop seed, inert material,
other varieties, germination capacity and moisture content of the seed. Seed
testing include seed sampling, purity analysis, germination test, moisture test,
test for seed health, and others.
To date in EIAR, there are no full pledge quality laboratories with required
equipment and furniture. The availability of these facilities varies from one
center to the other. Some centers may have some of these facilities, but none
has a complete set of facilities indicated above. However, seed testing
laboratories are essential organization in seed certification and seed quality
control program, Therefore, research centers responsible in the production of
source seed are required to establish certain certification authorities’ facilities
and procedures for sustainable supply of improved varieties
Trends in source seed production

The Ethiopian government has put in place favorable policy setup for
agricultural research and it supports the research system by allocating
appropriate resources. As a result, the country's agricultural research system has
developed and released more than 664 varieties of 50 different crop types
(MoA, 2010). However, due to many reasons, use of high yielding varieties has
not widely disseminated to the farmers at the desired extent.
In the formal seed production system, seed multiplication passes through

several generations to avoid building-up of physical or genetic contamination
over time in the same lot of seed. Seed production follows a generation system
to ensure all seeds provided to farmers originate from a known source (breeder
seed). As soon as a variety is officially released, the small amount of breeder
seed received from the breeder is multiplied through a number of generations
before it becomes available to farmers in larger quantities as certified seed.
Each generation is produced under strict supervision and must meet the required
[23]
23]
Abebe et al
seed quality standards. The number of generations that are allowed after breeder
seed depends on the mode of reproduction of the crop, risk of contamination,
multiplication ratio, and quantity of seed required (Fig. 1). Ethiopia uses the
nomenclature of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
(OECD) for each generation, and these are breeder, pre-basic, basic and
certified seed classes (Table. 1). The purpose of such seed classes is to maintain
purity and quality by ensuring the purity of early generation material,
particularly breeder seed, which is usually maintained in smaller amounts. To
increase crop productivity, farmers ought to have access to improved seeds of
the right type, at the right time, at the right place, at a reasonable price, and
packed at the right size and type of packages. Though this is the proper way of
promoting agriculture through the provision of the vital input, the seed, the
practice in the country varies from farmer to farmers.
Table 1 Seed classification based on OECD scheme (Ethiopian system)
Seed class Color of certification tag

Breeder Seed White, violet mark
Pre-basic Seed White violet mark
Basic Seed White
Certified Seed 1st generation White, Blue mark
Certified Seed 2nd-4th generation White, Red mark
Governmental and
non governmental
organizations
Nucleus seed Breeder seed Pre-basic Basic For seed

multiplication seed seed multipliers
For research and

demonstration
Fig 1. Schematic diagram indicating the role of research systems in seed multiplication
[24]
24]
For the last 10 years, EIAR through its research centers has been producing
breeder, pre-basic and basic seeds of cereals, pulses, oil crops, vegetables,
fruits, spices, coffee and cotton. Due to lack of systematic demand and proper
coordination, the seed production has been fluctuating year after year. However,
starting from 2008/09 cropping season, the production was increasing as some
research centers began to produce twice per year using irrigation.
At national level, assessment of the demand for certified seed is carried out by
the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) through the Regional Bureaus of
Agriculture. The assessment is made on the basis of the area sown under
different crop varieties, area covered by hybrid and self-pollinated varieties as
well as the seed replacement rate achieved. The availability of seed is also
ascertained by the same ministry on the basis of production of seed in public
and private seed growers. MoA’s Input Supply and Marketing Directorate
facilitate arrangements with seed producing agencies to ensure whether the
requirement of seeds is met to the maximum extent possible.
In Ethiopia, supplies of source seeds fail to fulfill the demand of seed

producers. However, as a result of a shift in seed multiplication strategy, the
production of improved seeds especially that of hybrid maize and wheat has
been considerably improved since the last two years. The gap between demand
and supply of basic seeds for both hybrids (Fig. 2) and non-hybrid (Fig. 3)
maize has in recent years been considerably narrowed down. However, the
supply of basic seed was greater than the demand in both cases. If the efforts in
recent years were continued, it would be possible to satisfy the demand of
source seeds in a sustainable manner.
Based on the country’s certified seed demand, the actual need for source seed to
be multiplied by different research centers is planned and communicated to
EIAR by the National Seed Multiplication and Distribution Committee
(NSMDC). The allocation of responsibility for production of breeder seed is
discussed in the annual planning workshop through the facilitation of
Technology Multiplication and Center Development (TMCD) Coordination
unit of EIAR. The allocation with respect to particular crops is made to various
centers as per the facilities and capabilities of the centers and the availability of
nucleus seeds of the particular variety to be multiplied. After the seeds are
multiplied by each research center, the quantity and type of seed is
communicated and compiled by TMCD coordination office of EIAR, then
reported to NSMDC. Based on the information from NSMDC, the available
source seed is fairly allocated to all producers in an equitable manner. The
breeder and pre-basic seed classes produced are mainly allocated for seed
enterprises (ESE, RSEs) and/ or private basic seed growers.
[25]
25]
Abebe et al
7000
6000
5000
Production (q)
4000
Demand
3000
Supply
2000
1000
0
2006/07 2007/08 2008/09 2009/10 2010/11
Fig 2. Demand and supply of hybrid maize basic seed (2005/06-2009/10)
100,000
80,000
60,000
Non-hybrid Demand
40,000
Non-hybrid Supply
20,000
0
2007/08 2008/09 2009/10 2010/11
Fig 3. Demand and supply of non -hybrid basic seed (2005/06-2009/10)
Procedures of Variety Release and Source Seed

Quality Assurance
Seed producers should be aware of the technical and regulatory requirements
for growing a crop for seed, and ensure that all operations are carried out
strictly under specific guidelines and timely. The quality of seed can be ensured
by following a combination of key technical procedures and regulatory
measures. By establishing administrative guidelines and technical procedures,
the quality control assurance system plays a supervisory role for smooth
operation and implementation of the program and for enforcing the regulatory
measures so as to maintain the quality of seed produced.
[26]
26]
The lack of trained workforce, shortage of farm machineries, and high seed
production costs are some of the major constraints hindering the availability of
source seeds in the EIAR seed system in terms of quantity and quality.
Variety release mechanism and its challenges

In Ethiopia, a crop variety evaluation and release system has been in use for
more than 25 years. Since the start of the national variety registration and
release system, 664 varieties have been officially released, but only about 18%
of these varieties have been under production at the moment. This may be as a
result of either some varieties in use become obsolete or the newly released
ones were not popularised This limited use of improved seed is detrimental to
agricultural development in general, and the situation has to be changed to bring
about agricultural productivity and production at the desired level.
The variety release system in the country was initially established and managed
by the National Crop Improvement Conference that involved stakeholders in
the recommendation and release of different crop technologies. The system was
institutionalized following the National Seed Improvement Program and Seed
Proclamation 206/2000. The release procedure has been revised at different
times to accommodate the demand of users (MoARD, 2008).
Since 2004, the variety release and registration task has become the
responsibility of the Animal and Plant Health Regulatory Directorate of the
MoA. Varieties need to have been tested in extensive multi-environment
(location and season) trials before they are proposed for release at regional or
national level. Breeders carry out a minimum of two to three years’ national
(NVTs) or regional variety trials (RVT) in at least three to five locations or
different agro-ecological zones (a minimum of six environments) before
submitting an application to the National Variety Release Committee (NVRC).
The variety should be tested for yield, tolerance to pests, and other important
agronomic characters in comparison with a standard varieties and/or local
check. Superiority in yield, grain quality, and acceptable level of distinctness,
uniformity, and stability are some of the required attributes to grant a release.
Improved varieties are the backbone of the formal seed industry. The national
agricultural research system (NARS) is responsible for variety development and
generation of appropriate technologies that can maximize the yield potential of
new varieties. Basically, two types of tests are carried out in the evaluation of
varieties for release/registrationdistinctness, uniformity, and stability (DUS)
test; and value for cultivation and use (VCU) test.
[27]
27]
Abebe et al
A DUS test is a descriptive assessment that establishes the identity of the new
variety by using morphological characters along with its uniformity and
stability. It is a useful tool for the purposes of seed production, certification, and
plant variety protection. The DUS tests are usually run for two years. The new
variety is compared with the existing best variety to establish its distinctness. A
variety description is prepared and differences from other varieties clearly
noted.
The Ethiopian variety release system contributed to improved crop production,

improved export earnings of the country and life of farmers, created high
demand for improved crop varieties, and developed national experience in the
evaluation, release and registration of varieties (MoARD, 2008).
As indicated in the aforementioned sessions, in Ethiopia several varieties were

released but only few are available in the production system mainly due to loss
of the original positive merits of some of the varieties. The main reason of
loosing performance is that these varieties were released without proper DUS
and VCU tests. Other indirect influencing factors include: i) lack of incentives
to breeders for the developed variety; ii) inadequate office facilities and
shortage of personnel; iii) limited participation of other stakeholders than
researchers in the development of varieties; iv) release additional new varieties
every year without checking the status or the impact of the previously released
ones; v) poor institutional linkages among federal and regional research centers
in the varietal development and evaluation processes that created overlap of
varieties; vi) lack of standard naming procedures to be strictly followed in the
registration processes; vii) lack of detailed description of morphological
characteristics of released varieties, and viii) lack of standardized procedures
for variety maintenance (MoARD, 2008). On the other hand, it is also normal
for some varieties to turn obsolete and get out of production due amongst others
to pest resistance break, dwindling productivity, and release of better
performing new varieties.
Variety maintenance and breeder seed multiplication and

quality
Maintenance and breeder seed production of public-owned varieties at national
level is the responsibility of the federal and regional research centers, higher
learning institutions and other institutions/organizations; while for private-
owened producers Pioneer Hi-bred PLC, Red Specled Ethiopia Trading, and
Syngenta Agro services that developed the variety. However, this responsibility
is not properly met due to lack of systematic provisions and clear ownership of
tasks for varietal maintenance both during initial breeder seed multiplication
and later on during re-multiplication of the same variety for renewal of stocks.
[28]
28]
EIAR, through its research centers, has moderate seed production farms to
produce early generations to maintain seed quality and availability. Most of the
produced breeder seed is supplied to seed producers and partly to research
centers for demonstration and popularization purposes. Since 2008, the amount
of breeder seed multiplied by EIAR has considerably increased especially for
cereals and in some extent for pulse crops (Table 1). However, for oil and
vegetable crops, the breeder seed production still remains low.
In general, breeder seed production in the EIAR seed system remains to be a

challenge. Some problems have been encountered in maintaining the genetic,
physical, and physiological quality of source seed distinguishing characters.
This is particularly manifested by complaints coming from seed growers, who
insist that this problem limits their ability to obtain optimal production of basic
and certified Seed, (Getinet, 2000; Yemane and Lee-Smith, 1984). Furthermore,
many seed producers and farmers have complained about the quality and the
high prices of seeds distributed to them.
Pre-basic seed multiplication and quality

Pre-basic seed is the progeny of breeder seed, and it is usually produced under
the supervision of a breeder or his designated agency. However, recently,
inaddition to pre-basic seed by NARS, ESE, regional seed enterprises (RSEs)
and private seed companies are involved in pre-basic seed multiplication with
assistance from the breeder responsible for maintaining the purity of the variety.
In EIAR, pre-basic seed is multiplied in order to supply adequate seed for seed
producer, for demonstration and popularization and for further basic seed
production in the research centers. Concerning ESE, and other seed producers,
pre-basic seed is produced for certified seed multiplication and demonstration
purposes. This generation of seed is commonly used for crops that have low
multiplication ratios and where large quantities of certified seed are required.
For the last two to three years, the amount of pre-basic produced both by EIAR
and ESE has been increased (Table 2) due to the increase multiplication of
breeder seeds.
Pre-basic seed should be produced in plots away from any source of pollen
contamination. Up to 10-15% of the off-type plants can be rouged-off before
flowering. Rouging-off for ear and seed traits is done at or after harvest. The
personnel responsible should ensure maintenance of genetic and morphological
purity of the variety through careful supervision.
[29]
29]
Table 1. Breeder seed production of EIAR during the last ten years (2000/01-2010/11)
Crops 2000/01 2001/02 2002/03 2003/04 2004/05 2005/06 2006/07 2007/08 2008/09 2009/10
Cereals 237.4 164 217.49 266.75 145.37 198.49 313.9 270.18 53.71 1040.15
Pulses 13.69 0 92.46 75.08 36.91 33.555 113.59 121.63 12 211.85
Oil crops 16.64 13.99 15.31 5.02 17.94 22.05 13.99 19.92 15 2.5
Vegetables 0.1345 0.1725 14.175 17.375 25.066 41.903 57.9 6.4 11.9 0
Total 267.8645 178.1625 339.435 364.225 225.286 295.998 499.38 418.13 92.61 1254.5
Table 2.. Pre-basic seed production of EIAR over the last ten years (2000/01-2010/11)
Crops 2000/01 2001/02 2002/03 2003/04 2004/05 2005/06 2006/07 2007/08 2008/09 2009/10
Cereals 0 294.02 123.35 697.62 304.91 1213 1212.14 1483.7 770.52 2330.19
Pulses 23.57 84.54 9.81 106.08 278.5 169.84 827.71 561.06 248.58 186.69
Oil crops 9.66 18.25 20.7 246.69 241.37 101.06 396.23 112.81 215.78 411.97
Vegetables 1.0201 1.4919 2.272 2.3 3.45 520.106 50 81 75 0
Total 34.2501 398.3019 156.132 1052.69 828.23 2004.006 2486.08 2238.57 1309.88 2928.85
[30]
30]
In EIAR, multiplication of pre-basic seed is solely done by a farm management
division with minimal participation of the respective breeders. In addition, the
quality control of improved varieties is done by the producers of pre-basic seed
themselves and sometimes there is lack accountability.
Basic seed production and quality

Basic seed is the progeny of breeder or pre-basic seed, and it is usually
produced under the supervision of a breeder or his designated agency and seed
quality control is done internally. However, the quality control should have
normally been addressed by external institutions.
In Ethiopia, the responsibility of basic seed production has been entrusted upon
ESE, RSEs, Regional Bureaus of Agriculture (BoA), and licenced private seed
producers having the necessary infrastructural facilities. In principle, EIAR
should have minimal involvement in the production of basic seed; however, the
institute is forced to multiply this class of seed due to severe shortage of seeds
in the country (Table 3). The basic seed of improved varieties of most crops
produced by ESE is distributed to regional agricultural offices and other non-
governmental organizations. For the last many years, it was challenging to
fulfill the national demand for basic seeds. On the other hand, in the last two
seasons, the demand for hybrid maize appeared to have been met through a
crush seed multiplication program (Tables 3 and 4. In EIAR, the increase in
basic seed production was observed on both cereals and pulses (Table 3), while
in ESE an increase in basic seed production was seen only for cereals with the
production of basic seeds for pulses and oil crops either remain the same or
decreased.
[31]
31]
Table 3. Basic seed production of (Q) major crops in EIAR over the last ten years (2000/01-2010/11)
Crops 2000/01 2001/02 2002/03 2003/04 2004/05 2005/06 2006/07 2007/08 2008/09 2009/10
Cereals 6042.71 4438.95 3416.94 9443.39 9964.07 7117.4 6547.5 5663.64 5693.71 5977.6
Pulses 361.2 225.31 93.12 688.05 800.85 537.71 1082.59 1756.99 1191.73 1764.82
Oil crops 649.9 519.27 307.8 1046.85 735 848.17 491.49 1110.82 550 169.07
Total 7053.81 5183.53 3817.86 11178.29 11499.92 8503.28 8121.58 8531.45 7435.44 7911.49
Table 4. Basic seed production of major crops in the ESE over the last five years (2005/06-2009/10)
Crops 2005/06 2006/07 2007/08 2008/09 2009/10

Cereals 13900.18 12788.17 17979.35 22095.9 36690.53
Pulses 2223.76 1650.82 1399.42 2089.27 1718.26
oil crops 178.59 156 134.93 255.09 353.97
Horticultural crops
1.18 12.5 3.46 38.45 55.93
Total 16303.71 14607.49 19517.16 24478.71 38818.69
[32]
32]
Human Resources and Physical Capacity
Human resources
Availability of qualified experts is key to ensure quality source seeds. In terms
of qualified human resources, EIAR does not have trained professionals
specialized in seed science and technology. In all the 14 federal research centers
under EIAR there currently are about 220 employees involved in Technology
Multiplication and Center Development (TMCD) program, and most of these
are below diploma level (Table 5). Besides, there is little or no formal seed
technology related research in the country due mainly to lack of seed
technologists. This situation is not surprising since little attention was given to
seed technology in the past. The current situation is likely to change such that at
least one seed technologist would expected to be recruited for each research
center. Based on the new draft TMCD study, about 870 personnel of various
educational levels are needed in order to produce the standard quality seed.
Moreover, the situations may change in the near future because Haramaya
University has already introduced post-graduate program in seed science and
technology, and some graduates are being employed.
Table 5. The current status of human power resources in the technology

multiplication and center development program of EIAR
Research Education level

Center PhD MSc BSc Diploma Others
Debre Zeit 1 1 1 1 16
Kulumsa 0 0 1 1 18
Melkassa 0 0 0 2 23
Holleta 0 0 0 2 7
Ambo 0 0 0 1 8
Jimma 0 0 1 4 29
Werer 0 0 0 1 34
Pawe 0 0 1 0 12
Assosa 0 0 0 1 5
Bako ( Maize) 0 0 0 1 4
Forestry 0 2 2 4 100
Hawassa 0 0 0 1 1
Sebeta Fishery 0 0 0 1 1
Wendo Genet 0 0 0 1 1
Tepi 0 0 0 1 2
Total 1 3 6 22 261
Landholding capacity
Almost all research centers under EIAR have moderate size of land for both
research and source seed production under rain- fed and irrigated conditions
(Table 6). In the future, if the research centers are going to produce basic seeds
[33]
33]
Abebe et al
of different crops the situation will not allow proper isolation distances. For
instance, for the production of self-pollinated crops an isolation distance of 3 to
10 meters, while for cross pollinated crops 400-500m of isolation distance is
necessary. In addition, in order to meet the current source seed demanded by
growers, existing facilities for irrigation are insufficient and should be
strengthen in shortest period of time. Therefore, to cope with the current
demand of source seed, the available land size in each research center will not
be enough until otherwise EIAR limit itself on the production of breeder and
pre-basic seeds or avail additional land for the production of source seeds.
Table 6. Landholdings (ha) of research centers of EIAR
Center Cultivated landholding (ha) Total

Rain-fed Irrigated
Research Seed Research Seed
multiplication multiplication
Holetta 113.67 86.00 0.00 0.00 199.67
Debre Zeit 47.42 132.62 20.00 50.00 250.04
Melkassa 77.21 133.32 0.00 48.00 258.53
Kulumsa 76.00 347.00 10.00 20.00 453.00
Jimma 182.00 75.00 20.00 20.00 297.00
Werer 0.00 0.00 43.00 130.00 173.00
Wendo Genet 10.37 5.00 12.50 9.52 37.39
Bako 17.00 8.00 1.00 4.00 30.00
Ambo - - - - 0.00
Pawe 33.35 60.00 0.00 0.00 93.35
Assosa 20.00 203.00 0.00 0.00 223.00
Tepi 24.50 5.00 - - 29.50
Sebeta - - - - 0.00
Forestry 111.50 244.30 16.00 0.00 371.80
Physical facility capacity

Seed processing facilities are instrumental for a better quality seed source
production. The source seed processing involves drying, shelling, cleaning,
grading, treating, packaging, and storage. Facilities related to seed production,
processing and storage include combiners, shellers, seed processing machines,
storage structures and packaging facilities. Other vital aspect of the seed
industry is conditioning and storage, which must be adequate to preserve the
physical characteristics of the seed specified by regulatory standards.
In EIAR, there are no full-pledged quality laboratories with required

equipments and other facilities. The availability of these facilities varies from
one center to the other. Some centers may have some of these facilities, but
none have the complete set of facilities indicated above.
[34]
34]
Overall, in order to be able to supply quality source seed sustainably all
research centers should be strengthened with necessary facilities. These include
seed cleaning machines of high standard suitable for processing small seed lots
in all research centers designated to produce and supply source seed, seed
storage facilities for short term (up to 18 months) and medium terms, farm
machinery implements for proper seed bed preparation, crop management and
harvesting. Provision of facilities such as tractors, implements, threshers,
cleaning and grading machines, and seed treatment and dressing facilities is
very important for all the centers. Seed packaging and labeling is another area
of weakness, as bags at present are only in 50 and 100 kg sizes irrespective of
farm size or seed rate. The bags are also unlabelled having no indication of
physical quality or germination rate. Contemporary ideas on seed supply
emphasize labeling as a way to build farmers’ confidence on the formal seed
supply and to help them identify which types of seed are likely to have physical
and genetic value
Almost all research centers in EIAR lack mechanical post-harvest drying

equipments and they rely on sun and/or air drying, and as such unexpected rains
may lead to seed spoilage and low germination. Another vital aspect of the seed
production is cold conditioning of storages, which must be adequate to preserve
the physical characteristics of the seed specified by regulatory standards.
Research centers sometimes need to store source seed for more than a year, and
storage conditions need to be carefully maintained particularly keeping
temperature and humidity at low levels. Unless these conditions are regulated,
the viability of the seeds in storage can drop quickly, especially if the seeds are
to be stored additional one or more seasons. Loss of viability is a major
problem with particularly with maize, sorghum, wheat and pulse crops since the
germination rates of seeds of these crops after some 6 months storage are often
below 50%. As a result, the seed quality can be quite poor sometimes lowering
the yield potential of the improved varieties to levels below the standards. This,
in turn, increases uncertainty for seed producers about the quality of seeds from
research.
Challenges of Quality Assurance

According to the next five years’ growth and transformation plan of the
Ethiopian government, availability of certified seed should be increased by 15%
every year. To produce such amount of seeds, accessibility of quality source
seeds is of paramount importance. However, with the resources and facilities
currently available it will be difficult to attain the goal. Considering available
land for source seed production by NARS, and the required isolation distance,
[35]
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Abebe et al
i.e., 3-5 m for self pollinated and 400-500 m for cross polinated crops, it could
be difficult to prodcue quality source seeds for more than 664 released crop
varieties.
Despite EIAR’s efforts to enhance source seed multiplication, quality

maintenance, and distribution, the following limitations have been identified:
• Lack of proper planning and implementation of source seed

multiplication;
• Standard varietal maintenance system is not fully in place;
• Inadequate demonstration and popularization of newly released varieties;
• Shortage of qualified personnel in seed technology for quality source
seed multiplication;
• Lack of adequate facilities for internal quality control;
• Lack of adequate short- and long-term (cold storage) storage facilities;
• Lack of adequate irrigation facilities for the production of source seeds of
improved varieties twice a year;
• Absence of seed research in the research system; and
• Lack of emphasis to train and produce professional seed technologists.
Conclusions and Recommendations

In Ethiopia, the present huge volume and the rapid growth in production and
demand offers a unique opportunity for the development of the seed sector and
trade in varieties and planting materials. Unlike grain production, seed
production requires great care, more precision in procedures and more technical
skill. In order to have access to quality seed, it is important to follow plant
breeding rules and regulations; undertake systematic increase of the limited
quantity of breeder seed to obtain larger quantity of seed to be distributed to
seed growers; and introduce internal quality control procedures within NARs to
ensure genetic and physiological quality of seed during the process of
multiplication, post-harvest management, storage, and labeling until the time
for subsequent sowing.
There is favorable policy framework with respect to variety release and

registration mechanisms, but guidelines emanated from these regulations are
not adequate. It would be essential to update and revise policy guidelines
considering all crops and commodities and to standardize and improve seed
laboratories to ensure dependable DUS and VCU tests in the release process.
[36]
36]
Both the germination capacity and the status of the physical purity of the raw
seed are important aspects of seed source quality. Seed lots with lower physical
purity increase expenses through resulting in low volume of cleaned seed
obtained and time consuming and inefficient seed cleaning and processing
operations. Thus, raw seed tests need to be conducted for germination and
physical purity as one measure to ensure source seed quality.
Quality seed production involves temporary storage and raw seed sampling,
sample transportation to the labs and testing. The currently existing problems in
this respect are serious since the subsequent operations are related to both
quality of the seed and cost of production.
The institutions involved in the source seed production are EIAR, RARIs, HLIs,
licenced private growers and MoA with the latter involved in the variety release
system. For these institutions the main barrier is that there is lack of
coordination both between and within federal and regional institutions. This
barrier could be mitigated by defining responsibilities and by capacity building
of staff in terms of both skills and facilities. In addition, some of the source
seeds produced by research centers are either deficit or surplus due to
inadequate planning. Therefore, there is a need to prioritize crops and varieties
to be multiplied on the basis of national need.
Due to the lack of capacity to produce and supply source seed for all improved
varieties, it is recommended that federal and regional research institutes should
have to limit themselves on the production of breeder and pre-basic seeds while
the responsibility of basic seed production ought to have fully been transferred
to ESE, RSEs and private seed companies.
The last three years experience showed that the shift of reliance of source seed
multiplication from rain-fed to irrigation cultivation can immensely fasten and
increas seed production. Therefore, equipping and strengthening research
centers with necessary irrigation facilities will have paramount importance.
[37]
37]
Abebe et al
References
Agrawal PK. 1986. Seed vigor: Concepts and measurements, 190-198. In: Srivastava, J.P. and
LT Simarski (eds.) Seed production technology. ICARDA, Aleppo, Syria.
CSA (Central Statistical Authority of Ethiopia), 2005-2011. Annual Agricultural Sample
Survey Report. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
ESE (Ethiopian Seed Enterprise), 2006-2011. Annual and Progress Reports. Addis Ababa,
Ethiopia.
Cromwell E (ed.). 1990. Seed diffusion mechanisms in small farmer communities: Lessons
from Asia, Africa and Latin America. ODI, London, UK. 57 pp.
dacnet.nic.in/seednet/seeds/material/IndianSeedSector.htm
Getinet Gebeyehu. 2000. The role of seed in agriculture In: Kugbei S, M Turner and P Witthaut
(eds). Finance and Management of Small-scale Seed Enterprises. Aleppo,Syria: ICARDA.
pp. 2-4.
Hampton JG. 2002. What is seed quality? Seed Science and Technology 30: 1-10.
MoA,2008. Study on the establishment of an independent crop variety release and registration
body in Ethiopia. Technical Report. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
MoA. 2010. Ministry of Agriculture. Animal and Plant Health Regulatory Directorate. Crop
Variety Register, Issue No. 13. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 227pp.
Marco A. Quiñónes. 2010. Agriculture-Led Development in Ethiopia. Re-direct institutional
support from the National Agricultural Research System, Extension and Farmers’
Organizations in order to attain sustainable, integrated agriculture and rural development.
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Jaffee S and J Srivastava. 1992. Seed System Development: The Appropriate Roles of the
Private and Public Sectors. Washington, D.C.: The World Bank.
Yemane, Getaneh, and D Lee-Smith. 1984. Evaluation of IDRC-funded research projects in
Ethiopia, (1972-1983). Vols. 1-2. Addis Abeba and Ottawa: Ethiopian Science
andTechnology Commission and IDRC.
[38]
38]
Forage Seed Production and Quality
in Ethiopia
Getnet Assefa, Gezahegn Kebede and Fekede Feyissa
Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research (EIAR)
P.O.Box 2003, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
getnetassefa@yahoo.com
Introduction
The potential of livestock to reduce poverty is enormous. Livestock
contribute significantly to food production directly via the provision of
high value animal products, and indirectly by supporting crop production
through draught power and manure. Moreover, they are important
sources of income and store of wealth for smallholder farmers, thereby
providing access to food. In spite of the importance of livestock to the
country’s economy, the productivity is very low due mainly to feed
shortage. Traditionally, livestock feed supply mainly depends upon
natural pasture and crop residues, which have low crude protein and
voluntary intake. However, there is tremendous potential to alleviate feed
shortage using improved forage crops.
Cultivation of improved forage crops is not a traditional practice in the

Ethiopian agriculture for the last many years. This was due to availability
of large grazing areas and better carrying capacity. Over time, however,
both the area and productivity of grazing lands have greatly declined due
to expansion of cropping, disappearance of valuable species, spread of
unpalatable species such as Pennisetum shemperi and land degradation
which are associated with overstocking and overgrazing (Lulseged,
1995). These and the increasing demand for livestock products are the
basic reasons for the start of cultivation of forage crops by smallholder
dairy farmers in order to mitigate the feed shortage problem. Currently,
farmers perceived improved forage production as feasible option for
improving feed supply. This requires adequate supply of quality forage
seeds, but unavailability of forage seeds associated with unaffordable
price is one of the major constraints for fodder production. Therefore,
forage seed production systems have to be stimulated for mitigating feed
shortage in the country.
Getinet et al
Various survey results indicated an increasing demand of forage seeds by
smallholder farmers; however, to cater for the increasing demand forage
seed production has not been adequately addressed by formal institutions
like the Ethiopian Seed Enterprise. Moreover, forage seed aspect has not
been adequately addressed by research. Consequently, lack of quality
seeds of improved forage varieties has remained to be one of the limiting
factors for improved forage production in Ethiopia. Very limited works
have been done in the areas of seed production and seed quality aspects
for some recommended forage crops. This paper provides highlights of
the major forage crops recommended for the country and the status of
seed production and seed quality aspects for selected forage species.
Recommended Forage Crops

Ethiopia has a wide ecological diversity and a huge wealth of biological
resources. The complex topography coupled with environmental
heterogeneity offers suitable environments for a wide range of life forms.
The country is known to be the center of origin and diversity for a
number of domesticated crops. During the last five decades considerable
research effort has been made with main emphasis on introduction,
evaluation, and selection of forage crops in different agro-ecological
zones of the country. A wide range of annual and perennial forage
species were evaluated in areas ranging in altitude from 600-3000 meters
above sea level, and many promising species have been selected for high,
medium, and low altitudes. The selected forage crops are generally well-
adapted to the different agro-ecologies and high yielding, and have better
quality compared to natural pasture. In addition to the forage germplasm
evaluation, numerous agronomic and management studies on
establishment methods, fertilizer and seed rates, sowing date and
methods, harvesting date for forage and seed, frequency of harvesting,
forage and seed yields were carried out, and appropriate cultural practices
have been identified for these selected forage crops.
Most of the forage species are well-adapted and productive in the mid
altitude areas followed by high and low altitudes. In the highlands, water
logging, low temperatures and frost, soil acidity and poor fertility are
some of the major reasons for poor performance compared to the mid-
altitude areas. In the low altitude areas, few forage crops are adapted due
to the harsh environmental and drought conditions. Some forage crops
like Chloris gayana, Panicum coloratum, Panicum maximum and
Pennisetum purpureum have wider area of adaptations in the different
[40]
agro-ecologies. Generally, more than 44 forage species and varieties have
been recommended for different agro-ecologies of the country (Table 1).
Most of these forage crops are propagated by seed and few of them are
propagated by vegetative means.
Many forage species and their varieties have not been officially released,
but some of the recommended forage species have been cultivated by
users in the different agro-ecologies. Out of the 44 forage species, only
few species were registered (Table 2). Currently forage crops variety
releasing procedures are drafted and official releasing is started, but this
should be strengthened from different perspectives.
Table 1. Number of recommended forage crops in different agro-ecological zones in Ethiopia
Species High altitude Mid-altitude Low altitude Total

Grasses >7 >12 (1*) >3 (2**) >19
Herbaceous Legumes >5 >12 (1*) >5 (5**) >16
Browse Trees 1 >6 >3(2**) >8
Root crops 1 - - 1
Total >14 >30 (2*) >11 (9**) >44
* Can also grow in high altitude areas; ** Can also grow in mid-altitude areas
Table 2. Forage species and varieties registered
Forage species Variety Common name

Grasses
Avena sativa CI-8237 Oats
Phalaris aquatic Sirossa Phalaris grass
Pennisetum purpureum ILCA 16984 Elephant/ napier grass
Chloris gayana Massaba Rhodes grass
Panicum coloratum Colored guinea grass
Legumes
Trifolium quartinianum Clover
Vicia dasycarpa Lana Vetch
Lablab purpureus Dolichos
Browse trees
Chamaecytisus palmensis Tagasaste
Forage Seed Production and

Productivity
Production Technologies
Forage seed production technologies are very essential for the production
of high quantity of quality seed. But, the technologies are not yet well
developed for most of the forage crops under the Ethiopian conditions.
[41]
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Getinet et al
Identification of suitable forage production sites and land preparation are
the bases for successful establishment of forage crops. Due to diverse
agro-ecologies, some of the forage crops like lotus and fodder beet
cannot produce seeds across locations, and identification of their proper
niches for seed production is very crucial. Types of seed, soil, and
weather conditions are some of the factors that should be considered
during land preparation for forage seed production. Observations and
long-term research experiences showed that forage crops which were
established from seeds require fine, weed-free and leveled seed beds than
the case of small seeded cereals like barley and wheat.
Seeding rates and sowing dates can affect the establishment performance,
and they vary according to soil and environmental conditions, and the
type of seeds. Increasing seeding rates secure better establishment but
lower seeding rates may help to economize the scarcely available forage
seeds. Most large-seeded annual forage crops require higher seeding rates
compared to the small-seeded perennial forage species. For better
establishment and productivity napier grass, tagasaste and fodder beet
should be planted at 40-50 cm intra-row spacing in rows 75 cm apart, 50
cm within row spacing in rows 1 m apart and 20-30 cm intra-row spacing
in rows 50 cm apart, respectively. Planting materials for vegetatively
propagated species like Napier grass are stem cuttings, root splits and
shoot tips which vary across agro-ecologies. Stem cuttings are suitable in
warmer areas, whereas root splits and shoot tips are suitable for cold and
wet conditions.
Forage crops are virtually sensitive when the sowing is too late due to
high rainfall, and low soil and air temperatures in the highlands. Most
small-seeded annual and perennial forage crops exhibited consistent yield
reduction when sown late. This was also found to affect the subsequent
yield performance of perennial forage species. Though early sowing at
the onset of the main rainy season (June) is advisable, late planting of
napier grass, oats and browse trees up to early July did not markedly
affect establishment and yield in the highlands. Therefore, specific
sowing date should be established for each forage species under different
agro-ecologies to improve the establishment, and forage and seed yields.
Research results indicated that application of urea and diammonium

phosphate (DAP) fertilizer support better establishment and herbage
yield as compared to unfertilized treatment plots. Hence, a blanket
application of 100 kg/ha DAP at planting of perennial grasses and
legumes and 23 kg/ha nitrogen annually for only perennial grasses after
[42]
the establishment year is the recommended practice in the highlands. On
station trials at Holetta showed that application of backyard manure at the
rate of 10-15 t/ha improved establishment and seed yield comparable to
nitrogen application at the rate of 46 – 92 kg/ha. Small-seeded forage
grasses and legumes should be sown shallow while larger seeded species
such as vetch and oats could be covered in conventional ways similar to
cereal crops such as wheat and barley. Studies in the highlands indicated
that weed control has tremendous effect on the productivity of forage
crops. For instance, hand weeding for annual forage grasses and legumes
like oats and vetch or application of herbicides like 2,4-D for only grass
species and scything (cutting both weeds and the forage seedlings
together) for perennial grasses like rhodes and panicum in the
establishment year could be used for weed control. After good
establishment of perennial grasses, weed development is highly
suppressed, and it only requires rouging out of major perennial weeds in
the subsequent production years. For perennial forage crops like
tagasaste and napier grass, hand weeding once a year during the main
rainy season helps to obtain comparatively better yield in the production
year.
Forage crops for herbage should be harvested at the proper stage in

which one can obtain higher biomass yield and better herbage quality,
and for most forage species this is normally at the early stages of
blooming. Determination of proper harvesting stage for forage seeds is
more complex compared to food crops due to unsynchronized seed
maturity and seed shattering problems caused mainly by growth habit
like indeterminate flowering conditions of some forage crops. Under
Ethiopian conditions, post-harvest processing including threshing and
winnowing are done manually due to lack of appropriate facilities. This
not only makes the process difficult, but in turn it has also got its own
effect on the total productivity and seed quality, and its subsequent
utilization.
Assessing the estimated demand and supply of forage seeds at national

and at different levels is an important aspect in designing the forage seed
production schemes in a given locality. However, there is no much
information on this regard. But the general trend showed that the demand
for forage seed is increasing nationally while on the other hand the
supply and distribution systems are very week, and the prices are very
high. Therefore, encouraging both the formal and informal seed
production system by providing the available necessary seed production
[43]
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Getinet et al
technologies will assist create better market opportunities and awareness,
and ensure sustainable seed supply systems in the country.
Seed Production and Productivity

Most forage crops in Ethiopia are cultivated for herbage/fodder purpose
with very limited attention to seed production. Some of the problems
associated with forage seed production are low seed yield performance,
unsynchronized seed maturity, seed shattering and difficulty in threshing
that consequently result in high cost of production. This in turn leads to
high price of forage seeds which will encourage producers. Currently,
very limited organizations including research centers, higher learning
institutions, private seed enterprises, some smallholder farmers, and
NGOs are involved in forage seed production. However, the production
from the above organizations is far below the increasing demand for
seed. Hence, it is high time to strengthen forage seed production and
supply systems at all levels to tackle seed shortage and thereby enhance
the production and utilization of the promising forage species.
Most annual forages produce higher seed yields and are easier to process
and mange compared to most small-seeded perennials and browse trees.
Research results indicated that annual forages such as oats, vetch,
cowpea, and lablab can produce between 300 - 3500 kg/ha of seed
depending on the location and agronomic practice employed.
Management practices such as harvesting and post-harvest processing
like threshing and cleaning are relatively difficult in small-seeded
perennial grasses and forage legumes. These species have
unsynchronized maturity and seed shattering problems. As a result, their
annual seed yields are very low ranging from 50 – 400 kg/ha for species
like Rhodes, panicum, phalaris and alfalfa. Hence, keen follow-up and
collecting seeds at the optimum harvesting stage are essential to avoid
seed loss. Browse trees such as tagasaste, sesbania, and leucaena are
normally good seed yielders but have problems of hard seed coats and
dormancy. Research results at Holetta showed that tagasaste yielded up
to 300 g of seed per plant per year. Effects of methods of clearing re-
growths of perennial grasses such as Rhodes and panicum on stubble and
seed yields were also evaluated at Holetta (Table 3). Generally, both the
grasses produced higher seed yields when stubbles were cleared by
burning compared to cutting. Though burning has its own merits and
demerits in pasture management practices, clearing by controlled burning
could result in better re-growth and seed yield than cutting. It was also
[44]
observed that early clearing before the start of the main rainy season is
beneficial for vigorous juvenile regrowths and higher seed yields.
In view of the long-term efforts made by different research centers,
recommended forage species have been cultivated, and small quantities
of their seeds/planting materials have been maintained in the different
federal and regional research centers. Forage species most comonly
produced in different parts of the country and whose seeds are
maintained in small quantities include oats, rhodes, phalaris, napier,
panicum, cenchrus, andropogon, sudan grass, setaria, tall fescue, vetches,
clovers, lablab, medics, cowpea, alfalfa, lotus, desmodium, stylosanthes,
pigeon pea, leucaena, tagasaste and fodder beet (EARO, 2000)
Table 3. Effect of stubble clearing method on seed and stubble

productivity of rhodes and panicum grasses (Getnet et
al., 2004)
Clearing Stubble (DM t ha-1) Seed (kg ha-1)

method Rhodes Panicum Rhodes Panicum
Burning 8.28 7.79 227.56a 145.15a
Cutting 8.20 7.62 204.10b 116.97b
Mean 8.24 7.71 215.83 131.06
Forage Seed Quality

There are a lot of quality parameters in forage seeds. Purity (physical and
genetic) and viability (germination) are primarily important seed quality
parameters, but other factors like moisture content, health, homogeneity
and density could also be considered in seed quality measurements.
Physical or analytical impurity is common especially in perennial grasses
and legumes seeds mainly due to threshing and shattering problems.
Difficulties in separating the seeds of rhodes, stylosanthes, alfalfa, and
similar other from chaff, pod, and broken seeds due to unavailability of
seed threshing and cleaning facilities may result in physical impurity in
the seeds. In addition, weed seeds or other crop seeds can cause serious
economic losses and diminish seed quality in most forage crops. Most of
the forage crops are recommended at species level so that genetic purity
is less important, but for cross pollinating forage crops such as alfalfa,
and some browse trees like tagasaste and species which have many
varieties like oats, the genetic purity is crucially important. Genetic
purity or trueness to variety is established and maintained by special
purification and seed increase programs in the field, seed inspections and
pedigree records. Growers should realize that purchasing seed of
unknown variety often leads to low yields, reduced stand life, and
increased cost. Some of the reasons for genetic impurity are: 1) lack of
[45]
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Getinet et al
skills and awareness on varietal differences and on management of pure
seed production especially at smallholder farmers’ level; 2) lack of seed
quality control system including official variety release, control of
genetic purity at field level, seed certification; and 3) absence of enough
seed producing enterprises.
Viability (germination) is very important factor affecting forage

establishment. Many forage seeds have seed dormancy, which means that
mature and viable seeds do not germinate. Establishment performance of
perennial forage crops is usually low due to poor seed germination and
lack of proper seed treatment to improve germination. However, forage
seeds have some desirable qualities as compared to seeds of food crops.
These include the ability to be stored for longer period, and less problem
of diseases and storage pests. Laboratory results indicated that loss of
viability of seeds of different forage crops after five years of storage is
very minimal for some selected forage crops (Table 4). Mean
germination percentage of different forage seeds showed a decreasing
trend over years but the rate is very low indicating that they have longer
storage life. Alfalfa and vetch can be stored for more than ten years under
cool room temperature conditions. On the other hand, small-seeded
forage crops and seeds of some browse trees have generally low
germination percentage due to problems associated with production
management and seed dormancy. Each forage species has its own
optimum seed harvesting stage, and early or late harvesting has a
negative effect on seed germination. Lack of proper skills on post-
harvest handling like threshing and cleaning can also result in low seed
germination. Some forage crops have indeterminate growth habit which
has a negative effect on seed quality unless the seeds are harvested at
optimum harvesting stage. Environmental stresses such as frost, high
temperature, and extreme moisture can also affect the germination
potential of most forage seeds. The most important aspect of seed quality
in relation to harvesting stage and post-harvest cleaning is experience and
very keen management.
Some forage seeds such as phalaris, rhodes, panicum, setaria, clovers and
browse trees have got dormancy problem due to inherent (mechanical
and physiological) dormancy, chemical dormancy and enforced
dormancy. Mechanical dormancy is caused by impermeable
characteristics of the seed coat or mechanical restriction to air or water
exchange. Physiological dormancy can result from incomplete
differentiation of the embryo or embryo growth restriction due to after-
ripening processes. Chemical dormancy is caused by inhibitory
[46]
substances such as ammonia, hydrogen cyanide, alkaloids, ethylene and
other compounds that prevent germination. Enforced dormancy (also
known as environmental dormancy) describes the condition in which
viable seeds do not germinate because of some limitation in the
environment.
Several physical procedures are used to break seed dormancy by

improving seed coat permeability. Mechanical treatments are used to
scarify or physically break the hard seed coat of clovers such that water
would be able to enter into the seed and the seed dormancy terminated.
Soaking the seed of tagasaste in boiling water for 9-11 minutes is used to
decrease the hardness of seed coat, and thereby increase the germination
percentage from 3% (untreated seed) to 75%. Alteration of temperature
from cold to warm or warm to cold initiates the enzyme activities of the
embryo, and terminates dormancy leading to and hastened germination.
Several chemicals treatments are also effective in promoting germination.
Inorganic treatments such as acid, alkali or salt and organic chemicals
such as dichloromethane, acetone, formaldehyde, and malic acid can
disrupt the seed coat and improve germination. Soaking of the seeds in
chemicals can be used to induce seed hormones and facilitate
germination of forage crops. Several plant hormones can break
dormancy. Giberellin is able to promote seed germination and kinin is
able to terminate seed dormancy that is caused by abscisic acid.
Table 4. Germination (%) of seeds of different forage crops at different storage durations under
room temperature and humidity conditions in the highlands of Ethiopia (HRC,1994)
Forage species Germination over years of storage (%)

1st year 2nd year 3rd year 4th year 5th year
Phalaris tuberosa 64 51 34 39 31
Lolium perenee 46 33 14 20 21
Festuca arundinacea 68 43 51 26 36
Setaria anceps 7 4 2 2 3
Chloris gayana 28 23 19 17 17
Panicum coloratum 61 45 26 18 19
Panicum antidotale 20 9 11 7 9
Avena sativa 93 77 73 - -
Medicago sativa 95 87 86 89 72
Vicia species 89 91 91 93 93
Mean 57 46 41 35 33
[47]
47]
Getinet et al
Conclusions
Production and maintenance of adequate seeds of well-adapted and
recommended/released or officially registered forage species is
fundamental to a progressive national forage development program.
However, very less emphasis has been given to the forage seed aspect in
the overall agricultural development activities of the nation. Growing,
harvesting, and processing seeds of grasses and legumes require special
knowledge and skills so that research activities with regard to these
aspects should be initiated at national level to generate suitable and
feasible technologies.
There is also a need to promote and disseminate the technologies to

different stakeholders engaged in forage seed production. Currently, the
demand for forage seed is increasing at an alarming rate, but the supply
does not match the demand. Therefore, due concerns required in future
forage seed research and production are development of suitable forage
seed production technologies primarily in the areas of identification of
suitable seed production sites for selected recommended forage crops;
optimum seed harvesting stages; and adequate post-harvest seed
processing and handling technologies. There is also a need for
assessment of the national demand and supply for forage seeds,
promotion of quality forage seed production for both domestic and export
markets, and development of both human power and physical facilities in
the area of forage seed research and development.
References
EARO. 2000. Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization. Animal Science Research
Strategy. Animal Sciences Research Directorate, EARO, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Getnet Assefa, Abreham G., Fekede F., and Tadesse T. 2004. Effect of Methods and
Dates of Clearing Regrowths of Rhodes (Chloris gayana) and Colored Guinea
Grasses (Panicum coloratum) on Seed Productivity, 11th ESAP Proceedings,
Ethiopian Society of Animal production, Addis Ababa, pp. 297 -305
HRC. 1994. Holetta Research Center. Forage and Pasture Crops Research Program
progress report. Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization, Holetta Research
Center. Holetta, Ethiopia
Lulseged Gebrehiwot. 1995. The status of pasture and forage research and development
in Ethiopia. In: Beyene Kebede and L.J. Lamboune (eds.). The status of pasture
and forage research and development in Ethiopia. IAR proceeding, 8-10 January,
1985. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
MoARD. 2007. Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development. CropDevelopment
Department, Crop Variety Register. Issue No. 10. MoARD, Addis Ababa,
Ethiopia. pp 167–169
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Rice Seed Production in Cambodia
Kunihiro Tokida
Japan International Cooperation Agency, Japan, Emali: tokida.kunihiro@jica.go.jp
Introduction
The most important crop in Cambodia is rice as it accounts for three-quarters of
the cropping area and the annual paddy production is about 7 million tons.
Cambodia-IRRI-AusAID Project (CIAP) assisted by International Rice
Research Institute (IRRI) and Australian Agency for International Development
(AusAID) has been trying to improve both the formal and informal rice seed
production system in Cambodia since 1990. Before CIAP, farmers have been
retaining their own seeds from their produce for a long time. But the private
sector has significantly been involved in seed production since the
implementation of Agricultural Quality Improvement Project (AQIP) by
AusAID. In Addition, some community based seed production is emerging in
several provinces.
This paper gives an overview of the status of rice seed production in Cambodia,
and highlights the importance of linkage among stakeholders in the seed sector
from the aspects of securing food supply and sustainable agricultural growth.
It also focuses on local initiative in seed production and distribution including

prospects of community based seed producer groups. An example of
productivity improvement project in Battambang is introduced to discuss the
seed production and distributions system. Then, it discusses the public sector
and donor-led interventions that enabled preferable environment to promote
quality seed use among Cambodian farmers.
After pointing out some important issues in the rice seed sector in Cambodia,
implications of the Cambodian experience to Ethiopian seed sector are
discussed. One of the important discussion points is promoting quality seed user
groups in the informal seed production and distribution system.
Cambodian Rice at a Glance

Cambodian economy is led by industrial and service sectors, although the rural
economy is dominated by the agricultural sector specifically rice industry.
According to Ministry of Economy and Finance (2009), the share of the
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agriculture sector in the total GDP was estimated at 33.5% in 2009. The share
decreased from 34.3% down to 29.7% in 2007, but it recovered again over the
last 2 years due to decreased gross value added in industry and services, and
increased sales of agricultural commodities. The growth rate for the agriculture
sector has been increasing at an annual average of 5.4% since 2006. It recorded
15.7% in 2005, but it experienced a diminishing growth rate of -1.9% in 2004
because of the decrease in wet rice production, which is subject to natural
seasonal condition, contributes about 80% of total production. The country has
been rice self-sufficient since the 1990’s after the ending of the long domestic
conflicts. The white rice surplus is estimated over 2.2 million tons in 2009
(Table 1). The average yield was 2.836 t/ha, and 2.620 t/ha for wet season rice
and 4.126 t/ha for dry season rice. The reasons of continuous high output are
the expansion of cultivated area including irrigated area, improved management
of farmers including the use of quality seeds and fertilizer application, and good
climatic conditions. There is a potential to increase rice exports if the general
trade quality standard requirements are met by improving processing capacity
and quality.
Table 1. Rice production in Cambodia from 2005-2009 (MAFF, 2010)
Parameters 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

Cultivated area (× 103 ha) 2,443.530 2,541.443 2,585.905 2,615.741 2,719.080
Harvested area (× 103 ha) 2,414.405 2,516.415 2,566.952 2,613.363 2,674.603
Production (× 103 t) 5,986.179 6,264.123 6,727.127 7,175.473 7,586.870
Rice Yield (t/ha) 2.479 2.489 2.621 2.746 2.836
Rice surplus (× 103 t) 1,319.571 1,433.880 1,649.640 202.503 2,244.598
Seed Control Regulatory System

Legal Framework
Before the Seed Law, the existing legislations concerning variety and seed were
Sub-decree on Standard and Agricultural Materials Management of 1998 and
Law on Bio-safety of 2006. The Seed Law was passed by the national assembly
in 2008. The first drafts were prepared in 2001 by Agricultural Productivity
Improvement Project of World Bank (WB) in the Ministry of Agriculture,
Forestry and Fisheries (MAFF), and it was revised and augmented by an Asian
Development Bank (ADB) project in 2004/05. The law emphasised on plant
variety protection (PVP) in considering membership of Cambodia in the Union
for the Protection of New Variety of Plants (UPOV). The Industrial Property
Department of the Ministry of Industry, Mines and Energy (MIME) was
responsible for registering new variety under the plant breeder’s right (PBR).
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Rice seed production in Cambodia
The process was unclear and the implementation was complicated due to two
responsible ministries. In addition, the subsequent regulations under the Seed
Law have not been put in place for the implementation of the Law. The
Department of Agricultural Legislation is responsible for preparing laws and
regulations. Regulations relating to more than one ministry must be signed by
the Prime Minister, and it requires substantial efforts to get them done.
Organizational
Organizational Set-
Set-up
Under MAFF, the General Directorate of Agriculture (GDA) has the overall
responsibility for seeds and planting materials, and three crop related
departments under the GDA are charged with the responsibility of preparing
regulations to implement the Seed Law. The Department of Plant Protection,
Sanitary and Phytosanitary is responsible for quarantine and plant material
health. The National Laboratory of Agriculture (NLA) is involved in the testing
of seed quality.
Seed certification is also a part of seed management and the responsibility is

given to GDA. The seed testing can be done at the NLA, but the field
inspection should be conducted at provincial level if efficiency for field visit is
considered. Currently, Cambodia Agricultural Research and Development
Institute (CARDI) and Super Seed Company are conducting internal tests for
rice seed quality using their own standards.
Research and Development Organization

CARDI was established in 1999 and became operational in 2000 as a
semi-autonomous body under MAFF after a long support of AusAID from
1988 to 2000 through the Cambodia-IRRI-Australia Project (CIAP).
Additional assistance was provided by the Asian Development Bank (ADB) in
terms of management and further facility development. CARDI is responsible
not only for rice but also vegetable seeds and other crops including maize,
legumes, and fruit crops such as mango. For vegetables, CARDI has a technical
linkage with the Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center (AVRDC)
in Taiwan.
Royal University of Agriculture in Cambodia is an educational institute

considered as the leading university in the agriculture sector, but it is not
necessarily mandated purely for research activities.
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Rice Seed Production System
Seed for Cultivation

In Cambodia, open-pollinated varieties (OPV) of rice are dominantly used, and
hybrid seeds are available only for some vegetables and maize. There is no seed
production of genetically modified organisms (GMO) in Cambodia.
It is said that more than 90% of the rice seed is from informal sources, mainly
self-retained seed or exchanged seed in the community. Farmers are keen to get
better seed, but these informal seeds are without any treatment apart from
simple drying. Consequently, the quality of the seeds is uncertain. In addition to
the varieties released by CARDI, a Vietnamese rice variety is widely cultivated
in the Mekong delta area of Cambodia for export to Vietnam.
Seed System
The existing rice seed system is not exactly ideal type (Fig. 1). As described
above, the seed management including testing and certification is the sole
responsibility of the GDA. Seed certification is another important responsibility
of the government. In Cambodia, seed test is currently conducted by each seed
producing organization as internal inspection. Some projects have supported
improvement of the capacity of provincial departments of agriculture in terms
of inspection of seed farms and testing for seed quality. Even for the seeds
produced in the government institutions, the certification is not widely
conducted as a formal process. Therefore, there is no formal seed quality
assurance, and the terminology ‘certified seed’ is not appropriate to use.
Rice seed propagation is the responsibility of CARDI and national seed farms.
As the national institute with breeding capacity, CARDI is mandated to reserve
and maintain seed gene resources. However, CARDI provides not only
foundation seed and registered seed but also certified seed and graded seed.
MAFF has some national seed farms and they also provide certified seed. In Fig.
1, the “light” lines show the existing but not the preferable flow of seed to rice
producers because the system is not working for seed propagation as its primary
function.
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Fig. 1 Rice seed system in Cambodia
Seed production is being done formally and informally by three clusters,

namely: government, private and community based. Formal seed production is
done by CARDI and state seed farms such as Toul Samrong Seed Farm in
Battambang province. The leading private seed company is Super Seed
Company
mpany established by AQIP. Community
Community-based seed production is basically
done by farmer groups to provide seed to neighbouring farmers in several
provinces. The blue dotted lines show existing informal interventions to be
promoted if the access of certified and graded seeds to rice farmers is aimed to
be improved.
Cambodia Agricultural Research and Development

Institute (CARDI
(CARDI)
CARDI)
After CARDI started its research
search activities as a semi
semi-autonomous body, the
capacity of research could not be maintained. During the CIAP (1988-2000), 34
varieties were released while CARDI released only four rice varieties since
2000 and until 2010. On the other hand, all the four varieties were among the
10 recommended ones in 2010 as shown in Table 22, and the four varieties were
appropriately emphase quality rather than quantity of varieties under current
circumstances.
CARDI is also responsible for seed propagation for wide use of recommended
varieties. CARDI provides foundation seed not only to government farms and
stations but also to NGOs and other organizations to multiply seed for farmers.
To operate the multiplication system, it needs to concentrate producing
foundation seed and additionally registered seed to service providers. However,
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CARDI is currently producing certified seed and graded seed in order to
generate revenue from their sales. In fact, CARDI is selling milled rice too.
The price for 1 kg of foundation seed and graded seed in the 2004 wet season
were USD 2.5 and 0.4, respectively, while the price per kg of foundation seed,
certified seed and graded seeds in 2010 were 3.5, 1.9 and 0.6 USD, respectively.
CARDI does not consider variety and quality when pricing seed.
Government Seed Production

According to MAFF 2010, two governmental organizations, Toul Samrong
National Seed Farm and Prey Phdao Research Station are involved in rice seed
production, and their production areas in 2009 were 40 ha and 7 ha, respectively.
Due to labor shortage, Toul Samrong produced rice seed using foundation seed
from CARDI by trust direct seeding in 2005. The products were not suitable for
registered seed production and most products were classified as certified seed.
In addition, it seems that substantial areas were used for paddy production to
generate revenue. If the government promotes more rice farmers to use certified
seed, these government organizations should concentrate on seed propagation to
supply registered seed for seed producers.
Table 2. Rice seed available at CARDI, January – July 2010 (MAFF, 2010)
Variety released Seed class

Foundation Registered Certified Graded seed
seed (kg) seed (kg) seed (kg) (kg)
Sen Pidao (2002)* 0 0 176 1240
IR66 (1990)* 1000 0 530 4285
IRKesar (1993) 469 0 160 0
Chul'sa (1999)* 355 0 302 737
Rumpe (1999) 470 0 216 0
Phka Rumduol (1999)* 655 0 135 0
Phka Rumdeng (2006)* 411 0 130 608
Phka Rumchek (1999) 595 0 299 2243
Phka Rumchang (1999) 623 0 286 13
Phka Romeat (2006)* 1 0 60 127
CAR1 (1995) 292 0 0 1902
CAR3 (1995) 383 0 267 2488
Riang Chey (1999)* 276 0 223 0
Phka Chan Sen Sar (2009)* 13 0 0 0
CAR4 (1995)* 150 0 148 0
CAR6 (1995)* 207 0 44 0
CAR8 (1996) 200 0 0 0
Grand total 6100 0 2976 13642
*10 recommended varieties for wide use in Cambodia in 2010
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Seed Company
To improve rice seed supply, AusAid supported MAFF by establishing four
private companies under Agricultural Quality Improvement Project (AQIP) in
1997. These companies were equipped with basic processing facilities such as
dryers, seed cleaning machines, storage, and laboratory equipment. It was ideal
to supply seed on a commercial basis in a competitive seed market, but seed
demand was not as much as it was expected. They were forced to merge into a
company with three operational sites to reduce administrative and management
costs. The merged company is Super Seed Company (SSC) and its largest share
holder is MAFF with 49% share, and others shareholders are seed growers’
associations, company staff and trustees. It deals only with rice seed, and its
current capacity of seed production and sale is about 3000tons per year.
Super Seed Company (SSC) has its own rice seed quality standards as shown in
Table 3. The standard is similar to the one mostly adopted in Asian countries.
The company is equipped with a modern seed cleaning machine; therefore, the
inert matters are likely within the limitations of the standard if the machine is
correctly adjusted and operated. The critical ones are contamination with other
varieties, and that can be reduced by using CARDI foundation seed and by
frequent off-type rouging-of operations in the field. The company sells out its
product after moisture control usually within a year, and the germination rate is
maintained at high level when sold to dealers, but the quality may not be
maintained until sown in the paddy fields by farmers.
Table3. SSC’s quality seed standard (%)

Factor Commercial Seed
quality (%)
Pure Seed (minimum) 98.00
Inert (maximum) 2.00
Weed Seed (maximum) 0.10
Total Other Crop Seeds (maximum) 0.10
Other Varieties (maximum) 0.20
Germination (minimum) 80.00
Moisture (maximum) 13.00
Source: Super Seed Company website
FAO/EU Food Facility Project (2010) reported SSC’s management comment

that expansion of the business was severely constrained due to inability to
access credit. The report also mentioned that it provided only 2-3% of the seed
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requirement in the country, but it may be widely diffused if it is multiplied once
more under some control. The strategy to increase seed sales of SSC are:
• recruit sales and marketing staff and train them to improve their skills;
• recruitment and strengthening of seed dealers network;
• increasing sales to NGOs and other institutions;
• sell in promotion (buy 10 get 1 free at the end of the season)
• sell with provision of incentives to dealers, farmers, agents and SSC staff;
• continue sales to the best clients; and
• sell other products (e.g. paddy and milled rice).
Recruitment and strengthening of seed dealers network is considered most

important because the seed quality should be maintained until the end-users
sow the seed in the field. By providing training to seed dealers and further
training to farmers through seed dealers, the network would be maintained
sustainably.
Another seed supply organization is Apiwat Bandanh Kasekar (ABK). It is an

NGO established in 2007 aiming at positioning farmers, farmer groups and
small and medium enterprises in the supply chain to create demand and deliver
quality products by enhancing the competencies of all stakeholders in the
supply chain (FAO/EU, 2010). ABK is focusing on market- oriented approach
to purchase premium aromatic rice as paddy and export it as milled rice. The
client farmers are required to buy seed for its production to maintain the quality
with apparent benefits from the contract.
Community-
Community-Based Seed Production
Rice seed production associations and seed producer groups have been
established in many rice producing provinces. Some of the groups in northwest
provinces are listed and described on Table 4.
Table 4. Seed production by farmers’groups in Battambang and Pursat provinces
District Province Membership Area or seeded Production Year Support

amount (t)
Bovel Battambang 30 8 ha 28 2009 PDA**
Moung Russei Battambang 21 120 kg 2010 EU
Banan Battambang 10 7.5 ha 22.5 2010 JICA
Bakan Pursat 584* 200 kg CIDA
*The group is for rice production but not necessarily all members are involved in seed production;
**PDA = provincial department of agriculture
Source: Interview and personal communication
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Most of these seed production farmers’groups are established by project
activities. Some of them sustain their activities after completion of the projects.
If the seed is traded within the community, there is no need for seed
certification or ravelling. The producer groups usually use foundation seed from
CARDI and the cost incurred is high, but users of the produced seed expect to
pay less than commercially traded seed. The contribution of the
community-based seed production to supply low cost seed is quite high.
JICA’s
ICA’s Experience in Cambodian Agriculture
Battambang Agricultural Productivity
Enhancement Project (BAPEP)
BAPEP started in April 2003 and ended in March 2006. It had four major
activities, namely: (1) Capacity building of government personnel and
strengthening the network of related organizations; (2) Improvement of rice
production technology; (3) Diversification crops and improvement of farm
management; and (4) Strengthening farmer organizations. The activities from
(2) to (4) are undertaken directly with the target farmers aiming synergy among
the different group activities.
Farmers have produced rice for centuries and the practice is considered
sustainable. It is, however, necessary to adjust rice production to meet the
recent demands under World Trade Organization (WTO). The quality of the
rice produced in Cambodia is not so high due to the use of seeds with mixed
varieties. Consequently, rice quality improvementis one of the most important
issues to add value. It is necessary to show farmers how new or improved
methods of rice production are technically feasible and profitable. Kamping
Puoy Agriculture Development Center (KADC) has been strengthened in terms
of capacity during the project to conduct experiments on management aspects
such as plant density, planting period, fertilizer application and so on. Farmers
can select the most suitable rice varieties for production by evaluating rice
varieties grown in the demonstration fields of KADC. More than 20 varieties
having technical data based on experimental results at KADC were provided to
farmers in the target area for practical comparison. In addition, farmers
examined the taste of cooked rice of several popular varieties in the area to
evaluate commercial values. After the farmers’ decisions, KADC produced
registered rice seeds for seed growers and initial graded seeds for neighbouring
farmers as quality seed users.
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BAPEP conducted Farmers Field School (FFS) on rice production for the group
members during a whole cropping season. In the 2004 wet season, the average
yield of the group members reached 4.2 t/ha while it was only 2.8 t/ha in 2003.
The major reasons for achieving this result were the use of high quality seed,
pre-screening of seed by gravity, efficient irrigation, and better crop
management including transplanting young seedlings, timely fertilizer
application and timely harvesting.
BAPEP’s Seed Production and Distribution System

BAPEP took a group approach to improve rice cultivation techniques based on
the village community and sub-groups of Farmers Water Users Association
(FWUA). Among the group members who had better cultivation skills, each
group selected some members as seed growers. This was important for the
members such that the quality of seed produced by the selected seed growers is
assured.
The project provided registered class seed propagated at KADC to the

community seed producers at low prices. BAPEP conducted a season-long
training for seed growers amounting to 4 persons in 2004 and 6 persons in 2005.
They produced 1890 kg in 2004 and 2520 kg in 2005. Quality seed users’
groups were formed to establish a micro-system of seed production and
distribution among neighbouring farmers. The produced seed was used for
renewal by 14 persons in 2004 and 69 persons in 2005. BAPEP also invited rice
millers to provide market information to the farmers on field days organized.
The group visited a rice miller to know the importance of rice quality
improvement and they examined how rice quality is determined by using some
test procedures. The most important criterion of the produced rice for the rice
miller was moisture content that influences performance of milling machines.
The advantage of quality seed is to assure purity of produce, but the rice millers
would not pay much attention to contamination of other varieties unless that
contamination is with red rice. Therefore, it is not highly promotional to use
certified seed for farmers if the seed price is expensive. The produced quality
seed was traded with two bags of paddy for one bag of quality seed. The rice
miller could provide price incentive to farmers for the produced rice that meets
evaluation criteria when using quality seed. Then, they could make a contract
with the rice miller to sell the produced rice at a higher price than the ordinary
market price, and more than 10 members benefitted from the contract sale.
Other members also benefitted by getting bargaining power with quality
production assured from the quality seed. The seed producers sustained their
activities and increased their seed production in Banan district.
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Fig. 2 Seed production and distributions system in BAPEP
Battambang Rural Area Nurture and Development

Project (BRAND)
During BAPEP, agricultural extension officers were not directly involved in the
project because no extension officer was assigned for the area. Therefore, the
second phase of the project, aimed at strengthening the extension capacity in
order to disseminate the rice technology developed by BAPEP to other areas.
The purpose of the project was ‘enhancing agricultural service delivery to
farmers in the target communes’ and the overall goal was “improved farming
system of farmers in the target districts in Battambang Province.” In addition,
‘collaboration among parties involved in agricultural production, marketing,
and policies’ comprised one of the project outputs. BRAND and PDA led the
province to establish Battambang Rice Promotion Committee (BRPC) to start
Battambang Brand rice, and it was approved by the governor. Some members
of the rice miller association belong to BRPC, and they shipped Battambang
Brand rice to the market through an antenna shop in Phnom Penh. BRPC must
have a clear mission statement that expresses the committee’s aim to promote
regional economies based on sustainable and pro-poor growth as a fundamental
principle. Upon recommendation, BPRC invited representatives of seed
growers and farmers as members of the committee to establish the relationship
described in Fig.3.
The diagram shows the roles of public sector in the promotion of branded rice.
More attention should be paid to the future direction of Battambang brand rice
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marketing through BRPC's activities. This is because the activities might create
some negative impacts if they accelerate increasing economic gaps between
traders and producers. It should give the right direction to the concerned
organizations by authorizing standards and certification as well as protecting
farmers by providing informative guidance at the early stage of value chain
formation.
Fig. 3. System diagram to promote Battambang Brand rice
Issues on Seed Production

Official Seed Quality Standard
Preparation of regulations is needed to implement the Seed Law in Cambodia.
One of the most critical issues is to officially standardize seed quality under the
law such that it will be used among all concerned organizations. This is the
basis of fair commercial trade of seeds. Seed certification is vital to sustain
quality products. To maintain the quality of seed, it is necessary to establish
laboratory testing based on the quality standard such as germination and purity,
and to implement field inspection systems at least in the major rice producing
provinces.
Seed Production and Distribution

Seed production and marketing should be conducted on a commercial basis by
private companies, seed growers, seed traders and rice millers. These
stakeholders should actively promote quality seed of recommended varieties
together with improved crop production technology and market linkages for the
produced paddy. The system would be maintained by diversified seed supply
channels to farmers at minimum cost and subject to maintaining seed quality.
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It is easy to widen the use of quality seed if the market is assured similar to that
for the imported Vietnamese variety. The farmers produce paddy with seed
provided by traders or rice millers. The farmers are assured to sell their paddy
to traders at an agreed price, but it is sometimes lower than the farm-gate price
in the same area. They are forced to sell particularly if they had borrowed
money for obtaining fertilizers. Assuring sale of produce is important for
farmers when they produce paddy.
To increase supply of rice seed and improve access of farmers to quality seed,
CARDI needs to continue providing foundation seed and registered seed until
some organizations start to produce registered seed for seed producers. Since
CARDI is expected to concentrate on research and development as defied in its
original terms of reference, its present seed business may sooner or later be
transferred to private sectors or NGOs.
It is profitable for seed growers if they produce high value seed at low cost.
When seed is distributed to end-users, it is critical for paddy and seed to be
distinguished. The government sometimes supplies seed as emergency measure
to farmers at a lower price than the market price, if not free of charge. This
distorts market system of certified seed, and it should be avoided by providing
seed to the market and milled rice to farmers for emergency food.
Community-
Community-Based Seed Production
To promote quality paddy production, it is necessary to increase the number of
quality seed users. The approach is to create quality seed users before quality
seed producers. When quality seed users are formed as a group, it assures the
use of seed among the group members. It is desirable to capacitate seed
producers on private business-bases to sustain the system.
Local seed producers with limited capacity usually provide low quality seed at
low price, and farmers outside of the community are not confident in the quality
of seed produced locally even if the quality is at satisfactory level. Therefore, it
is necessary to have in place a system of authorization or certification of quality
seed produced in the community by an independent organization so as to be
able to sell the seed to external persons.
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Implications for Ethiopian Seed Sector
Food Security versus Plant Variety Protection

Plant variety protection is an international issue, but it is relatively less
important in Ethiopia because commercial seed development is less active at
this moment. Ethiopia is seeking for food self-sufficiency; therefore, the seed
related issues should be emphasized from the aspects of food security. This
means that varietal development by the government institutions should be
relatively focused on grain commodities rather than vegetable and other
industrial crops. It is also noted that most of grain crops are not considered as
cash crops so that private seed companies usually do not work on grain crop
variety development. Some of the important factors for seed development are
productivity and stability in grain production if the majority of farmers are
subsistence farmers. When more farmers are seeking trading, consumers’
preference should be examined as one of the key factors of variety development
for ensuring marketing. The private sector will be interested in variety
development considering consumers’ preference, if the market is commercially
matured. That is the time when private sector takes part in. Rice is one of the
growing potential crops for cash income in Ethiopia, and rice seed development
will be potentially privatized considering market preference in the future.
Formal versus Informal system

At present, the quality of farmer-retained seed is uncertain. However,
community-based seed production is a relatively good low-cost system that can
maintain quality of the seed to a level satisfactory to neighbouring farmers. The
informal system is able to supply quality seed to a wide range of customers
such as neighbouring farmers as well as unknown customers, if certification is
provided by an independent organization. There must be a simple local seed
certification system that assures the buyers in the local markets. It is important
to recognize the fact that the informal system can play a better role if there is
support from the government. This can be done by providing quality assured
propagated seed from the formal system to informal system. This is the
government intervene to upper stream of quality seed production. In addition,
seed distribution is another issue to have wide dissemination of quality seed.
Formal system can cover nationwide market while informal system can serve
for limited locality.
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Seed Producers versus Seed Users
There are seed growers who can supply quality seed, but it is difficult to find
end-users who demand quality seed through the informal system. In Cambodia,
there is a strong demand from farmers for quality seed, but the
community-based seed producers cannot sell all the seed they produce. There is
a market matching problem in Ethiopia too. The experience of quality seed
users group may be applicable for expansion of the seed markets especially for
grain crops such as rice and tef.
Farmers’ Response to Variety or Quality

Unlike subsistence farming, where the producers and consumers are identical,
commercial farming needs to understand the demand of consumers. Consumers
are conscious about food quality but not about seed quality. How can
consumers identify the food quality if it is grain? Consumers are often
interested in visible images such as grain damage, colour and size.
Farmers are keen about variety if it gives different visual images that attract
consumers. In fact, it is critical for farmers, if consumers are willing to pay
extra-money for better quality products or not. Unless farmers find tangible
benefits by using quality seed, they are conservative and use their own retained
seeds. The value chain approach should be extended back to the seed by
assuring quality of seed which is the initial point for engaging purity and
traceability from the field to the market.
Conclusions
Research on seed is sometimes translated among researchers simply to mean
variety development. Government research organizations are not supposed to
continue vegetable breeding activities once it can be done by private sector as a
part of the commercial seed business. In Ethiopia, the private sector for
vegetable seed is yet to take off. Besides, EIAR together with regional research
organizations must maintain the lead responsibility for variety development
trials taking into account the diverse needs of the Ethiopian farmers for food
security.
To reach the farmers’ needs, the seed propagation, seed production and seed
distribution systems should be realigned. Government should support and
strengthen existing players in the seed sector to encourage and utilize informal
seed production and distribution system. Considering the large part of seed
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supply by informal system at the farmer and community levels, training should
be provided to improve the management for informal seed producers. To have a
more sustainable seed supply system, it is vital to have a commercial system for
some crops. It is also important that the government should give focus on
improving access to market information for seed securing market matching. The
coordination is essential to ensure the activities that all stakeholders contribute
to the overall goal of building an effective and efficient seed industry for the
country.
References
APIP. 2000. Strategy for the Seed Industry in Cambodia, Agricultural Productivity
Improvement Project, Agronomy Component – Seed Sub-Component. APIP, Phnom Penh.
BRPC. 2010. Quality Standard (Grading System) for Battambang Rice. Battambang Rice
Promotion Committee, Battambang, Cambodia.
FAO/EU. 2010. FAO/EU Food Facility Project. Seed Policy and Industry Development in
Cambodia, Phnom Penh.
Kingdom of Cambodia. 2010. Technical Working Group on Agriculture and Water, Program
Design Document Annexes for Strategy for Agriculture and Water 2010-2013. Phnom Penh.
Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (MAFF). 2010. Annual Report for Agriculture
Forestry and Fisheries 2009-2010. MAFF Conference 04-06 April, 2010. Phnom Penh
Ministry of Economy and Finance.2010. Cambodia Macro-economic Framework 2001-2010.
Phnom Penh.
Provincial Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (PDAFF), Battambang and Japan
International Cooperation Agency (JICA). 2003. Battambang Agricultural Productivity
Enhancement Project (BAPEP) The Report on Baseline Survey in Komping Puoy Area,
Battambang.
Royal Government of Cambodia. 2010. Policy Paper on the Promotion of Paddy Production and
Rice Export. Council of Ministers. Phnom Penh.
Sao Chesda. 2008. Presentation material for East Asia Plant Variety Protection Forum in Tokyo,
July 2008
Seang Chhroeurth and Kazuhiko Yagi. 2007. Presentation material for Battambang Rural Area
Nurture and Development Project. Battambang.
World Bank. 2010. Cambodia: Seed Sector Overview. Phnom Penh.
[64]
64]
A b o u t F R G II
T HE PROJECT FOR Enhancing Development and

Dissemination of Agricultural Innovations through
Farmer Research Groups (FRG II Project) is to enhance the
capacity of researchers to take part in innovations through
farmer research group approach (FRG approach).
Implemented by a technical cooperation between Ethiopian
Institute of Agricultural Research (EIAR) and Japan
International Cooperation Agency (JICA), the FRG II covers
all the agricultural research institutions in the country
through training on the approach, financing FRG based
research projects in selected priority research areas and
filling gaps and enhance linkages between research and
extension through delivery of technical information. For
more information, visit
http://www.jica.go.jp/project/english/ethiopia/001/
or
http://www.eiar.gov.et/projects/110-japan-international-cooperatin-agency-jica

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FRG II Project

Empowering Farmers' Innovation

Ensuring Seed Quality

Ethiopian Seed System

Status and Challenges

Status and challenges

@EIAR / FRG II, 12012

The Ethiopian Seed Quality Control System

Souse Seed Quality Assurance Mechanism in Ethiopia

Forage Seed Production and Quality in Ethiopia

Rice Seed Production in Cambodia

Recognizing the importance of ensuring quality of seed in the system a one-day

We believe that the information contained in this publication is a good reflection of

What are good seeds?

Germination rate is another important attribute of seed quality. However,

In addition, internal or invisible qualities of seeds include the value of

Seed Certification and Replacement

• The membership consists of seed growers, companies, and others

Inspections are carried out at three stages: field designation, field

Seed distribution mechanism in Japan is shown in Fig 1. Aichi

Fig.1. An example of seed distribution mechanism on staple food at prefectural level in Ja

Table 1. Diversity of formal seed growers in Aichi Prefecture, Japan

Name of Location Character Number of farmers

C Ⅲ Association of seed growers 15 2 2

In Aichi Prefecture, replacement rates for seeds of major crops are

Fig. 2. Replacement rate for major crops grown in Aichi

Fig. 3. Share of different

Promotion of Seed Production by

In addition to the common characters as good quality seeds such as

• Intentionally keeping variations within the limitation of practically

With such small additional technical considerations, some farmers in

Conclusions and Recommendation

Seed quality control/assurance which is vital at every segment of the

Legalization of Seed Quality in Ethiopia

The World Bank project supported several in-country seed quality

Table 1. Seed Testing Laboratory Facilities in Ethiopia

Institution/location Seed testing laboratory Annual

Addis Ababa 5,000

Reorganization of the executive body (NSIA)

While the situation continued further, a restructuring took place in 2004

Status of Seed Quality and Certification

The other area of problem is the aggravated fraudulent crimes which

recognition. Soon after, it descended when its activities were denied

Immediate rehabilitation of the system is deemed necessary in the

• The system should be organized in a sound manner both at the

Source Seed Quality

The impact of investments on agricultural research can be realized only if

Seed quality is defined as standard of excellence in certain characteristics

Components of Quality Attributes

In Ethiopian research system, the production of quality source seed is subjected

Following recommended agronomy

Processing and quality control

Contemporary ideas on seed supply emphasize labeling as a way to build

The purpose of seed inspection is to maintain and make available to producers,

Trends in source seed production

In the formal seed production system, seed multiplication passes through

Table 1 Seed classification based on OECD scheme (Ethiopian system)

Seed class Color of certification tag

Nucleus seed Breeder seed Pre-basic Basic For seed