Supercomputers

Written By: Emma Jacoby and Michelle Burris

A supercomputer is defined as a mainframe computer that is one of the fastest

and most powerful. Supercomputers have grown and changed throughout their
history. Their speed is unparalleled, their future is exciting, and their uses are
nearly limitless.

In 1943, the first supercomputer named Colossus was made in England. It was
only able to handle five thousand characters per second. Also in England in 1950,
the Manchester Mark I was produced and was able to handle 500 instructions per
second. MIT advanced supercomputers by promoting the use of CRT memory and
Core memory. IBM dominated the supercomputer industry in the 50s, 60s, and
70s. In 1975, the “father of supercomputing,” Seymour Cray earned his nickname
for creating the first completely transistorized supercomputer. Cray founded
Cray Inc. when he began designing and creating supercomputers. He named his
first supercomputer Cray-I. It was a single electronic computer. Cray-I was sold
in 1976 to Los Alamos National
Laboratory for $8.8 million. The
Cray-1 recorded a speed of 160
million floating-point operations
per second (160 megaflops) and
contained an 8 megabyte main
memory. That means it could
hold one million words. Cray used
a “C” shaped design to keep the
circuits closer together. This
created problems because it
The Atanasoff‐Berry Computer (ABC)  created more heat. Seymour
http://www.computerhistory.org/timeline  Cray overcame this obstacle by
using Freon in a new cooling system. The ILLIAC IV was created and used by
NASA in 1982. It averaged 100 megaflops. Soon after, in 1982, Cray Inc.
developed the first multiprocessor supercomputer. It was called the Cray X-MP.
In 1985, the Cray-II was introduced and was immensely more powerful than the
original Cray-I. Another breakthrough occurred when a supercomputer was
presented that could attain 1 gigaflop on many applications. This occurred in 1988,
and the computer was the Cray Y-MP. This supercomputer was improved when a
central processor was applied. In the 1990‛s, supercomputers were created by
connecting separate processors to increase speed and memory. 1995 brought the
first supercomputer to attain a 1 teraflop processing. A teraflop represents one
  Supercomputers
trillion calculations per second. Intel became an industry leader in 1995 with its
introduction of the Intel ASCI Red, which performed at 2.15 teraflops. Since
2000, the IBM ASCI White, Earth Simulator, and Blue Gene have been released.
They perform at 7.226 teraflops, 35.86 teraflops, and 70.72 teraflops
respectively. Now supercomputers are almost exclusively created by connecting
multiple computers. They can either share common memory and a common
operating system or have their own. No matter the architecture the programs are
divided into small portions and divided between all the processors.

MDGrape-3 is the world's fastest supercomputer. Even though it cost $9

million and about 4 years to build, it is very efficient. Instead of using $140 per
gigaflop (Blue Gene), it cost only $15 per gigaflop. A gigaflop is a speed of one
billion operations per second. It can also determine the effect of any chemical
compound on any complex system in the human body in a couple of seconds.
MDGrape-3 is used for pharmaceutical research. To develop drugs, you need to
look at thousands of chemical compounds to find out how they affect the body, and
there is no way a group of people could find that information in a limited time.
Even if you had thousands of people, it would still be impossible. Even with regular
computers or supercomputers, you can only analyze the "chemicals" and "enzymes"
in hours or days. By using MDGrape-3, pharmacists can analyze these things within
seconds! This is invaluable, or priceless, information.

The benefits and uses of supercomputers are used in many different fields.
For example, supercomputers can predict weather. "Every time you check the
weather, you are actually seeing
the output of a
supercomputer."-video center.
You can also use supercomputers
for mathematical calculations,
seismic activity (earthquakes),
nuclear energy research, fluid
dynamic calculations, submarine
tracking, pattern matching,
graph analysis, cryptology (the A weather supercomputer at NOAA. 
study of codes in which the key http:www.computerhistory.org/timeline 
 
is unknown), data collection, and researching anything on the internet. All data
goes through supercomputers and that‛s why you can find 62,600,000 results of
the word "dog" in .04 seconds.
  Supercomputers
There are many differences between supercomputers and computers. First of
all, supercomputers can cost up to many millions of dollars. On the other hand,
regular computers cost hundreds to the low thousands. Supercomputers are much
larger than regular computers in reference to size, power, and processing ability.

Supercomputer‐ 
Desktop computer‐ 
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons
/c/c7/ 
http://www.a1aaudiovisual.com 

 
Scientists are already figuring out what the future for supercomputers is going
to be like. They are going to be using them more and more for creating stimulus,
building airplanes, creating chemical substances, making new materials, and doing
crash tests on cars without actually having to crash the car. Some of the stuff
that they are improving isn‛t working but they are revising it. They are also trying
to make a computer chip that is powerful enough for a supercomputer- (superchip.)
Some of the things that they are thinking of don‛t have enough technology to make
them work, so they are trying to figure out ways to improve the technology.
Cooling a supercomputer is another major problem. They are trying to make
something to cool a supercomputer that won‛t cost too much money. Money is a
major problem. They are very expensive to use and to make. Another thing to go
along with the superchip is they are trying to super-size supercomputers. The
scientists are still trying to improve the supercomputers.

As you can see, supercomputers are helpful in many ways. They have numerous
benefits and uses, and they are very different from a regular computer.
Supercomputers have a long history, and will probably advance in the future. All in
all, a supercomputer is a wonderful invention.
  Supercomputers
Reference Page:

www.oxygyan.wordpress.com/2007/04/04/past-present-and-future-of-super-
computers/

http://discovermagazine.com/search?SearchableText=supercomputers&Submit.x=
0&Submit.y=0

www.nap.edu/openbook.php

http://wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=supercomputer

http://www.geocities.com/templarser/complexglos.html

http://computer.howstuffworks.com/search.php?terms=supercomputer&x=0&y=0

http://www.infoweblinks.com/content/supercomputers.htm

http://www.cray.com/About/History.aspx

http://www.csc.fi/english/csc/publications/cscnews/CSCnews_html/2008/2/super
computing

http://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/09/technology/09petaflops.html?_r=1&ex=1213
675200&en=487c5593296d8bab&ei=5070&emc=eta1

http://blogs.zdnet.com/Murphy/index.php?p=746

http://www.scientific-computing.com/features/feature.php?feature_id=36

http://www.csc.fi/english/csc/publications/cscnews/CSCnews_html/2008/2/super
computing

http://www.scribd.com/doc/3754475/Supercomputer

http://wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=supercomputer

http://www.geocities.com/templarser/complexglos.html

http://www.infoweblinks.com/content/supercomputers.htm
  Supercomputers
http://computer.howstuffworks.com/10-types-of-computers9.htm (types of
computers)

http://videos.howstuffworks.com/medialink/2253-a-decade-of-supercomputing-
video.htm (video)

http://www.devhardware.com/c/a/Computer-Systems/Supercomputers-Not-Just-
for-Scientists-Anymore/