COMPARATIVE STUDY FOR

DIFFERENT OPTICAL FIBER

COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

GROUP MEMBERS :
Tushar Sehrawat
Umang Gupta
Tushar Yadav
Tushar Sagar
Varun Utsav
Akshit Ahuja
Turselio
Vivek Kumar
 ABSTRACT

Optical Fibre Communication

Fibre optic communication has revolutionised the telecommunications industry. It has also made its
presence widely felt within the data networking community as well. Using fibre optic cable, optical
communications have enabled telecommunications links to be made over much greater distances
and with much lower levels of loss in the transmission medium and possibly most important of all,
fiber optical communications has enabled much higher data rates to be accommodated.
As a result of these advantages, fibre optic communications systems are widely employed for
applications ranging from major telecommunications backbone infrastructure to Ethernet systems,
broadband distribution, and general data networking.

Development of fibre optics

Since the earliest days of telecommunications there has been an ever increasing need to transmit
more data even faster. Initially single line wires were used. These gave way to coaxial cables that
enabled several channels to transmitted over the same cable. However these systems were limited in
bandwidth and optical systems were investigated.
Optical communications became a possibility after the first lasers were developed in the 1960s. The
next piece of the jigsaw fell into place when the first optical fibers with a sufficiently low loss for
communications purposes were developed in the 1970s. Then, during the late 1970s a considerable
amount of research was undertaken. This resulted in the installation of the first optical fibre
telecommunications system. It ran over a distance of 45 km and used a wavelength of 0.5 mm and
had a data rate of just 45 Mbps - a fraction of what is possible today.
Since then, considerable improvements have been made in the technology. Data rates have
improved and in addition to this the performance of the optical fibre has been improved to enable
much greater distances to be achieved between repeaters. As an indication of this the speeds that
can now be achieved along through a fibre optic system exceed 10 Tbps.
When the first fibre optic transmission systems were being developed, it was thought that the fibre
optic cabling and technology would be prohibitively expensive. However, this has not been the case
and costs have fallen to the extent that fibre optics now provides the only viable option for many
telecommunications applications. In addition to this it is also used in many local area networks
where speed is a major requirement.

Advantages of fibre optics for communications

There are a number of compelling reasons that lead to the widespread adoption of fibre optic
cabling for telecommunications applications:
• Much lower levels of signal attenuation
• Fibre optic cabling provides a much higher bandwidth allowing more data to be delivered
• Fibre optic cables are much lighter than the coaxial cables that might otherwise be used.
• Fibre optics do not suffer from stray interference pickup that occurs with coaxial cabling
Fibre optic transmission system

Any fibre optic data transmission system will comprise a number of different elements. There are
three major elements (marked in bold), and a further one that is vital for practical systems:
• Transmitter (light source)
• Fibre optic cable
• Optical repeater
• Receiver (Detector)
The different elements of the system will vary according to the application. Systems used for lower
capacity links, possibly for local area networks will employ somewhat different techniques and
components to those used by network providers that provide extremely high data rates over long
distances. Nevertheless the basic principles are the same whatever the system.
In the system the transmitter of light source generates a light stream modulated to enable it to carry
the data. Conventionally a pulse of light indicates a "1" and the absence of light indicates "0". This
light is transmitted down a very thin fibre of glass or other suitable material to be presented at the
receiver or detector. The detector converts the pulses of light into equivalent electrical pulses. In
this way the data can be transmitted as light over great distances.

Fibre optic transmitter

Although the original telecommunications fibre optic systems would have used large lasers, today a
variety of semiconductor devices can be used. The most commonly used devices are light emitting
diodes, LEDs, and semiconductor laser diodes.
The simplest transmitter device is the LED. Its main advantage is that it is cheap, and this makes it
ideal for low cost applications where only short runs are needed. However they have a number of
drawbacks. The first is that they offer a very low level of efficiency. Only about 1% of the input
power enters the optical fibre, and this means that high power drivers would be needed to provide
sufficient light to enable long distance transmissions to be made. The other disadvantage of LEDs is
that they produce what is termed incoherent light that covers a relatively wide spectrum. Typically
the spectral width is between 30 and 60 nm. This means that any chromatic dispersion in the fibre
will limit the bandwidth of the system.
In view of their performance, LEDs are used mainly in local-area-network applications where the
data rates are typically in the range 10-100 Mb/s and transmission distances are a few kilometres.
Where higher levels of performance are required, i.e. it is necessary that the fibre optic link can
operate over greater distances and with higher data rates, then lasers are used. Although more costly,
they offer some significant advantages. In the first instance they are able to provide a higher output
level, and in addition to this the light output is directional and this enables a much higher level of
efficiency in the transfer of the light into the fibre optic cable. Typically the coupling efficiency into
a single mode fibre may be as high as 50%. A further advantage is that lasers have a very narrow
spectral bandwidth as a result of the fact that they produce coherent light. This narrow spectral
width enables the lasers to transmit data at much higher rates because modal dispersion is less
apparent. Another advantage is that semiconductor lasers can be modulated directly at high
frequencies because of short recombination time for the carriers within the semiconductor material.
Laser diodes are often directly modulated. This provides a very simple and effective method of
transferring the data onto the optical signal. This is achieved by controlling current applied directly
to the device. This in turn varies the light output from the laser. However for very high data rates or
very long distance links, it is more effective to run the laser at a constant output level (continuous
wave). The light is then modulated using an external device. The advantage of using an external
means of modulation is that it increases the maximum link distance because an effect known as
laser chirp is eliminated. This chirp broadens the spectrum of the light signal and this increases the
chromatic dispersion in the fibre optic cable.

Fibre optic cable

The full details and description of fibre optic cabling are found in a separate article / tutorial on this
area of the website. In essence a fibre optic cable consists of core, around which is another layer
referred to as the cladding. Outside of this there is a protective outer coating.
The fibre optic cables operate because their cladding has a refractive index that is slightly lower
than that of the core. This means that light passing down the core undergoes total internal reflection
when it reaches the core / cladding boundary, and it is thereby contained within the core of the
optical fibre.

Repeaters and amplifiers

There is a maximum distance over which signals may be transmitted over fibre optic cabling. This
is limited not only by the attenuation of the cable, but also the distortion of the light signal along the
cable. In order to overcome these effects and transmit the signals over longer distances, repeaters
and amplifiers are used.
Opto-electric repeaters may be used. These devices convert the optical signal into an electrical
format where it can be processed to ensure that the signal is not distorted and then converted back
into the optical format. It may then be transmitted along the next state of the fibre optic cable.
An alternative approach is to use an optical amplifier. These amplifiers directly amplify the optical
signal without the need to convert the signal back into an electrical format. The amplifiers consist of
a length of fibre optic cable that is doped with a rare earth mineral named Erbium. The treated fibre
cable is then illuminated or pumped with light of a shorter wavelength from another laser and this
serves to amplify the signal that is being carried.
In view of the much reduced cost of fibre optic amplifiers over repeaters, amplifiers are far more
widely used. Most repeaters have been replaced, and amplifiers are used in virtually all new
installations these days.

Receivers

Light travelling along a fibre optic cable needs to be converted into an electrical signal so that it can
be processed and the data that is carried can be extracted. The component that is at the heart of the
receiver is a photo-detector. This is normally a semiconductor device and may be a p-n junction, a
p-i-n photo-diode or an avalanche photo-diode. Photo-transistors are not used because they do not
have sufficient speed.
Once the optical signal from the fibre optic cable has been applied to the photo-detector and
converted into an electrical format it can be processed to recover the data which can then be passed
to its final destination.

Fibre optic transmission of data is generally used for long distance telecommunications network
links and for high speed local area networks. Currently fibre optics is not used for the delivery of
services to homes, although this is a long term aim for many telcos. By using optical fibre cabling
here, the available bandwidth for new services would be considerably higher and the possibility of
greater revenues would increase. Currently the cost oft his is not viable, although it is likely to
happen in the medium term.

INTRODUCTION

What is communication?

Communication may be broadly defined as the transfer of information from one point to another.
When the information is to be conveyed over any distance a communication system is usually
required. Within a communication system the information transfer is frequently achieved by
superimposing or modulating the information onto an electromagnetic wave which acts as a carrier
for the information signal. This modulated carrier is then transmitted to the required destination
where it is received and the original information signal is obtained by demodulation. Sophisticated
techniques have been developed for this process using electromagnetic carrier waves operating at
radio frequencies as well as microwave and millimeter wave frequencies. However,
‘communication’ may also be achieved using an electromagnetic carrier which is selected from the
optical range of frequencies.

Optical Fiber
An optical fiber is a flexible, transparent fiber made by drawing glass (silica) or plastic to a
diameter slightly thicker than that of a human hair. Optical fibers are used most often as a means to
transmit light between the two ends of the fiber and find wide usage in fiber-optic communications,
where they permit transmission over longer distances and at higher bandwidths (data rates) than
electrical cables. Fibers are used instead of metal wires because signals travel along them with less
loss; in addition, fibers are immune to electromagnetic interference, a problem from which metal
wires suffer. Fibers are also used for illumination and imaging, and are often wrapped in bundles so
they may be used to carry light into, or images out of confined spaces, as in the case of a fiberscope.
Specially designed fibers are also used for a variety of other applications, some of them being fiber
optic sensors and fiber lasers.
Optical fibers typically include a core surrounded by a transparent cladding material with a lower
index of refraction. Light is kept in the core by the phenomenon of total internal reflection which
causes the fiber to act as a waveguide. Fibers that support many propagation paths or transverse
modes are called multi-mode fibers, while those that support a single mode are called single-mode
fibers (SMF). Multi-mode fibers generally have a wider core diameter and are used for short-
distance communication links and for applications where high power must be transmitted. Single-
mode fibers are used for most communication links longer than 1,000 meters (3,300 ft).
Being able to join optical fibers with low loss is important in fiber optic communication. This is
more complex than joining electrical wire or cable and involves careful cleaving of the fibers,
precise alignment of the fiber cores, and the coupling of these aligned cores. For applications that
demand a permanent connection a fusion splice is common. In this technique, an electric arc is used
to melt the ends of the fibers together. Another common technique is a mechanical splice, where the
ends of the fibers are held in contact by mechanical force. Temporary or semi-permanent
connections are made by means of specialized optical fiber connectors.
The field of applied science and engineering concerned with the design and application of optical
fibers is known as fiber optics. The term was coined by Indian-American physicist Narinder Singh
Kapany, who is widely acknowledged as the father of fiber optics.

History of Optical Fiber

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, light was guided through bent glass rods to illuminate body
cavities.Practical applications such as close internal illumination during dentistry appeared early in
the twentieth century. Image transmission through tubes was demonstrated independently by the
radio experimenter Clarence Hansell and the television pioneer John Logie Baird in the 1920s. In
the 1930s, Heinrich Lamm showed that one could transmit images through a bundle of unclad
optical fibers and used it for internal medical examinations, but his work was largely forgotten.
In 1953, Dutch scientist Bram van Heel [nl] first demonstrated image transmission through bundles
of optical fibers with a transparent cladding. That same year, Harold Hopkins and Narinder Singh
Kapany at Imperial College in London succeeded in making image-transmitting bundles with over
10,000 fibers, and subsequently achieved image transmission through a 75 cm long bundle which
combined several thousand fibers.Their article titled "A flexible fibrescope, using static scanning"
was published in the journal Nature in 1954. The first practical fiber optic semi-flexible gastroscope
was patented by Basil Hirschowitz, C. Wilbur Peters, and Lawrence E. Curtiss, researchers at the
University of Michigan, in 1956. In the process of developing the gastroscope, Curtiss produced the
first glass-clad fibers; previous optical fibers had relied on air or impractical oils and waxes as the
low-index cladding material. A variety of other image transmission applications soon followed.
Kapany coined the term fiber optics, wrote a 1960 article in Scientific American that introduced the
topic to a wide audience, and wrote the first book about the new field.
The first working fiber-optical data transmission system was demonstrated by German physicist
Manfred Börner at Telefunken Research Labs in Ulm in 1965, which was followed by the first
patent application for this technology in 1966. NASA used fiber optics in the television cameras that
were sent to the moon. At the time, the use in the cameras was classified confidential, and
employees handling the cameras had to be supervised by someone with an appropriate security
clearance.

Uses of Optical Fiber

• Communication

Optical fiber is used as a medium for telecommunication and computer networking because it is
flexible and can be bundled as cables. It is especially advantageous for long-distance
communications, because light propagates through the fiber with much lower attenuation compared
to electrical cables. This allows long distances to be spanned with few repeaters.
The per-channel light signals propagating in the fiber have been modulated at rates as high as 111
gigabits per second (Gbit/s) by NTT,although 10 or 40 Gbit/s is typical in deployed systems. In June
2013, researchers demonstrated transmission of 400 Gbit/s over a single channel using 4-mode
orbital angular momentum multiplexing.
Each fiber can carry many independent channels, each using a different wavelength of light
(wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM)). The net data rate (data rate without overhead bytes)
per fiber is the per-channel data rate reduced by the FEC overhead, multiplied by the number of
channels (usually up to 80 in commercial dense WDM systems as of 2008). As of 2011 the record
for bandwidth on a single core was 101 Tbit/s (370 channels at 273 Gbit/s each).The record for a
multi-core fiber as of January 2013 was 1.05 Pbit/s.In 2009, Bell Labs broke the 100 (Pbit/s)·km
barrier (15.5 Tbit/s over a single 7000 km fiber).
For short-distance applications, such as a network in an office building (see FTTO), fiber-optic
cabling can save space in cable ducts. This is because a single fiber can carry much more data than
electrical cables such as standard category 5 Ethernet cabling, which typically runs at 100 Mbit/s or
1 Gbit/s speeds. Fiber is also immune to electrical interference; there is no cross-talk between
signals in different cables, and no pickup of environmental noise. Non-armored fiber cables do not
conduct electricity, which makes fiber a good solution for protecting communications equipment in
high voltage environments, such as power generation facilities, or metal communication structures
prone to lightning strikes. They can also be used in environments where explosive fumes are
present, without danger of ignition. Wiretapping (in this case, fiber tapping) is more difficult
compared to electrical connections, and there are concentric dual-core fibers that are said to be tap-
Fibers are often also used for short-distance connections between devices. For example, most high-
definition televisions offer a digital audio optical connection. This allows the streaming of audio
over light, using the TOSLINK protocol.

•Sensors

Fibers have many uses in remote

sensing. In some applications, the
sensor is itself an optical fiber. In other
cases, fiber is used to connect a non-
fiberoptic sensor to a measurement
system. Depending on the application,
fiber may be used because of its small
size, or the fact that no electrical power
is needed at the remote location, or because many sensors can be multiplexed along the length of a
fiber by using different wavelengths of light for each sensor, or by sensing the time delay as light
passes along the fiber through each sensor. Time delay can be determined using a device such as an
optical time-domain reflectometer.
Optical fibers can be used as sensors to measure strain, temperature, pressure, and other quantities
by modifying a fiber so that the property to measure modulates the intensity, phase, polarization,
wavelength, or transit time of light in the fiber. Sensors that vary the intensity of light are the
simplest, since only a simple source and detector are required. A particularly useful feature of such
fiber optic sensors is that they can, if required, provide distributed sensing over distances of up to
one meter. In contrast, highly localized measurements can be provided by integrating miniaturized
sensing elements with the tip of the fiber.

• Power transmission
Optical fiber can be used to transmit power using a photovoltaic cell to convert the light into
electricity. While this method of power transmission is not as efficient as conventional ones, it is
especially useful in situations where it is desirable not to have a metallic conductor as in the case of
use near MRI machines, which produce strong magnetic fields.Other examples are for powering
electronics in high-powered antenna elements and measurement devices used in high-voltage
transmission equipment.

• Other uses
Optical fibers have a wide number of applications. They are used as light guides in medical and
other applications where bright light needs to be shone on a target without a clear line-of-sight path.
In some buildings, optical fibers route sunlight from the roof to other parts of the building (see
nonimaging optics). Optical-fiber lamps are used for illumination in decorative applications,
including signs, art, toys and artificial Christmas trees. Optical fiber is an intrinsic part of the light-
transmitting concrete building product LiTraCon.
Optical fiber can also be used in structural health monitoring. This type of sensor is able to detect
stresses that may have a lasting impact on structures. It is based on the principle of measuring
analog attenuation.
Optical fiber is also used in imaging optics. A coherent bundle of fibers is used, sometimes along
with lenses, for a long, thin imaging device called an endoscope, which is used to view objects
through a small hole. Medical endoscopes are used for minimally invasive exploratory or surgical
procedures. Industrial endoscopes (see fiberscope or borescope) are used for inspecting anything
hard to reach, such as jet engine interiors. Many microscopes use fiber-optic light sources to
provide intense illumination of samples being studied.
In spectroscopy, optical fiber bundles transmit light from a spectrometer to a substance that cannot
be placed inside the spectrometer itself, in order to analyze its composition. A spectrometer analyzes
substances by bouncing light off and through them. By using fibers, a spectrometer can be used to
study objects remotely.

Use of optical fiber

in a decorative lamp A frisbee illuminated by fiber optics

TYPES:

Single mode optical fiber

• As the name suggests, this type of optical fiber transmits only one mode of light. To put it another
way, it can carry only one wavelength of light across its length.
• This wavelength is usually 1310nm or 1550nm.
• You would think that this limits its capabilities of transferring more data. But single mode type of
optical fibers is much better than multimode optical fibers as they have more bandwidth and
experience fewer losses. So the speed is unmatched.
• Interestingly, single mode fibers came into existence after multimode fibers. They are more recent
than the multimode cables.
• These cables can carry only one mode, physically, by having a tiny core. That is to say that the
diameter of the core is essentially of the same order as the wavelength of the light passing through it.
• Only lasers are used as a light source. To point out, the light used in single mode fibers are not in the
visible spectrum.
• Since the light travels in a straight direction, there are fewer losses, and it can be used in applications
requiring longer distance connections.
• An obvious disadvantage of single mode fiber is that they are hard to couple.
Multimode optical fiber

• As the name implies, these types of optical fibers allow multiple modes of light to travel along their
axis.
• To explain physically, they can do this by having a thicker core diameter.
• The wavelengths of light waves in multimode fibers are in the visible spectrum ranging from 850 to
1300 nm.
• The reflection of the waves inside the multimode fiber occurs at different angles for every mode.
Consequently, based on these angles the number of reflections can vary.
• We can have a mode where the light passes without striking the core at all.
• We can have a slightly higher mode which will travel with appropriate internal reflections.
• Since the basis of optical fiber communication is a total internal reflection, all modes with incident
angles that do not cause total internal reflection get absorbed by the cladding. As a result, losses are
created.
• We can have higher order modes, waves that are highly transverse to the axis of the waveguide can
reflect many times. In fact, due to increased reflections at unusual angles, higher order modes can get
completely lost inside the cable.
• Lower order modes are moderately transverse or even completely straight and hence fare better
comparatively.
There are two types of multimode optical fibers:
• stepped index multimode optical fiber and
• graded index multimode optical fiber.

Stepped index multimode fiber

The refractive index of the core of the multimode is uniform throughout the cable.
Graded-index multimode fiber
The refractive index of the core changes radially from the center of the core to its surface.

Microstructured optical fibers

These are the new types of optical fiber cables. They have an entirely different concept of using
light for communication. In the types of optical fibers mentioned above, light travels due to total
internal reflection and refractive indices of the core and cladding. In microstructured optical fibers,
the physical structure of the waveguide is used at a nano-scale level to manipulate light. Different
types of microstructured optical fibers are
• Photonic Crystals
• Air-clad or double clad fibers
• Fresnel fibers
 EXPERIMENTAL WORKING WITH DIAGRAM

Different Types of Communication Systems

A thought kept in the brain is of no use unless and until it is shared with other individuals and rest
of the world. The idea, no matter however brilliant it is, must come out for its successful
implementation for it to benefit one and all. It is the prime responsibility of the individual to share
his thoughts and ideas with others.
How is it possible? How can one share his ideas and thoughts?
The communication system enables the successful transmission of idea or any other important
information among individuals. The person from whom the thought originates carefully encodes his
ideas into a sensible content which is now ready to be shared with everyone. He is commonly
referred to as the sender and the other party who receives the information from him is called the
receiver or the recipient. The free flow of information between the sender and the receiver takes
place because of the communication system.
The flow of information can be between two individuals. The information can flow from the
individual to a machine, from the machine to the individual and even between two machines.
Machines coupled together through networks also provide signals for the individuals to respond,
thus a type of communication system. In the above cases all the machines must work on similar
lines and patterns, must be technically compatible and has to provide the same information, so that
the individuals can decode the information well.

Let us study the various types of communication system for the smooth flow
of information between two parties.

1. Optical Communication System


The word “Optical” stands for light. As the name itself suggests, optical communication
system depends on light as the medium for communication. In an optical communication
system the transmitter converts the information into an optical signal (signal in the form of
light) and finally the signal then reaches the recipient. The recipient then decodes the signal
and responds accordingly. In optical communication system, light helps in the transmission of
information. The safe landing of helicopters and aeroplanes work on the above principle. The
pilots receive light signals from the base and decide their next movements. On the roads, red
light communicates the individual to immediately stop while the individual moves on seeing
the green light.
In this mode of communication light travels through the optical fibre.

2. Radio Communication System


In the radio communication system the information flows with the help of a radio. Radio
communication system works with the aid of a transmitter and a receiver both equipped with
an antenna.
The transmitter with the help of an antenna produces signals which are carried through radio
carrier wave. The receiver also with the help of an antenna receives the signal. Some
information is unwanted and must be discarded and hence the electronic filters help in the
separation of radio signals from other unwanted signals which are further amplified to an
 optimum level Finally the signals are decoded in an information which can be easily
understood by the individuals for them to respond accordingly.

3. Duplex
communications system
In Duplex communications system two equipments can communicate with each other in both
the directions simultaneously and hence the name Duplex. When you interact with your friend
over the telephone, both of you can listen to each other at the same time. The sender sends the
signals to the receiver who receives it then and there and also give his valuable feedback to
the speaker for him to respond. Hence the communication actually takes place between the
speaker and the receiver simultaneously.
In the Duplex communication system, two devices can communicate with each other at the
same time.
A type of communication system involves the sender and the receiver where the sender is in
charge of sending signals and the recipients only listen to it and respond accordingly. Such
communication is also called Simplex communication system.

4. Half Duplex Communication System


In half Duplex communication system, both the two parties can’t communicate
 simultaneously. The sender has to stop sending the signals to the recipient and then only the
recipient can respond.
A walkie talkie works on the half duplex communication system. The military personnel
while interacting has to say “Over” for the other person to respond. He needs to speak the
security code correctly for the other person to speak. The other party will never communicate
unless and until the code is correct and complete.

5. Tactical Communication System


Another mode of communication is the tactical mode of communication. In this mode of
communication, communication varies according to the changes in the environmental
conditions and other situations.

All the above modes of communication work for a common objective ie to transfer the information
from one party to the other party. The various models of communication system help us to
understand the route of flow of information from the sender to the recipients through some medium.

Digital Communication System

The transmission of information from the sender to the recipient through some medium is called as
communication. Communication enables us to know what is happening around us. It helps us to
share our knowledge with others and also gain from other individual’s thoughts and ideas.
Communication takes place through various routes and channels and with the help of a medium. A
person can chat with his distant relative over the phone and thus the medium of communication in
this case is the telephone.
Communication can also take place with the help of light. The airport officials give various signals
through light to the pilots for their safe landing. In this case communication is through light and
hence is termed as Optical communication. Satellites also play a vital role in communication by
receiving signals from the earth station, amplifying it and then resending it back to the earth.
Communication can take place with the aid of an artificial satellite between two points on the earth.
In the same way signal can also be sent in a digitalized form as in case of Digital communication.
The process of communication is initiated the moment the sender gets some thought in his brain. To
share his ideas with others, the thoughts must be converted into a meaningful content by careful
selection of words. This process is also called as encoding. In digital communication, the thought is
converted in a digital format for the recipient to understand. In this mode of communication, the
data or the information is transferred electronically with the help of computers.
Thus digital communication is a mode of communication where the information or the thought
is encoded digitally as discreet signals and electronically transferred to the recipients. Digital
communication is one of the most commonly used mode of communication in the current scenario.
Organizations generally rely on this mode for all their business communications.
Let us understand digital communication with the help of an example.
Jim wanted to meet all his team members at the conference room to discuss their key responsibility
areas and areas of expertise. He didn’t have the time to go to their workstations and invite them
individually. Instead he opted an easier and cheaper mode to communicate his idea. He sent an
email marking a cc to all the participants, inviting them for the meeting. This is an example of
Digital communication where the information was sent electronically.
In digital communication information flows in a digital form and the source is generally the
keyboard of the computer. A single individual is capable of digital communication and thus it also
saves wastage of manpower and is one of the cheapest modes of communication. Digital
communication is also a really quick way to communicate. The information can reach the recipient
within a fraction of a second. An individual no longer has to wait to personally meet the other
individual and share his information.
Digital communication can take place anytime. You just need to have your computer and you can
communicate and share your ideas and thoughts anytime anywhere just by the click of a button.
The disadvantage of digital communication is the recipient can’t view the expressions of the sender
and has to rely only on the information sent to him. Facial expressions don’t really matter in digital
communication. One must master the art of writing emails for an effective digital communication.
Always remember the other person can’t see you; he just has to depend on the mail. Your e mail has
to be impressive and relevant to create the desired impact and for the recipient to respond and give
his feedback. A person putting up in India can now very easily chat and even see his friend putting
up in Los Angeles, thanks to video conferencing and Digital communication. Faceboook, Orkut,
Twitter are also instrumental in digital communication. Through these social networking sites
individuals try to communicate what is new in their lives or share any other important information
with friends and relatives. A simple tweet or a scrap can actually let the other person know a lot
about the other individuals.
Digital communication system has indeed made our lives easier and is one of the quickest and
most reliable modes of communication.

Laser Communication System

The various communication modes provide us the various routes and channels through which the
data and information can flow among individuals. The individual will never come to know what the
other person is thinking, unless and until the information is shared. Communication does not merely
mean sharing one’s thoughts. The receiver after decoding the information must respond accordingly
and also provide feedback to the speaker. The communication loop has to be complete to make it
effective and simple.
Communication can be between individuals, and even between machines. The flow of information
can be from a human being to equipment and vice versa. Just like the satellite mode of
communication or the optical mode of communication, communication can also occur with the help
of Laser and microwave. These are also modes of communication which help in the transmission of
signals from the sender to the receiver.
Let us go through them one by one.
Microwave communication system

Microwave communication occurs with the help of microwaves.

Let us first try to understand what are microwaves ?
The radiowaves whose wavelengths can be conveniently measured in small numbers of centimeters
with the help of various electronic technologies are called as Microwaves.
Thus a microwave communication is majorly with the help of radiowaves with a small and a
measurable wavelength. In this mode of communication, antennas of convenient sizes are
instrumental in carrying the radiowaves to facilitate the microwave communication.
Let’s go back to the history to find out more about microwave mode of communication.
The technology for microwave communication came into picture in 1940 in Western Union. After
five years in 1945, the first microwave message was sent between towers, one located in New York
and the other tower located in Philadelphia.
After the successful transmission of microwave message, this became the most commonly used
mode of data transmission. There are two types of Microwave communication. Analog and Digital
Microwave communication, where digital is more advanced as compared to analog microwave
system.
Both the above are communication types which help in the transmission of signals for the process of
communication to take place. Whether it is satellite, or optical, or laser, or microwave their
objective is same - the transmission of signals from one party to the other.

Satellite Communication System

Imagine what would our life be without any mode of communication among individuals? The world
would have been a dead place where no body could interact with each other or communicate
amongst themselves. There would be no knowledge sharing and great ideas could never be
implemented.
In a layman’s language, communication simply helps in the transfer of information from the sender
to the receiver for him to respond accordingly. There has to be a medium with the help of which
information, data or signal can travel from the sender to the receiver. The recipients receive signals
from the sender, decode it and resend it back to the sender to facilitate the process of
communication. Communication can take place with the help of light as in optical communication
system or with the help of radio signals as in the case of radio communication system.
Telecommunication also takes place with the help of satellite. Let us study it in detail

What is a satellite ?
In a satellite communication, the satellite which is stationed in the space system for transmission of
signals plays a significant role. The scientists after a lot of hard work launch the satellite in the
space after undergoing a lot of tests for the satellite to survive in the hostile conditions of the space.
Satellite launching involves a lot of investment and hard labour by scientists. The satellites ought to
be light weight and durable. The satellites are generally equipped with an antenna and transponder
to facilitate the communication process. The satellite majorly works on the solar power which is
continuously received by the satellite’s solar panels.
There are broadly two major types of satellite system.

1. Fixed Satellite System - The fixed satellite system helps in the transfer of numerous data
and information across the countries through fixed point on the earth’s surface.

2. Mobile Satellite System - It is helpful in connecting ships, aircrafts at distant and remote
places.
Research Satellite System - Research Satellite System is primarily helpful in various
research processes for the scientists. The scientists can gather all the necessary and useful
data through the research satellite system.

How does Satellite communication work ?

It works on two main components:

▪ Ground base or the Earth
▪ Space component
In this mode of communication, the satellite stationed at the space receives signals from the earth
with the aid of an antenna. The signals are amplified to an optimum level and then with the help of
transponders they are retransmitted back to the earth. The earth station then receives the signal from
the satellite, and reamplifies it and helps in the communication. Hence in this mode of
communication, it was the satellite which helped in the transmission of signals from the earth and
then back to the earth, thus justifying the name.

Where is it used ?

In ships, where generally mobile phones fail to operate, satellite phones are helpful in
communication. Satellite phones work on the above principle. Satellite radio, satellite television as
well as Satellite internet also operate on the principle of satellite communication. Satellite mode of
communication is primarily helpful in remote areas where broadband facilities fail to operate.

EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

To study the effects of axial, lateral and angular displacements and mis- alignments of the
ends of a broken multimode plastic (type) optical fiber on analog and digital light signal
transmission in open air (on land FOC) and tap water (sea FOC) a custom made fiber
optic module was used as shown in Fig.2.

It consists of optical transmitter and receiver unit KL-900D module fol- lowed by a
modulator unit of KL9000 series basic telecommunication trainer.
The built in optical transmitter and receiver circuits serve for transmission and reception
of analog and digital light data. A 20 MHz function generator was used to generate simple
analog signal as well as carrier and the test digital data was obtained from a square wave
generator. The modulating device shown above was used to for modulation of different
types of input data, analog as well as digital. Different modulator circuits were used for
ASK, FSK, AM, FM data transmission. A 200x15x15 cm3 glass aquarium water tank was
used to simulate fiber gorges and gulches in deep sea water fiber breakage events. Two 20
MHz oscilloscopes were used to record the input output signals to determine the impact
of axial, lateral and angular shifts of broken fiber ends in the cable. Simple analog data
was transmitted through optical fiber laid on optical table. The received signal was noted
and recorded. Now the fiber was cut at 90o of the optical axis by a sharp knife. The fiber
ends were displaced straight against each other in opposite directions. Examples of
various axial displacements in air with received analog signals are shown in Fig.3.

The above experiment of analog data transmission through broken and displaced fiber
was also repeated for sea cables in glass water aquarium. The broken fiber ends of
different displacements under water with recorded weak-

ening signals are shown in Fig.3. In order to determine the impact of broken fiber later
shifts on signal transmission the optical fiber was cutoff at 90o and one free end was
scanned across the other fixed fiber to obtain the optical transmission profile as shown in
Fig.4.
To study the impact of bending radii on multimode fiber optic digital transmission the
optical fiber was twisted to 1 to 3 cm radii. The transmitted digital data was found to be
seriously effected by the bending radii as shown in Fig. 5. To transmit digital data
generated from square wave generator digi- tal modulation technique ASK, FSK were
used here. A high frequency carrier

Fiber Conditions in serviCe on data CommuniCation

is generated from function generator. The carrier signal and data signal are applied across
Modulator/Demodulator (KL94005) which in turns modulates the digital data over high
frequency analog signal.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The analog data transmission in air disappeared for x 3 3mm whilst it contin- ued in water
and disappeared eventually for x 3 5mm. Variation of signal strength with axial
displacement in air and water is shown in Fig.6. Normal analog signal transmission
through the water medium continues over longer displacement due to water lens effect as
index matching fluid between fiber ends. However, the digital data did not pass through
the optical fiber due to large Fresnel reflection. The impact of lateral shift of o to 2mm
(fiber size) allowed the signal to vary from maximum to minimum. Average transmission
coupling efficiency was more in water medium compared to simple air as shown in Fig.7.

In case of lateral shift study the analog signal coupled successfully but the digital signal
failed to pass due to similar reasons as explained above for axial case. Variation of fiber
optic transmission with bending diameter in air or water was found to vary linearly in this
experiment as shown in Fig.8. There was no signal for 5mm bending circle and no loss at
bending diameter 3 40mm.
 WORKING PRINCIPLE

A fundamental optical parameter one should have an idea about, while studying fiber optics is
Refractive index. By definition, “The ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to that in matter is the
index of refraction n of the material.” It is represented as −
$$n = \frac{c}{v}$$
Where,
c = the speed of light in free space = 3 × 108 m/s
v = the speed of light in di-electric or non-conducting material
Generally, for a travelling light ray, reflection takes place when n2 < n1 . The bent of light ray at
the interface is the result of difference in the speed of light in two materials that have different
refractive indices. The relationship between these angles at the interface can be termed as Snell’s
law. It is represented as −
$$n_1sin\phi _1 = n_2sin\phi _2$$
Where,
$\phi _1$ is the angle of incidence
$\phi _2$ is the refracted angle
n1 and n2 are the refractive indices of two materials
For an optically dense material, if the reflection takes place within the same material, then such a
phenomenon is called as internal reflection. The incident angle and refracted angle are shown in
the following figure.

If the angle of incidence $\phi _1$ is much larger, then the refracted angle $\phi _2$ at a point
becomes Π/2 . Further refraction is not possible beyond this point. Hence, such a point is called as
Critical angle $\phi _c$. When the incident angle $\phi _1$ is greater than the critical angle, the
condition for total internal reflection is satisfied.
The following figure shows these terms clearly.

A light ray, if passed into a glass, at such condition, it is totally reflected back into the glass with no
light escaping from the surface of the glass.

Parts of a Fiber

The most commonly used optical fiber is single solid di-electric cylinder of radius a and index of
refraction n1. The following figure explains the parts of an optical fiber.

This cylinder is known as the Core of the fiber. A solid di-electric material surrounds the core,
which is called as Cladding. Cladding has a refractive index n2 which is less than n1.
Cladding helps in −
• Reducing scattering losses.
• Adds mechanical strength to the fiber.
• Protects the core from absorbing unwanted surface contaminants.
An optical fiber communication system has basically three (3) major components: A transmitter,
which converts electrical signal to light signals, an optical fiber, which transmits the signals, and a
receiver, which captures the signals at the other end of the fiber and converts them to electrical
signals. The principle of the optical fiber communication can be represented through the following
block diagram:

The transmitter consists of a light source supported by necessary drive circuits. A transducer is used
to convert non-electrical signal into electrical signals. During the transmission process, modulation
is occurring, a process whereby electrical signal is converted into light. The light waves act as
carrier waves, and they are generated by a suitable semiconductor laser or a lighting emitting diode
(LED), in the IR1 range with wavelength of 850nm, 1300nm or 1550nm.
The modulation can be analog, by varying the intensity of the light beam from the light source
(semiconductor laser or LED), or digital, by flashing the semiconductor laser or LED on and off at
an extremely fast rate, where a pulse represents the number 1 and the absence of light at a specified
time represents 0. Digitally modulated signals are used for long distance transmission, while
analogue modulated signals are restricted to shorter distances.
The regenerator, which consists of optical fibers with a especial coating (doping), have the function
to regenerate the signal, because during the transmission, it occurs a attenuation of the optical signal
due to various losses and dispersion in the optical fiber, especially over large distance. T,
regenerators are placed at specific intervals to regenerate the signal.
At the end of the fiber, also called of receiving end, the output coupler directs the light form the
fiber to a semiconductor photodiode (photodetector), which converts the light signals into electric
signals. After that, the signal is amplified and decoded in order to obtain the message. It is important
to mention that the output has to be fed to a suitable transducer in order to convert the message in a
specific form, audio or video form.
The information transmission capacity can be increased by using multiplexing, a process in which
more than one signal is transmitted over a single fiber.
 CONCLUSIONS
It is very interesting to note that analog signals continue despite broken fiber and digital
signals just collapse after breakage of fiber. The analog signals are better transmitted in
water medium due to its lens (index matching) effect compared to air. For the plastic fiber
used in this experiment the bending diameter of 40mm or above has no appreciable effect
but diameter less than 5mm causes complete loss of signal. Some 10-20% of the analog or
digital signal continues to pass but is often below the detection threshold of conven-
tional optical receivers.

THE FUTURE
Future optical fibers will come from ongoing research into materials with improved optical
properties. Currently, silica glasses with a high fluoride content hold the most promise for optical
fibers, with attenuation losses even lower than today's highly efficient fibers. Experimental fibers,
drawn from glass containing 50 to 60 percent zirconium fluoride (ZrF 4 ), now show losses in the
range of 0.005 to 0.008 decibels per kilometer, whereas earlier fibers often had losses of 0.2
decibels per kilometer.
In addition to utilizing more refined materials, the producers of fiber optic cables are experimenting
with process improvement. Presently, the most sophisticated manufacturing processes use high-
energy lasers to melt the preforms for the fiber draw. Fibers can be drawn from a preform at the rate
of 10 to 20 meters (32.8 to 65.6 feet) per second, and single-mode fibers from 2 to 25 kilometers
(1.2 to 15.5 miles) in length can be drawn from one preform. At least one company has reported
creating fibers of 160 kilometers (99 miles), and the frequency with which fiber optics companies
are currently retooling—as often as every eighteen months—suggests that still greater innovations
lie ahead. These advances will be driven in part by the growing use of optical fibers in computer
networks, and also by the increasing demand for the technology in burgeoning international markets
such as Eastern Europe, South America, and the Far East.
 BIBLIOGRAPHIC REFRENCES

• JHA, A. K. A textbook of Applied Physics: Volume I. 1st Edition, New Delhi: I.K.

International Publishing House Pvt. Ltd, 2009;

• BRIJ LAL, N.S.; AVADHANULU, M.N.: A textbook of optics: For B.Sc. Students as Per

UGC Model Syllabus. Revised Edition, New Delhi; S. Chand Publishing.