Unit 1

DEFINITION AND SCOPE OF FOOD SCIENCE

Food science is the application of basic science and food engineering to study
the fundamental physical, chemical and biochemical properties of food and food
processing.

Food science was first used to describe the activities involved in moving food
from farm to table. This implied the transformation of raw materials to usable food
stuffs, wheat to bread, animals to meat, milk to butter and cheese.

Food science is inevitably drawn into certain aspects of farming on the one
hand and into problems of human and animal nutrition on the other. Food science may
be applied to develop technological processes designed to produce sophisticated foods
to increase the palatability of the consumers. The development of food science and
technology that enables foods to be preserved by canning, dehydration and freezing so
that they can be produced and processed in those parts of the world best suited to their
culture, transported safety half round the world and be made available to distant
markets at any season of the year.

ITS RELATIONSHIP WITH FOOD CHEMISTRY, FOOD MICROBIOLOGY

AND FOOD PROCESSING

Foodchemistry is the science that studies the composition of the earth and it
has been built up mainly from observation and experiment. The rapid growth of the
food industry, into big business and the changes in the number of items on the
grocer’s shelves, the many ready to eat products, the new control on food additives
and the attempts to standardize some food articles, all serve to emphasize the growing
importance of the chemistry of foods.

Dependent on the science of food is on biology, bacteriology and mycology as

well as chemistry, it was necessary for all sciences to develop to the point where
education (to make clearer) of the complex mixtures encountered in foods become
accurate and meaningful. Fortunately research of significance to food chemistry is
now appearing not only in journals devoted exclusively to food problems but also in
those in the fields of biology, chemistry, engineering and even physics.

The nineteenth century saw the development of organic chemistry, analytical

chemistry and physical chemistry – all essential to the growth of food chemistry and
our understanding of it. The pace at which discoveries were made and at which
advances occurred increased throughout the century. The field of carbohydrates,
began to fit together, proteins were recognized and many other compounds of
importance in food chemistry were studied.

FoodTechnology: is the used information generated by food science in

selection. Processing preservation and utilization of food science affects the
consumption of safe nutrition and whole some food. Since food science is a broad
conception it contains many other specializations in it such as:

FoodEngineering deals with the conversion of all raw agricultural ingredients

such as wheat to a finished product such as flour or baked goods. It also covers the
unit operation mechanism and chemical aspects.

FoodMicrobiology deals with ecology of food. The role of environment in

food spoilage, the presence and nature of microorganisms responsible for food
spoilage and the physical, chemical, biological changes brought about by them. Food
microbiology also deals with the study of public health and sanitation.

Food chemistry helps in understanding the physical and chemical nature of

food and the changes takes place during processing and storage of food

Foodprocessing deals with the general characteristics of food raw materials,

harvesting, assembling and receiving of raw materials, methods of food preservation,
processing objectives including factors influencing food acceptability and preferences,
packaging and water, waste disposal and sanitation.

The kind of careers that a food scientist might follow includes food
development, quality control, sensory specialist, flavour chemist, food safety research
and education. It is because of food science amazing achievements have taken place in
the food industry. It is a fact that the food industry is able on the most part to supply
the cheap, healthy and safe food.
 Unit 2 - CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates like proteins and fat are naturally occurring bulk nutrients
present in almost all foods in different quantities. They are sugars or polymers of
sugars such as starch, that can be hydrolysed to simple sugars by the action of
digestive enzymes or by heating with dilute acids. Generally, but not always, the
hydrogen and oxygen in them are in the proportions to form water; hence the term
carbohydrate.

EFFECT OF COOKING

The main carbohydrate foods mostly cereals is starch. All sources of starch
consist of linear polymers of glucose which are tightly coiled in the form of granules.
These have a characteristic shape and size depending upon the plant from which they
are derived.

Two different types of chains may be distinguished in a starch molecule. The

linear is termed as amylose and the branched amylopectin. Amylase is soluble in
water. One type of starch differs from another, both in the length of amylose and
amylopectin chains and in the proportion of each type of starch chains. The gelling
ability of starch depends upon the amylase content and a high amylopectin levels
lower the ability of starch to form a satisfactory gel.

Gelatinisation

Starch granules do not dissolve readily in cold water but they will form a
temporary suspension with the starch tending to settle out as soon as the mixture is
allowed to stand. When heated with water, the intramolecular hydrogen bonding is
broken and grains absorb water and (a) swell, (b) the viscosity increase until a peak
thickness is reached and (c) the translucency of the mixture also increases.

The term gelatinisation is used in general to describe these changes. The

changes appear to be gradual over a temperature range during gelatinisation. The
change transforms the temporary suspension into a more permanent one. The swelling
of starch particularly amylose resulting in the formation of a gel with water is believed
to occur through the binding of water. In starch the amylose and amylopectin
molecules are loosely bound together by hydrogen bonds of hydroxyls. The hydrogen
on the hydroxyl on one molecule is attracted by the negative charge of the oxygen of a
hydroxyl on other molecule and this attraction forms a weak link between the
molecules.
 As the temperature of the starch water mixture increases, the hydrogen bonding
decreases for both the starch- starch bonds and water – water bonds and the size of the
particles diminishes. Increasing water molecules begin to penetrate freely between the
starch molecules when their kinetic energy becomes great enough to overcome the
attraction between starch molecules. Two starch molecules which were originally
bound together are now two starch molecules with water in between. The sticking
together of granules is the result of molecules from adjacent molecules becoming
attracted and enmeshed in one and other. The changes brought about by hot water on
starch are irreversible.

Gelatinisation temperature: a starch mixture will start to thicken somewhere

between 70°C and 88°C but complete gelatinisation will not occur until the mixture is
close to or at the boiling point. This will vary with the type of starch and size of the
grain. The gelatinisation temperature range is characteristic of a starch and serves as
an additional index for identification.

Larger grains swell at a lower temperature gelatinisation is complete for

starches such as potato at a lower temperature because of the larger size of the
granules. In any case, swelling is usually complete at a temperature of 88°C-92°C.
Depending on the variety and storage conditions, gelatinisation temperature varies.

The increase in the viscosity of the heated starch mixture is caused by the
action of the enlarged starch granules bumping against each other, trapping the water
and inhibiting its free flow. Once a starch mixture has reached a temperature at which
gelatinisation takes place, the mixture needs to only be held at that temperature until
the flavour of the uncooked starch has disappeared.

Completely gelatinised starch should not be stirred unless necessary since the
swollen granules are easily broken. The broken grains and fragments will thin out of
the mixture. As the cooked starch mixture cools there is a marked increase in stiffness
of the gel formed. This is due to the decrease in kinetic energy which keeps the
molecules from reassociating.

Basmati rice is preferred because after cooking, they are soft not sticky, possess
pleasant aroma and show linear kernel elongation without significant increase in
breadth.
Gelatinisation temperature of different starches

Type of starch Gelatinisation temperature

Rice 68-75°C

Wheat 52-54°C

Barley 61-62°C

Potato 56-69°C

Corn 62-72°C

Ragi 90-95°C

FACTORS AFFECTING GELATINISATION

Temperature and time of heating: Starch pastes may be prepared most quickly by
bringing them to a boiling temperature over direct heat, constantly stirring as they
thicken and simmering them for approximately one minute. Under carefully controlled
conditions, starch pastes that are heated rapidly are somewhat thicker than similar
pastes heated slowly.

Proportions of starch: More concentrated dispersions of starch show higher viscosity

at lower temperatures than do less concentrated mixtures because of the larger number
of granules that can swell in the early stages of gelatinisation. Each type of starch
gelatinises over a characteristic temperature range; although this range may be
affected by starch concentration.

Types of starches: The starches vary in their thickening power. Wheat starches
gelatinise earlier compared to rice, sorghum or corn starch. Corn or sorghum starch
give opaque pastes of higher viscosity than wheat starch at the same concentration.
Waxy corn starch (more amylopectin) does not form a gel and remains clear because
of the lack of amylose. Flour that has been browned has less thickening power as
some of the starch molecules had been converted to dextrins.

Agitation or stirring: Stirring while cooking a starch mixture is desirable in the early
stages for obtaining uniform consistency. However, if agitation is too intense or
continued too long it accelerates the breakdown or rupturing of the starch and
decreases viscosity and may give a pasty mouth feel.
Addition of other ingredients: Sugar – The sugar added decreases the thickness of
the cooked product. Sugar limits the swelling of the starch grains while competing
with them for water. In addition, it elevates the temperature at which starch grain
begins to thicken a liquid. It also makes the swollen grains more resistant to
mechanical rupture after they are gelatinised.

In a recipe calling for a large amount of sugar, only part of the sugar needs to
be added before cooking. After the starch mixture has been cooked, the remainder of
the sugar can be added with much less effect on viscosity.

Acid - Acid in the form of vinegar or lime juice reduces the thickness of hot
starch paste and the firmness of the cooled paste. The decrease in thickness and
stiffness has been attributed in part to fragmentation of swollen granules and
hydrolysis of starch molecules. Acid and heat catalyse the hydrolysis of starch to
dextrins. Acid hydrolysed starch, when it is boiled hydrates at lower temperature than
the unmodified starch. Acid thinned starch is often used in confectionery industry.

In cooked starch mixtures like custards containing fruits some amount of

thinning occurs. When a high concentration of sugar is also present in a starch paste,
the sugar may help to decrease the effect of acid, because sugar limits the swelling of
starch granules and starch molecules are therefore not as available for hydrolysis of
acid. Acid juices such as lemon juice can also be added after the starchy paste has
been cooked. This limits the acid’s contact with starch molecules.

Fats and proteins: The presence of fats and proteins which tend to coat starch
granules and thereby delay hydration also lower the rate of viscosity development.

Changes in cooked starches

As a starch thickened mixture is cooled without stirring after gelatinisation is

complete, additional changes occur.

Gel formation: Gelation takes place on cooling of the starch paste after the starch
granules have been gelatinised. Gel formation in cooked starch pastes is a gradual
process that continues over a several hour period as the paste cools. Waxy varieties of
starch without amylose do not form gels. Starches containing relatively larger amounts
of amylose such as corn starch, form firmer gels than starches with a somewhat lower
concentration of amylose, such as tapioca.

Many starch molecules are disrupted during the process of gelatinisation as the
starch granules swell. Some of the molecules of amylose, the linear starch fraction
leach out from the granule. Two or more of these chains may form a juncture point,
creating a new bond, which gradually leads to more bonds and more extensively
ordered regions. Bonding with the amylose molecules begins immediately after
cooking. Amylopectin, the branch fraction, usually remains inside the swollen granule
where it more slowly forms new bonds between branches in a process of
recrystallisation. Bonds formed between the branches of the bushy amylopectin
molecules are weak and have little practical effect on the rigidity of the starch paste;
however, bonds between the long chain amylose molecules are relatively strong and
form readily. This bonding produces a three-dimensional structure that results in the
development of a gel with the amylose molecules forming a network that holds water
in its meshes. The rigidity of the starch mixture is increased.

Retrogradation: As starch thickened mixture continues to stand after gel formation is

complete, the process of retrogradation may occur. Additional bonds are formed
between amylose molecules- as it was in the original state. Structural formation occurs
during storage. As starch pastes are cooled and stored, the starch becomes
progressively less soluble. Starch becoming less soluble, like in its original state is
called retrogradation. Amylose undergoes retrogradation at more rapid pace than does
amylopectin.

Freshly baked chapathisare soft, pliable and elastic but on storage become hard and
brittle. Similar problem has been encountered in case of stale bread, where in the
crumb becomes hard, dry and crumbly. Retrogradation of starch is the prominent
factor bringing about staling. Hardening of crumb structure is due to physical changes
in branched chain wheat starch molecules within the swollen granules amylose
fraction retrogrades rapidly during initial cooling. Retrograded amylopectin can be
reverted to its amorphous state, when energy equivalent to a 40-50°C temperature
increase is applied. Retrogradation of amylose is not reverted by heat. Stale bread
reverts to freshly baked bread when the bread in moist state is heated at 95°C.
Surfactants may also be helpful in restoring original freshness.

Syneresis: Some of these molecules aggregate in a particular area in an organised

manner. As the amylose molecules pull together more tightly, the gel network shrinks
and water is pushed out of the gel. The process of weeping called syneresis results
from the increased molecular association as the starch mixture ages ultimately an
ordered crystalline structure develops.

Dextrinisation

Dry heat brings changes to the starch granules through a process known as
dextrinisation. If a starch product is subjected to dry heat carbohydrate compounds
called dextrins are formed. When these are dissolved in water they have a sweet taste.
Colour and flavour changes also occur. Extensive dextrinisation reduces the
thickening power of starches. Non-enzymatic browning occurs and a burnt toasted
flavour develops. Dry dextrins known as pyrodextrins are formed in the crust of baked
flour mixtures. Dextrins which are smaller units of starch breakdown can be easily
digested by the body. Chapathis, bread toast in almost all mixed cereals and pulses
dextrinisation takes place.

USES OF CARBOHYDRATES IN FOOD PREPARATION

1. Thickening: Starch in the form of the corn flour, refined wheat flour, rice flour
and arrow root are used for thickening. The gravies, soups, puddings etc.
2. Binding: in cutlets
3. Coating: Starches are often used in the form of pabtis to coat food before frying.
This gives the products crispness and seals in the flavour by forming a barrier to
evaporation of food contents and provides smooth and golden appearance to the
product by any crevices or irregularities on the surface.
4. Gelling: Provides the gelling in porridge and puddings.
5. Browning: It provides the browning to products such as toast or chappati due to
dextrinization.
 Unit 3 - FATS AND OILS
Fat is present naturally in many foods. This is often referred to as invisible fat.
Examples of foods containing appreciable quantities of invisible fat include meat,
poultry, fish, dairy products, eggs, nuts and seeds. Visible fats are made from these
products. They are lard cooking oils, salad oils, margarine and butter.

Fats play a variety of roles in both food preparation and nutrition.

In common usage, fats that have a relatively high melting point and are solid at
room temperature are called fats, whereas those that have lower melting point and are
liquid at room temperature are called oils.

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON ORIGIN

Based on origin, fats and oils can be classified into animal fats and vegetable
fats. Animal fats are those that are derived from animal sources and those that are
derived from plant sources are called vegetable fats.

Animal fats Vegetable fats

Consists of saturated fatty acids Consists mostly of unsaturated fatty acids

Solid at room temperature Liquid at room temperature

High amount of cholesterol is present Less amount of cholesterol is present

Vegetable oils, nuts and oil seeds,

Fats in meats, lard, butter, ghee
invisible fats present in plant foods
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON DEGREE OF SATURATION

Based on the degree of saturation, the fats and oils can be classified into
saturated fatty acids and unsaturated fatty acids.

Fats and oils

Saturated Fatty Acids Unsaturated Fatty Acids

(SFA) (USFA)

MUFA PUFA

Omega 3(ω3) Omega 6 (ω6)

SaturatedFattyAcids (SFA): -
nodoublebondpresent.SFAarefoundmostlyinanimal
fatsaswhitelikesolidatroomtemperature.RedmeatsarerichinSFA.Othersourcesofsatura
ted
fatsaremilkfat,butter,ghee,coconutoil,hydrogenatedfatsetc.Thesesaturatedfatsinthedie
t
alsogiverisetohighLDL,thusleadingtoatherosclerosis.Theenergyprovidedfromsaturate
dfat
shouldalwaysbelessthan10%ofthetotalcalories.Thedecreasedconsumptionof1%SFAw
ill leadstodecreaseinbloodcholesterollevelto3mg/dl.

UnsaturatedFattyAcids (USFA):-havingdoublebond.

Twotypes:
(1). MUFA(monounsaturatedfattyacids):-havingsingledoublebond
(2). PUFA(Polyunsaturatedfattyacids):-
havingtwoormoredoublebond.
 MUFA:-Theseareliquidatroomtemperature. MUFAisanexcellent
fat,itreducesbadcholesterol(LDL)
increasegoodcholesterol(HDL).Thuspreventingatherosclerosis.

Oilshigh in MUFA Oliveoil,rapeseedoil.

PUFA:-
liquidatroomtemperature.
DietaryPUFAareoftwotypes.
 ω3
 ω6

Theratioofω3andω6between5-
10isconsideredashealthy.Thiscanbeobtainedbyamixture of oils; that is combinationof
corn+ sunfloweroil gives ratio between 5-10.This is not
atherogenic.Hencehealthytoheart.

Richsources of PUFA
ω3 ω6
Oliveoil, Sunflower
fishoil, Oil,corn oil
Soyabean oil &sesame oil

EFA(ESSENTILFATTYACIDS):-
areessentialforhealthbutitisnotproducedinourbody it must be supplied in the diet
from plant sources.

Eg:-linoleicacid,Linolenicacid

Dietarysources
Richestsource Dietarysource Fairsource Poorsource
Eg:Sunfloweroil,soya Eg:- Eg:-egg Coconutoil
beanoil Peanut,ricebran Yolk
oil
Autoxidation

Spoilage of fats may occur on storage, particularly if the fats are highly
unsaturated and the conditions of storage are conducive to chemical change in the fats.
This is called autoxidation. It is also known as rancidity. Rancidity refers to the
spoilage of fat. Rancidity is of two types – hydrolytic and oxidative.

Hydrolytic rancidity

Hydrolysis is brought about by enzymes that decompose fats into free fatty
acids and glycerol. Butyric and caproic acids which are the volatile fatty acids
predominating in butter are largely responsible for the odour and flavour of rancid
butter. These acids may render butter inedible eve when they are present in low
concentrations.

Long chain fatty acids do not usually produce a disagreeable flavour unless
other changes such as oxidation also occur.

Heating thoroughly to destroy the lipase enzyme that catalyses the hydrolysis
of triglycerides should prevent hydrolytic rancidity. Contaminating microorganisms
may also produce lipase and these can similarly be destroyed with sufficient heating.

Oxidative rancidity

Only unsaturated fats and foods which have lipoxygenase are susceptible to
oxidative changes. Highly hydrogenated and saturated fatty acids are relatively
resistant to oxidation. Hydroperoxides that are formed, break readily producing
smaller volatile substances that give the characteristic odours of rancid fat. The
reaction is a chain reaction that is self-perpetuating.

The development of rancidity is objectionable not only because of the

undesirable changes in odour, flavour, colour and consistency of fat but because, it is
accompanied by the inactivation of vitamin E and A. Oxidative rancidity may be a
problem in dry foods containing only small quantities of fat, such as prepared cereals.

Prevention of rancidity

Fats can be protected against the rapid development of rancidity by controlling the
conditions of storage.

1. Storage at refrigerator and freezing temperatures prevent rancidity by reducing

auto oxidation.
2. Rays of light catalyse the oxidation of fats. By the use of coloured glass
containers that absorb the active rays, fats can be protected against spoilage.
 Certain shades of green bottles and wrappers and yellow transparent
cellophane wrappers are effective in preventing rancidity.
3. Vacuum packaging also helps to retard the development of rancidity by
excluding oxygen.
4. Antioxidants naturally present in the food such as vitamin C, beta carotene
(Vitamin A) and vitamin E protect against rancidity.
5. Antioxidants can also be added like butylated hydroxy anisole (BHA),
butylated hydroxy toluene (BHT), tertiary butyl hydroquinone (TBHQ) and
propyl gallate.
6. Substances like citric acid may be used along with antioxidants in foods as
synergists. A synergist increases the effectiveness of an antioxidant but is not
as effective an agent when used alone.
Flavour reversion

Flavour reversion is defined as a change in edible fats that is characterised by

the development, in the refined material, of an objectionable flavour prior to the onset
of true rancidity. It may develop during the exposure of the fat to ultraviolet or visible
light or by heating. A small amount of oxygen seems to be necessary for the reaction
that is catalysed by the presence of small amounts of metals such as iron and copper.

The chief precursors of the reversion flavour in oils are thought to be the
triglycerides containing linolenic acid, although linolenic acid is probably also
involved in some degree. The fats that are most susceptible to reversion contain
linolenic acid in large amounts than do the fats that are relatively stable. Selective
hydrogenation decreases the amount of linolenic acid and aids in preventing flavour
reversion.

Soyabean oil is most susceptible for flavour reversion. It has traces of iron and
copper which may act as pro-oxidants. The flavour of soyabean oil is stabilised by the
use of metal inactivators or sequestrants which tie up the trace amounts of iron and
copper that are present. Corn and cotton seed oils are quite resistant to this type of
deterioration.

Refining

Fats and oils commonly used in food preparation are separated from various
materials and refined. Many oils come from seeds or fruits, lard comes from pork
tissue and butter comes from cream. Further processing of fats give products such as
margarine and hydrogenated shortening.

Vegetable oils are removed from oil containing seed, fruits or nuts by various
pressing processes, by solvent extraction and by combination of these. A seed cake
that is relatively high in protein remains after fat extraction and is often used for
animal feed.

Many vegetable oils do not lend themselves to conventional refining

techniques. Rice bran oil ends up with a refining loss. A lot of solvent extracted
mustard oil, rape seed oil, groundnut oil ends up at free fatty acids above 10 percent.
Such oils can be refined by alkali treatment.

After extraction, the crude oil is refined. The first step is usually to react the oil
with an alkaline material to remove the free fatty acids that are not attached to
glycerol molecule. The unwanted products of this reaction are then removed by
centrifuging and washing, with a final drying process. This is followed by bleaching
and deodourising to remove colour pigments and further purify the oil.

Plasticity

Most fats that appear to be solid at room temperature actually contain both
solid fat crystals and liquid oil. The liquid part is held in a network of small crystals.
Because of this unique combination of liquid and solid, the fat can be moulded or
pressed into various shapes without breaking. This property of fat is called plasticity.
The type and size of the crystals in a plastic fat influence the performance of the fat in
baked products and pastry. Plastic fats can be creamed, that is mixed with the
incorporation of air.

Hydrogenation

By hydrogenating vegetable oils, it is possible to simulate a widely acceptable

product like ghee. The process of hydrogenation changes liquid oils into more solid
plastic shortenings and to increase the stability of oils to prevent spoilage from
oxidation. Oxidation of oils results in undesirable rancid flavour and odours.

Hydrogenation takes place in a reactor, where hydrogen gas is bubbled through

the liquid in the presence of a nickel catalyst, which speeds up the reaction. In the
process of hydrogenation some of the double bonds between the carbon atoms of the
fatty acid portion of the triglyceride molecule are broken and hydrogen is added.
There is a decrease in the number of double bonds, an increase in the proportion of
trans double bonds and a randomisation of double bond positions along the chain.
This chemical change makes the fatty acids more saturated. The melting point of fat is
thereby increased. With sufficient hydrogenation it becomes solid at room
temperature. Careful control of temperature and pressure in the hydrogenation process
allows achieving the desired end result, that is, the proper degree of plasticity. The fat
can then be creamed and blended with other ingredients. Hydrogenated fat is suitable
for making cakes and biscuits.

Soyabean oil, cotton seed and palm oil are used for hydrogenation.
Hydrogenation greatly improves the stability of soyabean oil and therefore its
resistance to the development of undesirable flavours. Examples of hydrogenated fats
are margarine, vanaspati, salad dressings and shortenings.

Hydrogenation changes the nutritional properties of fat. Polyunsaturated fatty

acids not only become more saturated but the essential linoleic acid and possibly other
unsaturated fatty acids lose biological activity when they are converted into trans
form.

Winterisation

Some cooking oils become cloudy when they are stored in the refrigerator. This
occurs because some of the triglyceride molecules in the oil have high melting points
than other molecules in the mixture and crystallise or become solid at the low
temperature.

In manufacturing oils intended to be used primarily for the making of

dressings, a winterising process is applied. In the process, the temperature of the oil is
lowered to a point at which the higher melting triglycerides crystallise. Then the oil is
filtered to remove the crystals. The pre-cooling treatment to remove fat crystals is
known as winterising. The remaining oil has a low melting point and does not
crystallise at refrigerator temperatures. It is referred to as salad oil.

Shortening power of fat

Fat has a shortening power, that is, it interlaces between protein and starch
structures and makes them tear apart easily. It makes the protein strands short rather
than allow them to stretch long. Thus, they tenderise baked foods by preventing the
cohesion of wheat gluten strands and are used in making biscuits, cakes, doughnuts,
pastries and breads. The different layers developed in puffs, and in biscuits are due to
the addition of fat which acts as a shortening agent. The fat added to maida dough
results in soft roti due to shortening power of fat.

Effect of heating on fats and oils

Fat gradually soften on heating, they do not have a sharp melting point. Since
fats can be heated substantially above the boiling temperature of water they can brown
the surface of foods.
Smoke point, flash point and fire point

Smoke point of a fat is the temperature at which smoke comes continuously

from the surface of the fat. Because fats differ in their smoke points, fats to be used
for frying should be chosen on the basis of their resistance to smoking at the
temperature used.

When heated further the smoke point they flash and burn. He temperatures at
which these occur are known as the Flash point and Fire point.

Factors that lower smoke point

 The development of free fatty acids by hydrolysis of the fat during frying
causes a decrease in the smoke point.
 A fat that has had repeated or prolonged use will begin to smoke at a
temperature too low for frying.
 Suspended matter such as flour or batter particles also lower the smoke point.
And the greater the surface of the fat exposed, the lower is the smoke point.
 Fats heated in shallow wide pans with slightly sloping sides begin to smoke at
lower temperatures than do those heated in smaller pans with vertical sides.
The temperature required for deep frying is 175-200°C. Oils with smoke point
above this temperature are suitable for frying.
 UNIT 4 – Proteins

Proteins are polymers of amino acids covalently linked through peptide bonds
into a chain. Within and outside of cells, proteins serve a myriad of functions,
including structural roles, as catalysts (enzymes), transporter to ferry ions and
molecules across membranes, and hormones to name just a few.

Proteins are polymers of amino acids joined together by peptide bonds. There are
20 different amino acids that make up essentially all proteins on earth. Each of these
amino acids has a fundamental design composed of a central carbon (also called the
alpha carbon) bonded to:

 a hydrogen
 a carboxyl group
 an amino group
 a unique side chain or R-group

Thus, the characteristic that distinguishes one amino acid from another is its unique
side chain, and it is the side chain that dictates an amino acids chemical properties.

Peptides and Proteins

Amino acids are covalently bonded together in chains by peptide bonds. If the chain
length is short (say less than 30 amino acids) it is called a peptide; longer chains are
called polypeptides or proteins. Peptide bonds are formed between the carboxyl
group of one amino acid and the amino group of the next amino acid. Peptide
bond formation occurs in a condensation reaction involving loss of a molecule of
water.

The head-to-tail arrangement of amino acids in a protein means that there is a amino
group on one end (called the amino-terminus or N-terminus) and a carboxyl group on
the other end (carboxyl-terminus or C-terminus). The carboxyl-terminal amino acid
corresponds to the last one added to the chain during translation of the messenger
RNA.
STRUCTURE OF PROTEIN

Structural features of proteins are usually described at four levels of complexity:

 Primary structure: the linear arrangement of amino acids in a protein and the
location of covalent linkages such as disulfide bonds between amino acids.

 Secondary structure: areas of folding or coiling within a protein; examples

include alpha helices and pleated sheets, which are stabilized by hydrogen
bonding.

 Tertiary structure: the final three-dimensional structure of a protein, which

results from a large number of non-covalent interactions between amino acids.

 Quaternary structure: non-covalent interactions that bind multiple

polypeptides into a single, larger protein. Haemoglobin has quaternary
structure due to association of two alpha globin and two beta globin
polyproteins.

The primary structure of a protein can readily be deduced from the nucleotide
sequence of the corresponding messenger RNA. Based on primary structure, many
features of secondary structure can be predicted with the aid of computer programs.
However, predicting protein tertiary structure remains a very tough problem, although
some progress has been made in this important area.
PROPERTIES OF PROTEINS

Physical properties

 Proteins are colourless and tasteless.

 They are homogeneous and crystalline.

 Proteins vary in shape; they may be simple crystalloid structure to long fibrilar
structures.

 Protein structures are of two distinct patterns - Globular proteins and fibrilar
proteins.

 Globular proteins are spherical in shape and occur in plants. Fibrilar proteins
are thread-like, they occur generally in animals.

 Due to the huge size, proteins exhibit many colloidal properties.

 Proteins tend to change their properties like denaturation. Many a times the
process of denaturation is followed by coagulation.

 Denaturation may be a result of either physical or chemical agents. The

physical agents include, shaking, freezing, heating etc. Chemical agents are like
X-rays, radioactive and ultrasonic radiations.

Chemical Properties

 Proteins when hydrolyzed by acidic agents, like conc. HCl yield amino acids in
the form of their hydrochlorides.

 Proteins when are hydrolyzed with alkaline agents leads to hydrolysis of

certain amino acids like arginine, cysteine, serine, etc., also the optical activity
of the amino acids is lost.
  Proteins with reaction with alcohols give its corresponding esters. This process
is known as esterification.

 When free amino acids or proteins are said to react with mineral acids like HCl,
the acid salts are formed.

EFFECT OF HEAT ON PROTEINS

Denaturation:

This occurs when the bonds holding the helix shape are broken and the strands of the
helix separate and unravel. It is a permanent change in the structure of proteins. The
functional property of protein, denaturation is useful in food preparation for example
whisking eggs which is a component of many food products, the marinating a piece of
meat where the acid tenderises the meat before cooking, making sour cream and
yoghurt.

Coagulation:

Coagulation is more visible than denaturation. This process occurs when denatured
proteins separate from other nutrients and solidify or semi solidify. Applying heat for
a long period of time will cause the protein structure to create a network and trap
liquid which will form a gel. Coagulation is used in food preparation most commonly
for cooking eggs, some examples include; raw eggs being cooked eg. boiled or
scrambled as part of a dish, making a quiche with coagulated eggs, meringue
(denaturation for beating the eggs, coagulation for cooking the egg product), pretty
much any egg product being cooked.
Difference between denaturation and coagulation:

 Denaturation happens before coagulation

 coagulation is more visible then denaturation

 coagulation uses denatured proteins

 one can over coagulate, but can’t over denature

FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES OF PROTEINS

Gel formation

Collagen, when heated, forms gelatine.

Gelatine can absorb large amounts of water and, when heated, forms a sol.

On cooling, this becomes solid & a gel is formed.

A gel is a semi-solid viscous solution.

All gels have a three-dimensional network whereby water becomes trapped.

This property is used in making cheesecakes and soufflés.

Foam Formation

When egg white is whisked, air bubbles are formed as the protein chains unravel.

Whisking also produces heat, which slightly sets the egg white.

This foam will collapse after a while, unless it is subjected to heat.

This property is used to make meringues.

 UNIT 5–FOOD PROCESSSING

Food processing is the transformation of raw ingredients, by physical or chemical

means into food, or of food into other forms.

OBJECTIVES

a. For the purpose of storage and transport.

b. To protect from contamination

EFFECT OF FACTORS LIKE HEAT, ACID, ALKALI ON FOOD

CONSTITUENTS

Name of the Effect of

pigment Solubity Effect of Effect of
Colour prolonged
in water Acid alkali
heating

Intensifies
Changes to
Chlorophyll Green Slightly Green Olive green
olive green
colour

Little effect
unless
Yellow and Little Little
Carotenoids Slightly excessive
Orange effect effect
which may
darken

Slightly Stable Purple or

Anthocyanin Red Little effect
soluble (red) blue

Very Darken if
Flavones White White Yellow
soluble excessive
 UNIT 6–EVALUATION OF FOOD

Objectives

1. To know the consumer preference: This helps the producer to discover which
qualities of the product need to be developed and emphasized. Consumer
preference panels may consist of several hundred persons and the products are
tested under ordinary conditions of use. The results are considered to represent
the taste of the significant portion of the population and are used to predict
market outlook for a product.

2. Effect of variation in processing on quality: Tests are done to investigate the

influence of factors in production. They should have the ability to distinguish
among degrees of difference in flavour. The members of this type of panel are
not required to be expert tasters of the product under investigation. Their highly
developed ability to identify different tastes in similar products is the key
quality required.
3. To detect the presence of off – quality: Here the panel members are usually
trained to recognize and to evaluate the standard flavours of food so that they
can use their powers of discrimination consistently, eg., rancidity in fats and
butter.

Methods of Sensory Evaluation

Different sensory tests are used for the evaluation of food. They are

A. Difference tests
B. Rating tests
C. Sensitivity tests
D. Descriptive tests
 UNIT 7 - EMULSIONS

The colloidal systems in which fine droplets of one liquid are dispersed in another
liquid are called emulsions the two liquids otherwise being mutually immiscible.
Emulsions are the colloidal solutions in which both the dispersed phase and the
dispersion medium are liquids.

A good example of an emulsion is milk in which fat globules are dispersed in water.
The size of the emulsified globules is generally of the order of 10–6 m. Emulsion
resemble lyophobic sols in some properties.

TYPES OF EMULSION

Depending upon the nature of the dispersed phase, the emulsions are classified as;

(i) Oil-in-water emulsions (O/W): The emulsion in which oil is present as the
dispersed phase and water as the dispersion medium (continuous phase) is called an
oil-in-water emulsion. Milk is an example of the oil-in-water type of emulsion. In
milk liquid fat globules are dispersed in water.

(ii) Water-in-oil emulsion (W/O): The emulsion in which water forms the dispersed
phase, and the oil acts as the dispersion medium is called a water-in-oil emulsion.
These emulsions are also termed oil emulsions. Butter and cold cream are typical
examples of this type of emulsions.

EMULSIFYING AGENT

It is a substance that helps an emulsion become more stable. They are added to an
emulsion to prevent the coalescence of the globules of the dispersed phase. An
emulsion is usually a mixture of two products such as oil and water that do not mix
together or that are also referred to as immiscible. By adding an emulsifying agent to
the mixture, they cause the oil to be broken down into smaller pieces that can then be
dispersed throughout then water. This is then what becomes known as an emulsion.
They are also known as emulgents or emulsifiers. They act by reducing the interfacial
tension between the two phases and forming a stable interfacial
film. The choice of selection of emulsifying agent plays a very important role in the fo
rmulation of astable emulsion. Substances that are soluble in both fat and water and
enable fat to be uniformly dispersed in water as an emulsion.

Types

Monoglycerides are a combination of glycerol and fatty acids. Monoglycerides are

one of the most common types of emulsifying agents. Lecithin, a monoglyceride often
found in egg yolks, is frequently used as an emulsifier. Animal fat and vegetable oil
can be used to produce artificial emulsifying agents. Emulsifying agents also come in
different strengths depending on the size of their molecular structures. An emulsifier
with a large molecular size, such as the diacetyl tartaric esters of monoglycerides used
in bread, are more potent than those with smaller molecular structures.

Emulsifying agents are able to prevent the separation of oil and water due to their
unique molecular structure. One end of the molecule is hydrophilic, or attracted to
water. The other end of the molecule is lipophilic, or attracted to oil. Since each end of
the molecule is attracted to one of the two main substances in the mixture, emulsifying
agents evenly distribute throughout the water and oil rather than forming a separate
third layer. The emulsifiers also keep the oil and water evenly distributed, preventing
them from forming separate layers of their own.

Natural Emulsion

Some food products are commonly used as emulsifying agents. According to Food
Network, milk, eggs, mustard and gelatin can be added to oil and water mixtures to
emulsify them. Mixtures can be emulsified by hand by adding an emulsifying agent
into a water-based mixture, then slowly pouring in oil while vigorously stirring. The
continued motion ensures the emulsifying agent evenly distributes through the mixture
to prevent the oil and water from separating. Oil-based salad dressings (such as Caesar
dressing) and mayonnaise often require this technique.
Emulsifying agents are one of the most common additives in processed foods. Low-fat
margarine spread relies heavily on added emulsifying agents. If the oil were to
separate in the spread, it would be susceptible to mould. Emulsifying agents are also
used to improve texture in processed baked goods. If oil is not evenly distributed
throughout batter or dough, the product will be dense rather than flaky or light. The
processed food industry also uses emulsifiers to prevent items from becoming thin or
runny over time, such as sauces or dressings.

Emulsifying agents are used in a large array of foods. Although baked goods,
mayonnaise and margarine tend to rely most heavily on emulsifiers, they are also used
to extend the shelf life of breakfast cereals and dehydrated potato flakes. Emulsifying
agents are added to soft drinks to prevent separation of the sugars and other materials.
They also help toffee, caramel and chewing gum retain their textures.

APPLICATIONS OF FOOD EMULSIFIERS

Food emulsifiers make the food very appealing as without emulsifier the water and the
oil content in food will look separate, which will give very unappealing appearance.
Apart from this they impart the freshness and quality to the food. Natural food
emulsifiers also prevent the growth of moulds in food.

Emulsifiers are used in creams and sauces, bakery, and dairy products. They may be
derived from the natural products or chemicals. Common emulsifiers are lecithins,
mono- and di-glycerides of fatty acids esters of monoglycerides of fatty acids and
phosphate monoglycerides.

Natural food emulsifiers are used in variety of foods. Some basic foods having food
emulsifiers are:
 Biscuits and Cakes

 Extruded snacks

 Soft Drinks

 Toffees

 Bread

 Margarine

 Coffee Whitener

 Caramels
 Unit 10 – BROWNING

The term browning refers to a several different processes taking place in food
resulting in the appearance of brown colour to the foods. Browning of foods may be either
desirable or undesirable.

Enzymatic browning

The rapid darkening of the cut surface of apple, brinjal, potato and banana are
examples of enzymatic browning. Normally the natural enzymatic compounds present in
intact tissues and do not come into contact with the phenol oxidases present in some tissues.
When the tissues are cut or injured and the cut surface is exposed to air, phenol oxidase
enzyme released at the surface, act on the poly phenols present, oxidising them to
orthoquinones. The orthoquinones rapidly polymerise to form brown pigments. Tyrosine,
chlorogenic acid, the various catechins and several mono and dihydroxyphenols are among
the many compounds that can serve as substrates for oxidation by poly phenoloxidase to
cause browning or other discolouration in these foods. Phenolase is also known by other
names as polyphenol oxidase, tyrosinase or catecholase, each is specific for certain substrate.
The optimum pH for the activity of the enzyme polyphenolase is between 5 and 7.

Cut fruits containing polyphenols

O2 Polyphenolase

Orthoquinones

Polymerised

Melanins

Schematic diagram of enzymatic browning

Prevention of enzymatic browning

Enzymatic browning can be prevented either by inactivating the enzyme or cutting off
the oxygen.

Temperature: The most commonly used method is blanching. This method has
several limitations. The enzyme is fairly heat stable and requires to be heated at 100°C for 2-
10 minutes for complete inactivation. This may not be possible in practice as cooking for
long periods will affect the flavour and texture of fruits. The optimum temperature for
browning is 43-50°C.if food is kept at higher or lower temperature browning is reduced.
Coagulation of protein occurs during blanching, thereby inactivating the enzyme. When fruit
is canned or made into jams or jellies, the browning reaction stops as soon as the fruit is
heated sufficiently to denature the enzyme.

Change in pH: The optimum pH for polyphenolase activity is between 6.0 and 7.0,
lowering of pH to 4.0 by the addition of citric acid inhibits the phenolase activity. It is also
possible that citric acid reacts with copper present in the enzyme. Malic acid also has been
found to be effective. Lemon juice contains both citric and ascorbic acid and both are
effective.

Use of antioxidants: Chemical additives like sulphur dioxide and vitamin C serve to
inhibit enzymes, alter enzyme substrates or limit entrance of oxygen. Sulphur dioxide,
sulphites and bisulphites inhibit browning effectively. A sulphite concentration sufficient to
maintain a free sulphur dioxide concentration of 10 ppm will completely inhibit phenolase.
Pineapple juice has a relatively high percentage of sulphydryl compounds which are active
antioxidants. Fruits can be dipped in dilute solution of 0.025 per cent sodium metabisulphite
for 45 seconds. If the sliced fruit is then immersed for a short time for 5 minutes in solution
of 0.2 percent dipotassium phosphate, the odour of sulphur is less pronounced and the fruit
remains crisp and does not brown subsequently.

Ascorbic acid retards browning by virtue of its reducing power. It is used along with
citric acid to reduce browning. A solution of ascorbic acid is effective in preventing browning
as it acts as a reducing agent for the oxidised intermediate of a phenolic compound and thus
prevent polymerisation and subsequent oxidation of the substrate.
 Prevention of contact with oxygen: Contact with oxygen can be reduced by
immersing the fruits in water or liquids like milk, curd, fruit juice or honey or by covering it
with wet cloth after cutting.

Sharp blade: Browning in brinjals is reduced by cutting with sharp blade. It causes
lesser physical injury and cellular death resulting in reduced leaching of phenolics and
polyphenol oxidase activity.

Addition of sodium chloride or sugar to the cut fruit prevents browning. Due to
osmosis, fruit is covered by leached solution and prevents contact with oxygen.

In a large scale, this is technically difficult to implement and costly. This is used when
other methods are not applicable or effective in controlling browning. A typical example is
browning in avocado products. Packaging the product under nitrogen prevents surface
browning effectively.

Non-Enzymatic browning

Non enzymatic browning in lime juice is accompanied by an increase in off flavour,

which also limits shelf life. During evaporative concentration of lime juice, rise in
temperature leads to browning pigment formation. Clarified lime juice remains free from
non-enzymatic browning when subjected to vacuum evaporation at a temperature range of
30-50°C.

Ascorbic acid is responsible for the development of browning reaction in fruit juices
and concentrates and in canned vegetables. Mixtures of ascorbic acid and amino acids
develop brown colour more rapidly than mixtures of reducing sugars and amino acids.
Dehydro ascorbic acid is highly reactive and can react with amino acids.

The tamarind fruit pulp contains several phenolic compounds most of which are
proanthocyanidins. In addition, tamarind pulp contains tartaric acid and a small amount of
ascorbic acid. All these compounds are easily prone to oxidation.

Oxidation of phenolic compounds leads to darkening of tamarind pulp. In the case of

tamarind darkening due to age, oxidation occurs primarily as a non-enzymatic chemical
reaction. Refrigeration would significantly reduce the rate of oxidation and thus darkening of
tamarind pulp.