MATHEMATICS

STANDARD − IX

Untouchability is a sin
Untouchability is a crime
Untouchability is inhuman

TAMILNADU
TEXTBOOK CORPORATION
COLLEGE ROAD, CHENNAI – 600 006.
© Government of Tamilnadu
First Edition 2003
Revised Edition 2004
Reprint 2006

CHAIRPERSON

S. UDAYABASKARAN,
Reader in Mathematics,
Presidency College (Autonomous),
Chennai – 600 005.

REVIEWERS

Thiru. E. ARJUNAN, Thiru K. THANGAVELU,

Lecturer (S.G.) in Mathematics, Lecturer (S.S.) in Mathematics,
L. N. Govt. Arts College, Pachaiyappa’s College,
Ponneri 601 204. Chennai − 600 030.

AUTHORS

Thiru. V. SRIRAM, Thiru K. ARIVAZHAGAN,

School Assistant (Mathematics), School Assistant (Mathematics),
P.C.K.G. Govt. Hr. Sec. School, Govt. Boys Hr. Sec. School,
Kodambakkam, Chennai − 600 024. Ulundurpet − 606 107.

Tmt. R. NAMBIKAI JAYARAJ, Tmt. S. VIJAYA,

P.G. Assistant (Mathematics), P.G. Assistant (Mathematics),
St. Anne’s Girls Hr. Sec. School, B.P.G. Hr. Sec. School,
Royapuram, Chennai − 600 013. Kailasapuram, Trichy − 620 014.
 CONTENTS
PAGES

1. NUMBER SYSTEMS 1 - 30

1.1 Number Systems 1

1.2 The Real Number Line 17

2. MEASUREMENTS 31 - 47

2.1 Area and Perimeter 31

2.2 Combined Figures 36

3. SOME USEFUL NOTATION 48 - 87

3.1 Scientific Notation 48
3.2 Notation of Logarithms 51
3.3 Set Notation 71

4. ALGEBRA 88 - 117

4.1 Polynomials 89
4.2 Algebraic Identities 93
4.3 Factorization 103
4.4 Division of a Polynomial by a Polynomial 112

5. PROBLEM SOLVING TECHNIQUES 118 - 130

5.1 Conjectures and Proofs 119

5.2 Mathematical Models 127

6. THEORETICAL GEOMETRY 131 - 163

6.1 Theorems for Verification 131

6.2 Theorems with logical Proofs 153

7. ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY 164 - 182

7.1 The Cartesian Coordinates system 164

7.2 Slope of a Line 168
7.3 The Distance between any two points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) 174
8. TRIGONOMETRY 183 - 201
8.1 Trigonometric ratios 185
8.2 Trigonometric Identities 194
8.3 Trigonometric Ratios for Complementary Angles 199

9. PRACTICAL GEOMETRY 202 - 212

9.1 Concurrency in a triangle 203

9.2 Geometric interpretation of averages 209

10. HANDLING DATA 213 - 223

10.1 Measures of Central Tendency 215

11. GRAPHS 224 - 235

11.1 Linear Graphs 224

11.2 Application of Linear Graphs 228

Logarithms 236 - 237

Anti Logarithms 238 - 239

 1. NUMBER SYSTEMS
Numbers occur everywhere in our day-to-day life. “Numbers are in every thing”, said
Pythagoras, an ancient Greek mathematician. If we understand more about numbers, then we
know more about mathematics. “Mathematics is the Queen of the Sciences, and the Theory of
Numbers is the Queen of Mathematics”, said Carl Friedrich Gauss, a German mathematician.
Numbers possess very nice properties and the properties will help us to solve problems of
other Sciences. “Numbers are my Friends”, said Srinivasa Ramanujan, an Indian
mathematician of our modern times. “God created the natural numbers and all the rest is the
work of man”, exclaimed Kronecker, a German mathematician. In our earlier classes, we
introduced natural numbers, integers, rational and irrational numbers and real numbers.
Natural numbers were introduced as counting numbers and other numbers were developed
from them to fulfill our requirements. In this chapter, we shall study some of the properties of
the numbers.

1.1 Number Systems

1.1.1 The Natural Numbers

The numbers 1, 2, 3,…. are called natural numbers. They are also called counting
numbers since they are used for counting objects. The collection of all natural numbers is
denoted by the letter N. Even though it is not possible to list all the elements of N, we write
N = {1, 2, 3, …}. In the above representation, we write " … " after the element 3 to indicate
that the other elements of N are listed following the pattern of 1, 2, 3. The numbers 1, 3, 5,….
are called odd numbers. The numbers 2, 4, 6, …. are called even numbers. In the collection
N, we can solve equations such as x − 9 = 0, x−16 = 0, x−54 = 0. However, we note that the
equations such as x + 5 =5, x + 9 = 9 have no solution in the collection N, since they are
satisfied by the number 0.

1.1.2 The Whole Numbers

The numbers 0, 1, 2, … are called whole numbers. The collection of all whole
numbers is denoted by the letter W. We observe that W = {0, 1, 2,…}. Now the equations
such as x + 5 = 5 and x + 9 = 9 have solutions in W. We note that all natural numbers are
whole numbers but there is the whole number 0 which is not a natural number. However, we
note that the equations such as x + 25 = 15, x + 12 = 9 have no solution in the collection W,
since they are satisfied respectively by the numbers −10 and −3 which are not whole numbers.

1
1.1.3 The Integers
The numbers 0, 1, −1, 2, −2, … are called integers of which 1, 2, 3, … are called
positive integers and −1, −2, −3,… are called negative integers. The collection of all
integers is denoted by the letter Z. Thus Z = {…, −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3,…}. We observe that
all whole numbers are integers but the negative integers −1, −2, −3,… are not whole numbers.
Now, the equations such as x + 25 = 15, x + 12 = 9 have solution in the collection Z, since
they are satisfied respectively by the numbers −10 and −3 which are in Z. However, the
equations such as 2x + 5 = 12, 3x + 9 = 4 have no solution in the collection Z, since they are
7 −5
satisfied respectively by the numbers and which are not in Z .
2 3

1.1.4 The Rational Numbers

p
A number of the form where p and q are integers and q ≠ 0 is called a rational
q
p
number. The collection of all rational numbers is denoted by Q. A rational number is said
q
to be in the proper form if q is a positive integer and p and q have no common factor other
7 −2
than 1. For example, the rational numbers , are in the proper form where as the rational
11 5
12 24
numbers and are not in the proper form. But every rational number has an
15 − 22
12 4 24 − 12
equivalent proper form. For example, we can write = and = which are in
15 5 − 22 11
proper form. Every integer is a rational number. For example, the integer −19 can be written
− 19
as , where −19, 1 are in Z and the denominator 1 ≠ 0. Thus, we note that all integers are
1
4
rational numbers. But there are rational numbers which are not integers. For example, is a
5
rational number which is not an integer.

1.1.5 Some properties of +, −, ×, ÷ in N, W, Z and Q

From our experience with numbers, we observe that the addition '+' and the
multiplication '×' have the following properties in Q:
1. If x, y are rational numbers, then x + y is also a rational number. For example, 11 and
−2
are in Q and their sum 11 + ⎛⎜ − 2 ⎞⎟ = 11 + ⎛⎜ − 2 ⎞⎟ = 33 + (−2) = 31 is also in Q. This property is
3 ⎝ 3 ⎠ 1 ⎝ 3 ⎠ 3 3
called the closure property with respect to addition in Q.

2. If x, y are rational numbers, then x + y = y + x.

2
For example, ⎛⎜ − 4 ⎞⎟ + ⎛⎜ − 2 ⎞⎟ = (−12) + (−22) = − 34 and ⎛⎜ − 2 ⎞⎟ + ⎛⎜ − 4 ⎞⎟ = (−22) + (−12) = − 34 .
⎝ 11 ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ 3 33 33 ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 11 ⎠ 33 33

So ⎛−4⎞ ⎛−2⎞ ⎛−2⎞ ⎛−4⎞. This property is called the commutative property with respect to
⎜ ⎟+⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟+⎜ ⎟
⎝ 11 ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 11 ⎠
addition in Q.

3. If x, y, z are rational numbers, then x + (y + z) = (x + y) + z.

For example, 2 , − 4 , − 2 are in Q and
3 5 7
⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎡⎛ − 4 ⎞ ⎛ − 2 ⎞⎤ ⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎡ (−28) + (−10) ⎤ = ⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ − 38 ⎞ = 70 + (−114) = − 44 .
⎜ ⎟ + ⎢⎜ ⎟+⎜ ⎟⎥ = ⎜ ⎟ + ⎢ ⎥ ⎜ ⎟+⎜ ⎟
⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎣⎝ 5 ⎠ ⎝ 7 ⎠⎦ ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎣ 35 ⎦ ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 35 ⎠ 105 105
⎡ 2 ⎛ − 4 ⎞⎤ ⎛ − 2 ⎞ ⎡10 + (−12) ⎤ ⎛ − 2 ⎞ = ⎛ − 2 ⎞ ⎛ − 2 ⎞ = (−14) + (−30) = − 44
⎢ 3 + ⎜ 5 ⎟⎥ + ⎜ 7 ⎟ = ⎢ ⎥+⎜ 7 ⎟ ⎜ ⎟+⎜ ⎟ .
⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦ ⎝ ⎠ ⎣ 15 ⎦ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 15 ⎠ ⎝ 7 ⎠ 105 105
∴ ⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎡⎛ − 4 ⎞ ⎛ − 2 ⎞⎤ ⎡ 2 ⎛ − 4 ⎞⎤ ⎛ − 2 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ + ⎢⎜ ⎟+⎜ ⎟⎥ = ⎢ + ⎜ ⎟⎥ + ⎜ ⎟.
⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎣⎝ 5 ⎠ ⎝ 7 ⎠⎦ ⎣ 3 ⎝ 5 ⎠⎦ ⎝ 7 ⎠

This property is called the associative property of addition in Q.

4. The number 0 is a rational number and 0 + x = x + 0 = x for all rational number x.

For example, 0 + 11 = 0 + 11 = 0 + 11 = 11 and 11 + 0 = 11 + 0 = 11 + 0 = 11 .
3 1 3 3 3 3 3 1 3 3
The rational number 0 is called the additive identity in Q.

5. For every rational number x, there is a rational number −x such that

x + (−x) = (−x) + x = 0. The rational number –x is called the negative of x or the additive
− 11
inverse of x in Q . For example, for the rational number , we have the rational number
3
− 11 ⎞ ⎛ 11 ⎞ ( −11) + 11 0
11 such that ⎛⎜ ⎟+⎜ ⎟ = = = 0.
3 ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝3⎠ 3 3

6. If x, y are rational numbers, then x × y is also a rational number. We write x × y simply

2
as xy. For example, (−5), are rational numbers and
3
⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ − 5 ⎞⎛ 2 ⎞ (−5) × 2 − 10
(−5) ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ = = is a rational number.
⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 1 ⎠⎝ 3 ⎠ 1× 3 3
This property is called the closure property of multiplication in Q.

7. If x, y are rational numbers, then xy = yx.

⎛ −5⎞
For example, (−3), ⎜ ⎟ are rational numbers and
⎝ 7 ⎠
⎛ − 5 ⎞ 15 ⎛ − 5 ⎞ 15 ⎛ −5⎞ ⎛ −5⎞
(−3)⎜ ⎟= , ⎜ ⎟(−3) = . So (−3) ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟(−3).
⎝ 7 ⎠ 7 ⎝ 7 ⎠ 7 ⎝ 7 ⎠ ⎝ 7 ⎠
This property is called the commutative property of multiplication in Q.

3
8. If x, y, z are rational numbers, then x(yz) = (xy)z. We observe that
(−xy) = [(−1)(x)]y = (−1)xy, −(−x) = (−1)[(−1)x] =[(−1)(−1)x] = 1x = x.
For example, 2, −3, − 7 are rational numbers, and (2) ⎡⎢(−3)⎛⎜ − 7 ⎞⎟⎤⎥ = (2)⎛⎜ 21 ⎞⎟ = 42 ,
5 ⎣5 ⎝ ⎠⎦
5 ⎝ 5 ⎠
−7⎞ ⎛ − 7 ⎞ 42 So we have ⎡ ⎛ − 7 ⎞⎤ ⎛−7⎞
[(2) (−3)] ⎛⎜ ⎟ = (−6)⎜ ⎟= . (2) ⎢(−3)⎜ ⎟⎥ = [(2)(−3)] ⎜ ⎟.
⎝5 ⎠ ⎝
5 ⎠5 5⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦ 5 ⎝ ⎠
This property is called the associative property of multiplication in Q.

9. The number 1 is a rational number and 1(x) = (x)1 = x for all rational numbers x.
⎛ 5 ⎞ 1× 5 5
For example, (1) ⎜ ⎟ = = .
⎝ 3⎠ 3 3
10. For every non-zero rational number x, 1 is a rational number and
x
⎛1⎞ ⎛1⎞
x⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ x = 1. For example, if x is the rational number − 21 we
, observe that x ≠ 0 and
⎝ x⎠ ⎝ x⎠ 4
1 1 4 − 4 is a rational number and x ⎛ 1 ⎞ = ⎛ − 21 ⎞ ⎛ − 4 ⎞ = 84 = 1 . The number
= = = ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
x − 21 − 21 21 ⎝ x ⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝ 21 ⎠ 84
4
1 is called the reciprocal or multiplicative inverse of x in Q.
x

11. If x, y, z are rational numbers, then x(y + z) = xy + xz, (x+y) z = xz+ yz.
2 −1
For example, if x = , y = , z = 5, we have
3 2
⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎡⎛ − 1 ⎞ ⎤ ⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎡ − 1 + 10 ⎤ ⎛ 2 ⎞⎛ 9 ⎞
x (y + z) = ⎜ ⎟ ⎢⎜ ⎟ + 5⎥ = ⎜ ⎟ ⎢ = ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ = 3,
⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎣⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦ ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎣ 2 ⎥⎦ ⎝ 3 ⎠⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛ 2 ⎞⎛ − 1 ⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ − 1 ⎞ ⎛ 10 ⎞ (−1) + 10 9
xy + xz = ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟(5) = ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ = = = 3.
⎝ 3 ⎠⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 3⎠ 3 3
So, x(y+z) = xy + xz.
Similarly, we have
⎡⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ − 1 ⎞⎤ ⎡ 4 + ( −3) ⎤ ⎛1⎞ 5
(x+y)z = ⎢⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟⎥5 = ⎢ ⎥ 5 = ⎜ ⎟5 = ,
⎣⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎦ ⎣ 6 ⎦ ⎝6⎠ 6
⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ −1⎞ 10 ⎛ − 5 ⎞ 20 + ( −15) 5
xz + yz = ⎜ ⎟5 + ⎜ ⎟5 = +⎜ ⎟= = .
⎝3⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ 3 ⎝ 2 ⎠ 6 6
So, (x+y) z = xz + yz.
These properties are called the distributive properties of multiplication over addition in Q.

The properties 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8 and 11 do not depend on any particular element of Q and

they are also valid for the elements of N, W and Z.

The property 4 depends on the number 0. Since 0 is not in N, the property is not valid
in N. Since 0 is in W and 0 is also in Z, the property 4 is valid in W and Z.

4
 The property 5 depends on negative numbers. So it is not valid in N and W. But it is
valid in Z.

The property 9 depends on the number 1. Since 1 is in N and in W and also in Z, the
property 9 is valid in N, W and Z.

The property 10 depends on the reciprocals of non-zero numbers. But the reciprocals
of non zero integers are not in N, W and Z. So the property 10 does not hold in N, W and Z.

The operation ‘−’, that is, the subtraction is defined in terms of addition ‘+’ as follows:
If x, y are in Q, then x − y = x + (−y). The operation ‘−’ does not satisfy the commutative
property in Q. For example, 4 − 5 = −1, 5 − 4 = 1 and so 4 −5 ≠ 5 − 4.

The operation ‘÷’, that is, the division is defined in terms of multiplication ‘×’ as
⎛1⎞
follows: If x, y are in Q and y ≠ 0, then x ÷ y = x × ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ . The operation ‘÷’ does not satisfy the
⎝ y⎠
4 5
commutative property in Q. For example, 4 ÷ 5 = , 5 ÷ 4 = and so 4 ÷ 5 ≠ 5 ÷ 4.
5 4
The operation ‘−’ does not satisfy the associative property in Q.
2
For example, let us consider − 3, 11, in Q. Then
3
⎡ ⎛ 2 ⎞⎤ ⎡ 33 − 2 ⎤ 31 − 9 − 31 − 40
(−3) − ⎢11 − ⎜ ⎟⎥ = ( −3) − ⎢ = ( − 3 ) − = = ,
⎣ ⎝ 3 ⎠⎦ ⎣ 3 ⎥⎦ 3 3 3

[(−3) − 11] − 2 = (−14) − 2 = (−42) − 2 = − 44 .

3 3 3 3
⎡ ⎛ 2 ⎞⎤ ⎛2⎞
So, (−3) − ⎢11 − ⎜ ⎟⎥ ≠ [(−3) − 11] − ⎜ ⎟.
⎣ ⎝ 3 ⎠⎦ ⎝3⎠
Similarly, we have
⎡ ⎛ 2 ⎞⎤ ⎡⎛ 11 ⎞⎛ 3 ⎞⎤ ⎛ 33 ⎞
(−3) ÷ ⎢11 ÷ ⎜ ⎟⎥ = (−3) ÷ ⎢⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟⎥ = (−3) ÷ ⎜ ⎟
⎣ ⎝ 3 ⎠⎦ ⎣⎝ 1 ⎠⎝ 2 ⎠⎦ ⎝ 2⎠
⎛ − 3 ⎞ ⎛ 33 ⎞ ⎛ − 3 ⎞⎛ 2 ⎞ − 2
=⎜ ⎟÷⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ = ,
⎝ 1 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 1 ⎠⎝ 33 ⎠ 11

[(−3) ÷ 11] ÷ ⎛⎜ 2 ⎞⎟ = ⎡⎢⎛⎜ − 3 ⎞⎟ ÷ ⎛⎜ 11 ⎞⎟⎤⎥ ÷ ⎛⎜ 2 ⎞⎟ = ⎡⎢⎛⎜ − 3 ⎞⎟⎛⎜ 1 ⎞⎟⎤⎥ ÷ ⎛⎜ 2 ⎞⎟

⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎣⎝ 1 ⎠ ⎝ 1 ⎠⎦ ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎣⎝ 1 ⎠⎝ 11 ⎠⎦ ⎝ 3 ⎠
⎛ − 3 ⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ − 3 ⎞⎛ 3 ⎞ − 9
=⎜ ⎟ ÷⎜ ⎟= ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ = .
⎝ 11 ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 11 ⎠⎝ 2 ⎠ 22
⎡ ⎛ 2 ⎞⎤ ⎛2⎞
So (−3) ÷ ⎢11 ÷ ⎜ ⎟⎥ ≠ [(−3) ÷ 11] ÷ ⎜ ⎟ .
⎣ ⎝ 3 ⎠⎦ ⎝3⎠

5
 The subtraction operation ‘−’ does not satisfy the closure property in N, since if we
consider the members 5 and 7 in N, we get 5 −7 = −2 which is not in N. Similarly the division
5
operation ÷ does not satisfy the closure property in N, since 5, 7 are in N but 5 ÷ 7 = which
7
is not in N.

Using the properties of N, W, Z and Q, we can ascertain whether an equation has a

solution in a particular number system or not. For example, we consider the equation
5x −10 = 0. Solving the equation, we get x = 2. Since 2 is in N, we say that equation
5x − 10 = 0 has a solution in N. Next, we consider the equation 5x = 0. Solving the equation,
we get x = 0. Since 0 is not in N but 0 is in W, we say that the equation 5x = 0 has no
solution in N but has solution in W. As another example, we consider the equation
5x + 10 = 0. Solving the equation, we get x = −2. Since −2 is not in N, −2 is not in W and −2
is in Z, we say that equation 5x + 10 = 0 has no solution in N or in W, but has solution in Z.
−5 −5
Let us consider another equation 3x + 5 = 0. Solving the equation, we get x = . Since
3 3
−5 −5
is not in N, is not in W and is not in Z, we say that that the equation 3x + 5 = 0 does
3 3
−5
not possess a solution in N, W and Z. Since is in Q, we say that 3x + 5 = 0 possesses a
3
solution in Q. However, since we know that 2 , 3 , π, … are not rational numbers, the
equations such as x − 2 = 0, x − 3 = 0, x − π = 0 have no solutions in Q.

Now we proceed to know about numbers which are not rational numbers. For this, we
review what we have learnt about the decimal representation of rational numbers.

1.1.6 Decimal Representation of rational numbers

We have already learnt how to obtain the decimal representation of a rational number
− 15 51
by the long division process. For example, the decimal representations of and are
32 7
obtained as follows:

− 15
= −0.46875. 51
32 =7.28571428
7

6
 Let us understand the rule followed in the above long division process. For this, let us
recall the representation of integers. For example, when we consider the integer 324, we mean
that the integer 324 is the sum (addition) of 3 hundreds, 2 tens and 4 ones. That is,
324 = 3 × 102 + 2 × 101 + 4 × 100. Similarly 2003 = 2 × 103 + 0 × 102 + 0 × 101 + 3 × 100.
Thus, when we write integers, we use the numerals 0, 1, 2, …, 9 and fix their face values as
multiples of 100, 101, 102, …. In the same way, we can use numerals 0, 1, 2, …, 9 and fix their
face values as multiples of 10-1, 10-2, 10-3, …. to get fractions.

For example,
6 2 5 600 + 20 + 5 625 5 × 125 5
6× 10-1 + 2 × 10-2 + 5× 10-3 = + 2 + 3 = = = =
10 10 10 1000 1000 8 × 125 8
5
and we denote as 0.625. Here the first numeral 6 from the right side of dot called decimal
8
6 2
point has the face value , the second numeral 2 has the face value and so on. The first
10 100
numeral 0 from the left side of dot has the face value 0 × 100 = 0. That is, the dot in the above
representation is used to separate the integral part and the fractional part or decimal part
5
of the rational number .
8
With this notation, 3.025 means
25 1 121
3 × 100 + 0 × 10-1 + 2 × 10-2 + 5 × 10-3 = 3 + =3+ = .
1000 40 40
− 15
Now, we consider the fraction . Here
32
15 1 ⎛ 150 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟
32 10 ⎝ 32 ⎠
1 ⎛ 22 ⎞
= ⎜4 + ⎟
10 ⎝ 32 ⎠
4 1 ⎛ 22 ⎞
= + ⎜ ⎟
10 10 ⎝ 32 ⎠
4 1 ⎛ 220 ⎞
= + 2⎜ ⎟
10 10 ⎝ 32 ⎠
4 1 ⎛ 28 ⎞
= + 2 ⎜6 + ⎟
10 10 ⎝ 32 ⎠
4 6 1 ⎛ 28 ⎞
= + 2 + 2⎜ ⎟
10 10 10 ⎝ 32 ⎠
4 6 1 ⎛ 280 ⎞
= + 2 + 3⎜ ⎟
10 10 10 ⎝ 32 ⎠

7
 4 6 1 ⎛ 24 ⎞
= + 2 + ⎜8 + ⎟
10 10 10 3 ⎝ 32 ⎠
4 6 8 1 ⎛ 24 ⎞
= + 2 + 3 + 3⎜ ⎟
10 10 10 10 ⎝ 32 ⎠
4 6 8 1 ⎛ 240 ⎞
= + 2 + 3 + 4⎜ ⎟
10 10 10 10 ⎝ 32 ⎠
4 6 8 1 ⎛ 16 ⎞
= + 2 + 3 + 4 ⎜7 + ⎟
10 10 10 10 ⎝ 32 ⎠
4 6 8 7 1 ⎛ 16 ⎞
= + 2 + 3 + 4 + 4⎜ ⎟
10 10 10 10 10 ⎝ 32 ⎠
4 6 8 7 1 ⎛ 160 ⎞
= + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5⎜ ⎟
10 10 10 10 10 ⎝ 32 ⎠
4 6 8 7 5
= + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 (The process terminates.)
10 10 10 10 10
= 0.46875
− 15
∴ = −0.46875.
32
Next consider the following process:
51 ⎛2⎞
= 7+⎜ ⎟
7 ⎝7⎠ (A)
⎡ 1 ⎛ 20 ⎞⎤
= 7 + ⎢ ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎣10 ⎝ 7 ⎠⎦
⎡1 ⎛ 6 ⎞⎤
= 7 + ⎢ ⎜ 2 + ⎟⎥
⎣10 ⎝ 7 ⎠⎦
⎡2 1 ⎛ 6 ⎞⎤
= 7 + ⎢ + ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎣10 10 ⎝ 7 ⎠⎦
⎡2 1 ⎛ 60 ⎞⎤
= 7 + ⎢ + 2 ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎣10 10 ⎝ 7 ⎠⎦
⎡2 1 ⎛ 4 ⎞⎤
= 7 + ⎢ + 2 ⎜ 8 + ⎟⎥
⎣10 10 ⎝ 7 ⎠⎦
⎡2 8 1 ⎛ 4 ⎞⎤
= 7 + ⎢ + 2 + 2 ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎣10 10 10 ⎝ 7 ⎠⎦
⎡2 8 1 ⎛ 40 ⎞⎤
= 7 + ⎢ + 2 + 3 ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎣10 10 10 ⎝ 7 ⎠⎦
⎡2 8 1 ⎛ 5 ⎞⎤
= 7 + ⎢ + 2 + 3 ⎜ 5 + ⎟⎥
⎣10 10 10 ⎝ 7 ⎠⎦
⎡2 8 5 1 ⎛ 5 ⎞⎤
= 7+⎢ + 2 + 3 + 3 ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎣10 10 10 10 ⎝ 7 ⎠⎦

8
 ⎡2 8 5 1 ⎛ 50 ⎞⎤
= 7 + ⎢ + 2 + 3 + 4 ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎣10 10 10 10 ⎝ 7 ⎠⎦
⎡2 8 5 1 ⎛ 1 ⎞⎤
= 7 + ⎢ + 2 + 3 + 4 ⎜ 7 + ⎟⎥
⎣10 10 10 10 ⎝ 7 ⎠⎦
⎡2 8 5 7 1 ⎛ 1 ⎞⎤
= 7 + ⎢ + 2 + 3 + 4 + 4 ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎣10 10 10 10 10 ⎝ 7 ⎠⎦
⎡2 8 5 7 1 ⎛ 10 ⎞⎤
= 7 + ⎢ + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎣10 10 10 10 10 ⎝ 7 ⎠⎦
⎡2 8 5 7 1 ⎛ 3 ⎞⎤
= 7 + ⎢ + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 ⎜1 + ⎟ ⎥
⎣10 10 10 10 10 ⎝ 7 ⎠⎦
⎡2 8 5 7 1 1 ⎛ 3 ⎞⎤
= 7+⎢ + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 5 ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎣10 10 10 10 10 10 ⎝ 7 ⎠⎦
⎡2 8 5 7 1 1 ⎛ 30 ⎞⎤
= 7+⎢ + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎣10 10 10 10 10 10 ⎝ 7 ⎠⎦
⎡2 8 5 7 1 1 ⎛ 2 ⎞⎤
= 7 + ⎢ + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 ⎜ 4 + ⎟⎥
⎣10 10 10 10 10 10 ⎝ 7 ⎠⎦
⎡2 8 5 7 1 4 ⎤ 1 ⎛2⎞
= 7×100+ ⎢ + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 ⎥ + 6 ⎜ ⎟ (B)
⎣10 10 10 10 10 10 ⎦ 10 ⎝ 7 ⎠

1 ⎛2⎞
= 7.285714 + ⎜ ⎟. The process repeats from (A)
10 6 ⎝7⎠

− 15
We observe that in the decimal representation of , the process terminates (zero
32
− 15
remainder) and we say that has a terminating decimal expansion. But in the decimal
32
51
representation of , the process does not terminate (non zero remainder) at any stage.
7
However, we notice that the remainder that we get at the stage (B) is the same as the
remainder at the stage (A). So the numerals 2, 8, 5, 7, 1, 4 between the two stages (A) and (B)
repeat in the same order in the long division process. In this case, we say that the decimal
representation is non terminating and recurring. We write

51
= 7 .285714285714285714… = 7.285714 ,
7

9
where the bar over 285714 indicates that the numerals under the bar repeat endlessly in the
15
same order in the long division process. The terminating decimal expansion 0.46875 for
32
can be considered to be a non-terminating and repeating, since
4 6 8 7 5
0.46875 = + 2 + 3+ 4 + 5
10 10 10 10 10
4 6 8 7 5 0 0
= + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + ..... = 0.468750 .
10 10 10 10 10 10 10
We also have
4 6 8 7 5
0.46875 = + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5
10 10 10 10 10
+ 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 (4 + 1)
4 6 8 7 1
=
10 10 10 10 10
4 6 8 7 4 ⎛ 1 ⎞
= + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 +⎜ 5 ⎟
10 10 10 10 10 ⎝ 10 ⎠
+ 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 (10 )
4 6 8 7 4 1
=
10 10 10 10 10 10
+ 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 (9 + 1)
4 6 8 7 4 1
=
10 10 10 10 10 10
4 6 8 7 4 9 ⎛ 1 ⎞
= + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 +⎜ 6 ⎟
10 10 10 10 10 10 ⎝ 10 ⎠
+ 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 (10 )
4 6 8 7 4 9 1
=
10 10 10 10 10 10 10
+ 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 (9 + 1)
4 6 8 7 4 9 1
=
10 10 10 10 10 10 10
4 6 8 7 4 9 9 ⎛ 1 ⎞
= + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + ⎜ 7 ⎟ = 0.468749.
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 ⎝ 10 ⎠

Thus, every rational number has a decimal representation which is either terminating
or non terminating with repetition. This is the characteristic property of rational numbers
which is due to the fact that the remainders that we get in the long division process are non
negative integers less than the divisors. At one stage, one remainder in a previous stage starts
repeating. So the digits in the quotient begin to repeat. Now we ask the following converse
question: What does a terminating or non terminating recurring decimal expansion represent?
We investigate the question through examples.

(i) Consider the decimal expansion 0.45.

4 5 40 + 5 45 9
0.45 = + 2 = = =
10 10 100 100 20
(ii) Consider the decimal expansion 0.45
Let x = 0.45 = 0.454545…. Then 100x = 45.454545…

10
 45 5
∴ 100 x − x = (45.4545…) − (0.4545…) or 99x = 45 or x = = .
99 11
(iii) Consider the decimal expansion − 0.349
Let x = 0.349 = 0.349999…. Then 100x = 34.9999…
∴ 1000x = 349.9999…
∴ 1000x−100x = (349.9999…) − (34.9999…)
315 35 7
∴ 900x= 315 or x = = = .
900 100 20
7
∴ 0.349 = .
20
⎛ 7 ⎞ −7
∴ − 0.349 = − ⎜ ⎟ = .
⎝ 20 ⎠ 20
Thus, every terminating or non- terminating recurring decimal expansion represents a
rational number. That is, a terminating or non-terminating but repeating decimal
representation can be put in the “Integer-by-Integer” form.

1.1.7 Irrational numbers

Now let us consider decimal expansions which are non-terminating and non-recurring.
As an example, consider the non-terminating and non-recurring decimal representation
0.101001000100001000001… . We observe that the above decimal expansion has the
numerals 0’s and 1’s. As we proceed from the right of the dot, the 1’s are separated by 1 zero,
2 zeros, 3 zeros, 4 zeros, … endlessly. So we find no repeating block in the representation.
Hence the decimal representation can not represent a rational number. Such decimal
expansions are said to represent irrational numbers. Rational numbers and irrational
numbers are called real numbers. A decimal representation can be in exactly one of the
following forms:
(i) Terminating.
(ii) Non-terminating but repeating.
(iii) Non-terminating and non-repeating.
Hence, every decimal representation is a real number. We state that every real number has a
decimal representation. A real number x is said to be positive if it has a decimal
representation in which at least one of the coefficients of 10n is a positive integer. Similarly, x
is said to be negative if it is not positive or zero. For example,
0 0 2 5 2 5
7.00252525… = 7 + + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + .... is positive.
10 10 10 10 10 10
⎡ 0 2 0 2 2 0 ⎤
− 3.0202202220… = − ⎢3 + + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + ...⎥ is negative.
⎣ 10 10 10 10 10 10 ⎦

The collection of all real numbers is denoted by the letter R. Thus R is the collection
formed by the rational and irrational numbers. We observe that all natural numbers, all whole

11
numbers, all integers, all rational numbers and all irrational numbers are real numbers. We
also observe that no rational number is irrational and no irrational number is rational. The
usual laws of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are satisfied in R. In particular,
the commutative and the distributive properties in R are
(i) x + y = y + x, xy = y x
(ii) x(y + z) = xy + xz
(iii) (x + y)z = xz + yz
where x, y and z are any three real numbers.

From the above two properties we have

(i) x (y − z)=x [y + (− z)]=xy + x(− z) = xy − xz.
(ii) (x + y)2 = (x + y)(x + y) = (x + y) z, where we have put z = x + y for simplification
= xz + yz = x (x + y) + y (x + y)
= xx + xy + yx +yy
= x2 + xy + xy + y2 = x2 + 2xy + y2 .
(iii) (x − y)2 = (x − y)(x − y) = (x − y) z, where we have put z =x − y for simplification
= xz − yz = x (x − y) − y (x − y)
= xx − xy − (yx − yy)
= x2 − xy − xy + y2 = x2 − 2xy + y2 .
(iv) (x+ y) (x − y) = (x + y) z where we have put z =x − y for simplification
= xz + yz = x (x − y) + y (x − y)
= xx − xy + yx − yy
= x2 − y2 .

Example 1: Determine the rational number represented by 0.75 .

Solution: Let x = 0.75 . Then x = 0.757575…
∴ 100x = 75.757575…
∴ 100x − x = (75.757575…) − (0.757575…) = 75.0000…
75 25
∴ 99x = 75 or x = = .
99 33

Example 2: Justify 1.0 = 0.9.

Solution:
9 ⎛1⎞ 9
1.0 = 1 =
1
(10) =
1
(9 + 1) = +⎜ ⎟= +
1
(10) = 9 + 1 (9 + 1)
10 10 10 ⎝ 10 ⎠ 10 100 10 100
9 ⎛ 1 ⎞ 9
=
9
+ +⎜ ⎟= +
9
+
1
(10) = 9 + 9 + 1 (9 + 1)
10 100 ⎝ 100 ⎠ 10 100 1000 10 100 1000
9 9 9 ⎛ 1 ⎞
= + + +⎜ ⎟.
10 100 1000 ⎝ 1000 ⎠

12
The above process continues endlessly and we get
1.0 = 0.9999… or 1.0 = 0.9.

Example 3: Find 2.52 + 2.52 in the integer-by-integer form.

Solution: Let x = 2.52 . Then x = 2.525252….
∴ 100x = 252.5252…
250
∴ 100x − x = 250.000… or 99x = 250 or x = .
99
Let y = 2.52 . Then y = 2.52222…..
∴ 10y = 25.2222…
∴ 100y = 252.2222…
227
∴ 100y − 10y = 227.0000… or 90y = 227 or y = .
90
250 227 2500 + 2497 4997
Hence 2.52 + 2.52 = + = = .
99 90 990 990

Example 4: Find the sum of the irrational numbers

0.101001000100001… and 0.010110111011110… . If it is a rational number, find it in the
integer- by-integer form.
Solution: Let x = 0.1010010001… and y = 0.0101101110… . Then
x + y = 0.1010010001… + 0.0101101110…= 0.111111… = 0. 1 .
Since x + y has a non-terminating but repeating decimal expansion, x + y is a rational number.
Let the rational number be a. Then a = 0.11111…
Multiplying by 10, we get 10a = 1.1111…
1
∴ 10a − a = 1.1111… − 0.1111 = 1.0000…. or 9a = 1 or a = .
9
1
∴x+y= .
9

Note: From the above example, we observe that

the sum of two irrational numbers need not be an
irrational number. Similarly the product of two
irrational numbers need not be an irrational
number ( 2 is irrational but 2 × 2 = 2 is
rational).

Now let us consider the irrational number

2 . We know already much about this number.
We recall here the method of finding the decimal
expansion of 2 to any number of decimal places.
and 2 = 1.414213562…

13
 We observe that the above process neither terminates nor repeats. That is, 2 has a
non-terminating and non-repeating decimal expansion. Therefore, we conclude that 2 is an
irrational number. Similarly, we can show that 3 , 5 , 7 , … are all irrational numbers.

We come across two special irrational numbers in mathematics. They are π and e.
When we calculate the ratio of the perimeter of any circle to the length of the diameter of the
circle, we observe that the ratio is a fixed real number and it is denoted by the Greek letter π.
The decimal expansion of π is 3.1415926… which is non-terminating and non-repeating. We
22
recall that we used the rational number as an approximation for the irrational number π in
7
calculations. Ramanujan, the celebrated Indian mathematician has obtained several formulas
involving π. Around the year 1973, 1,000,000 decimal digits of π were computed. Getting the
decimal expansion of π to several billion thousands of decimal places is even today a
fascinating and challenging task. When we calculate the values of the numbers
2 4 5
⎛3⎞ ⎛4⎞ ⎛5⎞ ⎛6⎞
3

⎜ ⎟ , ⎜ ⎟ , ⎜ ⎟ , ⎜ ⎟ , …,
⎝2⎠ ⎝3⎠ ⎝4⎠ ⎝5⎠
we observe that they become closer and closer to a particular real number and this real
number is denoted by the letter e. The decimal expansion of e is e = 2.7182818284…. which
is non-terminating and non-repeating. We will study more about this irrational number e in
higher standards.

1.1.8 Order Relation in R

When we arrange certain objects according to some property, we say that the objects
are ordered. For example, when students are arranged standing according to their heights from
the shortest to the highest, we say that they stand ordered. Likewise, we can arrange real
numbers in order. Let x and y be any two real numbers. If y − x is a positive real number, then
the real number x is said to be less than the real number y or y is said to be greater than x.
The symbol x < y is used to mean that x is less than y and y > x to mean that y is greater than
x. Thus, x < y and y > x both mean the same fact that y − x is positive. If y − x is negative,
then −(y − x) = x − y is positive and so y < x which is equivalent to x > y. For example,
consider 19 and 17. Since 19 − 17 = 2 is a positive number, we get 17 < 19 which is
equivalent to 19 > 17. Next, consider −19 and −17. Since (−19) − (−17) = −19 + 17 = −2 is a
negative number, we get −19 < −17 which is equivalent to −17 > −19.

Let x and y be real numbers. Then three cases arise. (i) x − y is negative (ii) x − y is
positive and (iii) x − y = 0. In the first case, x < y. In the second case, x > y. In the third case,
x = y. If either x < y or x = y, then we say that x is less than or equal to y and write x ≤ y.
Similarly, if either x > y or x = y, then we say that x is greater than or equal to y and write

14
x ≥ y. If x is positive, then x > 0. If x is non negative, then x ≥ 0. If x is negative, then x < 0. If
x is non positive, then x ≤ 0. Thus, given any two real numbers x and y, exactly one of the
following is true: x < y, x = y, x > y. This fact is called the law of trichotomy of the order
in real numbers. If x, y and z are three real numbers such that x < y and y < z, then y − x is
positive and z − y is positive. So, (y − x) + (z − y) is positive; that is, z – x is positive. Hence
x < z. Thus, we get that, if x < y and y < z, then x < z. This property is called the transitive
property of the order in R. When x < y and y < z, we write x < y < z and we say that y is
inserted between x and z or we say that y lies in between x and y.

Consider a real number x along with 0. Then, precisely one of the following is true:
x < 0 , x = 0 , x > 0.
If x < 0, then x2 = x × x = negative number × negative number = positive number.
If x = 0, then x2 = x × x = 0 × 0 = 0.
If x > 0, then x2 = x × x = positive number × positive number = positive number.
Thus, we observe that, for every real number x, we have x2 ≥ 0. In particular, we observe that,
for every non-zero real number x (> 0 or < 0), we always have x2 > 0.

When x ≥ 0, the absolute value of x is defined to be x; when x < 0, the absolute value
of x is defined to be −x .The absolute value of x is denoted by |x|. Thus, |x| = x if x ≥ 0; |x| = −x
if x < 0. We observe that |x| ≥ 0, |−x| = |x| and |x|2 = x2.
22
Example 5: Put π and in order relation.
7
22
Solution: π = 3.141528…, = 3.142857…
7
22
∴ − π = 3.142857… − 3.141528… = 0.0013…
7
22
∴ − π is positive.
7
22
∴ π< .
7

Example 6: Insert any four rational numbers in between the rational numbers 1.201 and
1.202.
Solution: Here 1.202 − 1.201 = 0.001 > 0 and so 1.201 < 1.202. Consider the numbers
1.2011, 1.2012, 1.2013, 1.2014. Since these have terminating decimal expansions, they are
rational numbers. We find 1.2011 − 1.201 = 0.0001 > 0 and so 1.201 < 1.2011.
Since 1.2012 − 1.2011 = 0.0001 > 0, we get 1.2011 < 1.2012.
Since 1.2013 − 1.2012 = 0.0001 > 0, we get 1.2012 < 1.2013.
Since 1.2014 − 1.2013 = 0.0001 > 0, we get 1.2013 < 1.2014.
Since 1.202 − 1.2014 = 0.0006 > 0, we get 1.2014 < 1.202.
∴ 1.201 < 1.2011 < 1.2012 < 1.2013 < 1.2014 < 1.202.

15
Example 7: Insert any four irrational numbers between 1.201 and 1.202.
Solution: Since 1.202 − 1.201 = 0.001 > 0, we get 1.201 < 1.202.
Consider the real numbers
a = 1.2011010010001…,
b = 1.2012020020002…,
c = 1.2013030030003…,
d = 1.2014040040004….
Since these four real numbers have distinct non-terminating and non repeating decimal
representations, they are distinct irrational numbers. We find
a − 1.201 = 1.2011010010001… − 1.2010000000000… = 0.0001010010001… > 0,
b − a = 1.2012020020002… − 1.2011010010001… = 0.0001010010001… > 0,
c − b = 1.2013030030003… − 1.2012020020002… = 0.0001010010001… > 0,
d − c = 1.2014040040004… − 1.2013030030003….= 0.0001010010001… > 0,
1.202 − d = 1.2020000000000… − 1.2014040040004… = 0.0005959959995… > 0.
∴ 1.201 < a < b < c < d < 1.202.

Example 8: Insert any two rational numbers in between the irrational numbers 2.001 and
2.003 .
Solution:

∴ 2.001 = 1.41456… and 2.003 = 1.41527…

∴ 2.003 − 2.001 = 0.0007… > 0
∴ 2.001 < 2.003 .
Consider the numbers 1.41461 and 1.41462. Since they have terminating decimal expansions,
they are rational numbers and we have
1.41461 − 2.001 = 1.414610000… − 1.41456…= 0.00004… > 0
∴ 2.001 < 1.41461.
1.41462 − 1.41461 = 0.00001 > 0
∴ 1.41461 < 1.41462.
2.003 − 1.41462 = 1.41523… − 1.41462 = 0.00061…> 0
∴ 1.41462 < 2.003 .
∴ 2.001 < 1.41461 < 1.41462 < 2.003.

16
 From the above examples, we are able to observe that, if a and b are two distinct real
numbers such that a < b, then there is a rational number r such that a < r < b. We note that
the above property holds even if a and b are very close to each other. This property is usually
called the denseness property of Q in R. We also observe as a comparison that, between any
two distinct points on a straight line, there is another point distinct from them. This similarity
between points on a straight line and real numbers enables us to get a line picture
representation of real numbers.

We also observe that all rational numbers are real numbers. But there are real numbers
which are not rational numbers. For example, 2, 3 , π, … are real numbers which are not
rational numbers. Now, the equations such as x − 2 = 0, x − 3 = 0, x − π = 0 have
2
solutions in R. However, since x is positive for any non-zero real number x, there is no real
number x such that x2 = −1 and so the equation x2 +1 = 0 has no solution in R. We do not
study such equations in our standard.

Exercise 1.1

1. Obtain the decimal expansions of

21 11 −7 11
(i) (ii) − (iii) (iv)
64 6 20 24

2. Determine the integer-by-integer form of each of the following rational numbers:

(i) 0.34 9 (ii) −0. 7 (iii) 0. 125 (iv) 0.5 21 (v) 8. 9

3. Answer true or false.

2
(i) is a whole number.
7
(ii) − 11 is an integer.
1
(iii) is a rational number.
3
(iv) 0.16 is a rational number.
(v) Every decimal expansion is a real number.
(vi) Every real number is a rational number.
(vii) 0.1212212221… is a rational number.

1.2 The Real Number Line

We have already learnt about real number line in our earlier classes. We know how the
real numbers are represented as points on the line. We review the idea of the real number line.
Let us consider a straight line and fix arbitrarily a point on it. We name this point as O and say
that it represents the number 0. We fix arbitrarily another point A on the line on the right of O

17
and say that this point A represents the number 1. Now we say that line segment OA is of
length 1 unit. We observe that the length of OA will be different for different choices of the
point A. But once we have chosen O and fixed the point A, then, for us, OA is of length 1
unit. Using the segment OA as a scale for measuring unit distances, we can represent any real
number as a point on the straight line. We call this straight line, the real number line or
simply number line.

First, we recall how positive integers are represented as points on the number line.
Already the point O is there to represents the number 0 and A to represents the number 1.
Now we locate points on the number line to the right of O at a distance 2 units (2 times the
lengths of OA), 3 units, … . These points correspond to the numbers 2, 3, … respectively (see
Figure 1.1).

Figure 1.1
Similarly, we can locate the points on the number line to the left of O at distances 1 unit,
2 units, 3 units, … . These points correspond to the negative integers − 1, − 2, −3,…
respectively.

Now, we review with an example the

method of locating points for rational numbers
on the number line. Consider the rational
number 2 . To locate the point on the number
3
line corresponding to 2 , we proceed as
3
follows:
Locate the point P corresponding to the
Figure 1.2
2
positive integer 3 (denominator of ). Draw
3
2
the line segment PQ of length 2 (numerator of ) perpendicular to OP. Join OQ.
3
Consider the line through A parallel to PQ. This line meets OQ at the point R. Then the length
2
of AR is times that of OA. This is so because ∆OAR and ∆OPQ are similar and so
3
PQ OP 2 3 2
= or = or AR = . Now, draw a circle with centre at O and radius equal to the
AR OA AR 1 3
length of AR. This circle cuts the real number line at a point on the right side of O. This point

18
 2
corresponds to the rational number (see Figure 1.2). The same circle cuts the real number
3
−2
line at a point on the left side of O and this point corresponds to the rational number .In
3
the same way, we can represent any rational number on the real number line. The real number
line is a straight line. Given any two distinct points P and Q on the line, however close they
may be, we can find a point between P and Q different from P and Q. That is, there is no gap
between any two points on the real number line. We say that the real number line is a
continuum of points. We have shown that every rational number corresponds to a unique
point on the real number line. Let us now ask the question whether all points of the real
number line correspond to rational numbers only. The answer is ‘No’. For example, let us
consider the irrational number 2.

Draw a square OABC with side OA = 1.

Then, by Pythagoras theorem OB2 = OA2 + AB2
= 1+1 = 2. So OB = 2. With O as centre and
OB as radius, draw a circle. We observe (see
Figure 1.3) that this circle intersects the real
number line at P on the right side of O and at Q Figure 1.3
on the left side of O. The point P represents the irrational number 2 , since OP = OB = 2.
The point Q represents the irrational number − 2 , since OQ = OB = 2 and Q lies to the
left of O.

Example 9: Represent the irrational numbers 3 , 5, − 3 ,− 5 on the real number line.

Solution: Having plotted the point P for 2 , we can now locate the points for 3 and − 3
as given below:
Construct a rectangle OPDC (see Figure 1.4)
with length OP (= 2 ) and breadth PD = 1.
Then, by Pythagoras theorem,
OD2 = OP2 + PD2
= ( 2 ) 2 + 12
Figure 1.4
=2+1=3
and so OD = 3 . Now, with O as centre and
OD as radius, draw a circle. This circle intersects the real number line at the points say Q and
Q′ (Note that Q is just a notation and not representing the collection of rational numbers).
Now OQ = OQ′ = OD = 3 . Since Q and Q′ are on the right and the left of O respectively,
Q represents 3 and Q′ represents − 3 .

19
 To plot the points for 5 and − 5 , the above technique is followed. Locate the point
R on the real number line to right of O at a distance of 2 units from O (we have already
provided a method to locate the points on the number line corresponding to rational numbers).
Construct the rectangle ORFC (see Figure 1.5) with length OR (= 2) and breadth RF = 1.

Figure 1.5

Then, by Pythagoras theorem,

OF2 = OR2 + RF2 = 22 + 12 = 4 + 1 = 5
and so OF = 5 . With O as centre and OF as radius, draw a circle. This circle intersects the
real number line at say S and S′ on the right and left of O respectively. Since
OS = OS′ = OF = 5 ,
S represents 5 and S′ represents − 5 .

From the above discussion, we are able to know that any real number corresponds to a
unique point on the real number line and that any point on the real number line represents a
real number. Points on the right side of O correspond to positive real numbers and those on
the left side of O represent negative real numbers. Let P and Q be the points corresponding to
two real numbers a and b respectively.
If a < b, then P lies to the left of Q which is
same as saying that Q lies to the right of P on
the real number line (see Figure 1.6). Further, Figure 1.6
if x is a real number such that a < x < b, then
the point on the real number line corresponding to x lies between P and Q. If P1 and P2 are
any two points on the real line and if x1 and x2 are the real numbers corresponding to P1 and
P2, then the distance between P1 and P2 is |x1 − x2|.

1.2.1 Manipulation of irrational numbers

Let us recall how the irrational numbers 2 , 3 , 5 , … originated. For example, the
irrational number 2 was needed when we wanted to find a solution x for the equation
x− 2 = 0 or x − 2 = 0 or x2 = 2 . Similarly, we may need to obtain a real number x such that
2

20
xn = r, where r is a rational number and n is a positive integer. If n is an even positive integer
such as 2, 4, 6, … and r < 0, then we can not find a real number x such that xn = r. This is so
because x2 = x × x > 0, x4 = x2 × x2 > 0, …, xn > 0 and r < 0 . If n is an even positive integer
and r > 0, then it is possible to find a positive real number x such that xn = r. For example, we
find 5 for x when x4 = 625. If n is an odd positive integer such as 1, 3, 5, … and r > 0, then it
is possible to find a positive real number x such that xn = r. For example, we find 4 for x when
x3 = 64. If n is an odd positive integer and r < 0, then it is not possible to find a positive real
number x such that xn = r. This is so because if x > 0, then x2 = x × x > 0, x3 = x2 × x > 0, …
xn > 0. Thus, if n is a positive integer and r is a positive rational number, then it is possible to
find a positive real number x such that xn = r. In this situation, we write the positive real
number x = n
r and say that x is the nth root of r. We call n
r a radical and n is known as
n
the radical sign. The positive integer n is called the index of the radical r and the rational
n n
number r is called the radicand of r . The real number r may be a rational number or an
irrational number. For example, 3
64 = 4, 4
4 = 2. We observe that if r is the nth power of a
p n p
rational number , then r = is a rational number because in this case we have
q q
n
⎛ p⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = r. On the other hand, if the rational number r is not the nth power of some rational
⎝q⎠
n n n
number, then r is not a rational number; that is, r is an irrational number. If r is an
n
irrational number, then r is called a surd. We observe that a surd is an irrational number in
n
a particular form. Thus r is a surd when the radicand is a rational number which is not the
nth power of a rational number. If the index n is 2, then we call 2
r the square root of r and
3
simply write it as r with out the index 2. If the index n is 3, then we call r the cube root
of r.
In what follows, n r always represents a positive real number and r is a positive
rational number. Since radicals are real numbers, we can perform the four fundamental
operations +, −, ×, ÷ with them. If the addition of two surds and multiplication of a surd by a
rational number yield irrational numbers, then the resulting irrational numbers are also called
surds. For example, 3 2 + 5 7 ,−3 2 are surds. Let a and b be two distinct positive rational
numbers such that a and b are surds. Then a + b , a − b , a + b , a − b are
surds. Here a − b is called the conjugate of a + b . Similarly, a + b is the conjugate of
a − b , a + b is the conjugate of a − b and a − b is the conjugate
of a + b . The product of a surd and its conjugate is a rational number. For example,
(2 + 3 )(2 − 3 ) = 2 − ( 3 ) = 4 − 3 = 1, (
2 2
3+ 5 )( 3− 5 = ) ( 3 ) − ( 5 ) = 3 − 5= −2.
2 2

21
The following laws are used in the manipulation of radicals:

Let a, b be positive rational numbers and m, n be positive integers. Then

(i) ( a ) = a.
n
n

(ii) ( a) ( b)=
n n n
ab .
n
a a
(iii) n
=n .
b b
n n n
(iv) p r +q r = ( p + q) r where p and q are real numbers.
(v) n m
a = mn a.
(vi) n a = mn a m .
(vii) If a < b, then n
a < n b.

We observe that in the laws (ii), (iii) and (iv), the surds are of same index. So, when
surds of different indices are given and if we are asked to perform any of the four fundamental
operations, we first convert the surds into surds of the same index by applying the law (vi)
and then proceed to carry out the operations. Law (vi) is actually the combination of law (i)
and law (v): By (i), a = m
am . ∴ n
a =n m
am = mn
am .

Using law (vii), we can compare any surds of same order.

1
n
Note: a is denoted as a n .

Example 10: Answer with reasons whether the following are surds or not:

121 49 7
(a) (b) (c)
225 25 5
144 32
(d) (e) 3
(f) 3
4 × 3 16
72 216
Solution:
2
121 ⎛ 11 ⎞ 11 121
(a) = ⎜ ⎟ = = a rational number. ∴ is not a surd.
225 ⎝ 15 ⎠ 15 225
2
49 ⎛7⎞ 7 49
(b = ⎜ ⎟ = = a rational number. ∴ is not a surd.
25 ⎝5⎠ 5 25
7 7
(c) is a surd since is not a square of a rational number.
5 5
144
(d) = 2 = a surd.
72

22
 32 16 × 2 16 × 2 4× 2 2 2
(e) = = = = .
3
216 3
6×6×6 3
6 3 6 3
2 2 32
Since is an irrational number, 3
is a surd.
3 216
(f) 3
4 × 3 16 = 3 4 × 16 = 3 4 × 4 × 4 = 3 4 3 = 4 = a rational number.
∴ 3 4 × 3 16 is not a surd.

When we manipulate with surds using the four fundamental operation, some times the
result may be a rational number.

Example 11: Answer with reasons whether the following are surds or not:

(i) (5 + 54 ) + (4 − 3 2 )
3 3
(ii) (2 + 3 ) − (3 + 3 )
(iii) (3 + 4 2 )(3 − 32 ) (iv) 4
432 ÷ 4 2187
Solution:
(i) (5 + 3
) ( )
54 + 4 − 3 3 2 = (5 + 4) + (
3
27 × 2 − 3 3 2 )
=9+ (3
3 3
×3 2 −3 2 3
)
(
= 9 + 3 × 2 − 3 × 2 = 9.
3 3
)
This is a rational number and not a surd although 5 + 3 54 and 4 – 3 3 2 are surds. So the
addition of two surds need not be a surd. This means that the surds do not satisfy the closure
property with respect to addition.
(ii) (2 + 3 ) − (3 + 3 ) = (2 − 3) + ( )
3 − 3 = −1 + 0 = −1 = a rational number.
∴ the given expression is not a surd.
(iii) (3 + 4 2 )(3 − )
32 = (3 + 4 2 ) (3 − 16 × 2 )
= (3 + 4 2 ) (3 − 4 2 )
= 3 × 3 − 3 × 4 2 + 4 2 × 3 − 16 × 2 × 2
= 9 − 12 2 + 12 2 − 32 = 9 − 32 = −23.
This is a rational number and so the given expression is not a surd.
(iv) 432 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 27 = 24 × 27.
∴ 4 432 = 2 4 27.
2187 = 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 27 =34 × 27.
∴ 4 2187 = 3 4 27.
2 2 4 27
∴ 4 432 ÷ 4 2187 = . 4
=
3 27 3
This is a rational number and so the given expression is not a surd.

23
Example 12: Simplify each of the following:

(i) 20 − 225 + 80 (ii) 3

40 − 2 3 135
(iii) 2 6 27 + 50 (iv) 3 3 128 − 3 2000
Solution:
(i) 20 = 4 × 5 = 4 × 5 = 2 5 .

225 = 9 × 25 = 9 × 25 = 3 × 5 = 15.

80 = 16 × 5 = 16 × 5 = 4 5 .

∴ 20 − 225 + 80 = 2 5 − 15 + 4 5 = 6 5 − 15.
(ii) 3
40 = 3 8 × 5 = 3 8 × 3 5 = 2 3 5 , 3
135 = 3 27 × 5 = 3 27 × 3 5 = 3 3 5 .

∴ 3
40 − 23 135 = 2 3 5 − 2 × 3 3 5 = ( 2 − 6) 3 5 = −43 5.

(iii) 6
27 = 2×3 33 = 2 3
33 = 2 3 = 3 and 50 = 2 × 25 = 5 2 .

∴ 2 6 27 + 50 = 2 3 + 5 2 .

(iv) 3
128 = 3
43 × 2 = 4 3
2.

2000 = 3 10 3 × 2 = 10 2 .
3 3

∴ 3 3 128 − 3 2000 = 3(43 2 ) − 10 3 2 = 12 3 2 − 10 3 2 . = (12 − 10) 3 2 = 2 3 2 .

Example 13: Write each of the following into a single surd:

(i) 7 ×36 (ii) 3
5 × 4
3.
(iii) 8 3
4 ÷6 4
2 (iv) 3
81 ÷ ( 5 + 20 )
3
Solution: (i) Here 7 is of index 2 and 6 is of index 3. The l.c.m. of 2 and 3 is 6. So we
write 7 and 3
6 as surds of index 6. Here 7 = 2
7 = 2 3
7 3 = 6 343, and
3
6 = 3 2
6 2 = 6 36. So, 7 × 3
6 = 6
343 × 6 36 = 6 343 × 36 = 6 12348 .

(ii) 3
5 × 4
3 = 12
625 × 12
27 = 12
625 × 27 = 12
16875 .

83 4 4 12 256 4 12 256 4
(iii) 8 3
4 ÷6 4
2 = = × = × = 12
32.
642 3 12 8 3 8 3

( ) 27 × 3 3× 3 3
3 3 3 6
81 3 9 9
(iv) 3
81 ÷ 5 + 20 = = = = = = 6 .
5 + 20 5 + 4×5 3 5 5 6
125 125

24
Example 14: Arrange the following in the ascending order of magnitudes:
4
3 , 6 10 , 12 25

Solution: We shall first find the common index. For this, we find the l.c.m. of the indices 4,
6, 12. The l.c.m. of 4, 6, 12, is 12. Then we convert the surds into surds with index 12.
4
3=4 3
3 × 3 × 3 = 12 27 and 6
10 = 6 2 10 × 10 = 12 100 .
We observe 12
25 < 12 27 < 12 100.
∴ 12 25 < 4 3 < 6 10.
The product of a surd and its conjugate is always a rational number. For example,
(2 + 3 ) (2 − 3 ) = (2) − 2 3 + 2 3 − ( 3 ) = 4 − 3 = 1 and
2 2

( 3 + 5 ) ( 3 − 5 ) = ( 3 ) − 15 + 15 − ( 5 ) = 3 − 5 = −2.
2 2

x
Some times, the denominator y of a ratio may be a surd. In such ratios, the
y
denominator can be made as a rational number by a suitable procedure. This procedure is
called the rationalization of the denominator. We give the procedure as below:
(i) If the denominator y is in the form a where a is a rational number, then multiply
both the numerator and denominator by a . For example,
3 3× 5 15
= =
5 5× 5 5
(ii) If the denominator y is in the form a +
b where a and b are rational numbers,
then multiply the numerator and denominator by a − b . Then the denominator becomes
(a + b ) (a − b ) = a2 − a b + a b − ( b) 2
= a 2 − b which is a rational number. For
example,
2 2 × (3 − 2) 2×3− 2× 2 6−2 2 6−2 2
= = = = .
3+ 2 (3 + 2 )(3 − 2 ) 3 − ( 2)2 2
9−2 7

(iii) If the denominator y is in the form a − b where a and b are rational numbers,
x
then multiply both the numerator and denominator of by a + b . For example,
y
3+ 2 (3 + 2) × (3 + 2) (3 + 2 ) 2
= =
3− 2 (3 − 2 )(3 + 2 ) 32 − ( 2 ) 2

=
32 + 2 × 3 × 2 + 2
=
( ) =
2
9 + 6 2 + 2 11 + 6 2
.
9−2 7 7
(iv) If y is in the form a + b , where a and b are rational numbers, then multiply
x
the numerator and denominator of by a − b . For example,
y

25
 2
=
2× ( ) 3− 5 ) =
(
2 3− 5
3 + 5 ( 3 + 5 )( 3 − 5 ) ( 3 ) − ( 5 )
2 2

2( 3 − 5 ) 2( 3 − 5 )
= = = −1( 3 − 5 ) = 5 − 3.
3−5 −2

(v) If y is in the form a − b , where a and b are rational numbers, then multiply
x
the numerator and denominator of by a + b . For example,
y
5
=
5× ( 5+ 7 ) =
( 5 ) + 5 7 = 5 + 35 = − 1 (5 +
2

)
5− 7 ( 5− 7 )( 5+ 7) ( 5) − ( 7) 5−7
2
2 2
35 .

1
Example 15: Rationalize the denominator of .
5 + 14
Solution:
1 1× ( 5 − 14 ) =
5 − 14
5 + 14
=
( 5 + 14 )(
) ( 5 ) − ( 14 )
5 − 14
2 2

= ( 14 − 5 ).
5 − 14 5 − 14 1
= =
5 − 14 −9 9

x
Note: If we want to rationalize the numerator of , where x is of the form a or a + b or
y
a − b or a + b or a − b , then we multiply the numerator and denominator by the
conjugate of the numerator.

11 − 3
Example 16: Rationalize the numerator in .
4
11 − 3 ( 11 − 3 )× ( 11 + 3 ) = ( 11) − ( 3 ) 2 2

4 × ( 11 + 3 ) 4 × ( 11 + 3 )
Solution: =
4
11 − 3 8 2
=
(
4 11 + 3 ) =
(
4 11 + 3 ) =
11 + 3

1
Example 17: If = a + b 2 + c 6 , find a + b +c.
1− 2 + 3
1 (
1× 1 − 2 − 3 )
Solution:
1− 2 + 3
=
(1 − 2 + 3 1− 2 − 3 )( )
1− 2 − 3
(1 − 2 ) − ( 3 )
= 2 2

26
 1− 2 − 3
=
(1 − 2 2 +2 −3)
=
1− 2 − 3
=
(1 − 2− 3 )× 2
−2 2 −2 2 2
2− 2 2− 3 2 2 −2− 6
= =
−4 −4
2− 2 + 6 1 1 1
= = − 2+ 6.
4 2 4 4
1 1 1
∴ a+b 2 +c 6 = − 2+ 6
2 4 4
1 −1 1
∴ a= ,b= ,c= .
2 4 4
1 1 1 1
∴ a+b+c = − + = .
2 4 4 2

n
In the surd p + q n a , where p and q are rational numbers and a is a surd, p is called
the rational part and q n a is called the irrational part. Two surds are said to be equal if their
rational parts are equal and their irrational parts are equal.

3 −1 3 +1
Example 18: If + = x + y 3, find x2 + y2.
3 +1 3 −1
3 −1
=
()( 3 − 1) = ( 3 ) − 2 3 + 1 = 3 − 2 3 + 1 = 4 − 2
3 −1
2
3
= 2− 3.
3 +1 (
3 + 1)( 3 − 1) ( 3) −1
Solution:
3 −12 2 2

3 +1 1 1 × (2 + 3 ) 2+ 3 2+ 3
∴ = = = = = 2 + 3.
3 − 1 2 − 3 (2 − 3 )(2 + 3 ) 2 − ( 3 ) 4−3 2 2

3 −1
3 +1
+
3 +1
3 −1
( ) ( )
= 2− 3 + 2+ 3 = 4= 4+0 3 .

∴ x+ y 3 = 4+0 3

∴ x = 4, y =0
∴ x2 + y2 = 16 + 0 = 16.

27
 3+ 2 1
Example 19: If x = , find x + .
3− 2 x
3+ 2 ( 3+ 2)( 3 + 2 )
Solution: x =
3− 2
=
( 3 − 2 )( 3 + 2 )

( 3 + 2) 2

( 3) − ( 2 )
= 2 2

3+ 2 3+ 2
= = = 3 + 2.
3− 2 1

∴
1
=
1
=
1
×
3− 2 ( )
x 3+ 2 ( 3+ 2 3− 2 ) ( )
3− 2 3− 2 3− 2
= = = 3− 2.
( 3) − ( 2 )
= 2 2
3−2 1

∴ x+
1
x
= ( 3+ 2 )+ ( 3 − 2 ) = 2 3.

3+ 2 2
Example 20: If a = , find the value a2 (a− 6)2.
3−2 2
Solution:
(3 + 2 2 ) × (3 + 2 2 ) = (3 + 2 2 ) = 3 + 2 2 = 3 + 2 2 . 2

a=
(3 − 2 2 ) (3 + 2 2 ) 3 − 4( 2 ) 9 − 8 2 2

∴ a − 6 = (3 + 2 2 ) − 6 = −3 + 2 2.
∴ a (a − 6) = (3 + 2 2 ) (− 3 + 2 2 ) = [(2 2 + 3)(2 2 − 3)]
2 2 2 2 2

= ⎡(2 2 ) − 3 ⎤ = (8 − 9 ) = 1.
2 2
2 2
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦

2 +1
Example 21: If 2 = 1.414…., find an approximate value of .
2 −1
2 +1 2 +1 2 +1
Solution: = ×
2 −1 2 −1 2 +1
( 2 + 1) = ( 2 + 1) = ( 2 + 1) .
2 2
2

( 2) −1 2 −1
= 2 2

∴
2 +1
= ( 2 + 1) = 2 + 1 = 1.414… + 1 = 2.414…
2

2 −1

28
 Exercise 1.2

1. Answer with reasons whether the following are surds or not:

3 5 4 4
(i) 16 (ii) 2 4 (iii) 729 (iv) 2 2 (v) 50 2

2. Simplify each of the following to the simplest form:

(i) 5 2 + 32 (ii) 3
320 − 3 40
(iii) (5 )(
2 −2 3 4 3+3 2 ) (iv) ( 20 − 12 )( 75 + 45 )
(v) 3
5 5 (vi) 3 ÷ 3
6
(vii) 5
4 ÷ 15 12 (viii) 4
3 ÷3 5 (ix) 3
25 ÷ 5

3. Arrange in ascending order:

(i) 3, 3
5 , 6 11 (ii) 5, 3
7, 4
9 (iii) 3
2, 5, 4
3

4. Rationalize the denominator in each of the following:

18 4 5 +1
(i) (ii) (iii)
6 1+ 2 3 5 −1
1 2− 3 3 2 −2 3
(iv) (v) (vi)
3+ 5 2+ 3 3 3+2 2

5. Find x and y in each of the following:

2+ 3 5+4 3
(i) =x+y 3 (ii) = x+ y 3
2− 3 4+5 3
3+ 5 3− 5 5− 7 5+ 7
(iii) + = x+ y 5 (iv) − = x + y 35
3− 5 3+ 5 5+ 7 5− 7

2+ 3
6. If a = , find the value of a2 (a − 4)2.
2− 3

2 +1 1
7. If a = , find the value of a2 + .
2 −1 a2
3 +1
8. If 3 = 1.732…, find an approximate value of .
3 −1
1
9. If 2 = 1.414… and 3 = 1.732…, find an approximate value of .
2+ 3

29
 Answers

Exercise 1.1

1. (i) 0.328125 (ii) − 1.83 (iii) − 0.35 (iv) 0.4583

7 7 125 86 9
2. (i) (ii) − (iii) (iv) (v)
20 9 999 165 1
3. (i) F (ii) T (iii) T (iv) T (v) T (vi) F (vii) F

Exercise 1.2

1. (i) surd (ii) not a surd (iii) surd (iv) surd (v) not a surd

2. (i) 9 2 (ii) 23 5 (iii) 14 6 + 6 (iv) 4 15 (v) 6

3125
3 16 27 6
(vi) 6 (vii) 15 (viii) 12 (ix) 5
4 3 625

6 3 4 3 3 4
3. (i) 11 , 5, 3 (ii) 9, 7, 5 (iii) 2, 3, 5.

4. (i) 3 6 (ii)
4
11
(
2 3 −1 ) (iii)
1
2
3+ 5( )
(iv)
1
2
( 5− 3 ) (v) 2 6 − 5 (vi)
1
19
(
13 6 − 30 )
40 9
5. (i) x = 7, y = 4 (ii) x = , y=
59 59
(iii) x = 7, y = 0 (iv) x = 0, y = 2

6. a2 (a − 4)2 = 1 7. 34 8. 3.732 9. 0.318

30
 2. MEASUREMENTS
We do measurements in our routine life in several situations. For example, we
measure the length of a cloth for stitching, the area of a wall for white washing, the perimeter
of a land for fencing and the volume of a container for filling. Based upon the measurements,
we do further calculations according to our needs. The branch of mathematics which deals
with the measurement of lengths, angles, areas, perimeters and volumes of plane and solid
figures is called mensuration. In our earlier classes, we have learnt about the areas and
perimeters of some plane geometrical figures such as triangles, quadrilaterals and circles. (All
geometrical figures are drawn in a plane). In this chapter, we shall study about some
combinations of plane figures which are obtained by placing two or more triangles,
quadrilaterals or circles in juxta position. As all figures we consider lie in a plane, we shall
call a plane figure, simply a figure.

2.1 Area and Perimeter

We recall the formulae for the perimeters and areas of plane geometrical figures.

2.1.1 Rectangle

Area = l × b sq.units Figure 2.1

Perimeter = 2 (l + b) units
d= l 2 + b 2 units.

2.1.2 Parallelogram:

Area = b × h sq.units Figure 2.2

Perimeter = 2(a + b) units.

2.1.3 Triangle with a given base and height:

1
Area = b × h sq.units Figure 2.3
2

31
2.1.4 Right triangle:
1
Area = b × h sq.units Figure 2.4
2
Perimeter = b + h + d units
d= b 2 + h 2 units.

2.1.5 Equilateral triangle:

3
altitude = h = a units
2
3 2 Figure 2.5
Area = a sq. units
4
Perimeter = 3a units.

2.1.6 Isosceles triangle:

Area = h a 2 − h 2 sq. units Figure 2.6

( )
Perimeter = 2 a + a 2 − h 2 units.

2.1.7 Scalene triangle:

Area = s( s − a)(s − b)(s − c) sq. units

a+b+c
where s = units Figure 2.7
2
Perimeter = a + b +c units.

2.1.8 Trapezium:

1 Figure 2.8
Area = (a + b) × h sq. units.
2

2.1.9 Quadrilateral:
1
Area = d × (h1 + h2)
2 Figure 2.9
sq.units.

2.1.10 Rhombus:
1
Area = d1 × d2 sq. units Figure 2.10
2
Perimeter = 2 d1 + d 2
2 2
= 4a units.

32
2.1.11 Circle:
Area of the circle = πr2 sq. units
Perimeter of the circle = 2πr units
1
Area of a semicircle = πr2 sq. units
2
Arc length of the semicircle = πr units
1 Figure 2.11
Area of a quadrant circle = πr2 sq. units
4
1
Arc length of a quadrant circle = πr units.
2

Note: A line segment joining the points A and B is denoted by AB or AB. We shall also use
AB to denote the length of AB .

Example 1: A wall in the form of a rectangle has base 15m and height 10m. If the cost of
painting the wall is Rs. 16 per square metre, find the cost for painting the entire wall.
Solution: Let b = 15 and h = 10.
Then the area of the rectangle = b × h = 15 × 10
= 150 sq. metres.
Since the cost of painting 1sq. metre is Rs. 16,
the cost for painting the entire wall = 16 × 150 = Rs. 2400.
Figure 2.12

Example 2: The dimensions of a rectangular metal sheet are 4m × 3m. The sheet is to be cut
into square sheets each of side 4 cm. Find the number of square sheets.
Solution: Area of the metal sheet = 400 × 300 = 12,0000 cm2.

Area of a square sheet = 4 × 4 = 16 cm2.

12,0000
∴ No. of square sheets = = 7500.
16
Figure 2.13

Example 3: Find the base of a parallelogram if its area is 40 cm2 and altitude is 15 cm.
Solution: Area = b × h. ∴ 40 = b × 15.
40 8
∴ b= = .
15 3
8
∴ Base = cm.
3
Figure 2.14

33
Example 4: If the lengths of the sides of a triangle are 11 cm, 60 cm and 61 cm, find the area
and perimeter of the triangle.
Solution: Area = s ( s − a)(s − b)(s − c) .
Here 2s = a + b + c = 11 + 60 + 61 = 132.
∴ s = 66, s − a = 66 − 11 = 55,
s − b = 66 − 60 = 6, s − c = 66 − 61 = 5.
∴ Area = 66 × 55 × 6 × 5 = 330 sq.cm.
Perimeter = a + b + c = 11 + 60 + 61 =132 cm. Figure 2.15

Example 5: Find the area of the quadrilateral ABCD given in Figure 2.16.
1 1
Solution: Area = d (h1 + h2 ) = × 50 × (10 + 20)
2 2
= 25 × 30
= 750 m2

Figure 2.16

Example 6: Find the area of the trapezium ABCD given in Figure 2.17
1
Solution: Area = (a + b) × h
2
1
= (12 + 5) × 4
2
= 34 sq. units.
Figure 2.17

Example 7: Cost of levelling a land is Rs. 12 per square metre. A land is in the form of a
trapezium whose parallel sides are of lengths 18m and 12 m. If its other two sides are each of
length 5m, find the total cost incurred in levelling the land.
Solution: ABCD is the given trapezium where AB = 18m, CD = 12 m, AD = BC = 5 m. Draw
CE parallel to DA (see Figure 2.18). ∆EBC is isosceles whose height
h = 5 2 − 3 2 = 16 = 4cm. Now,
the area of the trapezium ABCD
1 1
= (a + b) × h = (18 + 12) × 4
2 2
= 2 × 30= 60 sq. metre.
The cost of leveling 1 sq. metre is Rs. 12. Figure 2.18
So the cost of levelling the entire land = 60 × 12 = Rs. 720.

34
Example 8: The perimeter of a rhombus is 20 cm. One of the diagonals is of length 8 cm.
Find the length of the other diagonal and the area of the rhombus.
Solution: Let d1 and d2 be the lengths of the diagonals.
Then perimeter = 2 d1 + d 2 . But the perimeter is
2 2

20 cm. ∴ 2 d1 + d 2 = 20 cm or d 1 + d 2 = 100. Here

2 2 2 2

one of the diagonals is of length 8 cm. Take d1 = 8. Then

64 + d22 = 100 or d22 = 36. ∴ d2 = 6 cm. The area of the Figure 2.19
1 1
rhombus is d1 × d2 = × 8 × 6 = 24 cm2.
2 2

Example 9: A wire of length 264 cm is cut into two equal portions. One portion is bent in the
form of a circle and the other in the form of an equilateral triangle. Find the ratio of the areas
22
enclosed by them.(use π ≈ )
7
264
Solution: Perimeter of the circle = =132 cm.
2
But perimeter of the circle = 2πr.
22
∴2× × r = 132 or r = 21 cm.
7
22
∴ Area of the circle = πr2 = × 21 × 21 = 1386 cm2.
7

Perimeter of the equilateral triangle = 3a Figure 2.20

But perimeter = 132 cm.∴ 3a = 132 or a = 44 cm.
3
∴ Area of the equilateral triangle = × a2
4
3
= × 44 2 =484 3 cm2
4
∴ The ratio of the area of circle to that
of the equilateral triangle
= 1386 : 484 3 = 21 3 : 22 Figure 2.21

35
 Exercise 2.1
1. Find the area of a triangle when
(i) base length = 18 cm, height = 3 cm.
(ii) the three sides are of lengths 20 cm, 48 cm and 52 cm.
(iii) the triangle is equilateral with side length = 8 cm.
2. Find the area of the quadrilateral ABCD where the diagonal AC is of length 44 cm
and the lengths of the perpendicular from B and D to AC are 20 cm and 12 cm
respectively.
3. Find the area of the quadrilateral one of whose diagonals is of length 15 cm and the
lengths of the altitudes to this diagonal are 3 cm and 5 cm.
4. The perimeter of a rhombus is 260m and one of its diagonals is of length 66m. Find
the length of the other diagonal and also find the area of the rhombus.
5. If the area of a parallelogram is 612 cm2 and the height is 18 cm, find the base
length.
6. The area of a trapezium whose parallel sides have lengths 7 cm and 8 cm is 30 cm2.
Find the distance between the parallel sides.
7. The distance between the parallel sides of a trapezium is 5 cm and the length of one of
the parallel side is 8 cm. If the area of the trapezium is 45 cm2, find the length of the
other parallel side.
8. Find the perimeter of the circular land whose area is that of a rectangular land of
dimensions 22 cm × 14 cm.

2.2 Combined Figures

Consider a quadrilateral ABCD (see Figure
2.22). Join the line segment BD . Now, the
quadrilateral is divided into two triangles ABD
and BCD. The two triangles have the side BD in
common. Looking in the reverse order, the two Figure 2.22
triangles ∆ABD and ∆BCD are put in juxta
position with BD as the common side and the
quadrilateral ABCD is obtained. Thus ABCD is
the combination of two triangles or ABCD is a
combined figure. Similarly, a trapezium is a
combined figure obtained by placing a rectangle
and two right triangles in juxta position (see Figure 2.23
Figure 2.23). We observe that two figures can be placed in juxta position if one has a side
equal in length to a side of the other.

36
Some combined figures are given in Figure 2.24 to Figure 2.35.

Figure 2.24 Figure 2.25 Figure 2.26

Figure 2.27

Figure 2.28

Figure 2.29

Figure 2.30

Figure 2.31
Figure 2.32

37
 Figure 2.33

Figure 2.35
Figure 2.34

The sides that are in juxta position are shown by dotted lines. We can easily identify
the figures that are combined in Figure 2.24 to Figure 2.35. For example, Figure 2.25 is the
combination of a triangle and a semicircle. It looks like the vertical cross section of a top.
Figure 2.27 is the combined form of a rectangle and a semicircle. It can be viewed as a
rectangular window surmounted by a semicircle. In Figure 2.29, we have the combination of a
rectangle and two quadrant circles. Figure 2.33 is the combined figure of a rectangle, a
triangle and a trapezium. It looks like a rocket. Since the combined figures are the
combination of triangles, quadrilaterals and circles, their perimeters and areas can be
calculated by applying the formulae that we have already learnt in our previous classes.

We now consider two important combined plane figures namely trapeziums and polygons.

2.2.1 Trapezium

A trapezium is a four-sided plane figure in

which two sides are parallel (see Figure 2.36)
Consider the trapezium ABCD where AB and DC
are parallel. Let AB = a and CD = b. Let h be the
distance between the parallel sides. We can consider
the trapezium ABCD as the combined figure of the Figure 2.36
triangles ABC and ACD. For the triangle ABC, the
side, AB is the base and h is the height. For the triangle ACD, CD is the base and h is the
height. So,
1 1
Area of ∆ABC = × a × h and Area of ∆ACD = ×b×h
2 2
1 1 1
∴Area of the trapezium = × a × h + × b × h = (a + b)h sq. units.
2 2 2

38
2.2.2 Polygon

A polygon is a plane figure formed by n line

segments. We observe that combined figure of several
triangles is a polygon. If the sides and angles of a
polygon are equal, then the polygon is known as a
regular polygon. A regular polygon of six sides is
called regular hexagon. In a regular hexagon, all the
six sides are equal and all the included angles are
equal to 120° (see Figure 2.37). As this particular
Figure 2.37 regular polygon is quite often used we shall derive its
perimeter and area. Let ABCDEF be a regular
hexagon. Then the sides AB, BC, CD, DE, EF and FA
are of equal length. Let each side be of length a units. Then the perimeter of the regular
hexagon is a + a + a + a + a + a = 6a units. We shall now derive a formula for the area of
the regular hexagon.
The diagonals AD , BE , CF meet at a point, say O. Then the triangles OAB, OBC, OCD,
3 2
ODE, OEF, OFA are equilateral triangles. So, the area of each triangle is a . Hence the
4
3 2 3 3 2
area of the regular hexagon = 6 × a = a sq. units.
4 2

Example 10: Find the area of Figure 2.38

Solution: The figure ABCDE is the
combination of ABDE and BCD with the side
BD in juxta position. ABDE is a trapezium
where the parallel sides AE and BD have
lengths 10 cm and 16 cm respectively. The Figure 2.38
distance between the parallel sides is 9 cm.
So, the area of the trapezium ABDE is
1 1
( a + b) × h = (10 + 16) × 9 = 117cm 2 .
2 2
BCD is a triangle whose base BD is of length 16 cm and height 8 cm. So its area is
1 1
b × h = × 16 × 8 = 64cm 2 .
2 2
∴ The area of the combined figure ABCDE is
Area of ABDE + Area of BCD= 117+64 = 181 cm2.

39
Example 11: A surveyor has sketched the measurements of a land as below.

Figure 2.39

Find the area of the land.

Solution: Let P, Q, R, S, be the surveyors marks from A to D.
Then AP = 5m, AQ = 7m, AR = 12m, AS = 15m, AD = 17m, BP = 10m, FQ = 8m, CR = 8m,
ES = 9m.
The given land is the combination of the trapeziums. PRCB, FESQ and triangles AQF, APB,
DSE and CRD (see Figure 2.40).

Area of the trapezium PRCB: The parallel

sides are BP and CR and height is PR. We
have BP = 10m, CR = 8m, and
PR = AR − AP = 12 − 5 = 7m.
So, the area of PRCB is
1 (BP + CR) × PR = 1 (10 + 8) × 7 = 63 m2
2 2
Figure 2.40
Area of the trapezium QFES: The parallel sides are ES and FQ and height is QS. We have
ES = 9m, FQ = 8m and QS = AS − AQ = 15 − 7 = 8m. So, the area of QFES is
1 (ES + FQ) × QS = 1 (9 + 8) × 8 = 17 × 4 = 68 m2
2 2
Area of the triangle AQF = 1 × AQ × FQ = 1 × 7 × 8 = 28 m2
2 2
Area of the triangle DSE = 1 × DS × ES = 1 ×(AD − AS) × 9
2 2
= 1 (17 − 15) × 9 = 1 × 2 × 9 = 9 m2.
2 2
Area of the triangle CRD = 1 × RD × CR = 1 × (AD − AR) × 8
2 2
= 4 × (17 − 12)= 4 × 5 = 20 m2.
Area of the triangle APB = 1 × AP × BP = 1 × 5 × 10 = 25m2
2 2
∴ Area of the land = 63 + 68 + 28 + 9 + 20 + 25 = 213 m2.

40
Example 12: Find the area of the design as shown in Figure 2.41. (π ≈ 22 )
7

Figure 2. 41

Solution: We observe that the plot is a combination of the rectangle ABDE, the semi-circle
AFE and the equilateral triangle BCD.
The area of the rectangle ABDE = 20 × 14 = 280 cm2.
The area of the semicircle AFE = 1 π × r2 = 1 × 22 × 7 × 7 = 77 cm2
2 2 7
The area of the equilateral triangle BCD = 3 a = 3 × 14 × 14 = 49 3 cm2.
2
4 4
∴ The area of the plot = 280 + 77 + 49 3 = 357 + 49 × 1.732
= 357 + 84.868 = 441.868 cm2

Example 13: Find the area of the design as in Figure 2.42. (Take π≈ 22 )
7

Figure 2.42
Solution: We observe that the plot is the combination of the rectangle ABCD, the semi-circle
CDE and the quadrant circles AFD, BCG.
The area of the rectangle ABCD = 12 × 4 = 48 cm2.
The area of the semi-circle CDE = 1 π × 6 × 6 = 22 × 3 × 6 = 396 = 56 4 cm2.
2 7 7 7
4
The area of the quadrant circle AFD = 1 π × 4 × 4 = 22 × 4 = 88 = 12 cm2.
4 7 7 7
4
The area of the quadrant circle BCG = 12 cm2.
7
4 4 4 12 5
∴ The area of the given plot = 48 + 56 + 12 + 12 = 128 = 129 cm2.
7 7 7 7 7

41
Example 14: Find the area enclosed by Figure 2.43

Figure 2.43
Solution: The figure is the combination of the rectangle CDFG, the semi circle DEF and the
trapezium ABCG.
The area of the rectangle CDFG = 28 × 13 = 364 cm2.
The area of the trapezium ABCG = 1 (36 + 28) × 14 = 64 × 7 = 448 cm2.
2
The area of the semi-circle DEF = 1 × 22 × 14 × 14 = 22 × 14 = 308 cm2
2 7
∴ The area of the given design = 364 + 448 + 308 = 1120 cm2.

Sometimes, we come across plane figures which are obtained by cutting out and
removing plane figures from a bigger one. Their areas can be found as before but instead of
summing up the smaller areas, we subtract the areas of the removed parts from the area of the
bigger figure.

Area of a circular ring

A circular ring is the region in between two concentric circles (see Figure 2.44). The
area of the ring is equal to the area of the outer circle minus the area of the inner circle; that
is, π R2 − π r2 or π (R2 − r2).

Figure 2.44

∴ The area of the semi-circular ring is 1 π (R2 − r2) sq. units.

2

42
Example 15: Find the area of the shaded region in Figure 2.45, where the boundaries of the
region are quadrants of a circle. (Take π ≈ 22 ).
7

Figure 2.45.
Solution: The given region is that which remains after cutting away four equal quadrants each
of radius 14 cm from a square of side 28 cm.
The area of the square = 28 × 28 = 784 cm2.
The area of one quadrant circle = 1 π × 14 × 14 = 1 × 22 × 14 × 14 = 154 cm2.
4 4 7
∴ Required area = 784 − 4(154) = 784 − 616 = 168 sq. cm.

Example 16: A running track of 7m wide is as shown in Figure 2.46. The inside perimeter is
720m and the length of each straight portion is 140m. The curved portions are in the form of
semi-circles. Find the area of the track. (use π ≈ 22 )
7

Figure 2.46
Solution: Let r be the radius of the inner semicircles. Then the inside perimeter is
2 × 140 + 2 × (π × r) or 280 + 2πr. But this is given as 720m.
∴ 280 + 2πr = 720 or 2πr = 440 or r = 440 = 440 × 7 = 70 m.
2π 2 × 22
So the radius of the inner semicircle r = 70m.
∴The radius of the outer semicircle R = 70 + 7 = 77m.
Now the area of the running track is equal to the sum of the areas of the semicircular tracks
and the areas of the rectangular tracks. But, the area of one semi-circular track
= 1 π (R2 − r2) = 1 × 22 (772 − 702) = 11 × 147 × 7 = 1617 sq.m
2 2 7 7
The area of one rectangular track = 140 × 7 = 980 sq. m.
∴ Area of the track = 2 × 1617 + 2 × 980 = 3234 + 1960 = 5194 sq.m.

43
Example 17: A cow is tied up for grazing at one outside corner of a square building of length
4.2m. If the length of the rope is 4.9 m, find the area the cow can graze.
Solution: The cow is tied up at the corner point A of the
square (see Figure 2.47). The rope is of length 4.9m and
the side wall is of length 4.2m. As the cow cannot cross
the wall, its rope can go upto D and G at the corners B
and E of the square. Thus, the cow can graze the 3 th of a
4
circular region of radius 4.9m and two quadrant circular
regions of radius 4.9 − 4.2 = 0.7m.

∴ Area, the cow can graze Figure 2.47

= 3 × π × 4.9 × 4.9 + 2 × 1 × π × 0.7 × 0.7
4 4
= 3 × 22 × 4.9 × 4.9 + 1 × 22 × 0.7 × 0.7
4 7 2 7
= 33 × 0.7 × 4.9 + 11 × 0.1 × 0.7= 56. 595 + 0.77 = 57.365m2.
2

Example 18: Find the area of the shaded portion in Figure 2.48 (Take π≈ 22 )
7

Figure 2.48

Solution: The area of the shaded portion is equal to

the area of the semicircle of radius 14 cm minus the area of the semicircle of radius 7 cm.
That is, 1 × π × (14)2 − 1 × π × (7)2
2 2
or 1 × 22 × 14 × 14 −1 × 22 × 7 × 7 = 11 × 2 × 14 − 11 × 7
2 7 2 7
= 308 − 77 = 231 cm2.

44
 Exercise 2.2
1. From each of the following notes in the field book of a surveyor, make a rough plan of
the field and find its area
(i) (ii)

Figure 2.49 Figure 2.50

(iii)

Figure 2.51

2. A play ground is to be constructed with two

straight segments and two semicircular
segments as shown in Figure 2.52. The radius of
each semicircular segment is 21m. The length of
each of the straight segment is 85m. Find the Figure 2.52
area of the playground. (Take π ≈ 22 )
7
3. A trapezium has parallel sides of lengths 22 cm and 12 cm. Find its area, if the other
two sides are each of length 10 cm.

45
4. If the area of a regular hexagon is 150 3 cm2, find the side.

5. Find the area of the shaded region is Figure 2.53.

Figure 2.53

6. Find the area of the shaded region in the following figures:

(i) (ii)

Figure 2.54 Figure 2.55

(iii) (iv)

Figure 2.56 Figure 2.57

7. A circle has diameter 54 cm. One of its diameter is AB . C is a point on the line
segment AB such that BC = 10 cm. A circle is drawn on AC as diameter. Find the
area included between them. Take π ≈ 22 .
7

46
8. Find the area and perimeter of the shaded portion in Figure 2.58.

Figure 2.58
9. Four cows are tied to the four corners of a square plot of side measuring 14 m. so that
each can reach just two of the other cows. These cows eat the grass inside the plot
within their range. Find what area of the plot is left ungrazed. Take π ≈ 22 .
7

10. ABCD is a rectangular plot of dimensions 36m × 24m. 4 horses are tied to the four
corners of the plot, each with a rope of length 10m. Each horse reaches as far as
possible for grazing. Find the area of the portion of the plot which is left ungrazed.
Take π ≈ 22 .
7

Answers

Exercise 2.1

1. (i) 27 cm2 (ii) 480 cm2 (iii) 27.71 cm2

2. 704 cm2 3. 60cm2 4. 112 m, 3696 m2
5. 34 cm 6. 4 cm 7. 10 cm
8. 62.22cm

Exercise 2.2

1. (i). 27,200 sq.m (ii). 15,100 sq.m (iii). 7,525 sq.m

2. 4,956 sq.m 3. 147.22 cm2 4. 10cm
5. 140 m2
6. (i) 36.33 sq.cm (ii) 25m2 (iii) 37.71cm2 (iv) 240.28 cm2
7. 770 cm2 8. 354.37cm2, 94cm 9. 42m2 10. 549.71m2

47
 3. SOME USEFUL NOTATION
3.1 Scientific Notation
In subjects, such as astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology and engineering, we come
across very large numbers and very small numbers. For example, we have,
(i) the distance of sun from earth is about 92,900,000 miles.
(ii) the average cell contains about 200, 000,000,000,000 molecules.
(iii) the life-time of an elementary particle is 0.000000000251 seconds.
(iv) the diameter of an electron is about 0.000000000004 centimeter.
Such numbers are not so easy to write and manipulate in the decimal form. However, they can
be written and manipulated easily using the laws of indices. We recall the laws of indices
which we have already learnt in our earlier classes. If m is a natural number and a is a real
number, then am means the product of m numbers each equal to a; that is, am = a × a ×…. m
factors. Here a is called the base and m, the power or exponent or index. The notation am is
read as a to the power m or a raised to m. For example, a5 = a × a × a × a × a.
The laws of indices are given below:
(i) am × an = a m+ n (Product law)
am
(ii) = a m − n , a ≠ 0, m > n (Quotient law)
an
(iii) (am)n = amn (Power law)
(iv) am × bm = (a × b)m (Combination law)
1
When a ≠ 0, we denote m as a− m and define a0 = 1.
a
Now, using the laws of indices, any positive real number can be written in the form
a × 10n, where 1 ≤ a < 10 and n is an integer. For example,
(i) 7.32 = 7.32 × 100
(ii) 11.2 = 1.12 × 10 =1.12×101
(iii) 226 = 2.26 × 100 = 2.26 × 102
(iv) 6435.7 = 6.4357 × 1000 = 6.4357 × 103
(v) 92900000 = 9.29 × 10000000 = 9.29 × 107
2.56
(vi) 0.256 = = 2.56 × 10−1
10
7.86
(vii) 0.00786 = = 7.86 × 10−3
1000
(viii) 0.000000537 = 5.37 × 10−7
(ix) 0.0000000279 = 2.79 × 10−8

48
 Here after, by a number, we shall mean a positive number only. We again mention
that, when a number is written in scientific notation a × 10n, the integral part of the number, a
is a digit from 1 to 9 and the power of 10 is an integer (positive, negative or zero). We also
observe that while converting a given number into the scientific notation, if the decimal point
is moved r places to the left, then this movement is compensated by the factor 10r; and if the
decimal point is moved r places to the right, then this movement is compensated by the factor
10− r .

When very large or very small numbers are put in the scientific notation, they can be
multiplied or divided easily in this form.

Example 1: Write the following numbers in scientific notation:

(i) 7493 (ii) 105001 (iii) 3449099.93
(iv) 0.00567 (v) 0.0002079 (vi) 0.000001024
Solution:

Example 2: Write the following numbers in decimal form:

(i) 3.25 × 105 (ii) 1.86 × 107 (iii) 9.87 × 109
(iv) 4.02 × 10−4 (v) 1.423 × 10−6 (vi) 3.25 × 10−9.

49
 325
Solution: (i) 3.25 × 105 = 2
× 105 = 325 × 105 − 2 = 325 × 103 = 325000
10
186
(ii) 1.86 × 10 = 2 × 107 = 186 × 107−2 = 186 × 105 = 18600000.
7
10
987
(iii) 9.87 × 109 = 2 × 109 = 987 × 109 − 2 = 987 × 107 = 9870000000.
10
402
(iv) 4.02 × 10−4 = 2 × 10−4 = 402 × 10−4− 2 = 402 × 10−6 = 0.000402.
10
1423
(v) 1.423 × 10−6 = × 10−6 = 1423 × 10−6 − 3 = 1423 × 10−9 =0.000001423.
10 3
325
(vi) 3.25 × 10−9 = 2 × 10−9 = 325 × 10−9 − 2 = 325 × 10−11 =0.00000000325.
10

Example 3: Perform the calculation and write the answer of the following in scientific
notation.
(i) (3000000)3 (ii) (4000)5 × (200)3
(iii) (0.00005)4 (iv) (2000)2 ÷ (0.0001)4
Solution :
(i) 3000000 = 3.0 × 106.

∴ (3000000)3 = (3.0 × 106)3 = (3.0)3 × (106)3

= 3 × 3 × 3 × 106×3
= 27 × 1018
= 2.7 × 10 × 1018 = 2.7 × 1019.

(ii) 4000 = 4.0 × 103, 200 = 2.0 × 102

∴ (4000)5 × (200)3 = (4.0 × 103)5 × (2.0 × 102)3

= (4.0)5 × (103)5 × (2.0)3 × (102)3
= 1024 × 103×5 × 8 × 102×3
= 1024 × 1015 × 8 × 106
= 8192 × 1021= 8.192 × 103 × 1021= 8.192 × 1024.

(iii) 0.00005 = 5.0 × 10−5

∴ (0.00005)4 = (5.0 × 10−5)4

= (5.0)4 × (10−5)4 = 625 × 10−5×4
= 625 × 10−20 = 6.25 × 102 × 10−20 = 6.25 × 10−18.

50
(iv) 2000 = 2.0 × 103, 0.0001 = 1.0 × 10−4

(2.0 × 10 3 ) 2 (2.0) 2 × (10 3 ) 2 4 × 10 3×2

∴ (2000)2 ÷ (0.0001)4 = = =
(1.0 × 10 − 4 ) 4 (1.0) 4 × (10 − 4 ) 4 1 × 10 − 4×4
4 × 10 6
= = 4 × 10 6−( −16 ) = 4 × 10 22 .
10 −16
Exercise 3.1

1. Represent the following numbers in the scientific notation:

(i) 29980000000 (ii) 1300000000
(iii) 1083000000000 (iv) 4300000000
(v) 9463000000000000 (vi) 534900000000000000
(vii) 0.0037 (viii) 0.000107
(ix) 0.00008035 (x) 0.0000013307
(xi) 0.00000000011 (xii) 0.0000000000009

2. Write the following numbers in decimal form:

(i) 3.25 × 10−6 (ii) 4.02 × 10−5
(iii) 4.132 × 10−4 (iv) 1.432 × 10−3
(v) 3.25 × 106 (vi) 4.02 × 105
(vii) 4.132 × 10 4
(viii) 1.432 × 103

3. Find the value of the following in scientific notation:

(i) (100)3 × (40)5 (ii) (21000)2 × (0.001)4
(iii) (18000)4 ÷ (30000)2 (iv) (0.002)8 × (0.0001)3 ÷ (0.01)4
(v) (120000) × (0.0005) ÷ (400000)
2

3.2 Notation of logarithm

John Napier, an English mathematician introduced the notation of logarithm as a
mathematical device to do calculations easily and quickly. The word logarithm is derived
from two Greek words ‘logos’ and ‘arithmos’. The word logos means reckoning and
arithmos means number. Thus logarithm means reckoning number. To introduce the notation
of logarithm, we shall first know about exponential notation.

3.2.1 Exponential notation

Let a be a positive number. We have already introduced the notation ax ,where x is an integer.
p
When x is a rational number, say with p, an integer and q, a positive integer, we define ax
q
p
x ⎛q ⎞
by a = ⎜ a ⎟
⎝ ⎠

( 5) ( 7)
8 −4
−4
For example, 5 =
3 3 8
,7 11
= 11
.

51
 When x is an irrational number, ax can be defined to represent a real number. But the
definition requires some advanced topics in mathematics. Although it is not required in our
standard, we accept now that, for any a > 0, ax can be defined and that it represents an unique
real number u and write u = ax. In this situation, we say that the real number u is written in the
exponential form or in the exponential notation. Here the positive number a is called the
base and x, the index or the power or the exponent. The laws of indices which we have
stated for integer exponents can be obtained for all real exponents. We state them here and
call them, the laws of exponents:

x+ y
(iv) a − x =
y 1
(i) a x × a =a
ax
ax x− y
(ii) =a (v) a x × b x = (a × b ) x
y
a
y
(iii) ⎜⎛ a x ⎞⎟ = a
xy
(vi) a 0 = 1
⎝ ⎠

Now we are in a position to introduce the notation of logarithm.

3.2.2 Logarithmic notation

Let b be a positive number and b ≠ 1. We have already understood that, for any real
number x, bx represents a unique real number, say a. If we write a = bx, then the exponent x is
called the logarithm of a to the base b. We also call x, the value of log a. Thus, x = log a
b b
x
is an equivalent form of a = b . We say that x = log a is the logarithmic form of the
b
x
exponential form a = b . In both the forms, the base is same. We observe that x = log a is an
b
x
equivalent way of writing a = b . The notation x = log a is called the logarithmic notation
b
x
and it means the equation a = b .
For example,
(i) 3 = log 9 729 is equivalent to 93 = 729;
1
1
(ii) = log 8 2 is equivalent to 8 3 = 2;
3
(iii) −3 = log 10 0.001 is equivalent to 10−3 = 0.001;
(iv) 2 = log 7 49 is equivalent to 72 = 49;
1
1
(v) = log 9 3 is equivalent to 9 2 = 3 or 9 = 3 ;
2
−3
3 ⎛1⎞ 1
(vi) − = log 4 ⎜ ⎟ is equivalent to 4 2 = .
2 ⎝8⎠ 8

52
Note: The base must be specified in logarithmic notation. If we write y = log x, then it is
meaningless since its equivalent can not be written unless the base is given. However, in some
situations, we write logarithms, omitting their bases. In such cases, it is understood that all
logarithms have the same base.

Example 4: Change the following from logarithmic form to exponential form:

1 ⎛1⎞ 1 ⎛1⎞
(i) log 25 5 = (ii) log 2 ⎜ ⎟ = −2 (iii) log 216 6 = (iv) log 3 ⎜ ⎟ = −2
2 ⎝4⎠ 3 ⎝9⎠
Solution: As base is same in both forms,
(i) log 25 5 = is equivalent to (25) 2 = 5.
1 1

2
⎛1⎞
(ii) log 2 ⎜ ⎟ = −2 is equivalent to (2 ) = .
−2 1
⎝4⎠ 4
(iii) log 216 6 = is equivalent to (216 ) 3 = 6.
1 1

3
⎛1⎞ 1
(iv) log 3 ⎜ ⎟ = −2 is equivalent to (3)−2= .
⎝9⎠ 9
Example 5: Change the following from exponential form to logarithmic form:
−2
⎛1⎞ 3 1
1
−3 1 1
(i) 2 = 64 6
(ii) 9 = (iii) ⎜ ⎟ = (iv) = 7 −1
729 ⎝8⎠ 4 7
Solution: As base is same in both forms, we have
1
1
(i) 2 = 64 6 is equivalent to = log 64 2.
6
1 ⎛ 1 ⎞
(ii) 9−3 = is equivalent to −3 = log 9 ⎜ ⎟.
729 ⎝ 729 ⎠
2
⎛1⎞3 1 2 ⎛1⎞
(iii) ⎜ ⎟ = is equivalent to = log 1 ⎜ ⎟.
⎝8⎠ 4 3 8⎝ ⎠
4
1 ⎛1⎞
(iv) = 7−1 is equivalent to −1 = log 7 ⎜ ⎟.
7 ⎝7⎠

Example 6: Evaluate
⎛ 1 ⎞
(i) log 9 729 (ii) log 4 8 (iii) log 9 ⎜ ⎟ (iv) log 3 ( 243) −1 .
⎝ 27 ⎠
Solution : (i) Let x = log 9 729. Then 9 = 729 = 93.
x ⎛ 1 ⎞
(iii) Let x = log 9 ⎜ ⎟ .
∴ x = 3. ⎝ 27 ⎠
1 1
(ii) Let x = log 4 8. Then 4x = 8 = 23 Then 9x= = 3 = 3 −3
But 4x = (22)x = 22x. 27 3
x 2 x
3 But 9 = (3 ) = 32x
∴ 2 = 2 . ∴ 2x = 3 or x =
2x 3
−3
2 ∴ 32x = 3−3, 2x= −3 or x = .
2

53
(iv) Let x = log 3 ( 243) −1
1 1
Then 3x = (243)−1 = = 5 = 3−5
243 3
or 3x =3−5 or x = −5.

Example 7: Solve the equations:

(i) log 3 x = −2 (ii) log b 100 = 2
(iii) x = log ⎛ 1 ⎞ 512 (iv) x + 2 log 27 9 = 0.
⎜ ⎟
⎝8⎠

Solution:
(i) log 3 x = −2 (ii) log b 100 = 2
1 1 ∴ b2 = 100 = 102. ∴ b = 10.
∴ 3−2 = x or x = = . x
3 2
9 ⎛1⎞
(iii) x = log ⎛ 1 ⎞ 512. ∴ ⎜ ⎟ = 512 = 8 3 .
⎜ ⎟
⎝8⎠
⎝8⎠
(iv) x + 2 log 27 9 = 0
or (8−1)x = 83 or 8−x = 83.
−x ∴ −x = 3 or x = −3.
∴ x = −2 log 27 9 or = log 27 9
2
−x −x −3 x
∴ (27) 2
= 9 or (33 ) 2
= 3 2 or (3) 2
= 32

− 3x −4
∴ = 2 or x = .
2 3

Now we proceed to state and prove some properties of logarithms of positive numbers.
All positive numbers other than 1 are considered.

(i) Product rule: If a, m and n are positive numbers and a ≠1, then
log ( mn) = log m + log n
a a a
Proof: Let log m = x and log n = y .
a a
Then, m = ax and n = ay.
∴ m × n = ax × ay or mn = ax+y.
This is in exponential form. Writing this in the logarithmic form, we get

log ( mn) = x + y or log ( mn) = log m + log n .

a a a a

In words, the above rule states that the logarithm of the product of two positive numbers is
equal to sum of the logarithms of the numbers.

(ii) Quotient rule: If m, n and a are positive numbers and a ≠ 1, then,

⎛m⎞
log ⎜ ⎟ = log m − log n .
a⎝ n ⎠ a a

54
 Proof: Let log m = x and log n = y .
a a
Then m = a and n = ay.
x

m ax
∴ = y = ax−y.
n a

This is in exponential form. Writing this in logarithmic form, we get

⎛m⎞ ⎛m⎞
log ⎜ ⎟ = x − y or log ⎜ ⎟ = log m − log n.
a⎝ n ⎠ a⎝ n ⎠ a a

m
In words, the quotient rule states that the logarithm of the quotient is equal to the
n
difference log m − log n .
a a

(iii) Power rule: If a and m are positive numbers, a ≠ 1 and n is a real number, then
log m n = n log m .
a a
Proof: Let log m = x . Then m = a . Raising to the power n on both sides, we get
x
a
mn = (ax)n =ax n . This is in exponential form. Writing this in the notation of logarithm, we get
log m n = nx or
a
log m n = n log m.
a a

(iv) If a is a positive number, then log 1 = 0

a
Proof: Let x = log 1 . Then ax = 1 = a0.
a
∴ x = 0 or
log 1 = 0.
a

(v) If a is a positive number, then log a a = 1.

Proof: Let x = log a . Then ax = a = a1.
a
∴ x = 1 or log a = 1.
a

(vi) Change of base rule: If m, n and p are positive numbers and n ≠ 1, p ≠ 1, then

n ⎝ p ⎠
(
log m = ⎛⎜ log m ⎞⎟ × log p .
n
)
Proof: Let x = log m and y = log p.
p n
x y
Then p = m and n = p. Eliminating p with these equations, we get
(n )
y x
= m or n xy = m.

55
This is in exponential form. Writing this in the logarithmic form, we get
log n m = xy or

log n m = (log p m )× (log n p ).

(vii) Reciprocal rule: If m and n are positive numbers other than 1, then
1
log n m = .
log m n

x
1
×x ⎛ 1x ⎞
Proof: Let log x
n = x . Then m = n = n x
= ⎜⎜ n ⎟⎟ .
m
⎝ ⎠
1

∴ m = n . This is in exponential form. Writing this in the logarithmic form, we get

x

1
log m =
1
or log n m = .
n x log m n

log a
(viii) If a and b are any two positive numbers and b ≠ 1, then b b = a .
Proof: Let x = log a . Then bx = a. Substituting for x in this equation, we get
b
log a
b b = a.

(ix) Let m, n and a be positive numbers and a ≠ 1. If log m = log n, then m = n.

a a
Proof: Let x = log m .Then x = log n .
a a
log m
∴ ax = n or a a = n or m = n (by property (viii)).

Note: We are avoiding 1 in the base of all logarithms because if we consider one such
logarithm, say log1 9 with 1 in the base, then x = log1 9 would give 1x = 9. We know that
there is no real number x such that 1x = 9.

Caution: Some errors which are commonly committed are

⎛ m ⎞ log a m
(1) log ⎜ ⎟ = ,
a ⎝ n ⎠ log n
a
(2) log (m + n) = log m + log n.
a a a
log m
(1) is wrong since L.H.S. = log m − log n ≠ a .
a a log n
a
(2) is incorrect since R.H.S. = log (mn) ≠ log (m + n).
a a

56
 1
Example 8: Simplify: (i) log 3 27 + log 3 729 (ii) log 5 8 + log 5
1000
Solution: (i) Since the expression is the sum of two logarithms and the bases are equal, we
can apply the product rule.
log 3 27 + log 3 729 = log (27 × 729)
3

= log 3 (33 × 3 6 )
= log 3 39 = 9 × log 3 3 = 9 × 1 = 9.

1 ⎛ 1 ⎞
(ii) log 5 8 + log 5 = log 5 ⎜ 8 × ⎟
1000 ⎝ 1000 ⎠
⎛ 1 ⎞
= log 5 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 125 ⎠
= log 5 ⎜ 3 ⎟ = log 5 (5 −3 )
⎛ 1⎞
⎝5 ⎠
= (−3) × log 5 5 = (−3) × 1 = −3.

Example 9: Simplify:
1
(i) log 7 98 − log 7 14 (ii) log 9 36 + 2 log 9 4 − 3 log 9 4
2
⎛ 98 ⎞
Solution: (i) log 7 98 − log 7 14 = log 7 ⎜ ⎟ = log 7 7 = 1.
⎝ 14 ⎠
1 ⎛ 12 ⎞
(ii) log 9 36 + 2 log 9 4 − 3 log 9 4 = log 9 ⎜⎜ 36 ⎟⎟ + log 9 4 2 − log 9 4 3
2 ⎝ ⎠
= log 9 6 + log 9 16 − log 9 64
= log 9 (6 × 16) − log 9 64
= log 9 96 − log 9 64
⎛ 96 ⎞ ⎛3⎞
= log 9 ⎜ ⎟ = log 9 ⎜ ⎟.
⎝ 64 ⎠ ⎝2⎠

Example 10: Prove

1 1
(i) log10 1250 = 4 − 3 log10 2 (ii) log 5 1875 = log 5 36 − log 5 8 + 20 log 32 2.
2 3
Solution: (i) R.H.S. = 4 − 3 log10 2 = 4 − log 10 2 3
= 4 × log10 10 − log10 8
= log 10 10 4 − log 10 8
= log10 10000 − log10 8
⎛ 10000 ⎞
= log 10 ⎜ ⎟ = log 10 1250 = L.H.S.
⎝ 8 ⎠

57
 1 1
1 1
(ii) R.H.S. = log 5 36 − log 5 8 + 20 log 32 2 = log 5 (36) 2 − log 5 (8) 3 + 4 × 5 log 32 2
2 3
= log 5 6 − log 5 2 + 4 log 32 2 5
⎛6⎞ ⎛6⎞
= log 5 ⎜ ⎟ + 4 log 32 32 = log 5 ⎜ ⎟ + 4
⎝2⎠ ⎝2⎠
= log 5 3 + 4 log 5 5 = log 5 3 + log 5 5 4
= log 5 3 + log 5 625
= log 5 (3 × 625) = log 5 1875 = L.H .S .

Example 11: Prove that log 3 4 × log 4 5 × log 5 6 × log 6 7 × log 7 8 × log 8 9 = 2 .
Solution: L.H.S. = (log 3 4 × log 4 5) × (log 5 6 × log 6 7 ) × (log 7 8 × log 8 9)
= log 3 5 × log 5 7 × log 7 9 = log 3 5 × (log 5 7 × log 7 9)
= log 3 5 × log 5 9 = log 3 9 = log 3 3 2 = 2 log 3 3 = 2 × 1 = 2 = R.H.S.

Example 12: Solve log10 (2 x + 50) = 3.

Solution: Writing the equation in the exponential form, we get
2x + 50 = 103 = 1000 or 2x = 1000 − 50 = 950 or x = 475.

− 3 log 9 2
Example 13: Find the value of 81 .
− 3 log 9 2 ⎛ 2 ⎞ − 3 log 9 2
Solution: 81 = ⎜9 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
− 6 log 9 2 log 2 − 6
= 2 − 6 . (Since b b = a )
log a
=9 = 9 9
1 1
= 6 = .
2 64

Example 14: Solve log 6 2 x − log 6 ( x + 1) = 0.

⎛ 2x ⎞
Solution: Using the quotient law, we can write the equation as log 6 ⎜ ⎟ = 0. Changing
⎝ x +1⎠
into exponential form, we get
2x
= 6 0 = 1 or 2x = x + 1 or x = 1.
x +1

Example 15: Solve log 3 (7 − x) − log 3 (1 − x) = 1.

⎛7− x⎞
Solution: Using the quotient law, the equation can be written as log 3 ⎜ ⎟ = 1.
⎝ 1− x ⎠
Writing in the exponential form, we get
7−x
= 31 = 3 or 7 − x = 3(1 − x ) or 7 − x = 3 − 3x or 2x = −4 or x = −2.
1− x

58
Example 16: Solve log 2 (log 3 x ) = 2 .
Solution: Put y = log 3 x. Then the equation becomes log 2 y = 2. Writing the equation in the
exponential form, we get y = 2 2 = 4 or log 3 x = 4. Again, writing in the exponential form,
we get x = 3 4 or x = 81.

Example 17: Solve 2 log 5 3 × log 9 x + 1 = log 5 3 .

Solution: Rewriting the equation, we get
log 5 3 2 × log 9 x = log 5 3 − 1
⎛3⎞
or log 5 9 × log 9 x = log 5 3 − log 5 5 = log 5 ⎜ ⎟.
⎝5⎠
⎛3⎞ 3
Using the change of base rule, we get log 5 x = log 5 ⎜ ⎟ . ∴ x = .
⎝5⎠ 5

Exercise 3.2.1

1. Write true or false in the following:

(i) log 3 243 = 5 (ii) log 1 27 = 3
3

⎛ 16 ⎞ 16
(iii) log 2 ⎜ − 4 ⎟ = log − log 2 4. (iv) log 2 (8 − 4) = log 2 8 − log 2 4.
⎝ 3 ⎠ 3
(v) log 1 a = −1 (vi) log a (m + n) = log a m + log a n.
a

2. Obtain the equivalent logarithm form of the following:

2
−
⎛1⎞ 3
(i) 5 −2 = 0.04. (ii) ⎜ ⎟ = 4. (iii) 4 4 = 256.
⎝8⎠
3
− 1
(iv) 36= 729. (v) 36 2
= (vi) 10 −3 = 0.001.
216

3. Find the value in the following:

(i) log 5 625 (ii) log 6 216 (iii) log 3
9
1
(iv) log 9 (v) log 1 81 (vi) log 2 4 2
3 3
2 log 6 log 8 −2 log 2
10 5 9
(vii) 10 (viii) 25 (ix) 9

4. Solve for the unknown:

(i) logx 0.001 = −3 (vi) log 2 x = 3
(ii) log 1 x = 7 (vii) log 5 25 c = 4
2

59
 ⎛N⎞
(iii) log x 100 = −2 (viii) log 3 ⎜ ⎟ = 4
⎝2⎠
a
⎛ 1 ⎞
(iv) log b 125 = 3 (ix) log 10 ⎜ ⎟ =1
⎝ 1000 ⎠
⎛1⎞
(v) log 2 ⎜ ⎟ = 5 (x) 2 log 9 N = 1
⎝ x⎠

5. Choose the correct answer from the alternatives given for each of the following:
(i) If 3 log x 5 = 1, then x is
(A) 5 (B) 25 (C) 125 (D) 625
1
(ii) log14 + log12 144 =
196
(A) 0 (B) 1 (C) 2 (D) 3
(iii) The value of log 4 1024 =
(A) 10 (B) 8 (C) 7 (D) 5
(iv) If log a 4 = 2 log a x, then x =
(A) 0 (B) 1 (C) 2 (D) 3
(v) If 2 log16 x = 1, then x =
(A) 4 (B) 8 (C) 16 (D) 32
(vi) If log 5 x = 2 then x =
(A) 5 (B) 25 (C) 125 (D) 625

6. Simplify the expression into a single logarithm in each of the following:

(i) log10 2 + log10 9.
(ii) 3 log 3 2 + 4 log 3 3 − 8.
(iii) 5 − 2 log 2 3 + 3 log 2 4 + 2 log 2 6.
(iv) 2 log 4 2 + 3 log 2 5 − log 2 15 + log 2 7 .
(v) 5 log10 2 + 2 log10 3 − 6 log 64 4 .
(vi) log10 5 + log10 20 − log10 24 + log10 25 − 3.

7. Given log a 2 = x, log a 3 = y, log a 5 = z and log a 7 = t , find value in each of the following
in terms of x, y, z and t.
(i) log a 6 (ii) log a 4 (iii) log a 1.5 (iv) log a 27
1 8
(v) log a 2 (vi) log a 600 (vii) log a (viii) log a 15
3 27
14
(ix) log a 35 (x) log a 12 (xi) log a 4.9 (xii) log a
15

60
8. Solve the equation in each of the following:

(i) 2 log 5 x = 3 log 5 2 (ii) log 3 x + log 3 7 = log 3 11

(iii) x log16 8 + 1 = 0 (iv) log 4 x × log 4 16 = log 4 256
(v) log 4 ( x + 2) + log 4 3 = 2 (vi) log 3 (2 x + 1) − log 3 (2 x − 1) = log 3 4
(vii) log 3 10 x − log 3 ( x + 1) = 2 (viii) log 2 (7 x + 3) − log 2 (5 x − 1) = log 2 3 − 1
(ix) log 5 (10 + x) = log 5 (3 + 4 x) (x) log 5 (5 log 3 x) = 2.
1
(xi) log 3 10 x + 5 − = log 3 x + 1
2

9. Prove the equation in the following:

(i) log 3 135 = 3 + log 3 5 (ii) log10 1600 = 2 + 4 log10 2

(iii) log10 2500 = 2 + 2 log10 5 (iv) log10 125 = 3 − 3 log10 2
(v) log10 25 = 2 − 2 log10 2 (vi) log 3 0.0027 = 3 − 4 log 3 10
(vii) log16 0.000256 = 2 − 6 log16 10

10. If a, b and c are positive numbers other than one, prove that log b a × log c b × log a c = 1.

3.2.3 Common logarithms

While defining logarithms, we stressed that the logarithm of a positive number is

defined only if the base is specified and the base can be any positive real number other than 1.
If we choose the base as the irrational number ‘e’, then such logarithms are called Natural
logarithms. If we choose the base as 10, then such logarithms are called Common
logarithms. Natural logarithms were introduced by John Napier and common logarithms by
his friend Henry Briggs, an English mathematician. To honour John Napier, the founder of
logarithms, we denote the natural logarithm log e x simply as ln x. We will study more about
ln x in higher classes. Now, we proceed to bring out the use of common logarithms in
computations. We denote the common logarithm log10 x as log x, omitting the base 10. Thus,
1
log x = y means log10 x = y and is equivalent to x = 10y. If we substitute for x in y
1000
= log x, we get
1
y = log = log 10 10 −3 = −3 .
1000
1 1
Similarly, for x = , , 1, 10, 100, 1000, …, we correspondingly get
100 10
−2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ….

61
 x 10−3 10−2 10−1 100 101 102 103
log10 x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3

We observe that as x increases along the positive real axis, log10 x also increases. We also
observe that log10 x is positive for all values of x > 1 and is negative whenever
x < 1. We observe that the values of log10 x is as given in the table below:

Range of x Location of log10 x The value of log10 x

−5
10 < x < 10 −4 −5 < log10 x <−4 −5 + 0.a1a2…
−4
10 < x < 10 −3 −4 < log10 x <−3 −4 + 0.b1b2…
10−3 < x < 10−2 −3 < log10 x <−2 −3 + 0.c1c2…
−2
10 < x < 10 −1 −2 < log10 x <−1 −2 + 0.d1d2…
−1
10 < x < 10 0 −1 < log10 x <0 −1 + 0.e1e2…
100 < x < 101 0 < log10 x <1 0 + 0.f1f2…
101 < x < 102 1 < log10 x <2 1 + 0.g1g2…
102 < x < 103 2 < log10 x <3 2 + 0.h1h2…
3 4
10 < x < 10 3 < log10 x <4 3 + 0.i1i2…
4 5
10 < x < 10 4 < log10 x <5 4 + 0.j1j2…

From the above table, we note that the value of the common logarithm log10 x can be
expressed as
(an integer) + (a decimal expansion of the form 0.r1r2r3r4)

In this form, the integer part is called the characteristic of log10 x and the decimal part is
called mantissa of log10 x . We usually write the mantissa in 4 decimal places. We observe
that the mantissa of log10 x always represents a positive number between 0 and 1, and the
characteristic of log10 x is a positive integer or negative integer or zero depending on the
value of x. If x < 1, then the characteristic is a negative integer. If
x >10, then the characteristic of log10 x is a positive integer. If x lies between 1 and 10, then
the characteristic of log10 x is 0.

Example 18: Find the characteristics of the common logarithms of

(i) 2003 (ii) 200.3 (iii) 20.03 (iv) 2.003
(v) 0.2003 (vi) 0.02003 (vii) 0.002003 (viii) 0.0002003
(ix) 0.00002003 (x) 0.000002003
Solution: (i) As 2003 lies between 103 and 104, log10 2003 is 3 + 0. d1d2d3d4. Then the
characteristic of log10 2003 is 3 and the mantissa is 0.d1d2d3d4. Alternatively, writing
2003 in the scientific notation,

62
2.003 × 103. So we have log 10 2003 = log 10 (2.003 × 10 3 )
= log 10 2.003 + log 10 10 3
= log10 2.003 + 3 log10 10
= 3 + log10 2.003 = 3 + 0.d1 d 2 d 3 d 4 .

Thus, when we write the number x in the scientific notation a × 10n , the integer n is the
characteristic of log10 x and the value log10 a is the mantissa of log10 x .
(ii) 200.3 = 2.003 × 102
The characteristic of log 200.3 is 2
The mantissa of log 200.3 in log 10 2.003 which is same as the mantissa of log 2003.
(iii) 20.03 = 2.003 × 101
∴ The characteristic of log 20.03 is 1 and the mantissa of log 20.03 is log 2.003.
(iv) 2.003 = 2.003 × 100
∴ The characteristic of log 2.003 is 0 and the mantissa of log 2.003 is log 2.003.
(v) 0.2003 = 2.003 × 10−1
∴ The characteristic of log 0.2003 is −1 and the mantissa of log 0.2003 is log 2.003.
(vi) 0.02003 = 2.003 × 10−2
∴ The characteristic of log 0.02003 is −2 and the mantissa of log 0.02003 is
log 2.003.
(vii) 0.002003 = 2.003 × 10−3
∴ The characteristic of log 0.002003 is −3 and the mantissa of log 0.002003 is
log 2.003.
(viii) 0.0002003 = 2.003 × 10−4
∴ The characteristic of log 0.0002003 is −4 and the mantissa of log 0.0002003 is
log 2.003.
(ix) 0.00002003 = 2.03 × 10−5
∴ The characteristic of log 0.00002003 is −5 and the mantissa of log 0.00002003 is
log 2.003
(x) 0.000002003 = 2.003 × 10−6
∴ The characteristic of log 0.000002003 is −6 and the mantissa of log 0.000002003 is log
2.003.

From the above examples, we observe the following:

(i) If the integral part of x is a nonzero n digit number, then the characteristic of log10 x is
n − 1.

63
(ii) If the integral part of x is zero and the decimal (fractional) part has n zeros before the
first non zero digit on the right side of the decimal point, then the characteristic of log10 x is −
(n + 1).

(iii) The numbers 2003, 200.3, …, 0.000002003 have the same mantissa irrespective of the
position of the decimal point. Thus, the mantissa is the same for all numbers with identical
significant digits in a given order.

Example 19: Given that log 162 = 2.2095, find (i) log 1620
(ii) log 16.2 (iii) log 1.62 (iv) log 0.162 (v) log 0.0162 (vi) log 0.00162.
Solution: The mantissa of log 162 is 0.2095.
(i) log 1620 = 3.2095
(ii) log 16.2 = 1.2095
(iii) log 1.62 = 0.2095
(iv) log 0.162 = −1 + 0.2095.
(v) log 0.0162 = −2 + 0.2095
(vi) log 0.00162 = −3 + 0.2095

Note: −3 +0.2095 is written simply as 3 .2095. Likewise −5 + 0.1023 is written as 5 .1023.

While doing calculations, we may get a negative number for a common logarithm. Adding
and subtracting a suitable positive integer, the negative number can be written in the form (a
negative integer) + 0.d1d2d3d4.

Example 20: Given log 0.25 = 1 .3979 and log 2003 = 3.3016, find
⎛ 25 ⎞ ⎛ 2.003 ⎞
(i) log 0.025 (ii) log 0.0025 (iii) log ⎜ ⎟ (iv) log ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2003 ⎠ ⎝ 2500 ⎠
Solution: log 0.25 = 1 .3979 = −1 + 0.3979. So the mantissa of log 0.25 is 0.3979.
log 2003 = 3.3016 = 3 + 0.3016. So the mantissa of log 2003 is 0.3016.

(i) log 0.025 = 2 .3979

(ii) log 0.0025 = 3 .3979
⎛ 25 ⎞
(iii) log ⎜ ⎟ = log 25 − log 2003 3.3016
⎝ 2003 ⎠ 1.3979
= 1.3979 − 3.3016
1.9037
= − 1.9037.
= − 2 + 2 −1.9037 2.0000
= 2 .0963. 1.9037
0.0963
⎛ 2.003 ⎞
(iv) log ⎜ ⎟ = log 2.003 − log 2500
⎝ 2500 ⎠
= 0.3016 − 3.3979
= −4 + 4. 3016 − 3.3979
= 4 .9037.

64
3.2.4 Table of Logarithms

Common logarithms of positive numbers from 1.000 to 9.999 (3 digit decimal part)
have been calculated and listed in the form of a ready-made table. This table is called “Table
of logarithms”. Using this table, we can find the common logarithm of any positive number.
Before we proceed to know the use of common logarithms, we shall familiarize our self with
the method of reading the common logarithms from the logarithms table.

Example 21: Find log 36.78.

Solution: 36.78 = 3.678 × 101.
The characteristic is 1. To get the mantissa, we consider 3.678 and locate the number
3.6 in the extreme left column of the table. Read along the row corresponding to 3.6 and down
the column under 7. We find 0.5647. We go further along the row and reach the column under
8 in the mean difference. Here we find 10. We add this 10 to 0.5647 and get 0.5657 as the
common logarithm of 3.678. This is the required mantissa of the given number and hence
log 36.78 = 1.5657.

Example 22: Find log 0.00200316.

Solution: 0.00200316 = 2.00316 × 10−3.
The characteristic = −3. To get the mantissa, consider 2.00316. Common logarithms
have been tabulated for numbers with 3 digits in the decimal part. So we approximate 2.00316
as 2.003(since 1 in the 4th decimal place is less than 5). Now, we get as before from the tables,
log 2.003 = 0.3016. Hence log 0.00200316 ≈ −3 + 0.3016 = 3 .3016.

Example 23: Find log 730.391.

Solution: 730.391 = 7.30391 × 102.
The characteristic = 2. To get the mantissa, consider 7.30391 and approximate it as
7.304 (since 9 in the 4th decimal place is not less than 5). Now, we get as before from the
tables, log 7.304 = 0.8635. Hence log 730.391 ≈ 2 + 0.8635 = 2.8635.

3.2.5 Table of antilogarithms

If log x = y, then x is called the antilogarithm of y. That is, if log10 x = y, then
x = 10y is the antilogarithm of y. Thus, antilog of y = 10y. We shall abbreviate antilogarithm of
y as antilog of y. We observe that getting antilogarithm is the reverse (opposite) process of
getting logarithm. For example, log 20 = 1.3010 and so antilog of 1.3010 = 20.

A table of antilogarithms of numbers ranging from 0.0000 to 0.9999 (4 digits in the

decimal part) is provided at the end of this text book. Actually, this table gives us the values
of 10y where y ranges from 0.0000 to 0.9999 (4 digits in the decimal part). Using this table,
we can calculate the antilogarithm of any given number.

65
Example 24: Find the antilogarithm of
(i) 1 .2305 (ii) 3 .4629 (iii) 1.8658 (iv) 2.0578

To get the antilog of y, consider first the mantissa only, locate the antilogarithm
corresponding to the first three digits of the mantissa and to this add the mean difference
corresponding to the fourth digit of the mantissa.
Solution:
(i) antilog of 1 .2305 = 10 1 .2305 from antilogarithm tables 0.230 1.698
= 10−1 + 0.2305 mean difference
= 10 −1 × 100.2305 corresponding to 5 2
1 1.700
= × 1.700
10
= 0.1700

(ii) antilog of 3 .4629 =10−3 + 0.4629

2.897
= 10− 3× 100.4629
6
1
= 3 × 2.903 2.903
10
= 0.002903.

(iii) antilog 1.8658 = 101.8658

= 101 + 0.8658 7.328
= 101 × 100.8658 13
= 10 × 7.341 7.341
= 73.41

(iv) antilog 2.0578 = 102.0578

= 102 + 0.0578 1.140
= 102 × 100.0578 2
= 102 × 1.142 1.142
= 114.2

Note: From the above example, we observe that

(i) If the characteristic of log x is a non negative integer n, then the decimal point in the
antilog of log x appears after the ( n + 1)th digit.

Characteristic Position of the decimal point

0 after the 1st digit
1 after the 2nd digit
2 after the 3rd digit
3 after the 4th digit
4 after the 5th digit

66
(ii) If the characteristic of log x is a negative integer, say − n, then the decimal point in the
antilog (log x ) is inserted such that the first significant digit occurs at the nth place; that is, the
first n − 1 digits are zero.

Characteristic Position of the decimal point

−1 0.d1d2d3d4
−2 0.0d1d2d3d4
−3 0.00d1d2d3d4
−4 0.000d1d2d3d4
−5 0.0000d1d2d3d4

In the above table, d1. d2d3d4 is the antilogarithm corresponding to the mantissa of the given
logarithm.

3.2.6 Calculations using logarithms

In the present day world, we have electronic calculators and computers to do

computations quickly and more accurately. But, before these instruments came into existence,
computations were done by hand. Logarithms were introduced in order to make computations
quickly. Table of logarithms and antilogarithms were prepared as a ready-reckoner. Now we
proceed to do some examples to show the usage of logarithms in calculations. We need
mainly the following formulae:

(i) log (mn) = log m + log n

a a a
⎛m⎞
(ii) log ⎜ ⎟ = log m − log n
a⎝ n ⎠ a a
(iii) log m n = n log m.
a a

Example 25: Find (i) 27.91 × 5.49 (ii) 0.02871 × 0.00099 × 482.49
Solution: (i) Let x = 27.91 × 5.49
Then log x = log (27.91 × 5.49) 1.4456
= log 27.91 + log 5.49 2
= 1.4458 + 0.7396 1.4458
= 2.1854

∴ x = antilog of 2.1854 1.531

= 102.1854 1
= 102 + .1854 1.532
= 102 ×10.1854
= 102 × 1.532= 153.2

67
(ii) Let x =0.02871 × 0.00099 × 482.49
Then log x = log 0.02871 + log 0.00099 + log 482.49
= 2 .4581 + 4 .9956 + 2.6835
= 2 .1372 .
x = antilog( 2 .1372 )=0.01372.

Example 26: Evaluate

2003 0.3421
(i) (ii)
16.23 0.09782
2003
Solution: (i) Let x =
16.23
Then log x = log 2003 − log 16.23 3.3016
1.2103
= 3.3016 − 1.2103
2.0913
= 2.0913
∴ x = antilog of 2.0913
= 123.4
0.3421
(ii) Let x = .
0.09782
Then log x = log 0.3421 − log 0.09782
= 1 .5341 − 2 .9904
= (−1+0.5341) − (−2+0.9904)
= 1 + 0.5341 − 0.9904
= 1.5341 − 0.9904 = 0.5437
∴ x = antilog of 0.5437
= 3.497

Example 27: Compute the value of

(i) (29.76)5 (ii) (0.3749)7

Solution: Let x = (29.76)5

Then log x = log (29.76)5 = 5 × log (29.76) = 5 × 1.4737 = 7.3685.
∴ x = antilog of 7.3685 = 23360000.
(ii) Let x = (0.3749)7
Then log x =7× log( 0.3749) = 7 × 1 .5739
= (−1 + 0.5739) × 7
= −7 + 4.0173
= −7 + 4 + 0.0173 = −3 + 0.0173 = 3 .0173
∴ x = antilog of 3 .0173 = 0.001041.

5
Example 28: Find the value of 0.2713
1
5
Solution: Let x = 0.2713 = (0.2713) 5 .
1
Then log x = log (0.2713) 5 .

68
 1 1 − 1 + 0.4335 − 5 + 4.4335
= . × log 0.2713 = . × 1 .4335 = =
5 5 5 5
= −1 + 0.8867 = 1 .8867.
∴ x = antilog of ( 1 .8867) =0.7702

175.23 × 22.159
Example 29: Find the value of
1828.46
175.23 × 22.159
Solution: Let x = . Then we have
1828.46
log x = log 175.23 + log 22.159 − log 1828.46
We have to make the following approximations since the table of logarithms has been
prepared for numbers ranging from 1.000 to 9.999 (with three digits in the fractional part).
175.23 = 1.7523 × 102
≈ 1.752 × 102.
22.159 = 2.2159 × 101
≈ 2.216 × 101.
1828.46 = 1.82846 × 103
≈ 1.829 × 103.
∴ log x = 2.2435 + 1.3456 − 3.2622
= 3.5891 − 3.2622 = 0.3269.
∴ x = antilog of (0.3269) = 2.122.

(76.25) 3 × 3 1.928
Example 30: Find the value of
(42.75) 5 × 0.04623
Solution: Let x be the given expression. Then
log x = log (76.25)3 + log 3 1.928 −[log (42.75)5 + log 0.04623]
1
= 3 log 76.25 + log 1.928−[5 log 42.75 + log 0.04623]
3
1
= 3 × 1.8823 + × 0.2851 − [5 × 1.6309 + 2 .6649]
3
= 5.6469 + 0.0950 − [8.1545 + 2 .6649]
= 5.7419 − 6.8194
= − 2 + (7.7419 − 6.8194)
= − 2 + 0.9225 = 2 .9925
x = anti log 2 .9925 =0.08366.

Example 31: Find the value of log12 4.3562

Solution: Here the base is 12. To use the table of logarithms, we have to get 10 in the base.
Using the change of base rule,
log12 4.3562 = log 10 4.3562 × log12 10

69
 1
= log 10 4.3562 ×
log 10 12
0.6391 ⎛ 0.6391 ⎞
= = x say. Then log x = log ⎜ ⎟
1.0792 ⎝ 1.0792 ⎠
= 1 .8056 − (0.0331)
= −1 + (0.8056 − 0.0331)
= −1 + (0.7725) = 1 .7725
∴ x = antilog ( 1 .7725) = 0.5923

Exercise 3.2.2

1. Find the characteristics of the common logarithms of the numbers.

(i) 1234 (ii) 27.36 (iii) 3.65 (iv) 0.7851
(v) 0.084 (vi) 0.00532 (vii) 0.00003 (viii) 0.032 × 104

2. Find the number of digits in the integral part of the numbers whose common
logarithms are
(i) 2.345 (ii) 1.456 (iii) 3.4567
(iv) 0.1234 (v) 0.9876 (vi) 3 × 0.982

3. The common logarithms of numbers are given below. Find the number of zeros after
the decimal point of the numbers.
(i) 1 .3456 (ii) 2 .2345 (iii) 3 .123
(iv) 4 .7877 (v) 5 .7245 (vi) 4 .102

4. The mantissa of the common logarithm of 32740 is 0.5151. Write down the common
logarithms of the following.
(i) 32740 (ii) 3274 (iii) 327.4
(iv) 32.74 (v) 3.274 (vi) 0.3274
(vii) 0.0003274 (viii) 0.03274 × 10−5

5. Find the common logarithms of the following numbers using the table of logarithms.
(i) 8273 (ii) 843250 (iii) 0.001439
(iv) 0.0000324 (v) 0.00468 (vi) 0.2356

6. Find the antilogarithms of the following common logarithms.

(i) 2.8903 (ii) 0.4321 (iii) 1 .4583 (iv) 3 .4261
(v) 5 .5201 (vi) 3 .0930.

7. Find x, if the common logarithm of x is

(i) 5.3027 (ii) 1.9168 (iii) − 2.0411
(iv) − 3.1773 (v) − 0.3916 (vi) − 4.1083
(vii) 3 .2 + 1 .2 (viii) 5 .4 − 2 .1 (ix) 2.1 − 5.4
(x) 1 .3 × 2 (xi) 3 .41 × 3 (xii) 5 .5 ÷ 3

70
8. Evaluate the following:
(i) 25.46 × 80.17 (ii) 37.42 × 816.3
(iii) 1.231 × 0.0084 (iv) 86.3 ÷ 0.0625
(v) (0.0275)3 (vi) (50.49)5
(vii) (525.9)8 (viii) 3 452.3
5 0.4935 × 45.37
(ix) 0.08745 (x)
0.0543
(4.23) 3 × 27.5 24.71 × 84.3
(xi) (xii)
(132.4) 2 16.94 × 3.23
(xiii) log 5 1.326 (xiv) log 9 63.28

3.3 Set Notation

Set notation is an achievement of our modern mathematics. It appears in all branches
of mathematics. It originated when mathematicians attempted to axiomatize mathematics with
in the frame work of logic. George Cantor (1845 − 1918), a German mathematician,
developed the theory of sets which has become a milestone in the growth of mathematics. We
now proceed to introduce the concept of a set and some elementary aspects of set theory.

3.3.1 The Concept of a Set

A collection of well defined objects is called a set. For example, the collection of all
natural numbers, the collection of all equilateral triangles in a plane, the collection of all IX
Standard students of Government Boys Higher Secondary School, Tiruthani, the collection of
all real numbers, the collection of all vowels in English alphabet are some examples of sets
since we can definitely say what objects are there in each of the collections. Consider the
following statements:

(i) The set of all tall students in your class.

(ii) The set of good books you have studied.

Both the above statements are not well defined, since there is no criteria for ‘tall’ and ‘good’
and so we cannot list the elements described by the above statements.

Note: In a set, the objects are all distinct.

An object of a set is called an element or a member or an individual of the set. We
usually denote a set by an upper-case letter like A or B and an element of a set by a lower-case
letter such as x or y. If x is an element of a set A, we indicate this fact symbolically by writing
x ∈ A. The symbol ∈ stands for ‘ is an element of ’ or ‘is a member of ’or ‘belongs to’. When
an object x is not an element of the set A, we denote this fact by writing x ∉ A. Here, the

71
symbol ∉ stands for ‘is not an element of ’ or ‘is not a member of ’ or ‘ does not belongs to’.
For example, if A is the set {1, 3, 4, 5}, then the elements of A are 1, 3, 4 and 5; that is, we
have 1 ∈ A, 3 ∈ A, 4 ∈ A and 5 ∈ A. We note that 6 ∉ A, −11 ∉ A, 9 ∉ A, Kumar ∉ A.

To represent a set, we adopt two methods:

(i) the tabular or roaster method
(ii) the set-builder or rule method.

3.3.2 Tabular or Roaster representation of a set

A set is usually written by listing all its objects, separating them by commas between
the braces { }. For example, the set of vowels in the word mathematics is {a, e, i}. We note
here that although the object a appears twice in the word mathematics, it is listed within the
braces once only, since the objects of a set are distinct. When a set is written by listing all its
objects separated by commas within braces { }, we say that the set is represented in the
tabular or roaster form. Some sets in their tabular representation are given below:
(i) The set of prime numbers less than 13 is {2, 3, 5, 7, 11}.
(ii) The set of letters in the word FOOTBALL is{F, O, T, B, A, L,}
(iii) The set of all natural numbers 1, 2, 3,… is {1, 2, 3,…}. Here by writing …, we
mean that the elements occur one after other in the representation without any
omission. This set is specially denoted by the letter N.
(iv) The set of all whole numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, … is {0, 1, 2, 3,…}.This set is specially
denoted by the letter W.
(v) The set of all integers 0, 1, −1, 2, −2, 3, −3,… is {0, 1, −1, 2, −2, 3, −3, …}. This
set is specially denoted by the letter Z.

Example 32: Write the following set in the tabular form. Even natural numbers which are
multiples of 5 and less than 50.
Solution: The even natural numbers divisible by 5 are 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, …
∴ The set of even natural numbers divisible by 5 and less than 50 = {10, 20, 30, 40}.

3.3.3 Set-builder or Rule representation of a set

A set can also be written by another form known as set-builder form. To write a set in
this form, we first find a common property of the elements of the set. This common property
should be such that it should specify the objects of the set only. For example, let us consider
the set {6, 36, 216}. The elements of the set are 6, 36 and 216. These numbers have a
common property that they are powers of 6. So the condition x = 6n, where n = 1, 2 and 3
yields the numbers 6, 36 and 216. No other number can be obtained from the condition. Thus
we observe that the set {6, 36, 216} is the collection of all numbers x such that x = 6n, where
n = 1, 2, 3. This fact is written in the following form { x | x = 6n, n = 1, 2, 3}. In words, we
read it as the set consisting of all x such that x = 6n, where n = 1, 2, 3. Here also, the braces

72
{ } are used to mean ‘the set consisting of ’. The vertical bar ‘ | ’ within the braces is used to
mean ‘such that ’. The common property ‘x = 6n, where n = 1, 2 and 3 ’ acts as a builder for
the set and hence this representation is called the set–builder or rule form. If P is the
common property possessed by each object of a given set A and no object other than these
objects possesses the property P, then the set A is represented by { x | x has the property P}
and we say that A is the set of all elements x such that x has property P.

Example 33: Represent the following sets in Rule Form:

(i) The set of all natural numbers less than 6.
(ii) The set of vowels in English alphabet.
(iii) The set of the numbers 2, 4, 6, … .
Solution: (i) A natural number less than 6 can be described by the statement:
x ∈ N, x < 6.
∴ the set is { x | x ∈ N, x < 6}.
(ii) A vowel in English alphabets can be described by the statement: x is a vowel in
English alphabet.
∴ the set is {x | x is a vowel in English alphabet}.
(iii) A number x of the form 2, 4, 6, … can be described by the statement:
x = 2n,
n ∈ N. ∴ the set is { x | x = 2n, n ∈ N}.

Note: The set-builder method is also called descriptive method since here the elements are
not listed but are indicated by the description of their characteristics.

Example 34: Write the following set in the tabular form A = {x | x + 5 = 7, x ∈ N}.
Solution: x + 5 = 7 ⇒ x = 7 − 5 = 2. Here 2 ∈ N. ∴ A = {2}.
⎧ 1 1 1 1 1 1⎫
Example 35: Obtain the set builder representation of the set A = ⎨1, , , , , , ⎬ .
⎩ 2 3 4 5 6 7⎭
Solution: Since the given elements are the reciprocals of the first seven natural numbers 1, 2,
3, 4, 5, 6, 7, we have
⎧ 1 ⎫
A = ⎨ x | x = , n ∈ N and n ≤ 7 ⎬ .
⎩ n ⎭

Note: ‘x, y’ means ‘x and y’.

73
3.3.4 Finite and Infinite Sets

Suppose that we count the number of elements one by one in a set A. If we come to an
end in the process, then the set A is said to be a finite set. If we never come to an end in
counting the elements, then the set A is said to be an infinite set. The number of elements in a
set A is called the cardinal number of the set A and is denoted by the symbol n(A) which is
read as the number of elements in the set A. We observe that if A is a finite set, then n(A) is a
whole number.

Example 36: Identify finite and infinite sets from the following:
(i) A = {x | x ∈W, x < 5}.
(ii) {All schools in Tamil Nadu}.
(iii) {Students in IX standard in your school}.
(iv) N.
(v) W.
(vi) Z.
(vii) The set of all prime numbers.
Solution:
(i) x ∈W, x < 5 ⇒ x = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4.
∴ A = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}. When we count elements of A one by one as 1 for 0, 2
for 1, 3 for 2, 4 for 3, 5 for 4, we come to an end . ∴ n(A) = 5 and so A is a finite set.
(ii) All schools in Tamil Nadu can be counted one by one and we come to an end in the
counting process. So the set {All schools in Tamil Nadu} is a finite set.
(iii) When we count the students of IX standard in your school, we come to an end in the
counting process. So the set {Students in IX standard in your school} is a finite set.
(iv) N = {1, 2, 3,…}. When we count elements of N one by one as 1 for 1, 2 for 2, 3 for 3, 4
for 4, we are not able to come to an end in the counting process. ∴ the set N is an infinite
set.
(v) W = {0, 1, 2, 3,…}. When we count elements of W one by one as 1 for 0, 2
for 1, 3 for 2, 4 for 3, we are unable to come to an end in the counting process. ∴ the set W
is an infinite set.
(vi) Z = {0, 1, −1, 2, −2,…}. When we count elements of Z one by one as 1 for 0, 2
for 1, 3 for −1, 4 for 2, 5 for −2 and so on, we are not able to come to an end in the counting
process. ∴ the set Z is an infinite set.
(vii) When we write the prime numbers one by one as 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17 and so on, we are
unable to come to an end in the counting process. ∴ the set of all prime numbers is an
infinite set.

3.3.5 Empty set or Null Set or Void set

A set which contains no elements is called the empty or null or void set. It is denoted
by the symbol Ø. Thus Ø = { }. We observe that n(Ø) = 0.

74
Example 37: Which of the following sets are empty?
(i) {Odd natural numbers which are divisible by 2}.
(ii) {Prime numbers which have 4 as a factor}.
(iii) {x | x ∈W, x ∉ N}.
(iv) {Ø}.
Solution:
(i) There is no odd number which is divisible by 2.
∴ the set {x | x is an odd natural number and x is divisible by 2} = Ø.
(ii) A prime number is a natural number which is not divisible by any other natural number
except 1 and itself. So a prime number cannot have a factor other than 1 and itself. Hence
there is no prime number which has 4 as a factor.
∴ {Prime numbers which have 4 as a factor} = Ø.
(iii) We observe that 0 is the only element which is in W but not in N.
i.e., x ∈W, x ∉ N ⇒ x = 0. ∴ {x | x ∈W, x ∉ N} = {0}. This set contain one element. So it is
not an empty set.
(iv) Empty set is an object. So {Ø} is a set containing one object.
∴ {Ø} is not an empty set. i.e., {Ø} ≠ Ø.

3.3.6 Equivalent sets

Two sets A and B are said to be equivalent if they contain the same number of
elements. If the set A is equivalent to the set B, then n(A) = n(B) and we write A ≈ B. For
example, if A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {11, 9, 23}, n(A) = 3, n(B) = 3. So A ≈ B.

3.3.7 Equal Sets

If two sets A and B contain the same elements, then they are said to be equal and we
write A = B. For example, if A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {x | x ∈ N, x < 5}, then A and B are
equal sets since if we list the elements of B, we get the tabular form of B as {1, 2, 3, 4}. We
observe that the equality of two sets is ensured by the presence of the same elements in the
two sets. Hence, the elements of a set can be listed in the set in any order we like. For
example, the sets {1, 2 ,3, 4} and {4, 3, 1, 2} are equal.

Note: If two sets are equal, then they must be equivalent. However two equivalent sets need
not be equal. For example, {1, −1, 2, −2} and {1, 2, −1, −2} are equal as well as equivalent
sets, but , {1, −1, 2, −2} and {1, 2, 3, 4} are equivalent sets. But they are not equal sets, since
the elements −1, −2 ∈ {1, −1, 2, −2} and −1, −2 ∉ {1, 2, 3, 4}.

3.3.8 Singleton set

A set which has only one element is called a singleton set.
For example, the set of all even prime numbers. We know that the only even prime number is
2. So {All even prime numbers} = {2} and n(A) = 1. Hence it is a singleton set.

75
3.3.9 Universal Set

The elements of all sets which occur in a mathematical investigation belong to a set.
This set is called the universal set. The universal set is denoted by the symbol U or by the
symbol ∈. For example, suppose the sets of a mathematical investigation are A = {2, 3, 4, 5},
and B = {1, 3, 7, 11}. Then we can take the universal set U as
U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 11,} or U = N or U = W or U = Z.

3.3.10 Subset

Let A and B be two sets. If every element of A is also an element of B, then A is called
a subset of B or B is a super set of A. We write this fact by the symbol A ⊆ B or B ⊇ A. Here
the symbol ⊆ stands for is a subset of or is contained in and ⊇ means is a super set of or
contains. For example, we consider two sets A = {1, −1, 2, −2, 3} and
B = {1, 2, −1, −2, 3, −3}. We observe that 1, 2, −1, −2, 3 ∈ A and 1, 2, −1, −2, 3 ∈ B. That is,
every element of the set A is also an element of the set B. So A is a subset of B, that is, A ⊆ B.
We also observe here that −3 ∈ B and −3 ∉ A. So B is not a subset of A and this fact is written
as B ⊄ A. Here the symbol ⊄ stands for is not a subset of or is not contained in.

Note: If a set X is a subset of a set Y and the set Y is a subset of the set X, then the two sets X
and Y have the same elements and so they are equal. If X = Y, then every element of X is also
an element of Y and every element of Y is also an element of X. We should note that the sets
X and Y are not numbers, still we use the equality sign ‘=’ between them whenever they are
equal. The equality symbol is used with the understanding that all elements of X are in Y and
all elements of Y are in X; that is X and Y have precisely the same elements.

Note: Every set A is a subset of itself since every element of A is in A itself. The empty set Ø
is a subset of every set A because if Ø cannot be a subset of A, then there would be an element
in the empty set Ø which would not be in A. Thus, A ⊆ A and Ø ⊆ A.

3.3.11 Proper Subset

Let X and Y be two sets. If X is a subset of Y and there is an element u ∈ Y and u ∉ X,

then the set X is called a proper subset of Y. It is denoted by X ⊂ Y. In this situation, we also
write Y ⊃ X. For example, let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} B = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. We observe that A is a
subset of B and 5 ∈ B but 5 ∉ A. ∴ A is a proper subset of B; that is, A ⊂ B .

Note: Although A is a subset of A, it is not a proper subset of A. Hence it is called an

improper subset of A.

76
3.3.12 Power Set

The collection of all subsets of a given set A is called the power set of A. It is denoted
by the symbol p(A). For example if A = {a, b}, then p(A) is {{}, {a}, {b}, {a,b}} and the
cardinal number of p(A) is n[p(A)] = 4 = 22. Similarly, if A = {a, b, c}, then p(A)
is {{}, {a}, {b}, {c},{a,b}, {b,c}, {c,a},{a, b,c}} and the cardinal number of p(A) is n[p(A)] =
8 = 23. Thus, we observe that if n(A) = m, then n[p(A)] = 2m.

Exercise 3.3.1

1. Rewrite the following sets using tabular form:

(i) A = {The Vowels in the word SUNDAY}.
(ii) B = {The Seasons of the year}.
(iii) C = {The set of all letters in the word MATHEMATICS}.
(iv) D = {The set of all letters in the word TAMILNADU}.

2. Write the following sets in the roaster form:

(i) P = {x | x is a letter of the word TAMILNADU}.
(ii) Q = {x | x is a whole number and −3 ≤ x < 7}.
(iii) R = {x | x is a two digit natural number such that sum of its digits is 9}.

3. Write the following sets in the builder form:

(i) {3, 6, 9, 12} (ii) {5, 25, 125, 625} (iii) {1, 3, 5,…}
(iv) {1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100}.

4. Match each of the sets on the left described in the roaster form with the same set on the
right described in set builder form.
(i) {1, 2, 3, 6} (a) {x | x is a prime number and a divisor of 6}.
(ii) {2, 3} (b) {x | x is an odd natural number less than 10}.
(iii) {2, 4, 6, 8} (c) {x | x is a positive integer and a divisor of 6}.
(iv) {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} (d) {x | x is an even natural number less than 10}.

5. Find the cardinal number of the following sets:

(i) The set of vowels in English alphabet.
(ii) The set of all perfect square numbers less than 100.
(iii) A = { x | x is a letter in the word “mathematics”}.
(iv) B = {x | x < 0, x ∈ W}.
(v) C = {x | − 3 ≤ x < 4, x ∈ Z}.
(vi) The set of all prime numbers between 10 and 20.

6. Write down the elements that have been left out in the following finite sets:
(i) A = {1, 10, 100, ______, _______, 1,00,000}.
(ii) B = {2, 5, 8, 11, ______, _______, 20, 23}.

77
7. Write down the next three elements of the following infinite sets:
(i) C = {3, 6, 12, 24, ______, ______, ______, ….}.
(ii) D = {−4, −3, −2, −1, ______, ______, _____, …}.

8. State whether the following sets are empty sets:

(i) A = {Even natural numbers divisible by 3}.
(ii) B = { x | x ∈ R , x2 + 1 = 0}.
(iii) C = {Polygons with four sides}.
(iv) D = {Quadrilateral with five sides}.

9. Let A = {p, q, r, s}, B = {1, 3, 5, 7}, C = {q, r}, D = {8, 4, 6, 2}, E = {r, q, s, p}
F = {2, 6, 4, 8}. Write true or false:
(i) A and C are equivalent sets.
(ii) A and E are equal sets.
(iii) F and B are equivalent sets.
(iv) A and B are equal sets.
(v) F and D are equal sets.

10. Write down the power set for each of the following sets:
(i) A = {1, 2} (ii) B = { x, y, z} (iii) C = {a, b, c, d}

11. (i) If n(A) = 5, find n[p(A)] (ii) If n[p(A)] = 128, find n(A).

3.3.13 Set Operations

We shall now study about the set operations

(i) union of two sets
(ii) intersection of two sets
(iii) complement of a set

(i) Union of two sets

Let A and B be two given sets. The set of all elements that belong either to A or to B
or to both is called the union of A and B. We denote the union of A and B by A U B. Thus,
A U B = { x | x ∈ A or x ∈ B or x ∈ A and B}.
We write A U B = {x| x ∈ A or x ∈ B} where it is understood that the word or is used in the
inclusive sense; that is, x ∈ A or x ∈ B stands for x ∈ A or x ∈ B or x ∈ A and B.

Example 38: If A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {2, 4, 6}, find A U B.

Solution: Listing all the elements A and B together and omitting the repetition, we get
1, 2, 3, 4, 2, 4, 6. Thus, A U B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6}.

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(ii) Intersection of two sets

Let A and B be two given sets. The set formed by the elements that are common to
both A and B is called the intersection of A and B. We denote the intersection of A and B by
A I B. Thus A I B = {x | x ∈ A and x ∈ B}.

Example 39: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {2, 3, 4}, find A I B.

Solution: All elements in A and B: 1, 2, 3, 2, 3, 4
Common elements in A and B: 2, 3, 2, 3
∴ A I B = {2, 3}.

3.3.14 Disjoint Sets

If two sets A and B have no elements in common, then they are called disjoint sets;
i.e., if A I B = Ø or { }, then A and B are disjoint sets. For example, if A = {1, 2, 3, 7} and
B = {4, 5, 6}, then A I B = { } and so A and B are disjoint sets.

3.3.15 Difference Set

Let A and B be two given sets. The set of all elements of A which are not in B is called
the difference set. It is denoted by A – B. Thus, A − B = {x | x ∈ A, x ∉ B}.

Note: B − A = {x | x ∈ B, x ∉ A}

Example 40: If A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} and B = {1, 3, 7}, find A − B and B − A.

Solution: A−B = {2, 4, 5, 6}. B −A = {7}.

Note: A − B ≠ B − A.

3.3.16 Complement of a set

Let A be a given set and U be the universal set. The set of all elements of U which are
not in A is called the complement of the set A and is denoted by A′ or Ac or A .

Note: Ac = U − A.

Example 41: If U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and A = {3, 4}, find Ac.

Solution: Ac = {1, 2, 5}.

3.3.17 An Identity in set theory

There is an useful identity in set theory which provides the number in the union of the
sets. It is stated as follows:
If A and B are two sets, then n(A U B) ≡ n(A) + n(B) − n(A I B).

79
Example 42: If A = {1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} and B = {1, 2, 3, 5, 7}, find n(A), n(B), n(A U B)
and n(A I B) and verify the identity n(A U B) ≡ n(A) + n(B) − n(A I B).
Solution: We observe that A U B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} A I B ={1, 3, 5, 7}.
n(A) = 8, n(B) = 5, n(A U B) = 9 and n(A I B) = 4.
We find n(A) + n(B) − n(A I B) = 8 + 5 − 4 = 9.
Here, n(A U B) = 9. So n(A U B) = n(A) + n(B) − n(A I B).
In fact, this result is true for any two finite sets.

Exercise 3.3.2

1. Find A U B and A I B for the following sets:

(i) A = {a, e, i, o, u} and B = {a, b}.
(ii) A = {1, 3, 5} and B ={1, 2, 3}.
(iii) A = {x | x is a natural number and 1 < x ≤ 6)} and
B = {x | x is a natural number 6 < x < 10}.
(iv) A = {p, q, r} and B = Ø.

2. Find A − B, A − C and B − A for the following sets:

(i) A = {a, b, c, d, e, f, i, o, u}, B = {a, b, c, d} and C = {a, e, i, o, u}.
(ii) A = {3, 4, 5}, B = {5, 6, 7, 8} and C = {7, 8, 9}.

3. If U = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h}, A = {a, c, g} and B = {a, b, c, d, e, f}, find

(i) Ac (ii) Bc (iii) (A U B) c
(iv) (Ac I B) c (v) Ac I Bc (vi) Ac U Bc.

3.3.18 Venn Diagram

As an aid to visualize the operations (forming union and intersection and taking
complement) on sets, John Venn, an English mathematician introduced a diagrammatic way
of representing sets. The diagrams representing sets are called Venn Diagrams. Usually the
Universal set is represented by a rectangle and its proper subsets are by circles drawn within
the rectangle. We now give the representation of different sets in Venn diagram:

Universal set
Figure 3.1

80
 A UB AI B
Figure 3.2 Figure 3.3

Ac Bc
.
Figure 3.4 Figure 3.5

(A U B) c (A I B) c
Figure 3.6 Figure 3.7

A−B B−A
Figure 3.8 Figure 3.9

81
Example 43: From the diagram given below(see Figure 3.10), find the sets
(i) A U B (ii) A I B (iii) (A U B)c
Solution: Here U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}.
(i) A U B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.
(ii) A I B = {2, 5}.
(iii) (A U B) c = {7}.

Figure 3.10
Example 44: Using Venn Diagram, exhibit the sets A = {−2, 3, 5, 7} and B = {3, 9, 11}.
Verify the formula: n(A U B) = n(A) + n(B) − n(A I B).
Solution:
A U B = {−2, 3, 5, 7} U {3, 9, 11} = {−2, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11}
∴ n(A U B) = 6. (1)
A I B = {−2, 3, 5, 7} I {3, 9, 11} = {3}
∴ n(A I B) = 1.
We have n(A) = 4, n(B) = 3. ∴ n(A) + n(B) = 4 + 3 = 7. Figure 3.11
∴ n(A) + n(B) − n(A I B) = 7 − 1 = 6. (2)
From (1) and (2) we get (A U B) = n(A) + n(B) − n(A I B)

Note: If A and B are disjoint then A I B = Ø and n(A I B) = 0.

This gives n(A U B) = n(A) + n(B).

Example 45 : The number of girls in a village who attended tailoring classes was 45, the
number of girls who attended classes on gardening was 70. If 30 of these attended both the
classes, using Venn Diagram, find
(i) how many attended only one type of class
(ii) how many totally attended either of these classes.

Solution: If A and B represent respectively,

the set of girls who attended the tailoring classes and the
set of girls who attended classes in gardening we have
n(A) = 45, n(B) = 70 By data n(A I B) = 30. From the
Venn diagram we see that 45 − 30 = 15 girls attended
only tailoring classes and 70 − 30 = 40 girls attended
only classes on gardening. Thus 15 + 30 + 40 = 85 Figure 3.12
attended either of these classes.
The number of girls who attended either of these classes is given by
n(A U B) = n(A) + n(B) − n(A I B) = 45 + 70 − 30 = 85.

82
Example 46: Out of 45 houses in a village 25 houses have T.V and 30 houses have radio.
Find how many of them have both.
Solution:
Let A = {the number of houses having T.V}
B = {the number of houses having Radio}
A I B = {The number of houses having both T.V and Radio}.
Let n(A I B) = x

From the figure 3.13,

25 − x + x + 30 − x = 45
55 − x = 45
−x = 45 − 55
−x = −10
x = 10
Figure 3.13
∴ The number of houses having both T.V and Radio = 10.

Example 47: In a class of 35 students, 28 students passed in History, 22 in Mathematics and

18 in both Subjects. How many failed in both subjects? Using Venn Diagram, find the number
of students who passed in (i) History alone and (ii) Mathematics alone.
Solution:
If H and M denote respectively the set of students
who passed in History and those who passed in
Mathematics, we find from the given data
n(H) = 28, n(M) = 22 and n(H I M) = 18.
The number of students who have passed in History
or in Mathematics or on both
n(H U M) = n(H) + n(M) − n(H ∩ M)
Figure 3.14
i.e., n(H U M) = 28 + 22 − 18 = 32.

Since there are 35 students in the class, the number of students who have failed in both
subjects = 35 − 32 = 3. Using Venn diagram we find that the

(i) Number of students passed in History alone = n(H ) − n(H I M) = 25 − 18 = 10

(ii) The number of students who passed in Mathematics alone = n(M) − n(H I M)
= 22 − 18 = 4.

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 Exercise 3.3.3

1. Given A = {2, 3, 5, 8, 10},B = {3, 7, 8, 9} and C = {1, 2, 5, 8, 12}.

Find (i) n(A U B) (ii) n(B I C) (iii) n(A − B) (iv) n(C − B)

2. If n(A) = 30, n(B) = 43 and n(A I B) = 11. Find n(A U B)

3. A student in IX standard has to attend at least one of two tests A and B. If 40 students
attend test A, 30 students attend test B and 20 students attend both the tests. Find the
number of students in the class.

4. In a survey taken among 400 residents of a colony, 250 bought English news papers,
170 bought Tamil news papers and 65 bought both. How many residents did not buy
any paper at all.

5. In a village there are 200 families. Two brands of soaps A and B were popular there
160 families used brand A and 140 families used brand B. If all the families used at
least one of these brands find how many families used both the brands.

6. In a party attended by 250 persons, 210 took coffee, 50 took tea and some persons
took both coffee and tea. If 20 persons did not drink coffee or tea. Find the number of
persons who took both coffee and tea.

7. A college magazine reported that 150 students had combined membership in physics
club and mathematics club. Find the membership in physics club if 70 students were
members of the mathematics club and 50 students were members of both the clubs.

8. In a class of 30 girls, 20 girls took part in singing competition and 10 took part in
singing and dancing. If 5 girls did not take part in any one of them. Find how many
took part in dance competition only.

9. During Summer Vacation, 35 students of class XII attended computer classes. 25

students coaching classes for entrance examinations and 15 attended both. Find how
many students attended neither if the class strength was 50.

84
 Answers

Exercise 3.1

1. (i) 2.998 × 1010 (ii) 1.3 × 109 (iii) 1.083 × 1012 (iv) 4.3 × 109
(v) 9.463 × 1015 (vi) 5.349 × 1017 (vii) 3.7 × 10−3 (viii) 1.07 × 10−4
(ix) 8.035 × 10−5 (x) 1.3307 × 10−6 (xi) 1.1 × 10−10 (xii) 9 × 10−13

2. (i) 0.00000325 (ii) 0.0000402 (iii) 0.0004132 (iv) 0.001432

(v) 3250000 (vi) 402000 (vii) 41320 (viii) 1432

3. (i) 1.024 × 1014 (ii) 4.41 × 10−4 (iii) 1.1664 × 108

(iv) 2.56 × 10−26 (v) 7.5 × 10−8

Exercise 3.2.1

1. (i) T (ii) F (iii) F (iv) F (v) T (vi) F

−2
2. (i) log 5 0.04 = −2 (ii) log 1 4 = (iii) log 4 256 = 4
8
3
−3
(iv) log 3 729 = 6 (v) log 36 216 = (vi) log10 0.001 = −3
2
−1
3. (i) 4 (ii) 3 (iii) 4 (iv) (v) −4
2
5 1
(vi) (vii) 36 (viii) 64 (ix)
2 4
1 1 1
4. (i) 10 (ii) (iii) (iv) 5 (v)
128 10 32
−1
(vi) 512 (vii) 2(viii) 162 (ix) (x) 3
3
5. (i) C (ii) A (iii) D (iv) C (v) A (vi) D
⎛8⎞ ⎛ 350 ⎞
6. (i) log10 18 (ii) log 3 ⎜ ⎟ (iii) 13 (iv) log 2 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 81 ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠
⎛ 72 ⎞ ⎛ 5 ⎞
(v) log 10 ⎜ ⎟ (vi) log 10 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 25 ⎠ ⎝ 48 ⎠
7. (i) x + y (ii) 2x (iii) y − x (iv) 3y (v) t − y
(vi) 3x + y + 2 z (vii) 3(x − y) (viii) y + z (ix) z + t
(x) 2x + y (xi) 2t − x − z (xii) x − y − z + t
11 −4 10 5
8. (i) 2 2 (ii) (iii) (iv) 16 (v) (vi)
7 3 3 6
7 −2
(vii) 9 (viii) 9 (ix) (x) 243 (xi)
3 7
Exercise 3.2.2

85
1. (i) 3 (ii) 1 (iii) 0 (iv) −1
(v) −2 (vi) −3 (vii) −5 (viii) 2

2. (i) 3 (ii) 2 (iii) 4 (iv) 1

(v) 1 (vi) 3

3. (i) 0 (ii) 1 (iii) 2 (iv) 3

(v) 4 (vi) 3

4. (i) 4.5151 (ii) 3.5151 (iii) 2.5151 (iv) 1.5151

(v) 0.5151 (vi) 1.5151 (vii) 4.5151 (viii) 7 .5151

5. (i) 4.9177 (ii) 5.926 (iii) 3.158

(iv). 5.5105 (v). 3.6702 (vi) 1.3722

6. (i) 776.7 (ii) 2.705 (iii) 0.2873

(iv) 0.002668 (v) 0.00003312 (vi) 0.001239

7. (i) 200700 (ii) 82.56 (iii) 0.01099 (iv) 0.0006

(v) 0.4059 (vi) 0.00007789 (vii) 0.00003981
(viii) 0.0005012 (ix) 0.0005012 (x) 0.03981
(xi) 0.00000001698 (xii) 0.03162.

8. (i) 2041 (ii) 30550 (iii) 0.01034 (iv) 1380

(v) 0.00002079 (vi) 3285000 (vii) 5851 × 1018
(viii) 7.670 (ix) 0.6142 (x) 412.3
(xi) 0.02263 (xii) 0.8339 (xiii) 0.1752
(xiv) 1.893.

Exercise 3.3.1

1. (i) A = {U, A} (ii) B = { Summer, Winter, Spring, Autumn}

(iii) C = { M, A, T, H, I, C, S, E.} (iv) D = { T, A, M, I, L, N, D, U}

2. (i) P = { T, A, M, I, L, N, D, U} (ii) Q = {−3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}

(iii) R = { 18, 27, 36, 45, 54, 63, 72, 81, 90}

3. (i) A = {x | x = 3n, n = 1, 2, 3, 4}
(ii) B = {x | x = 5n, n = 1, 2, 3, 4}
(iii) C = {x | x ∈ N, x is odd}
(iv) D = {x | x ∈ N, x = n2, 0 < n ≤ 10}

4. (i) → (c) ; (ii) → (a); (iii) → (d); (iv) → (b)

5. (i) 5 (ii) 9 (iii) 8 (iv) 0 (v) 7 (vi) 4

86
 6. (i) 1000, 10000 (ii) 14, 17
7. (i) 48, 96, 192 (ii) 0, 1, 2
8. (i) No (ii) Empty set (iii) No (iv) Empty set
9. (i) F (ii) T (iii) T (iv) F (v) T
10. (i) p(A)= {{1}, {2}, {1,2}, { }}
(ii) p(B)= {{x}, {y}, {z}, {x, y}, {x, z}, {y, z}, {x, y, z}, { } }
(iii) p(C)= {{a},{b},{c},{d},{a, b}, {a, c}, {a, d}, {b, c},{b, d},{c, d}, {a, b, d},
{b, c, d},{c, d, a}, {a, b, c},{a, b, c, d},{}}
11. (i) 32 (ii) 7

Exercise 3.3.2

1. (i) A U B = {a, e, i, o, u, b}, A I B = {a}

(ii) A U B = {1, 2, 3, 5}, A I B = {1, 3}
(iii) A U B = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}, A I B = Ø
(iv) A U B = {p, q, r}, A I B = Ø

2. (i) A − B = {e, f, i, o, u }, A − C = {b, c, d, f }, B − A = Ø

(ii) A − B = {3, 4}, A − C = {3, 4, 5}, B − A = {6, 7, 8}

3. (i) Ac = {b, d, e, f, h}
(ii) Bc = {g, h}
(iii) (A U B) c = {h}
(iv) (Ac I B) c= {a, c, g, h}
(v) Ac I B c= {h}
(vi) Ac U B c = {b, d, e, f, g, h }

Exercise 3.3.3

1. (i) 7 (ii) 1 (iii) 3 (iv) 4

2. 62 3. 50 4. 45 5. 100
6. 30 7. 130 8. 5 9. 5

87
 4. ALGEBRA
The word algebra is derived from the Arabic word al–jabr. In Arabic language, ‘al’
means ‘the’ and ‘jabr’ means ‘reunion of broken parts’. The usage of the word can be
understood by a simple example. In the equation x + 5 = 9, the left hand side is the addition
(sum) of two parts x and 5. If we add (unite) (–5) to each side of the equation, we get
(x + 5) + (–5) = 9 + (–5) or x + [5 + (–5)] = 9 – 5 or x + 0 = 4 or x = 4.
Here 9 and −5 are reunited to get 4. This type of mathematics is called algebra. Indian
mathematicians like Aryabhatta, Brahmagupta, Mahavir, Sridhara, Bhaskara II have
developed this subject very much. The Greek mathematician Diophantus has developed this
subject to a great extent and hence we call him the father of Algebra.

In this branch of mathematics, we use letters like a, b, x and y to denote numbers.

Performing addition, subtraction, multiplication, division or extraction of roots on these
symbols and real numbers, we obtain what are called algebraic expressions. The following
are some examples of algebraic expressions:
25 x + 12
2x + 3, (3a + b) (2x – y), , 14 x + 19 y .
19 x + 7
If two algebraic expressions are equated, we get what are called algebraic equations. The
following are some examples of algebraic equations:
7− x
2x + 3 = x + 6, = 5 x 2 + 2 , 2x + 11 = 0.
2 + 3x
Symbols in an algebraic expression are called variables of the expression. For example, in
ax + b, if a and b are specific numbers and x is not specified, then x is the variable of ax + b.
In 2x2 + 3xy + y2, x and y are variables. If the variables in an algebraic expression are replaced
with specific numbers, then the expression yields a number and this number is called a value
of the expression. For example, 2x2 + y is an algebraic expression and x and y are variables of
the expression. When we substitute 2 for x and 1 for y, the value of 2x2 + y is 2(2)2 + 1 = 9. If
we substitute (–1) for x and 2 for y, then the value of 2x2 + y is 2(–1)2 + 2 = 4. An algebraic
expression may not have a real number value for some real number values of the variables of
the expression. For example, the expression x − 3 has no real number value when x = 1
because the square of a real number can not be a negative real number and hence the square
root of a negative real number cannot be a real number. In this chapter, we shall study about
algebraic expressions in one or several variables, the variables and the algebraic expressions
represent real numbers only. Here after, by a number we shall mean real number only.

88
4.1 Polynomials
An Algebraic expression of the form axn is called a monomial in x, where a is a
known number, x is a variable and n is a non-negative integer. The number a is called the
coefficient of xn and n, the degree of the monomial. For example, 7x3 is a monomial in x of
degree 3 and 7 is the coefficient of x3. The sum of two monomials is called a binomial and
the sum of three monomials is called a trinomial. For example, 2x3 + 3x is a binomial and
2x5 – 3x2 + 3 is a trinomial. The sum of a finite number of monomials in x is called a
polynomial in x. The coefficients of the monomials in a polynomial are called the coefficients
of the polynomial. If all the coefficients of a polynomial are zero, then the polynomial is
called the zero polynomial. Hereafter, by a polynomial, we shall mean non–zero polynomial
in x only, that is, a polynomial with at least one non–zero coefficient. The monomials in a
polynomial are called the terms and the highest degree of the terms, the degree of the
polynomial. The coefficient of the highest power of x in a polynomial is called the leading
coefficient of the polynomial. For example, 3x – 1 + 3x2 + 6x5 – 4x3 is a polynomial of degree
5 with terms 3x, –1, 3x2, 6x5 and –4x3 and leading coefficient 6. Since the terms of a
polynomial are real numbers, they can be rearranged using the properties of real numbers such
that the terms of the polynomial occur in the descending powers of x.

For example, the polynomial 3x2 – 1 – 5x – 3x3 is rewritten as – 3x3 + 3x2 – 5x – 1.

When we write a polynomial in descending powers of x, we say that the polynomial is in the
standard form. Special names are given to lower degree polynomials. A first degree
polynomial is called a linear polynomial. A second degree polynomial is called a quadratic
polynomial. A third degree polynomial is called a cubic polynomial and a fourth degree
polynomial is called a bi-quadratic polynomial. We shall denote polynomials in x by
symbols such as f(x), g(x), p(x), q(x), r(x). The degree of a polynomial f(x) is denoted by the
symbol deg(f(x)). For example, if f(x) is the polynomial 1 – 3x2 + 5x3 – 2x, then deg(f(x)) = 3.
Since the terms of a polynomial are numbers, all polynomials represent numbers. So we can
add, subtract, multiply and divide polynomials. We shall know about the division of one
polynomial by another polynomial later.

4.1.1 Addition of Polynomials

We add two polynomials by adding the coefficients of the like powers.
Example 1: Find the sum of 2x4 – 3x2 + 5x + 3 and 4x + 6x3 – 6x2 – 1.
Solution: Using the associative and distributive properties of real numbers, we obtain
(2x4 – 3x2 + 5x + 3) + (6x3 – 6x2 + 4x – 1) = 2x4 + 6x3 – 3x2 – 6x2 + 5x + 4x + 3 – 1
= 2x4 + 6x3 – (3+6)x2 + (5+4)x + 2
= 2x4 + 6x3 – 9x2 + 9x + 2.

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The following scheme is helpful in adding two polynomials

2x4 + 0x3 – 3x2 + 5x + 3

0x4 + 6x3 – 6x2 + 4x – 1
2x4 + 6x3– 9x2 + 9x + 2

4.1.2 Subtraction of Polynomials

We subtract polynomials like addition of polynomials.
Example 2: Subtract 2x3 – 3x2 – 1 from x3 + 5x2 – 4x – 6.
Solution: Using associative and distributive properties, we have
(x3 + 5x2 – 4x – 6) – (2x3 – 3x2 – 1) = x3 + 5x2 – 4x – 6 – 2x3 + 3x2 + 1
= x3 – 2x3 + 5x2 + 3x2 – 4x – 6 + 1
= (x3 – 2x3) + (5x2 + 3x2) + (–4x) + (–6+1)
= –x3 + 8x2 – 4x – 5.

The subtraction can also be performed in the following way:

Line (1): x3 + 5x2 – 4x – 6.
Line (2): 2x3 – 3x2 – 1.
Changing the signs of the polynomial in Line (2), we get
Line (3): –2x3 + 3x2 + 1.
Adding the polynomials in Line (1) and Line (3), we get
–x3 + 8x2 – 4x – 5
The above procedure is written as follows :
x3 + 5x2 – 4x – 6
2x3 – 3x2 – 1
– + +
– x3 + 8x2 – 4x – 5

4.1.3 Multiplication of two polynomials

To find the multiplication or product of two polynomials, we use the distributive
properties and the law of exponents.

Example 3: Find the product of x3 – 2x2 – 4 and 2x2 + 3x – 1 .

Solution: (x3 – 2x2 – 4) (2x2 + 3x – 1)
= x3 (2x2 + 3x – 1) + (–2x2) (2x2 + 3x – 1) + (–4) (2x2 + 3x – 1)
= (2x5 + 3x4 – x3) + (–4x4 – 6x3 + 2x2) + (–8x2 – 12x + 4)
= 2x5 + 3x4 – x3 – 4x4 – 6x3 + 2x2 – 8x2 – 12x + 4
= 2x5 + (3x4 – 4x4) + (–x3 – 6x3) + (2x2 – 8x2) + (–12x) +4
= 2x5 – x4 – 7x3 – 6x2 – 12x + 4.

When finding the product of two polynomials, we multiply each term of one
polynomial by each term of the other polynomial and then the products are added (summed).
The following scheme may be helpful for the beginners.

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 x3 – 2x2 – 4
× 2x2 + 3x – 1
x3 (2x2 + 3x – 1) : 2x5 + 3x4 – x3
–2x2 (2x2 + 3x – 1) : – 4x4 – 6x3 + 2x2
–4(2x2 + 3x – 1) : – 8x2 – 12x + 4
2x5 – x4 – 7x3 – 6x2 – 12x + 4

Sometimes we require the coefficient of a particular term in a product of polynomials.

To save time and space, we can find the coefficient without actually multiplying the
polynomials. For example, if we want to obtain the coefficient of x3 in a product of two
polynomials A and B, then the following scheme may be useful for the beginners:

Step 1: Get the products given below:

Coefficient of x3 term in A × Constant term in B
Coefficient of x2 term in A × Coefficient of x term in B
Coefficient of x term in A × Coefficient of x2 term in B
Constant term in A × Coefficient of x3 term in B

Step 2: Add the above products in step 1 and the resulting value is the coefficient of x3 in the
product of the polynomials A and B

Example 4: Find the coefficients of x4, x3, x2 and x terms in the product of
7x3 – 6x2 – 9x + 8 and 5x2 – 3x + 5 without doing actual multiplication.
Solution: To get the coefficient of x4:
Coefficient of x4 term in A × Constant term in B = 0 × 5 = 0.
Coefficient of x3 term in A × Coefficient of x term in B = 7 × – 3 = –21.
Coefficient of x2 term in A × Coefficient of x2 term in B = – 6 × 5 = –30.
Coefficient of x term in A × Coefficient of x3 term in B = – 9 × 0 = 0.
Constant term in A × Coefficient of x4 term in B = 8 × 0 = 0.
So the coefficient of x4 in the product of A × B is 0 + (–21) + (–30) + 0 + 0 = –51.

To get the coefficient of x3:

Coefficient of x3 term in A × Constant term in B = 7 × 5 = 35.
Coefficient of x2 term in A × Coefficient of x term in B = – 6 × – 3 = 18.
Coefficient of x term in A × Coefficient of x2 term in B = – 9 × 5 = –45.
Constant term in A × Coefficient of x3 term in B = 8 × 0 = 0.
So the coefficient of x3 in A × B is 35 + 18 + (– 45) + 0 = 8.

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To get the coefficient of x2:
Coefficient of x2 term in A × Constant term in B = – 6 × 5 = –30.
Coefficient of x term in A × Coefficient of x term in B = –9 × –3 = 27.
Constant term in A × Coefficient of x2 term in B = 8 × 5 = 40.
So the coefficient of x2 in A × B is (–30) + 27 + 40 = 37.
To get the coefficient of x term:
Coefficient of x term in A × Constant term in B = –9 ×5 = –45.
Constant term in A × Coefficient of x term in B = 8 × –3 = –24.
So the coefficient of x term in A × B is (–45) + (–24) = – 69.

4.1.4 Polynomials in several variables

A monomial in x and y is of the form axnym where a is a real number, x and y are
variables and n and m are non-negative integers. For example, 5x3y2 is a monomial in x and y.
The sum of a finite number of monomials in x and y is called a polynomial in x and y. For
example, 5x2y + 3x + y2, 3x – 8y, 2x2 + 3xy + 2y2 are polynomials in x and y. Similarly we
have polynomials in more variables. As we did for polynomials of one variable, we can add,
subtract and multiply polynomials of several variables.

Example 5: Find the sum of x3y + x2y2 – 3xy3 and x3 – 3x3y + y3 + 4xy3.
Solution: (x3y + x2y2 – 3xy3) + (x3 – 3x3y + y3 + 4xy3)
= x3y + x2y2 – 3xy3 + x3 – 3x3y + y3 + 4xy3
= (x3y – 3x3y) + (x2y2) + (–3xy3 + 4xy3) + (x3) + (y3)
= –2x3y + x2y2 + xy3 + x3 + y3 .

Example 6: Find the product of 2x + 3y and x2 – xy + y2.

Solution:
2x + 3y
× x2 – xy + y2 Or (2x + 3y) (x2 – xy + y2)
= 2x (x2 – xy + y2) + 3y (x2 – xy + y2)
2x(x2 – xy + y2) : 2x3 – 2x2y + 2xy2
= 2x3 – 2x2y + 2xy2 + 3x2y – 3xy2 + 3y3
3y(x2–xy + y2) : 3x2y – 3xy2 + 3y3
=2x3 + (–2x2y + 3x2y) + (2xy2 – 3xy2) + 3y3
2x3 + x2y – xy2 + 3y3
= 2x3 + x2y – xy2 + 3y3.

The process of division of one polynomial by another polynomial is discussed in section 4.4.

Exercise 4.1
1. Answer true or false:
3
(i) 2x + is a polynomial.
x
(ii) 2x + 3x3 + 1 is a second degree polynomial.
2

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 (iii) The coefficient of x2 in 5 – 2x – 3x2 + x3 is 3.
(iv) 5xy is a binomial.
(v) 2x + 3y + 5z is a trinomial.
In each of the problems 2−4, find the sum and write it in the standard form :
2. (x3 + 3x – 1) + (2x2 – 4x + 5)
3. (2x4 + x2 + 3x) + (x4 – 3x2 + 7x – 8)
4. (6–10x + 5x2 + x3) + (2x3 – 3x – 4)
In each of the problems 5 to 7, find the subtraction and write it in the standard form :
5. (x3 + 5x2 – 10x + 6) – (2x3 – 3x – 4)
6. (x4 – 3x2 + 7x – 8) – (2x4 + x2 + 3x)
7. (3x5 – 5x2 + 4x – 7) – (1– 2x + 3x2 – x3)
In each of the problems 8 to 10, find the multiplication and write it in the standard form:
8. (2x2 – 6x + 3) (3x2 – 4x + 9)
9. (3x2 – 4x + 5x3 – 7) (2x2 – x + 4)
10. (7 – x – x2 ) (x3 – 5x2 + 3x)
Without doing actual multiplication, find the coefficients of x3, x2 and x in each of the
products in problems 11 to 13:
11. (x2 – 4x + 4) (x2 + 2x –3)
12. (3x – 2 – x2) (1 + 3x – x2)
13. (7x3 – 6x2 – 9x – 1) (2x3 – 3x2 – 1)
Find the products in problems 14 to 16 in the standard form:
14. (ax + by) (cx + dy)
15. (x+y) (2x2 – 3xy – 2y2)
16. (x2 – xy + y2) (x2 + xy + y2)
17. If the coefficient of x2 in the product (x3 – px2 + 9x – 1) (2x3 – 3x2 – x + 2) is 12, find the
value of p.
18. If the coefficient of x in the product (x3 – 2x + 5) (a – 3x – x2) is equal to the coefficient of
x2 in the product (2x2 + x – 1) (x2 – 3x – 2), find a.
19. If the sum of the coefficients of x2 and x in the product (1 – 2x – x2) (2x2 – mx + 3) is 5,
find the value of m.

4.2. Algebraic Identities

We study about certain algebraic equations called algebraic identities. We have
already learnt about algebraic equations. An algebraic equation may involve one or more
variables. For example, in the algebraic equation 2x + 3 = 6 – x, x is the variable. When we
substitute 1 for x, the equation becomes 5 = 5, a true statement. When we substitute any other
number say 2 for x, the equation becomes 7 = 4, a false statement. If a number substituted for
the variable of the equation makes the equation a true statement, then the number is called a
solution or root of the equation. If a number is a solution of an equation, then it is said to
satisfy the equation. For example, 1 satisfies the equation 2x + 3 = 6 – x but 2 does not satisfy

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the equation. We observe that the equation x2 –1 = (x + 1) (x – 1) is satisfied by any number.
Such an equation is called an algebraic identity. Thus, an algebraic identity is an algebraic
equation which is satisfied by all numbers. If an algebraic equation A = B is an algebraic
identity, we write A ≡ B. Reversing the sides, the algebraic identity is also written as B ≡ A.
Now we proceed to derive some algebraic identities.

4.2.1 Algebraic identity for (x + a)(x + b)

By using the distributive properties of numbers,
(x + a )(x + b ) = x(x + b) + a(x + b) = x2 + xb + ax + ab
= x2 + ax + bx + ab= x2 + (a + b)x + ab.
Thus we get (x + a)(x + b) ≡ x2 + (a + b) x + ab

We give a geometrical explanation

for the above identity.
The area of the rectangle ABCD is
equal to the sum of the area of the square
AHFE and the areas of the rectangles HBGF,
FGCI and EFID (see Figure 4.2.1). So we
have (x + a)(x + b) = x2 + ax + ab + xb
= x2+ (a+b)x + ab.

We shall derive some important Figure 4.2.1

identities using the above identity.

(i) (x – a)(x + b) = [x + (–a)] (x + b) = x2 + [(–a) + b]x + (–a)b

= x2 + (b – a)x – ab.
(ii) (x + a)(x – b) = (x + a) [x + (–b)] = x2 + [a + (–b)]x + a(–b)
= x2 + (a – b)x – ab.
(iii) (x – a)(x – b) = [x+(–a)] [x + (–b)] = x2 + [(–a) + (–b)] x + (–a) (–b)
= x2 – (a + b)x + ab.
(iv) (a + b)2 = (a + b)(a + b) = a2 + (b + b)a + b2 = a2 + 2ab + b2.
(v) (a – b)2 = (a – b)(a – b) = [a+(–b)] [a+(–b)]
= a2 + [(–b) + (–b)]a + (–b) (–b) = a2 –2ab + b2.
(vi) (a + b)(a–b) = a + [b + (–b)]a + (b)(–b) = a2 + 0 × a – b2 = a2 – b2.
2

Thus, we have
(x + a)(x + b) ≡ x2 + (a + b)x + ab
(x – a)(x + b) ≡ x2 + (b – a)x – ab
(x + a)(x – b) ≡ x2 + (a – b)x – ab
(x – a)(x – b) ≡ x2 – (a + b)x + ab
(a + b)2 ≡ a2 + 2ab + b2
(a – b)2 ≡ a2 – 2ab + b2
(a + b)(a – b) ≡ a2 – b2

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 The identity for (x – a)(x – b) is x2 – (a + b)x + ab. It is a polynomial of 2nd degree.
The coefficient of x and the constant term in it are –(a + b) and ab respectively. The above
identities are also called product formulae since they are based on the expansion of the
product (x + a)(x + b). These formulae can be used to evaluate product of two binomials.

Example 7: Find the following products:

(a) (x + 3) (x + 5) (b) (p + 9) (p – 2) (c) (z – 7) (z – 5) (d) (x – 8) (x + 2)
Solution:
(a) (x + 3) (x + 5) = x2 + (3 + 5) x + 3 × 5 = x2 + 8x + 15.
(b) (p + 9) (p – 2) = p2 + (9 – 2) p – 9 × 2 = p2 + 7p – 18.
(c) (z – 7) (z – 5) = z2 – (7 + 5) z + 7 × 5 = z2 – 12z + 35.
(d) (x – 8) (x + 2) = x2 + (2 – 8)x – 8 × 2 = x2 – 6x – 16.

Example 8: Evaluate the following products using the product formulae:

(a) 107 × 103 (b) 56 × 48
Solution:
(a) 107 × 103 = (100 + 7) (100+3) (b) 56 × 48
2 = (50 + 6) (50 –2)
= 100 + (7 + 3) × 100 + 7 ×3
= 10000 + 10 × 100 + 21 = 502 + (6 – 2) × 50 – 6 × 2
= 10000 + 1000 + 21 = 2500 + 200 – 12
= 11021. =2688.

Example 9: Expand the following:

(i) (3x + 7y)2 (ii) (11a – 7b)2 (iii) (2p + 5q)(2p – 5q)
Solution:
(i) (3x + 7y)2 = (3x)2 + 2(3x)(7y) + (7y)2 =9x2+ 42xy + 49y2.
(ii) (11a – 7b)2 = (11a)2 – 2(11a) (7b) + (7b)2 = 121a2 – 154ab + 49b2.
(iii) (2p + 5q)(2p – 5q) = (2p)2 – (5q)2 = 4p2 – 25q2.

Example 10: Find the value of the following using the product formulae:
(i) 1032 (ii) 982 (iii) 104 × 96
Solution:
(i) 1032 = (100+3)2 = 1002 + 2(100)(3) + 32 = 10000 + 600 +9 = 10609.
(ii) 982 = (100–2)2 = 1002 – 2 (100)(2) + 22 = 10000 – 400 + 4 = 9604.
(iii) 104 × 96 = (100 + 4) (100 – 4) = 1002 – 42 = 10000 – 16 = 9984.

We now deduce some useful identities from the product formulae:

(i) (a + b)2 + (a – b)2 = (a2 + 2ab + b2) + (a2 – 2ab + b2)
= (a2 + a2) + (2ab – 2ab) + (b2 + b2) = 2a2 + 2b2.

1 1
So [(a + b)2 + (a – b)2] = [2(a2 + b2)] = a2 + b2.
2 2

(ii) (a + b)2 – (a – b)2 = (a2 + 2ab + b2) – (a2 – 2ab + b2)

= a2 + 2ab + b2 – a2 + 2ab – b2 = 4ab.

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 1 1
So [(a + b)2 – (a – b)2] = [4ab] = ab.
4 4

(iii) (a + b)2 – 2ab = (a2 + 2ab + b2) – 2ab = a2 + 2ab + b2 – 2ab = a2 + b2.
(iv) (a + b)2 – 4ab = (a2 + 2ab + b2) – 4ab = a2 + 2ab + b2 – 4ab
= a2 – 2ab + b2 = (a–b)2.
(v) (a – b)2 + 2ab = (a2 – 2ab + b2) + 2ab = a2 – 2ab + b2 + 2ab = a2 + b2.
(vi) (a – b)2 + 4ab = (a2 – 2ab + b2) + 4ab = a2 – 2ab + b2 + 4ab
= a2 + 2ab + b2 = (a + b)2.

Thus we have the following useful identities:

1
2 [(a + b)2 + (a – b)2] = a2 + b2
1
4 [(a + b)2 – (a – b)2] = ab
(a + b)2 – 2ab = a2 + b2
(a + b)2 – 4ab = (a – b)2
(a – b)2 + 2ab = a2 + b2
(a – b)2 + 4ab = (a + b)2

Reversing the sides of the above identities, we get

a2 + b2 = 21 [(a + b)2 + (a – b)2]

ab = 41 [(a + b)2 – (a – b)2]
a2 + b2 = (a + b)2 – 2ab
(a – b)2 = (a + b)2 – 4ab
a2 + b2 = (a – b)2 + 2ab
(a + b)2 = (a – b)2 + 4ab

Example 11: If the values of a + b and a – b are 7 and 4 respectively, find the values of
a2 + b2 and ab.
1 1
Solution: a2 + b2 = [(a+b)2 + (a–b)2] ab = [(a + b)2 – (a – b)2]
2 4
1 1
= [(7)2 + (4)2] = [(7)2 – (4)2]
2 4
1 65 1 33
= (49 + 16) = . = (49 – 16) = .
2 2 4 4

Example 12: If the values of a + b and ab are 12 and 32 respectively, find the values of
a2 + b2 and (a–b)2.

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Solution: a2 + b2 = (a + b)2 –2ab (a – b)2 = (a + b)2 – 4 ab
= (12)2 – 2(32) = 144 – 64 = 80. = (12)2 – 4(32) =144 – 128 = 16.

Example 13: If the values of a – b and ab are 6 and 40 respectively, find the values of
a2 + b2 and (a + b)2.
Solution: a2 + b2 = (a – b)2 + 2ab (a + b)2 = (a – b)2 + 4ab
= 62 + 2(40) = 36 + 80 = 116. = 62 + 4(40)= 36 + 160 = 196.

Example 14: If (x + p)(x + q) = x2 – 5x – 300, find the value of p2 + q2.

Solution:
By product formula, we have (x + p) (x + q) = x2 + (p + q)x + pq.
So, by comparison, we get p + q = –5, pq = –300.
Now, we have p2 + q2 = (p + q)2 – 2 pq = (–5)2 –2(–300) = 25 + 600 = 625.

We now derive the algebraic identity for (a + b + c)2

(a + b + c)2 = [(a + b) + c]2 = (a + b)2 + 2(a + b) c+ c2
= (a2 + 2ab + b2) + 2ac + 2bc + c2 = a2 + b2 + c2 + 2ab + 2bc + 2ca
= a2 + b2 + c2 + 2(ab + bc + ca).
So we have the identity
(a + b + c)2 ≡ a2 + b2 + c2 + 2(ab + bc + ca)
Reversing the sides, we get
a2 + b2 + c2 + 2(ab + bc + ca) ≡ (a + b + c)2
Also we have
(a + b + c)2 – 2 (ab + bc + ca) = a2 + b2 + c2 + 2(ab + bc + ca) – 2(ab + bc + ca)
= a2 + b2 + c2.
Thus, we get another algebraic identity
(a + b + c)2 – 2(ab + bc + ca) ≡ a2 + b2 + c2
Reversing the sides, we get
a2 + b2 + c2 ≡ (a + b + c)2 – 2(ab + bc + ca)

Example 15: Expand the following:

(i) (2x + y + 2z)2 (ii) (x – 2y + z)2 (iii) (2p – 3q – r)2 (iv) (2a + 3b − 2c)2
Solution:
(i) (2x + y + 2z)2 = [(2x) + y + (2z)]2 = (2x)2 + y2 + (2z)2 + 2(2x)y + 2y(2z) + 2(2z)(2x)
= 4x2 + y2 + 4z2 + 4xy + 4yz + 8zx.
(ii) (x – 2y + z)2 = [x + (–2y) + z]2= x2 + (–2y)2 + z2 + 2x(–2y) +2 (–2y)z + 2zx
= x2 + 4y2 + z2 – 4xy – 4yz + 2zx.
(iii) (2p – 3q – r)2 = [(2p) + (–3q) + (–r)]2
= (2p)2 + (–3q)2 + (–r)2 + 2(2p) (–3q) + 2(–3q) (–r) + 2(–r)(2p).
= 4p2 + 9q2 + r2 – 12pq + 6qr – 4rp.
(iv) (2a + 3b – 2c)2 = [(2a) + (3b) + (–2c)]2
= (2a)2 + (3b)2 + (–2c)2 + 2(2a)(3b) + 2(3b)(–2c) + 2(–2c)(2a)
= 4a2 + 9b2 + 4c2 + 12ab – 12bc – 8ca.

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4.2.2 Algebraic Identity for (x + a) (x + b) (x + c)
(x + a)(x + b)(x + c) = (x + a)[(x + b)(x + c)]
= (x + a)[x2 + (b + c)x + bc] = (x + a)(x2 + bx + cx + bc)
= x(x2 + bx + cx + bc) + a(x2 + bx + cx + bc)
= x3 + bx2 + cx2 + bcx + ax2 + abx + acx + abc
= x3 + (a + b + c)x2 + (ab + bc + ca)x + abc.

Hence,
(x + a)(x + b)(x + c) ≡ x3 + (a + b + c)x2 + (ab + bc + ca)x + abc

In the above identity, replacing a, b and c by –a, –b and –c, we get

(x – a)(x – b)(x – c) = [x+(–a)][x+(–b)][x+(–c)]
= x3 + [(–a) + (–b) + (–c)]x2 + [(–a) (–b) + (–b) (–c) + (–c) (–a)]x + (–a) (–b) (–c)
= x3 – (a + b + c)x2 + (ab + bc + ca)x – abc.
Thus,
(x – a)(x – b)(x – c) ≡ x3 – (a + b + c)x2 + (ab + bc + ca)x – abc.
In the above identity, coefficient of x2 = – (a + b + c), coefficient of x = ab + bc + ca, constant
term = –abc.

Example 16 : Find the expansions of

(i) (x + 4)(x + 3)(x + 5) (ii) (2x + 1)(2x – 3)(2x + 5)
(iii) (3 – 2x)(2x + 7)(2x + 1) (iv) (x – a)(x – 2a)(x – 3a)
Solution :
(i) (x + 4)(x + 3)(x + 5) = x3 + (4 + 3 + 5)x2 + [4 × 3 + 3 × 5 + 5 × 4]x + 4 × 3 × 5
= x3 + 12x2 + [12 + 15 + 20]x + 60
= x3 + 12x2 + 47x + 60.
(ii) (2x + 1)(2x – 3)(2x + 5) = (2x + 1)[2x + (–3)](2x + 5)
= (2x)3 + [1 + (–3) + 5](2x)2 + [1 × (–3) + (–3) ×5 + 5 × 1](2x) + 1 × (–3) × 5
= 8x3 + 3(4x2) + [–3 – 15 + 5](2x) – 15
= 8x3 + 12x2 – 26x – 15.
(iii) (3 – 2x)(2x + 7)(2x + 1) = [–(2x – 3)](2x +7 )(2x + 1)
= – [2x + (–3)](2x + 7)(2x + 1)
= – [(2x)3 + {(–3) + 7 + 1}(2x)2 + {(–3) × 7 + 7×1+ 1×(–3)}(2x) + (–3) × 7 × 1]
= – [8x3 + (5)(4x2) + (–21 + 7 − 3)(2x) –21]
= – [8x3 + 20x2 – 34x – 21] = 21 + 34x – 20x2 – 8x3.
(iv) (x – a)(x – 2a)(x – 3a) = [x+(–a)][x+(–2a)][x+(–3a)]
= x3 + {(–a) + (–2a)+( –3a)}x2+{(–a) (–2a) + (–2a) (–3a) + (–3a) (–a)}x + (–a) (–2a) (–3a)
= x3 + {–6a}x2 + {2a2 + 6a2 + 3a2}x – 6a3 = x3 – 6ax2 + 11a2x – 6a3.

Example 17 : Using the product formulae, find the coefficients of x2 term, x term and
constant term in
(i) (x + 3)(x + 5)(x + 6) (ii) (x – 7)(x + 2)(x + 4)
(iii) (x – 5)(x – 2)(x + 4) (iv) (2x – 3 )(2x – 5)(7 – 2x)

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Solution:
(i) Comparing with (x + a)(x + b)(x +c ), we get a = 3, b = 5, c = 6.
∴ Coefficient of x2 = a + b + c = 3 + 5 + 6 = 14,
Coefficient of x = ab + bc + ca = (3 × 5) + (5 × 6) + (6 × 3) = 15 + 30 + 18 = 63,
Constant term = abc = 3 × 5 × 6 = 90.

(ii) (x – 7)(x + 2)(x + 4) = [x + (–7)](x + 2)(x + 4)

Comparing with (x + a)(x + b)(x + c), we get a = –7, b = 2, c = 4.
∴ Coefficient of x2 = a + b + c = (–7) + 2 + 4 = –1,
Coefficient of x = ab + bc + ca = (–7) × 2 + 2 × 4 + 4 × (–7)
= (–14) + 8 + (–28)= (–42) + 8 = –34,
Constant term = abc = (–7) × 2 × 4 = –56.

(iii) (x – 5)(x – 2)(x + 4) = [x + (–5)][x + (–2)](x + 4)

Comparing with (x + a)(x + b)(x + c), we get a = –5, b = –2, c = 4.
∴ Coefficient of x2 = a + b + c = (–5) + (–2) + 4 = (–7) + 4 = –3,
Coefficient of x = ab + bc + ca = (–5) × (–2) +(–2) × 4 + 4 × (–5)= 10 – 8 – 20 = –18,
Constant term = abc = (–5) (–2)4 = 40.

(iv) Let A be algebraic expression (2x – 3)(2x – 5)(7 – 2x) and put y=2x. Then,
A = (y – 3)(y – 5)(7 – y) = (y – 3)(y – 5) [–(y – 7)] = –[(y – 3)(y – 5 )(y – 7)]
= –[y3 + {(–3) + (–5) + (–7)}y2 + {(–3)(–5) + (–5)(–7) + (–7)(–3)}y + (–3)(–5)(–7)]
= –[y3 – 15y2 + (15 + 35 + 21)y – 105] = –y3 + 15y2 – 71y + 105
= –(2x)3 + 15(2x)2 – 71(2x) + 105 = –8x3 + 60x2 – 142x + 105
∴ Coefficient of x2 = 60, Coefficient of x = –142, Constant term = 105
Alternately,

(2x – 3)(2x – 5)(7 – 2x) =

⎡ ⎛ 3 ⎞⎤ ⎡ ⎛ 5 ⎞⎤ ⎡ ⎛ 7 ⎞⎤ ⎡ ⎛ 3 ⎞⎤ ⎡ ⎛ 5 ⎞⎤ ⎡ ⎛ 7 ⎞⎤
⎢ 2⎜ x − 2 ⎟ ⎥ ⎢ 2⎜ x − 2 ⎟ ⎥ ⎢ − 2⎜ x − 2 ⎟ ⎥ = − 8 ⎢ x + ⎜ − 2 ⎟ ⎥ ⎢ x + ⎜ − 2 ⎟ ⎥ ⎢ x + ⎜ − 2 ⎟ ⎥
⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦ ⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦ ⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦ ⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦ ⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦ ⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦
⎡ 3 5 7⎤ ⎛ 15 ⎞
∴ Coefficient of x2 = –8(a + b + c) = − 8⎢ − − − ⎥ = − 8⎜ − ⎟ = 60,
⎣ 2 2 2⎦ ⎝ 2⎠
⎡⎛ 3 ⎞⎛ 5 ⎞ ⎛ 5 ⎞⎛ 7 ⎞ ⎛ 7 ⎞⎛ 3 ⎞ ⎤
Coefficient of x = –8( ab + bc + ca) = − 8 ⎢ ⎜ − ⎟ ⎜ − ⎟ + ⎜ − ⎟ ⎜ − ⎟ + ⎜ − ⎟ ⎜ − ⎟ ⎥
⎣⎝ 2 ⎠⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦
⎡15 35 21 ⎤ ⎡15 + 35 + 21⎤
= –8 ⎢ + + ⎥ = –8 ⎢ ⎥ = (–2) (71)= –142,
⎣4 4 4⎦ ⎣ 4 ⎦
⎡⎛ 3 ⎞⎛ 5 ⎞⎛ 7 ⎞ ⎤ ⎛ − 105 ⎞
Constant term = –8(abc) = − 8 ⎢ ⎜ − ⎟ ⎜ − ⎟ ⎜ − ⎟ ⎥ = –8 ⎜ ⎟ = 105.
⎣⎝ 2 ⎠⎝ 2 ⎠⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦ ⎝ 8 ⎠

Example 18 : If (x + a)(x + b)(x + c) ≡ x3 – 6x2 + 11x – 6, find the value of a2 + b2 + c2.

Solution: From the product formula, we have
(x+a)(x+b)(x+c) = x3 + (a + b + c)x2 + (ab + bc + ca)x + abc.
Comparing, we get a + b + c = –6, ab + bc + ca = 11, abc = –6.
∴ a2 + b2 + c2 = (a + b + c)2 –2 (ab + bc + ca) = (– 6)2 – 2(11) = 36 – 22 = 14.

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We shall obtain some identities from the identity (x + a)(x + b)(x + c)

(i) Identity for (a + b)3

(a + b)3 = (a + b)(a + b)(a + b)
= a3 + (b + b + b)a2 + (b × b + b × b + b × b)a + b × b × b = a3 + 3a2b + 3ab2 + b3

∴ (a + b)3 ≡ a3 + 3a2b + 3ab2 + b3

Reversing the sides, a3 + 3a2b + 3ab2 + b3 ≡ (a + b)3

(ii) Identity for (a – b)3

(a – b)3 = [a + (–b)]3
= a3 + 3a2(–b) + 3a(–b)2 + (–b)3= a3 – 3a2b + 3ab2 – b3

∴ (a − b)3 ≡ a3 − 3a2b + 3ab2 − b3

Reversing the sides, a3 − 3a2b + 3ab2 − b3 ≡ (a − b)3

Based on the identities for (a+b)3 and (a–b)3, we deduce the following identities:
(i) (a+b)3–3ab(a+b) = a3 + 3a2b + 3ab2 + b3 – 3a2b – 3ab2 = a3+b3.

∴ (a + b)3 − 3ab(a + b) ≡ a3 + b3

Reversing the sides, a3 + b3 ≡ (a + b)3 − 3ab(a + b)

(ii) (a – b)3+3ab(a – b) = a3 – 3a2b + 3ab2 – b3 + 3a2b – 3ab2 = a3–b3.

∴ (a − b)3 + 3ab(a − b) ≡ a3 − b3

Reversing the sides, a3 − b3 ≡ (a − b)3 + 3ab(a− b)

(iii) a3 + b3 = (a + b)3 – 3ab(a + b) = (a + b)(a + b)2 – 3ab(a + b)

= (a + b)[(a + b)2 – 3ab] = (a + b)[(a2 + 2ab + b2) – 3ab]
= (a + b)(a2 – ab + b2)

∴ a3 + b3 ≡ (a + b)(a2 – ab + b2)

Reversing the sides, (a + b)(a2 – ab + b2) ≡ a3 + b3

(iv) a3 – b3 = (a – b)3 + 3ab(a – b) = (a – b)(a – b)2 + 3ab(a – b)
= (a – b)[(a – b)2 + 3ab] = (a – b)[(a2 – 2ab + b2) + 3ab]
= (a – b)(a2 + ab + b2)
a3 − b3 ≡ (a−b)(a2 + ab + b2)
∴
Reversing the sides, (a − b)(a2 + ab + b2) ≡ a3 − b3

100
Identity for a2 + b2 + c2 − ab − bc − ca

We have
1
a2 + b2 + c2 − ab − bc − ca = (2a 2 + 2b 2 + 2c 2 − 2ab − 2bc − 2ca )
2
1
[
= (a 2 − 2ab + b 2 ) + (b 2 − 2bc + c 2 ) + (c 2 − 2ca + a 2 )
2
]
1
[ ]
= ( a − b ) 2 + (b − c ) 2 + ( c − a ) 2 .
2

Thus, we get the following identity:

a2 + b2 + c2 −ab − bc − ca ≡
1
2
[
(a − b ) 2 + (b − c ) 2 + (c − a ) 2 ]
Reversing the sides
1
2
[ ]
(a − b) 2 + (b − c)2 + (c − a)2 ≡ a2 + b2 + c2 −ab − bc − ca

Identity for (a + b + c) (a2 + b2 + c2 − ab − bc − ca)

Using the distributive properties, we get

(a + b + c) (a2 + b2 + c2 − ab − bc − ca)
= a (a2 + b2 + c2 − ab − bc − ca) + b (a2 + b2 + c2 − ab − bc − ca)
+ c (a2 + b2 + c2 − ab − bc − ca)

= a3 + ab2 + c2a − a2b − abc − ca2 + a2b + b3 + bc2 − ab2 − b2c

− abc +ca2 + b2c + c3 − abc − bc2 − c2a

= a3 + b3 + c3 − 3abc.

Thus, we have

(a + b + c) (a2 + b2 + c2 − ab − bc − ca) ≡ a3 + b3 + c3 − 3abc

Reversing the sides, we get

a3 + b3 + c3 − 3abc ≡ (a + b + c) (a2 + b2 + c2 − ab − bc − ca).

101
Example 19 : Expand the following : (i) (3x+2y)3 (ii) (2x2–3y)3
Solution:
(i) (3x+2y)3 = (3x)3 + 3(3x)2(2y) + 3(3x)(2y)2 + (2y)3
= 27x3 + 3(9x2)(2y) + 3(3x)(4y2) + 8y3
= 27x3 + 54x2y + 36xy2 + 8y3.
(ii) (2x – 3y)3 = (2x2)3 – 3(2x2)2 (3y) + 3(2x2) (3y)2 – (3y)3
2

= 8x6 – 3(4x4)(3y) + 3(2x2)(9y2) – 27y3

= 8x6– 36x4y + 54x2y2 – 27y3
Example 20 : If the values of a+b and ab are 4 and 1 respectively, find the value of a3 + b3.
Solution:
a3+ b3 = (a+b)3 – 3ab(a+b) = (4)3 – 3(1)(4) = 64 – 12 = 52.

Example 21: If a – b = 4 and ab = 2, find a3 – b3.

Solution:
a3 – b3 = (a–b)3+3ab(a–b)= (4)3+3(2)(4) =64+24=88.

Example 22: If a+b=2 and a2+b2=8,find a3+b3 and a4+b4.

Solution:
a2 + 2ab + b2= (a+b)2
2ab = (a+b)2 – (a2 + b2) = (2)2 – (8) = 4 – 8 = – 4.
∴ ab = 12 (2ab) = 12 (–4) = – 2.
a3+ b3 = (a+b)3 – 3ab(a+b) = (2)3 – 3(–2)(2) = 8 – 3 (– 4) = 8 + 12 = 20.

Alternately,
a3 + b3 = (a+b)(a2 – ab + b2) = (a+b)(a2 + b2 – ab)
= (2) [8 – (–2)] = 2(10) = 20.
a + b = (a2)2 + (b2)2 = [(a2) + (b2)]2 – 2 (a2)(b2)
4 4

= (a2 + b2)2 – 2a2b2 = (a2 + b2)2 – 2(ab)2

= (8)2 – 2(–2)2 = 64 – 2(4)= 64 – 8 = 56.

Exercise 4.2

1. Using the product formula, find

(i) (x + 9) (x + 2) (ii) (x + 8) (x – 2)
(iii) (t – 2)(t + 6) (iv) (p – 4)(p – 3)
(v) 102 × 106 (vi) 59 × 62
(vii) 34 × 36 (viii) 53 × 55

2. Using product formulae, find

(i) (5x + 8y)2 (ii) (3s – 4t)2 (iii) (4p + 7q)(4p – 7q)
(iv) (101)2 (v) (98)2 (vi) 101 × 98

3. If a + b = 5 and a – b = 4, find a2 + b2 and ab.

4. If a + b = 10 and ab = 20, find a2 + b2 and (a–b)2.

102
 5. If (x + l)(x + m) = x2 + 4x + 2, find l2 + m2 and (l – m)2.

6. Expand the following :

(i) (3x + y + 2z)2 (ii) (4x – 2y + 3z)2
(iii) (2p + 3q – 2r)2 (iv) (3a – 2b – 2c)2
7. If a + b + c = 11 and ab + bc + ca = 38, find a2 + b2 + c2.

8. Using the product formula, find

(i) (x + 2 )(x + 3)(x + 4) (ii) (x + 2)(x + 3)(x – 4)
(iii) (x + 2)(x – 3)(x + 4) (iv) (x + 2)(x – 3)(x – 4) (v) (x – 2)(x – 3)(x – 4)
9. Using the product formula, find the coefficients of x2 term, x term and the constant
term in each of the following:
(i) (x + 10)(x – 3)(x + 2) (ii) (2x – 3)(2x + 4)(2x – 1)
(iii) (6x + 1)(6x – 5)(7 – 6x)
1 1 1
10. If (x + a)(x + b)(x + c) ≡ x3 – 9x2 + 23x – 15, find a + b + c, + + and a2 + b2 + c2.
a b c
11. Expand using the product formulae:
3
⎛ 1⎞
(i) (2x + y2)3 (ii) (2u – 7v)3 (iii) ⎜ x − ⎟ (iv) (x2y3 + 2)3
⎝ x⎠
12. If 2a – 3b = 2 and ab = 6, find 8a3 – 27b3.

1 1 1
13. If x + = 3, find x2 + 2 and x3+ 3 .
x x x

14. If x + y = 6 and xy = 8, find x2 + y2 and x3 + y3.

15. If p + q = 6 and p2 + q2 = 32, find pq, p3 + q3 and p4 + q4.

4.3. Factorization
In the previous section, we have learnt how to multiply two or more polynomials to
get another polynomial. Now, we proceed to learn how to write a polynomial as a product of
two or more polynomials. The process of writing a polynomial as a product of two or more
simpler polynomials is called factorization. Each simpler polynomial in the product is called
a factor of the given polynomial. For example, x + 3 and x – 3 are factors of x2 – 9 because
x2 – 9 = (x + 3)(x – 3).
Here x2 – 9 is a second degree polynomial whereas x + 3 and x – 3 are first degree
polynomials. Thus factorization is useful in simplifying expressions. The process of
factorization is also known as the resolution into factors.

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4.3.1. The Process of Factorization
Step 1: (Finding a common factor) When the terms of an algebraic expression A have a
common factor B, we divide each term of A by B and get an expression C. Now, A is factored
as B × C.

Example 23 : Factorize 6x4y3 – 4x2y2 + 10xy3.

Solution : We observe that 2xy2 is a common factor .
⎛ 6 x 4 y 3 4 x 2 y 2 10 xy 3 ⎞
∴ 6x4y3 – 4x2y2 + 10xy3 = 2xy2 ⎜⎜ 2
− 2
+ 2 ⎟
⎟ = 2xy2(3x3y – 2x + 5y).
⎝ 2 xy 2 xy 2 xy ⎠

Step 2: (Grouping the terms) When the terms of an algebraic expression do not have a
common factor, the terms may be grouped in an appropriate manner and a common factor is
determined.

Example 24 : Factorize x2 – 2xy – x + 2y.

Solution: The terms of the expression do not have a common factor. However, we observe
that the terms can be grouped as follows:
x2 – 2xy – x + 2y = (x2 – 2xy) – (x – 2y) = x(x – 2y) + (–1) (x – 2y)
= (x – 2y) [x + (–1)] = (x – 2y) (x – 1).

Example 25 : Factorize 6x5y2 + 6x4y3 + 9x2y4 + 9xy5.

Solution : Applying both step 1 and step 2, we have
6x5y2 + 6x4y3 + 9x2y4 + 9xy5 = 3xy2(2x4 + 2x3y + 3xy2 + 3y3)
= 3xy2 [(2x4 + 3xy2) + (2x3y + 3y3)] = 3xy2 [x(2x3 + 3y2) + y(2x3 + 3y2)]
= 3xy2 (2x3 + 3y2) (x + y).

Exercise 4.3.1

Resolve into factors by finding a common factor in the following :

1. 9m – 3n 2. 4a3 – 8a2 + 16a 3. x5 + 4x
4. 6x5y5 + 3x2y3 + 14xy3 5. 7pq – 21p2q2
Resolve into factors by finding a common factor or by grouping method:
6. mn – 2p – pn + 2m 7. x3 – 2x2 – 2x + 4
3 2
8. x – x – ax + a 9. 2p3 – p2 + 2p – 1
3 2
10. 8x + 4x + 4x + 2

4.3.2. Factorization using factorization formulae:

Sometimes, in resolving a polynomial into factors, we use factorization formulae.
These factorization formulae are obtained from the product formulae. We have already learnt
that the product formulae are
(i) (X + Y)2 = X 2 + 2XY + Y 2
(ii) (X – Y)2 = X 2 – 2XY + Y 2
(iii) (X + Y)(X–Y) = X2 – Y 2
(iv) ( X + Y) (X 2 – XY + Y 2) = X 3 + Y 3
(v) (X – Y)(X 2 + XY + Y 2) = X 3 – Y 3
(vi) (X + Y)3 = X 3 + Y 3 + 3X 2Y + 3XY 2 = X 3 + Y 3 + 3X Y (X +Y )

104
 (vii) (X – Y)3 = X 3 – Y 3 – 3X 2Y + 3XY 2 = X 3 – Y 3 – 3X Y (X –Y )
(viii) (X + Y + Z)2 = X 2 + Y 2 + Z 2 + 2XY + 2YZ + 2ZX
(ix) (X + Y + Z) (X 2 + Y 2 +Z 2 – XY – YZ – ZX) = X 3 + Y 3 + Z 3 – 3XYZ

Reading the above formulae from the Right Hand Side (R.H.S.) to Left Hand Side (L.H.S.),
we get the following factorization formulae:
(i) X 2 + 2XY + Y 2 = (X +Y)2
(ii) X 2 – 2XY + Y 2 = (X – Y)2
(iii) X 2 – Y 2 = (X + Y) (X – Y)
(iv) X 3 + Y 3 = ( X + Y) (X 2 – XY + Y 2)
(v) X 3 – Y 3 = (X – Y) (X 2 + XY + Y 2)
(vi) X 3 + Y 3 + 3X 2Y+ 3XY 2 = (X + Y)3
(vii) X 3 – Y 3 – 3X 2Y + 3XY 2 = (X – Y)3
(viii) X 2 + Y 2 + Z 2 + 2XY + 2YZ + 2ZX = ( X + Y + Z)2
(ix) X 3+Y 3+Z 3–3XYZ = (X + Y + Z) (X 2 + Y 2 + Z 2 – XY – YZ – ZX)

Factorization using X 2 + 2XY + Y 2 ≡ (X + Y)2

Example 26: Resolve into factors 4x2 + 12xy + 9y2.

Solution: The given expression can be written as follows:
4x2+ 12xy + 9y2 = (2x)2 + 2(2x)(3y) + (3y)2
Setting X = 2x, Y = 3y, the R.H.S. is X 2 + 2XY + Y 2 and so it is factored
as (X + Y)2. Hence we get 4x2 + 12xy + 9y2 = (2x + 3y)2.

Factorization using X 2 – 2XY + Y 2 ≡ (X – Y)2

Example 27 : Factorize p2 – 18pq + 81q2.

Solution : The given polynomial can be written as follows:
p2 – 18pq + 81q2 = p2 – 2(p)(9q) + (9q)2
Setting X = p and Y = 9q, the R.H.S. is X 2 – 2XY + Y 2 and so it is factorised as (X – Y)2.
Hence we get p2 – 18pq + 81q2 = (p – 9q)2.

Factorization using X 2 – Y 2 ≡ (X + Y) (X – Y)

Example 28: Factorize 16x4y2 – 25.

Solution : Since 16x4y2 = (4x2y)2 and 25 = (5)2, we have
16x4y2 – 25 = (4x2y)2 – (5)2 = (4x2y + 5) (4x2y – 5)

Factorization using X 3 + Y 3 ≡ (X + Y) (X 2 – XY + Y 2)

Example 29: Resolve into factors 125a3 + 64b3.

Solution : Since 125a3 = (5a)3 and 64b3 = (4b)3, we take X = 5a and Y = 4b .
Then 125a3 + 64b3 = (5a)3 + (4b)3
X 3 + Y 3 = (X + Y) (X 2 – XY + Y 2)
= (5a + 4b) [(5a)2 – (5a)(4b) + (4b)2]
= (5a+ 4b) (25a2 – 20ab + 16b2)

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Factorization using X 3 – Y 3 ≡ (X – Y) (X 2 + XY + Y 2)
Example 30 : Factorize 216p3–8q3.
Solution: We can write 216p3 = (6p)3 and 8q3 = (2q)3. So, taking X = 6p and Y = 2q,
we get 216p3 – 8q3 = (6p)3 – (2q)3
X 3 – Y 3 = (X – Y) (X 2 + XY + Y 2)
= (6p – 2q) [(6p)2 +(6p)(2q) +(2q)2]
= (6p –2q)(36p2+12pq+4q2).

Factorization using X 3 + Y 3 + 3X 2Y + 3XY 2 ≡ (X + Y)3

Example 31: Factorize 8x3 + y 3 + 12x2y + 6xy2.
Solution: 8x3 + y3 + 12x2y + 6xy2 = (2x)3 + y3 + 3(2x)2y + 3(2x)y2= [(2x) + y]3 = (2x + y)3.

Factorization using X 3 – Y 3 – 3X 2Y + 3XY 2 ≡ (X – Y)3

Example 32: Resolve into factors 8x3 – 27y3 – 36x2y + 54xy2.

Solution : 8x3 – 27y3 – 36x2y + 54xy2 = (2x)3 – (3y)3 – 3(2x)2(3y) + 3(2x)(3y)2= (2x – 3y)3.

Factorization using X 2+ Y 2 + Z 2 + 2XY + 2YZ + 2ZX ≡ (X + Y + Z)2

Example 33 : Factorize x2+ 9y2 – 6xy + 4x – 12y + 4.

Solution : The expression contains a sum x2 + 9y2 + 4. This is a sum of three squares. So, we
write x2 + 9y2 – 6xy + 4x – 12y + 4 = x2 + (3y)2 + 22 + 2x (–3y) + 2x(2) + 2(2)(–3y)
= [x + (–3y) + 2]2 = (x – 3y + 2)2.

Factorization using X 3 + Y 3 + Z 3 – 3XYZ ≡ (X + Y + Z) (X 2 + Y 2 + Z 2 – XY – YZ – ZX)

Example 34: Factorize x3 – 8y3 + 27z3 + 18xyz.

Solution: Since –8y3 = (–2y)3 and 27z3 = (3z)3, the given expression P contains a sum of
three cubes. So, we write
P = (x)3 + (–2y)3 + (3z)3 – 3(x)(–2y)(3z)
= [(x) + (–2y) + (3z)] [(x)2 + (–2y)2 + (3z)2 – (x) (–2y) – (–2y)(3z) – (3z)(x)]
= (x – 2y + 3z) (x2 + 4y2 + 9z2 + 2xy + 6yz – 3zx)

Factorization of X 3 + Y 3 + Z 3 when X + Y + Z =0
X 3 + Y 3 + Z 3 = (X 3 + Y 3 + Z 3 –3XYZ) + 3XYZ
= (X + Y + Z) (X 2 + Y 2 + Z 2 – XY – YZ – ZX) + 3XYZ
= (0) (X 2 + Y 2 + Z 2 – XY – YZ – ZX) + 3XYZ = 3XYZ.

Note: When X + Y + Z = 0 , X + Y = – Z. ∴ (X + Y)3 = (– Z)3 = – Z3 . That is

X 3 + Y 3 + 3XY(X +Y ) = – Z3 . That is, X 3 + Y 3 + Z 3 + 3XY(– Z) = 0.
∴ X 3 + Y 3 + Z 3 = 3XY Z.

Example 35: Factorize (x – y)3 + (y – z)3 + (z – x)3.

Solution: Put X = x – y, Y = y – z, Z = z – x. Then
X + Y + Z = (x – y) + (y – z) + (z – x) = x – y + y – z + z – x = 0.
∴ X + Y 3 + Z 3 = 3XYZ
3

106
Substituting for X, Y and Z
(x – y)3 + (y – z)3 + (z –x)3 = 3(x – y) (y – z) (z – x).

Factorization using grouping technique

Example 36: Factorize 4x2 + 20xy + 25y2 – 10x – 25y.

Solution: The given expression is 4x2 + 20xy + 25y2 – 10x – 25y
= (2x)2 + 2(2x)(5y) + (5y)2 – 5(2x) – 5(5y)
= [(2x) + (5y)]2 – 5[(2x) + (5y)] = (2x + 5y)2 – 5(2x + 5y) = (2x + 5y) (2x + 5y –5).
Example 37: Factorize 4a2 – 4ab + b2 – 2a + b.
Solution: The given polynomial is
4a2 – 4ab + b2 – 2a + b = (2a)2 – 2(2a)(b) + (b)2 – (2a – b)
= (2a – b)2 – 1 (2a – b) = (2a – b) (2a – b – 1).

Example 38: Factorize 81x2 – 18x + 1 – 25y2.

Solution : Grouping the terms, we get
81x2 – 18x + 1 – 25y2 = [(9x)2 – 2(9x)(1) + (1)2] – (5y)2
= [(9x) – (1)]2 – (5y)2
= (9x – 1) 2 – (5y)2
= [(9x –1) + (5y)][(9x – 1) – (5y)]
= (9x + 5y – 1) (9x – 5y –1).

Example 39: Factorize x4 +1.

Solution: Adding and subtracting 2x2, the given expression is
x4 + 1 = (x4 + 2x2 + 1) – 2x2
= [(x2)2 + 2(x2)(1) + (1)2] – 2x2
= (x2 + 1)2 – ( 2 x)2
= [(x2 + 1) + ( 2 x)][(x2 + 1) – ( 2 x)]
= (x2 + 2 x + 1) (x2 – 2 x + 1).

Example 40: Factorize x4 + x2y2 + y4.

Solution: Adding and subtracting x2y2, we get
x4 + x2y2 + y4 = (x4 + 2x2y2 + y4) – x2y2
= [(x2)2 + 2(x2)(y2) + (y2)2] – (xy)2
= (x2 + y2)2 – (xy)2
= [x2 + y2 + (xy)] [x2+y2 – (xy)]
= (x2 + xy + y2) (x2 – xy + y2).

Example 41: Factorize x4 + 5x2 + 9.

Solution : Adding and subtracting x2, we get
x4 + 5x2 + 9 = (x4 + 6x2 + 9) – x2
= (x2 + 3)2 – x2 = [(x2 + 3) + x][(x2+3) – x]
= (x2 + x + 3) (x2 – x + 3).

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Example 42: Resolve into factors x8 – x2y6.
Solution: Taking x2 as a common factor,
x8 – x2y6 = x2 (x6 – y6)
= x2 [(x3)2 – (y3)2]
= x2 (x3 + y3) (x3 – y3)
= x2[(x + y)(x2 – xy + y2)] [(x–y)(x2 + xy + y2)]
= x2 (x +y)(x–y)(x2 + xy + y2) (x2 – xy + y2).

Exercise 4.3.2.
Answer True or False in the following:
1. 2x2 + 2 2 x + 1 = (1 + 2 x )2
2. x6 – 4x3 + 4 = (x3 + 1)2
3. a2 – b2 = (a – b)2
4. a3 + b3 = (a + b)(a2 + ab + b2)
5. a3 – b3 = (a – b)(a2 + ab + b2)
Factorize the polynomial using the factorization formulae:
6. 1 + 6x + 9x2 7. 144x2 – 72x + 9
2 2 2 2
8. 4a b + 20abcd + 25c d 9. x2 + y2 – a2 – b2 + 2xy + 2ab
10. 3 3 x3y3 + 27z3 11. (x + y)3 + 8y3
12. (x2 + 1)3 + (x2 – 1)3 13. x6 – y6
14. (x+y)3 − (x–y)3 15. (p+q)3 + (p–q)3 + 6p (p2 – q2)
3 3 2 2
16. 27x + y + 27x y + 9xy 17. x3 – 12x2 +48x – 64
18. 8x3 – 27y3 – 36x2y + 54xy2 19. 4x2 + 9y2 + z2 + 12xy + 4xz + 6yz
2 2 2
20. a + b + 9c + 2ab – 6ac – 6bc 21. x3 – y3 + 1 + 3xy
22. 8x3 – 125y3 + 180xy + 216 23. 8x3 – 27y3 +z3+18xyz
24. 3 3 a3 – 8b3 – 125c3 − 30 3 abc 25. (a –2b)3 + (2b – 3c)3 + (3c – a)3
26. (x + y – 2z)3 + (y + z – 2x)3 + (z + x – 2y)3
27. (a2 – b2)3 + (b2 – c2) 3 + (c2 – a2)3 28. a3(b – c)3 + b3(c – a)3 + c3(a – b)3
29. x(x + z) – y(y + z) 30. 1–2xy–x – y2 31. x4 +4
2

4.3.3. Factorization of the quadratic expression ax2 + bx + c

We assume that the coefficients a, b and c are all integers and a ≠ 0. When the
coefficients a, b and c satisfy certain conditions, the algebraic expression ax2 + bx +c can be
factorized. We want to find these conditions and the factors of the expression.
First, we consider a simpler case with a = 1 and b and c as integers. Now, we have to
factorize x2 + bx + c. We try to write the integer constant term c as a product of two integers
p and q such that p + q = b. If we succeed in our attempt, then
x2 + bx + c = x2 + (p + q)x + pq
= (x2 + px) + (qx + pq)
= x(x + p) + q(x + p)
= (x + p) (x + q)
Thus, we have achieved what we wanted.
Rule : If the constant term c of x2 + bx + c can be expressed as a product of two integers p
and q such that the sum p + q is the coefficient b of x, then x2 + bx + c = (x + p) (x + q).

108
Example 43: Factorize x2 + 9x + 18.
Solution : The given expression cannot be written in the form X2 + 2XY + Y2 and so the
factorization formula X2 + 2XY + Y2 = (X + Y)2 cannot be used directly. Then we try to
factorize the constant term 18.
The list of all possible factorization of 18 is
18 = 1 × 18 = 18 × 1 = –1 × –18 = –18 × –1
18 = 2 × 9 = 9 × 2 = –2 × –9 = –9 × –2
18 = 3 × 6 = 6 × 3 = –3 × –6 = –6 × –3
We list below the sum of the factors:
18 + 1 = 1 + 18 = 19
(–18) + (–1) = (–1) + (–18) = –19
2 + 9 = 9 + 2 = 11
(–2) + (–9) = (–9) + (–2) = –11
3+6=6+3=9
(–3) + (–6) = (–6) + (–3) = –9.
We compare the coefficient of x and the sum of the factors. We find that the sum of the
factors 3 and 6 is the coefficient of x. Hence the factorization is
x2 + 9x + 18 = (x + 3) (x + 6).

Example 44: Factorize x2 – 15x + 54.

Solution: The constant term = 54 and the coefficient of x = –15. We list below the factors
of 54 and their sum.

Factors Sum
{1, 54} 55
{–1, –54} –55
{2, 27} 29
{–2, –27} –29
{3, 18} 21
{–3, –18} –21
{6, 9} 15
{–6, –9} –15
Hence x2 – 15x + 54 = (x – 6) (x – 9).

Example 45: Factorize 15 – 2x – x2.

Solution: Writing in the standard form,
15 – 2x – x2 = –x2 – 2x + 15
= (–1) (x2 + 2x – 15).
Here, we find –15 = 5 × –3, 5 + (–3) = 2
Hence, we get 15 – 2x – x2 = (–1) [(x+5) {x + (–3)}]
= (–1) (x +5)(x – 3)
= (x + 5) ( 3 – x).

Example 46: Factorize x2 – x – 132.

Solution: We find –132 = (–12) × (11), (–12) + 11 = –1.
Hence we get x2 – x – 132 = [x + (–12)] (x + 11) = (x – 12) (x + 11).

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 Next, we consider the quadratic polynomial ax2 + bx + c where a, b, c are integers
and a ≠0, 1. If we are able to find two integers p and q such that pq = ac and p + q = b. Then
1
ax2 + bx + c = (a2x2 + abx + ac)
a
1 1 1
= [a2x2 + a(p+q)x + pq] = [a2x2 + apx + aqx + pq] = [ax (ax + p) + q(ax + p)]
a a a
1
= (ax + p) (ax + q)
a
Thus, we are able to factorize the expression.

Rule : If the product a × c can be expressed as a product p × q such that b = p + q, then

1
ax2 + bx + c = (ax + p) (ax + q).
a

Example 47: Factorize 2x2+ 7x + 3.

Solution: Here a = coefficient of x2 = 2
b = coefficient of x = 7
c = constant term = 3
We find a × c = 2 × 3 = 6 = 6 × 1, 6 + 1 = 7 = b. Hence
1
2x2 + 7x + 3 = (2x + 6) (2x + 1) =(x+3)(2x+1).
2
Instead of applying the final result of the rule, we can also do the factorization by
splitting the middle term and grouping as follows:
2x2 + 7x + 3 = 2x2 + (6 + 1)x + 3
= 2x2 + 6x + x + 3
= 2x(x + 3) + (1)(x+3) = (2x+1) (x+3).

Example 48: Factorize 8a2 + 2a – 3.

Solution : Here, we find 8 ×– 3 = –24 = 6 × – 4, 6+(–4) = 2
By splitting and grouping, we get
8a2 + 2a – 3 = 8a2 + 6a – 4a – 3
= 2a(4a + 3) – (1)(4a+3) = (4a + 3) (2a – 1)

11
Example 49: Factorize 6 + x + x2.
2
11 1
Solution: Rewriting the expression, 6 + x + x2 = (2x2 + 11x + 12).
2 2
Here 2 × 12 = 24 = 8 × 3 and 8 + 3 = 11
Hence, by splitting the middle term and grouping,
11 1 1 1
6 + x + x2 = (2x2 + 8x + 3x + 12) = [2x(x + 4) + 3(x + 4)] = (x + 4) (2x + 3).
2 2 2 2
The method of splitting the middle term and grouping can also be tried to factorize
ax2 + bx + c when a, b, c are real numbers.

110
Example 50: Factorize 7 2 x 2 −10 x − 4 2 .
Solution : Here 7 2 × − 4 2 = –56 = (–14) × 4 and (–14) + 4 = –10. Hence, by splitting the
middle and grouping ,we get
7 2 x2 – 10x – 4 2 = 7 2 x2 – 14x + 4x – 4 2
= 7x ( 2 x– 2)+ 2 2 ( 2 x – 2)= ( 2 x – 2) (7x + 2 2 ).

Example 51: Factorize 3x2 + 5 3 x+ 6

Solution: Here 3 × 6 = 18 = (3 3 ) (2 3 ) and 3 3 + 2 3 = 5 3 . Hence by splitting the
middle term and grouping,
3x2 + 5 3 x + 6 = 3x2 + 3 3 x + 2 3 x + 6
= 3x (x + 3 ) + 2 3 (x + 3 )
= (x + 3 ) (3x+ 2 3 ).
The method of splitting the middle term and then grouping the terms can be followed
to factorize algebraic expressions of the form aX 2 + bXY + cY 2.

Example 52: Factorize 15x2 + 17xy + 4y2.

Solution: Here we find 15 × 4 = 60 = 12 × 5 and 17 = 12 + 5. Hence by splitting the middle
term and grouping,
15x2 + 17xy + 4y2 = (15x2 + 12xy) + (5xy + 4y2)
= 3x(5x + 4y) + y(5x + 4y)= (5x + 4y) (3x +y).

Example 53: Factorize 6(a – 1)2b – 5(a –1)b2 – 6b3

Solution: Putting x = a – 1, we get
6(a – 1)2b – 5(a–1)b2 – 6b3 = 6x2b – 5xb2 – 6b3
= b(6x2 – 5bx –6b2)
Here we find 6 × – 6 = –36 = (–9) × 4 and (–9) + 4 = –5.
Hence we get = b(6x2 – 9bx + 4bx – 6b2)
= b[3x(2x – 3b) + 2b(2x – 3b)]
= b(2x – 3b) (3x + 2b)
= b[2(a – 1) – 3b] [3(a – 1) + 2b]
= b[(2a –3b –2) (3a + 2b –3)].
There are quadratic polynomials with integer coefficients which cannot be factored
with integer coefficients.

Example 54: Factorize x2 + 3x – 1.

Solution: Comparing with ax2 + bx + c, we get a = 1, b = 3, c = –1.
Here ac = 1 × –1 = –1 = –1 × 1 and (–1) + 1 = 0 ≠ b
Hence x2 + 3x – 1 cannot be factored with integer coefficients.
2
3 ⎞ ⎛ 13 ⎞⎟
2 2 2 2
⎛3⎞ ⎛3⎞ ⎛3⎞ ⎛ 3 ⎞ 13 ⎛
Note: x + 3x – 1 = x + 2⎜ ⎟ x + ⎜ ⎟ – ⎜ ⎟ –1 = ⎜ x + = ⎜x + ⎟ –⎜
2 2
⎟ –
⎝2⎠ ⎝2⎠ ⎝2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ 4 ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
⎛ 3 13 ⎞ ⎛ 3 13 ⎞
= ⎜⎜ x + + ⎟ ⎜x+ − ⎟.
2 2 ⎟ ⎜ 2 2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠

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 Exercise 4.3.3.

Resolve into factors each of the following:

1. x2 + 7x + 12 2. x2 + 9x + 20
2
3. d + 10d + 21 4. z2 – 7z – 98
5. a2 – a – 72 6. x2 + x – 90
2
7. p – 8p + 15 8. y2 – 13y + 42
2
9. y – 20y + 99 10. t2 – 28t + 195
Factorize each of the following:
11. 2a2 + 13a + 15 12. 4x2 + 8x + 3
13. 4x2 + 12x + 9 14. 6x2 + x – 1
2
15. 6p + 17p + 10 16. 4a2 – 11a – 15
17. 7m2 + 16m – 15 18. 8p2 + 29p – 12
2
19. 6x + 5x – 6 20. 15y2 – 13y – 6
21. 14x2 – x – 3 22. 9a2 – 9a + 2
2
23. 2a – 13a + 18 24. 12x2 – 7x + 1
25. 16x2 – 32x + 7
Resolve into factors each of the following :
26. 9x2 + 24xy + 15y2 27. 4x2 – 16xy – 9y2
28. 6c2 + 11cd – 10d2 29. 5x2 – 11xy + 6y2 30. 2a2 – 15ab + 28b2
Factorize the following:
13 3 10 8 1 1
31. x 2 − x − 32. u 2 − u + 33. x 2 − x +
10 10 3 3 2 16
7 5 1
34. 4 x 2 − 8 x + 35. 4 x 2 − x + 36. 2 x 2 + 3x + 2
4 3 6
37. 3 x + 11x + 6 3
2
38. 5 5 x 2 + 20 x + 3 5
39. 2 x 2 + 3 5 x + 5 40. 7 x 2 + 2 14 x + 2

4.4 Division of a Polynomial by a Polynomial

The process of division of a polynomial f(x) by a polynomial g(x) is to find two
polynomials q(x) and r(x) such that f(x) ≡ q(x) g(x) + r(x) where either r(x) = 0 or deg(r(x)) is
less than deg(g(x)). Here f(x) is called the dividend, g(x) the divisor, q(x) the quotient and r(x)
the remainder. In the process of division of f(x) by g(x), we assume that the degree of the
dividend f(x) is always greater than or equal to that of the divisor g(x) because if deg(f(x)) is
less than deg(g(x)), then q(x) = 0 and r(x) = f(x). There are two methods of finding the
quotient and the remainder.

Method 1 :
The Long Division method: We explain the method through an example.

Example 55: Divide 2 + 5x + 3x2 + 2x3 by 1 + x.

Solution: Dividend f(x) = 2 + 5x + 3x2 + 2x3
Divisor g(x) = 1 + x, deg(f(x)) = 3, deg(g(x)) = 1.
Our aim is to get the quotient q(x) and the remainder r(x).

112
Step 1: We write f(x) and g(x) in the standard form.
f(x) = 2x3 + 3x2 + 5x + 2
g(x) = x + 1
Step 2: We divide the first term (2x3) of the dividend by the first term (x) of the divisor and
⎛ 2 x3 ⎞
obtain the first term ⎜⎜ = 2 x 2 ⎟⎟ of the quotient.
⎝ x ⎠
Step 3: We multiply the divisor (x + 1) by the first term (2x2) of the quotient and subtract the
product (2x3 + 2x2) from the dividend. We obtain the remainder (x2 + 5x + 2). The degree of
this remainder is greater than that of the divisor.
Step 4: We take the above remainder (x2 + 5x + 2) as the new dividend and repeat step 2 to
⎛ x2 ⎞
obtain the second term ⎜⎜ = x ⎟⎟ of the quotient.
⎝ x ⎠
Step 5 : We multiply the divisor (x + 1) by the second term (x) of the quotient and subtract
this product (x2 + x) from the new dividend. We obtain the remainder (4x + 2). The degree of
this remainder is equal to that of the divisor.
Step 6 : We take the remainder (4x + 2) as the new dividend and repeat step 2 to obtain the
third term ⎛⎜ = 4 ⎞⎟ of the quotient.
4x
⎝ x ⎠
Step 7 : We multiply the divisor (x + 1) by the third term (4) of the quotient and subtract this
product (4x + 4) from the new dividend. We obtain the remainder (–2). The degree of this
remainder is 0 which is less than that of the divisor. So we stop the process and write the
quotient and the remainder.

The above steps are presented in the following form:

2x2 + x + 4
x + 1 2x + 3x2 + 5x + 2
3
⎛ 2 x3 ⎞
2x3 + 2x2 ⎜⎜ = 2 x 2 ⎟⎟
– – ⎝ x ⎠
x2 + 5x + 2 ⎛ x2 ⎞
x2 + x ⎜⎜ = x ⎟⎟
– – ⎝ x ⎠
4x + 2 ⎛ 4x ⎞
4x + 4 ⎜ = 4⎟
⎝ x ⎠
– –
–2

Thus, we have
Quotient q(x) = 2x2 + x + 4, Remainder r(x) = –2.
f(x)=q(x) g(x) + r(x)
∴ 2x3 + 3x2 + 5x + 2 = (2x2 + x + 4) (x + 1) + (–2)

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Method 2 :
Divisor Factorization Method:
In this method, the aim is to get f(x) as a sum of two terms. The first term has g(x) as a
factor and the next term is a polynomial whose degree is less than that of g(x). In order to
achieve this, we add and subtract suitable terms to f(x).

Example 56: Divide 9x3 + 3x2 – 5x + 7 by 3x2 + 2x – 1.

Solution: 9x3 + 3x2 – 5x + 7 = [(3x2 + 2x – 1) (3x) – 6x2 + 3x] + 3x2 – 5x + 7
= (3x2 + 2x – 1)(3x) + [–6x2 + 3x2] + [3x – 5x] + 7
= (3x2 + 2x – 1)(3x) + (–3x2) + (–2x) + 7
= (3x2 + 2x – 1) (3x) + [(3x2 + 2x – 1) (–1) + 2x – 1] + (–2x) + 7
= (3x2 + 2x – 1) (3x) + (3x2 + 2x – 1) (–1) + [(2x) + (–2x)] + [(–1) + 7]
= (3x2 + 2x – 1)(3x) + (3x2 + 2x – 1) (–1) + 6
= (3x2 + 2x – 1) (3x – 1) + 6
So, the quotient is 3x – 1 and the remainder is 6.

Example 57: Divide 4 – 17x – 22x2 – 12x3 – 2x4 by x2 – 3x + 4.

Solution: We find the solution by both methods.
Divisor Factorization method:
4 – 17x – 22x2 – 12x3 – 2x4 = – 2x4 – 12x3 – 22x2 – 17x + 4
= [(x2 – 3x + 4) (–2x2) – 6x3 + 8x2] – 12x3 – 22x2 – 17x + 4.
= (x2 – 3x + 4) (–2x2) – 6x3 + 8x2 – 12x3 – 22x2 – 17x + 4
= (x2 – 3x + 4) (–2x2) – 18x3 – 14x2 – 17x + 4
= (x2 – 3x + 4) (–2x2) + [(x2 – 3x + 4) (–18x) – 54x2 + 72x] – 14x2 –17x + 4
=(x2 – 3x + 4) (–2x2) + (x2 – 3x + 4) (–18x) – 54x2 + 72x – 14x2 –17x + 4
= (x2 – 3x + 4) (–2x2) + (x2 – 3x + 4) (–18x) – 68x2 +55x+ 4
= (x2 – 3x + 4) (–2x2) + (x2 – 3x + 4) (–18x) + [(x2 – 3x + 4) (–68) – 204x + 272] +55x + 4
= (x2 – 3x + 4) (–2x2) + (x2 – 3x + 4) (–18x) + (x2– 3x + 4) (–68) –204x + 272 + 55x + 4
= (x2 – 3x + 4) (–2x2 – 18x – 68) + (–149x + 276)
So, the quotient is − 2x2 – 18x – 68 and the remainder is –149x + 276.

Long Division method:

– 2x2 – 18x – 68
x2 – 3x + 4 –2x4 – 12x3 – 22x2 – 17x + 4 ⎛ − 2x 4 ⎞
–2x4 + 6x3 – 8x2 ⎜⎜ 2 = −2 x 2 ⎟⎟
+ – + ⎝ x ⎠
–18x – 14x2 –17x + 4 ⎛ − 18 x ⎞
3 3

–18x3 + 54x2 – 72x ⎜⎜ 2

= −18 x ⎟⎟
+ – + ⎝ x ⎠
–68x2 + 55x + 4 ⎛ − 68 x 2 ⎞
⎜⎜ = −68 ⎟⎟
–68x2 + 204x – 272 ⎝ x
2
⎠
+ – +
– 149x + 276

So the quotient is –2x2 – 18x – 68 and the remainder is –149x + 276.

114
 Exercise 4.4

1. Find the quotient and the remainder when 4x3 – 3x2 + x – 7 is divided by

(i) 2x + 1 (ii) x – 4 (iii) 1– x

2. Find the quotient and the remainder when 15 + x4 – 8x2 is divided by

(i) (x+1)(x+2) (ii) (x – 2)2 (iii) x3+2x.

Answers

Exercise 4.1

1. (i) F (ii) F (iii) F (iv) F (v) T

3 2
2. x + 2x – x + 4 3. 3x – 2x2 + 10x – 8
4

4. 3x3 + 5x2 – 13x + 2 5. –x3 + 5x2 – 7x + 10

6. –x4 – 4x2 + 4x – 8 7. 3x5 + x3 – 8x2 + 6x – 8
8. 6x4 – 26x3 + 51x2 – 66x + 27 9. 10x5 + x4 + 9x3 + 2x2 – 9x – 28
10. – x5 + 4x4 + 9x3 – 38x2 + 21x

Coefficient of x3 Coefficient of x2 Coefficient of x

11. –2 –7 20
12. –6 10 –3
13. 18 9 9
14. acx2 + bdy2 + (ad + bc)xy 15. 2x3 – x2y – 5xy2 – 2y3
7
16. x4 + x2y2 + y4 17. p = –9 18. a= − 19. m = 12
2
Exercise 4.2

1. (i) x2 + 11x + 18 (ii) x2 + 6x – 16 (iii) t2 + 4t – 12 (iv) p2 – 7p + 12

(v) 10812 (vi) 3658 (vii) 1224 (viii) 2915
2. (i) 25x2 + 80xy + 64y2 (ii) 9s2 – 24st + 16t2 (iii) 16p2 – 49q2
(iv) 10201 (v) 9604 (vi) 9898
41
3. ,9/4 4. 60, 20 5. 12, 8
2
6. (i) 9x2 + y2 + 4z2 + 6xy + 4yz + 12xz (ii) 16x2 + 4y2 + 9z2 – 16xy – 12yz + 24xz
(iii) 4p2 + 9q2 + 4r2 + 12pq – 12qr – 8pr (iv) 9a2 + 4b2 + 4c2 – 12ab + 8bc – 12ac
7. 45
8. (i) x3 + 9x2 + 26x + 24 (ii) x3 + x2 – 14x – 24 (iii) x3 + 3x2 – 10x –24
(iv) x3 – 5x2 − 2x + 24 (v) x3 – 9x2 + 26x – 24
Coefficient of x2 Coefficient of x Constant
9. (i) 9 –16 –60
(ii) 0 –26 12
(iii) 396 –138 35

115
 23
10. –9, − , 35
15
11. (i) 8x3 + 12x2y2 + 6xy4 + y6 (ii) 8u3 – 84u2v + 294uv2 – 343v3
3 1
(iii) x 3 − 3x + − 3 (iv) x6y9 + 6x4y6 + 12x2y3 + 8
x x
12. 304 13. 7, 18 14. 20,72 15. 2, 180,1016

Exercise 4.3.1

1. 3(3m – n) 2. 4a(a2 – 2a + 4)
3. x(x4 + 4) 4. xy3 (6x4y2 + 3x + 14)
5. 7pq (1–3pq) 6. (m – p) (n + 2)
7. (x + 2 ) (x – 2 ) (x – 2) 8. (x + a ) (x – a ) (x – 1)
9. (p2 + 1) (2p – 1) 10. 2(2x + 1) (2x2 + 1)

Exercise 4.3.2

1. T 2. F 3. F 4. F 5. T
6. (1 + 3x) 2
7. (12x – 3)2 8. (2ab + 5cd)2 9. (x + y + a − b) (x + y − a + b)
10. ( 3 xy + 3 z ) (3x2y2 – 3 3 xyz + 9z2)
11. (x + 3y) (x2 + 3y2) 12. 2x2 (x4 + 3)
13. (x + y) (x − y) (x − xy + y ) (x + xy + y )
2 2 2 2
14. 2y(3x2 + y2)
3
15. 8p 16. (3x + y)3
3
17. (x – 4) 18. (2x – 3y)3
2
19. (2x + 3y + z) 20. (a + b – 3c)2
2 2
21. (x – y + 1) (x + y + 1 + xy + y – x)
22. (2x – 5y + 6) (4x2 + 25y2 + 36 + 10xy + 30y – 12x)
23. (2x – 3y + z) (4x2 + 9y2 + z2 + 6xy + 3yz – 2zx)
24. ( 3a – 2b – 5c) (3a2 + 4b2 + 25c2 + 2 3ab – 10bc + 5 3ca )
25. 3 (a – 2b) (2b – 3c) (3c – a) 26. 3(x + y – 2z) (y + z – 2x) (z + x – 2y)
27. 3(a + b) (a – b) (b + c) (b − c) (c + a) (c − a)
28. 3abc (a – b) (b – c) (c – a) 29. (x – y) (x + y + z)
30. (1 + x + y) (1 – x – y) 31. (x2 + 2x + 2) (x2 – 2x + 2)

Exercise 4.3.3

1. (x + 3) (x + 4) 2. (x + 4) (x + 5) 3. (d + 3) (d + 7)
4. (z + 7) (z − 14) 5. (a + 8) (a – 9) 6. (x + 10) (x – 9)
7. (p – 3) (p – 5 ) 8. (y – 6) (y – 7) 9. (y – 9) (y – 11)
10. (t – 13) ( t – 15) 11. (a + 5) (2a + 3) 12. (2x + 1) (2x + 3)

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13. (2x + 3) (2x + 3) 14. (2x + 1)(3x − 1) 15. (p + 2) (6p + 5)
16. (a + 1) (4a – 15) 17. (m + 3) (7m – 5) 18. (p + 4) (8p – 3)
19. (2x + 3) (3x – 2) 20. (3y + 1) (5y – 6) 21. (2x – 1) (7x + 3)
22. (3a – 1)(3a – 2) 23. (a – 2) (2a – 9) 24. (3x – 1) (4x – 1)
25. (4x – 1) (4x – 7) 26. (x + y) (9x + 15y) 27. (2x + y) (2x – 9y)
28. (2c + 5d) (3c – 2d) 29. (x – y) (5x – 6y) 30. (a – 4b) (2a – 7b)
1 1 1
31. (2x – 3) (5x +1) 32. (u – 2) (3u – 4) 33. (4x – 1)(4x – 1)
10 3 16
1 1
34. (4x – 1) (4x – 7) 35. (4x – 1) (6x – 1) 36. ( 2 x + 1) ( x + 2)
4 6
37. ( 3 x + 2) (x + 3 3 ) 38. ( 5 x + 3) ( 5x + 5 ) 39. (x + 5 ) (2x + 5)
40. ( 7x + 2 )( 7x + 2 )
Exercise 4.4

Quotient Remainder
5 7 35
1. (i) 2x2 – x + −
2 4 4
2
(ii) 4x + 13x + 53 205
(iii) –4x2 –x – 2 −5

2. (i) x2 – 3x – 1 9x + 17
(ii) x2 + 4x + 4 –1
(iii) x − 10x2 + 15

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 5. PROBLEM SOLVING TECHNIQUES
Whenever we are asked to solve a mathematical problem, we first read and understand
it thoroughly and make clear what are given in the problem and what are to be found or
proved. Then we proceed to decide what mathematical facts are to be used and how these
facts may be used to get a solution to the given problem. The process of deciding about the
facts to be used and developing a method to use the facts to solve the problem require skill
and experience. Through our skill, we learn more and more methods or techniques to solve
problems. Quite often, a given problem may be solved by several ways or techniques. For
example, consider the following problem.

a
Problem: If a − b = 4 and a + b = 5, then find the value of .
b
To solve the above problem, our thinking process works as follows.

Question: What are given?

Answer: a − b = 4 and a + b = 5
Question: What is to be found?
a
Answer: The value of .
b
Question: How would you proceed?
Answer:

Technique 1:
a − b = 4. (1)
a + b = 5. (2)
9
(1) + (2) ⇒ 2a = 9 ⇒ a = .
2
−1 1
(1) − (2) ⇒ −2b = −1 ⇒ b = = .
−2 2
a 9 2
∴ = × = 9.
b 2 1

Technique 2:
a 2a ( a + b) + ( a − b) 5+4 9
= = = = = 9.
b 2b (a + b) − (a − b) 5−4 1

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Technique 3:
a−b=4 (1)
a+b=5 (2)
a a x
Let = x. Then = or a = bx.
b b 1
(1) ⇒ bx − b = 4 ⇒ b (x − 1) = 4.
(2) ⇒ bx + b = 5 ⇒ b (x + 1) = 5.
b( x − 1) 4 x −1 4
∴ = or = or 5x − 5 = 4x + 4 or 5x − 4x = 4 +5 or x = 9.
b( x + 1) 5 x +1 5

Thus, we observe that our insight, skill, ability and experience are required in
developing strategies and techniques to solve problems. The techniques presented above may
not be exhaustive. New techniques may be developed whenever we solve the same problem
again and again. Further, our mind should be more flexible in thinking and kept very well
open but not blank to receive the flow of ideas. If a technique is not working in solving a
problem, then another method may be tried to solve the problem until we exhaust all
techniques known to us. In this chapter, we shall discuss some of the techniques that are quite
often used in solving problems.

5.1 Conjectures and Proofs

Consider the following pattern of numbers
1, 3, 7, 13, 21, ……
We want to know what would be the general term of the pattern. Let us analyse the terms of
the pattern as follows:
1=1
3=1 + 2
7=1 + 2 + 4
13=1 + 2 + 4 + 6
21=1 + 2 + 4 + 6 + 8
So we are certain that the next number in the pattern is

1 + 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 + 10 = 21 + 10 = 31.

That is, the 6 th term is 31 and 31 = 1 + 2(1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5).

Similarly,

the 7 th term = 1 + 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 + 10 +12

= 31 + 12
= 43
= 1 + 2(1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6),
the 8 th term = 1 + 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 + 10 +12 +14
= 43 + 14
= 57

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 = 1 + 2(1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7),
the 9 th term = 1 + 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 + 10 +12 +14 + 16
= 57 + 16
= 73
= 1 + 2(1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8).

Looking at the way in which the terms occur, we make the statement that the general term
(i.e., the n th term, where n = 1, 2, 3, ….) of the pattern is 1 + 2[1 + 2 + 3 + … + (n−1)].

But, in this statement, we have an unknown sum, namely, 1 + 2 + 3 + ….+ (n − 1). Unless,
this sum is found, we can not say that we have found the general term of the pattern. Consider
for example the sum 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + ….+ 100. This is a sum of 100 consecutive
natural numbers starting with 1. If S is its sum, then S = 1 + 2 + 3 + ….+ 98 + 99 + 100. We
can get S in the reverse way also as S = 100 + 99 + 98 + ….+ 2 + 1. That is,
S = 1 + 2 + 3 + …98 + 99 + 100
S =100 + 99 + 98 +…+ 3 + 2 + 1
∴2S = 101 + 101 + 101 + … + 101 + 101 + 101. Remember that there are 100 such 101’s.
100 × 101
So 2S=100 ×101 or S = = 5050.
2
Looking at the pattern through which the sum was obtained, we can guess and make the
statement
(n − 1)n
1 + 2 + 3 + …..+ (n − 1) = .
2
We can put n = 1, 2, 3, … and verify that the statement is true. But we have only made a
statement. We have not given a proof of it. That is, we have not proved it for a general n.
(Gauss, the famous German mathematician while he was 10 years old studying in his 4 th
Standard gave the answer immediately as 5050, when his teacher asked the whole class to
compute the sum 1 + 2 + 3 + …. + 100. When the teacher asked how he could immediately
arrive at the answer, Gauss gave the arguments as above.) So, the general term in our pattern
is
n(n − 1)
1+2× = 1 + n(n−1) = n2 – n +1.
2
Thus, the general term in the pattern 1, 3, 7, 13, …. is n2 – n +1.

In the above discussion, we have observed a pattern and made a statement. In fact,
many theorems in every branch of mathematics such as algebra and geometry have been
developed by observing and making statements on patterns of numbers and figures. We shall
now discuss various types of statements made in mathematics and also provide various
techniques followed in analysing statements.

Statements are simply assertions made. Some examples of statements are given below:

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 (i) “x + 7 = 5 where x ∈ N.”
(ii) “The diagonals of a square are perpendicular to each other.”
(iii) “(a + b) (a − b) = a2 − b2 where a, b ∈ R.”
(iv) “ 2 is a rational number.”
(v) “The diagonals of a rhombus are not perpendicular to each other.”
n( n + 1)
(vi) “1 + 2 + ….+ n = .”
2
A statement made may be true or false. For example, the statements (i), (iv) and (v) are false
while (ii) (iii) and (vi) are true.

5.1.1 What is called a definition?

There are certain statements which are made to create new concepts from the already
existing ones without leading to erroneous results. They are called definitions. Following are
some definitions which we have already encountered :
(i) A triangle is called equilateral if all its sides are of same length
(ii) If ax=b, then x is called the logarithm of b to the base a.
(iii) Two angles are called supplementary if their sum is 180°.

5.1.2 Axiom

There are certain statements which are assumed to be true. These statements are called
axioms. Following are some axioms which we come across in Geometry and Algebra.

(i) There is exactly one and only one straight line passing through two given
points.
(ii) For any two real numbers, x + y and xy are real numbers.
(iii) If n is a natural number, then n + 1 is also a natural number.
(iv) A straight line segment has one and only one mid point.
(v) An angle has one and only one bisector.

5.1.3 The symbols ⇒, ⇒ and ⇔

Mathematics is a subject which is the outcome of logical thinking. The solution or

derivation or proof of a problem is a step by step structure. Each step in a derivation follows
logically from the previous steps. To indicate the flow of logic, we make use of the symbol
‘⇒’. We shall explain the usage of this symbol ‘⇒’ through an example. Consider the two
statements:
P: x = 2, Q: x2 = 4
Suppose that P is true. Then x = 2.
∴ x2 = x × x = 2 × 2 = 4.
∴ Q is true

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 Thus, if P is true, then Q is true. We write this symbolically as “P is true ⇒ Q is
true” or simply as “P ⇒ Q”. The symbol ⇒ stands for “implies”.

Next, let us explain the symbol ⇒.

Consider the same two statements P and Q:

P: x = 2, Q: x2 = 4
Suppose that Q is true. Then x2 = 4. This does not mean that x = 2, since x = − 2 also satisfies
the equation. Hence P need not be true. We write this fact by the symbol Q ⇒ P.

We shall now explain the symbol “⇔”

Consider the two statements
Q1: 2x + 3y = 12 and 5x − 6y = 3.
Q2: x = 3 and y = 2.
Suppose that Q1 is true.
Then
2x + 3y = 12, (1)
5x − 6y = 3. (2)
∴ (1) × 2 ⇒ 4x + 6y = 24 (3)
and (2) ⇒ 5x − 6y = 3. (4)
∴ (3) + (4) ⇒ 9x = 27 ⇒ x = 3.
Putting x = 3 in (1), 6 + 3y = 12 or 3y = 6 or y = 2.
i.e., x = 3, y = 2
i.e., Q2 is true

Suppose that Q2 is true.

Then x = 3, y = 2.
∴ 2x + 3y = 2 × 3 + 3 × 2 = 6 + 6 = 12 and 5x −6y = 5 × 3 − 6 × 2 = 15 − 12 = 3.
i.e., Q1 is true
Thus Q2 ⇒ Q1.
Whenever Q1 ⇒ Q2 and Q2 ⇒ Q1, the two results Q1 ⇒ Q2 and Q2 ⇒ Q1 are put together and
written as Q1⇔ Q2. In this situation, we say that , Q1 is equivalent to Q2. This means that, if
Q1 is true, then Q2 is true and, if Q2 is true, then Q1 is true. That is, Q1 is true if and only if Q2
is true. Thus the symbol “⇔” stands for ‘if and only if ’.

5.1.4 What is called a theorem?

A statement until it is proved or disproved is called a conjecture. A conjecture, if it is

proved, becomes a theorem. A conjecture, if it is disproved, becomes a false statement. Thus,
a statement which has been already proved to be true is called a theorem. If a statement holds
true in a particular case, then we say that the verification of the statement is made. Following
are some theorems which we know already in Algebra and Geometry:
(i) If two sides of a triangle are equal, then the angles opposite to them are equal.
(ii) The sum of the three angles of a triangle is equal to two right angles.

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 (iii) The diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.
(iv) The square of an odd integer is odd.
(v) The square of an even integer is even.
(vi) 2 is an irrational number.
(vii) (a + b)2=a2 + 2ab + b2.
(viii) log a(mn)=log am + log an.

5.1.5 What is called a proof of a theorem?

A proof of a theorem is an argument that establishes the truth of the theorem. For
example, consider the following statement:

“The square of an odd integer is odd.”

If the above statement has to be a theorem, then it should have a logical proof. Consider the
following argument:
“Let n be an odd integer. Then n = 2m + 1 where m is an integer.
Now, we have n2 = (2m + 1)2 = 4m2 + 4m + 1 = 2(2m2 + 2m)+1.
Since m is an integer, 2m2 + 2m is an integer.
So 2(2m2 + 2m) is an even integer.
Hence 2(2m2+2m)+1 is an odd integer.
Thus n2 is odd.”

There are several techniques by which a proof may be given. The techniques are
broadly classified as follows:

(i) Direct Proof.

(ii) Indirect Proof or Proof by contradiction.
(iii) Proof by counter examples.
(iv) Geometrical Proof Technique
(v) Proof by construction

(i) Direct Proof Technique: Suppose that we want to prove that P ⇒ Q. First, take P to
be true. Applying the step by step reasoning, we get that Q is true. This method of proving
that Q is true from that P is true is called the direct proof method.

a a−b 2
Example 1: If = 5, show that = .
b a+b 3
a
Solution: Let = 5.
b
Then a= 5b.
a − b 5b − b 4b 2
∴ = = = .
a + b 5b + b 6b 3

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 a c a −b c−d
Example 2: Prove, by direct method, that, if
= , = .
b d a+b c+d
a c a a c c
Solution: Let = . Put = u. Then a = ub. Since = , we have = u.
b d b b d d
∴ c = ud.
a−b ub − b (u − 1)b u − 1
∴ = = = .
a+b ub + b (u + 1)b u + 1

c − d ud − d (u − 1)d u − 1
Similarly = = = .
c + d ud + d (u + 1)d u + 1

a−b c−d
∴ = .
a+b c+d

(ii) Indirect Proof Technique: Suppose that we want to prove that a statement P implies
the statement Q. In order to do this, first assume that P is true and Q is not true. Then,
applying a step by step reasoning, we arrive at a contradiction (a statement opposite to the
assumption). The above method of proof is called the indirect method of proof or
contradiction method of proof.

Example 3: Prove, by contradiction method, that 2 is an irrational number.

Solution: Assume that 2 is a rational number. We know that every rational number has a
p p
simplest form. Let be the proper (simplest) form of 2 . Then 2 = ,where p and q are
q q
positive integers having no common factor other than 1. But
p
2 = ⇒ p = 2 q ⇒ p2 = 2q2 ⇒ p2 is an even integer
q
⇒ p is an even integer
⇒ p = 2m, where m is an integer
⇒ 4m2 = 2q2
⇒ q2 = 2m2
⇒ q2 is an even integer
⇒ q is an even integer
⇒ q = 2n, where n is an integer
⇒ p and q have 2 as a common factor
⇒ a contradiction.
Hence 2 is an irrational number.

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Example 4: Prove, by indirect technique, that if 100 balls are placed in 9 boxes, then there is
at least one box which contains 12 or more balls.
Solution: If possible, let us assume that 100 balls are placed in 9 boxes and that no box has 12
or more balls. Then each box has at most 11 balls. Then the total number of balls placed in 9
boxes is 9 × 11 = 99. But this contradicts the assumption that 100 balls have been placed in
the 9 boxes. Hence there is some box which contains 12 or more balls.

Example 5: Prove, by indirect technique, that, if P is a point which divides the line segment
AB in the ratio m: n internally, then P is unique.
Solution: Assume that P divides AB in the ratio m: n internally. Assume that P is not unique.
Then there is another point P1 on AB which divides AB in the ratio m: n internally
(see Figure 5.1). Then
AP m AP1 m
= and = .
PB n P1 B n

Figure 5.1

∴ n AP = m PB and n AP1 = m P1B

∴ n AP =m (AB − AP) and n AP1 = m (AB − AP1)
∴ n AP =m AB − m AP and n AP1 = m AB − m AP1
∴ (m + n) AP = m AB and (m + n) AP1 = m AB
mAB mAB
∴ AP = , AP1 = .
m+n m+n
∴ AP = AP1
∴ P and P1 are the same point.
This is a contradiction. Hence P is unique.

(iii) Proof by Counter-example: Let P1 and P2 be two statements. Suppose that we want
to know whether P1 ⇒ P2. If we can find an example where P1 is true but P2 is false, then we
conclude that P1 ⇒ P2. The example which we have found is called a counter-example.

Example 6: If x is a real number, does x2 ≥ x?

Solution: P1: x is a real number.
P2: x2 ≥ x.
1 1 1
For x = , P1 is true but x2 = < = x and so P2 is not true. Hence P1 ⇒ P2.
2 4 2
1
Here is a counter example and we conclude that “x2 ≥ x for all real x” is false.
2

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Example 7: If n is a natural number, then prove that n2 ≥ n.
Solution: Let n be a natural number. Since n is a natural number, n > 0 and n − 1 ≥ 0.
∴ n (n − 1) ≥ 0. or n2 − n ≥ 0 or n2 ≥ n.

Example 8: For every real number x, does x2 − 1 > 0?

Solution:
P1: x is a real number.
P2: x2 − 1 > 0.
1 1 3
Take x = .Then P1 is true. But we get x2 − 1= −1=− < 0. So P2 is not true.
2 4 4
1 1
Thus, with x = we get that P1 is true and P2 is not true. Hence P1 ⇒ P2.. Hence is a
2 2
counter example and the statement “x2 − 1 > 0 for every real number x” is false.
Note: In the above example, by choosing a numerical value for x, we are able to establish the
falseness of a statement.

(iv) Geometrical Proof Technique: Some algebraic

problems can be solved by geometric methods.

Example 9: Prove that (a + b) (a − b) = a2 − b2.

Solution: Consider the following rectangle.
ABCD where AB = AI = a, BE = DI = b (see Figure 5.2)
Then
AD = AI + DI = a + b
AE = AB − BE = a − b.
∴ Area of the rectangle AEFD = (a + b) (a − b)
But, the area of the rectangle AEFD
= area of the square ABGI
− area of the rectangle BEHG Figure 5.2
+ area of the rectangle DFHI
= a − ab + (area of the rectangle CDIG − area of the square CFHG)
2

= a2 − ab + (ab − b2) = a2 − b2.

∴ (a + b) (a − b) = a2 − b2.

(v) Proof by construction:

When we solve some problems in geometry, we do some intermediate constructions

like adding lines to the figure in order to get the solution. Construction is a good technique in
many geometrical problems. But construction should be made at appropriate places. Thus
proof by construction requires fore-sightedness on the part of the problem solver.

126
Example 10: Prove that if two sides of a triangle are equal, then the angles opposite to them
are equal.
Solution: Let ABC be a triangle. Assume that
AB = AC. We want to prove that ∠B = ∠C.
Let D be the mid point of BC. Join AD.
Consider the triangles ADB and ADC. In these
triangles, BD = DC, AD is common and AB =
AC. So the triangles are congruent. Then the
corresponding angles are equal. ∴∠B = ∠C.
Figure 5.3

Exercise 5.1

1. What is called a conjecture?

2. What is called a theorem?
3. What is a proof of a theorem?
4. Why should verification precede proof?
5. Explain ‘geometric proof’ with an example.
6. Explain ‘proof’ by counter-example.
7. What is called a construction method?
8. Prove, by indirect method, that, if x, y are any two real numbers such that x + y ≥ 2,
then either x ≥ 1 or y ≥ 1.

5.2 Mathematical Models

Mathematical models are created to understand the real world problems. These models
are framed by using subjects such as Algebra and Geometry. If mathematical models are
formulated based upon geometric ideas, then such models are called geometric models. If
algebraic ideas are used in framing mathematical models, then such models are called
algebraic models. Some times mathematical models are analysed before conducting
experiments. Conducting an experiment may be very expensive, time consuming and risky.
Mathematical models give proof for the experimental works. Many of mathematical ideas
were developed when attempts were made to study practical problems. Now we proceed to
study some algebraic models and geometric models.

We first consider an example. If the cost of 1 note book is Rs. 12, then the cost of 10
note books = 12 × 10 = Rs. 120 and the cost of 20 note books = 12 × 20 = Rs. 240. The cost
of 5 note books = 12 × 5 = 60 and the cost of 3 note books is Rs. 12 × 3 = 36. The table
below provides the variation of cost of note books with respect to the number of note books
bought.

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 Number of Note books (x) 2 3 5 6 8 10
Cost of note books (y) 24 36 60 72 96 120

We observe that when the number of note books increases, the cost also increases and when
the number of note books decreases, the cost also decreases. Hence we come across two
variables which decrease or increase together. Such variables are said to be in direct
variation. In the above example, the number of note books and their cost are directly
proportional or they are in direct variation.
Let us now take a real life problem. We have recorded the number x of people in the
age group 10 through 15 and the number y among them attending high schools in a town for
the years 1999 to 2002. The recordings are tabulated as given below:

x 9200 10200 11600 12400

y 4140 4590 5220 5580
Here x stands for the number of people of age group 10 through 15 years and y stands for the
number of them enrolled in high schools in a year. We observe that, for each year, the ratio
y
= 0.45.
x
Then, we get y = 0.45 x as an equation connecting the two variables x and y. Based upon the
previous years observations, we make the assumption that this ratio remains a constant in
future years also. Then we find that if 15,000 people of the age group 10 through 15 years are
expected in the town for the next year, the number enrolled in high schools will be 6,750
among them. Thus, the equation y = 0.45x is said to be a mathematical model representing the
relationship between number of persons enrolled in high schools of the town and the number
in the age group 10 through 15 years. It is an algebraic model since it is represented by an
algebraic equation. In this example, the ratio of the number y enrolled in high schools to the
number x of people in the age group 10 through 15 is a positive constant. In this situation, we
say that y varies directly as x or that y has a direct variation with x. The equation y = 0.45 x is
a direct variation mathematical model. In general, a direct variation mathematical model is of
the form y = k x, where k is a constant. Although our problem is not a problem of geometry,
we may try to draw a figure and the figure may be an important step towards the solution of
the problem. For example, the algebraic model formulated above may be provided with a
geometric description as follows. Let us draw the graph of the equation y = 0.45 x. This graph
is a straight line (see Figure 5.4) and it provides a geometric model of the direct variation.

Figure 5.4

128
 Consider next the following example. Suppose that a train runs with a uniform speed.
If the train takes 4 hours to cover the distance of 160 km, then the speed of the train is

160
= 40 k.m.p.h.
4

If the train takes 2 hours to cover the distance of 160 k.m., then the speed of the train is
160
= 80 k.m.p.h.
2

We observe that, when t, the number of hours is halved, the speed v is doubled. If the train
takes 8 hours to cover the distance of 160 k.m., the speed v is
160
= 20 k.m.p.h.
8

We observe that, when t, the number of hours is doubled the speed v is halved. From the
above discussion, we note that faster the train goes, the lesser will be the time taken, and
slower the train goes, more will be the time taken. That is, if v increases, t decreases and vice
versa. That is, v is inversely proportional to t. Two such quantities are said to be in inverse
variation. Thus, two quantities are said to in inverse variation if an increase in one quantity
makes the other quantity decrease and a decrease in one quantity makes the other quantity
increase. The following table gives the speed (v) in k.m. per hour and time (t) taken in hours
at that speed to cover a specific distance.

Times (t) hour 2 4 5 8

Speed (v) k.m. 80 40 32 20

From the above table, we observe that,

t × v = 2 × 80 = 160 , t × v = 4 × 40 = 160, t × v = 5 × 32 = 160, t × v = 8 × 20 = 160
which means
160
tv = 160 or v = .
t

That is, v and t are in inverse variation. This is an algebraic model representing the indirect
variation of speed with respect to time. If we draw a graph of v t = 160, we observe that the
graph is not a straight line, but is as shown in Figure 5.5. The graph shows a falling trend of v
with respect to t. It is a geometric model representing speed-time relation.

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 Figure 5.5

In physics we come across the equation PV = constant. This is an example of inverse

variation. Under constant temperature, as the pressure (P) increases, the volume (V) decreases
and if volume increases, the pressure decreases. The inverse variation can also be understood
by considering a rectangle of given area. Suppose x and y are the length and breadth of the
rectangle whose area is A. Then xy = A.
A A
∴y= or x = . As the breadth y increases, the length x decreases; and as the length x
x y
increases, the breadth y decreases.

Exercise 5.2

1. What is a mathematical model?

2. Explain direct variation.
3. Explain inverse variation.

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 6. THEORETICAL GEOMETRY
The word “geometry” is derived from the combination of two Greek words “geo” and
“metron”. The word “geo” means “earth” and “metron” means “measurement”. Thus the
subject of “earth measurement” was originally named as “geometry”. In the early
development of this subject, Egyptians applied geometrical principles in surveying and
construction of temples, tombs and pyramids. Later, Greeks emphasized the logical reasoning
of geometrical facts and they dedicated their knowledge on geometry to the world of
mathematics through the works of Pythagoras and Euclid. This culminated into the birth of
the subject theoretical geometry. In this subject, the emphasis is on giving proofs of
geometrical facts through deductive reasoning without the need of any geometrical
instruments. Euclid, a distinguished Greek mathematician, called the father of geometry who
lived about 330 B.C. contributed geometry of his times in thirteen volumes called “The
Elements”. Studying theoretical geometry develops creative thinking and generates skills in
other subjects also.

6.1 Theorems for Verification

In our earlier classes, we have learnt about certain basic undefined terms in geometry
such as point, line, plane and angle. We have also studied some principles of triangles,
parallel lines and some special quadrilaterals. However, we recall them here before we
proceed to know more about them.

6.1.1 Basic Geometrical terms

A point is used to represent a position in space. In practice, we put a small dot on a

paper or on a black board to indicate a point. But theoretically, a point has no size or shape. A
point can also be understood as the position where two lines intersect each other. But, here we
have made use of the concept of a line to understand a point. We understand a line to be the
set of points lying at the intersection of two planes. But, here we have made use of the
concept of a plane to understand a line. We understand a plane to be a surface extending
infinitely in all directions such that all points lying on the line joining any two points on the
surface lie on the surface itself. Thus, we observe that the three concepts a point, a line and a
plane are basic terms which are to be understood and cannot be defined.

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Points are denoted by capital letters such as A, B, C and D. If A and B are two points on a line,
↔
then the line is denoted by writing AB and is read as ‘the line AB’. The double headed arrow
‘↔’ indicates the fact that the line extends infinitely in two directions. For brevity, we shall
refer to a line by a single letter l. If A and B are two points on a line, then the portion of the
line between A and B, including the points A and B, is called the line segment between A and
B and is denoted by the symbol AB . The length of AB is denoted simply by writing AB. A
ray is the portion of a line starting from a point on the line extending in one of the two
directions of the line. The starting point is called the initial point of the ray.
→
If A is the initial point and B is any point on a ray, then the ray is denoted simply by AB and is
read as the ray AB. The single headed arrow over AB represents the direction of the ray. A ray
→
AB is simply written as the ray AB without the arrow mark ‘→’ over AB.
↔
Note: A line AB is simply written as the line AB where the double headed arrow ‘↔’ is
omitted. Similarly, the line segment AB is simply written as AB without the bar ‘⎯’ over AB.
→ →
Two rays AB and AC having the
common initial point A is said to form an angle
at A. The point A is called the vertex of the
angle. We shall denote the angle as ∠BAC or
∠CAB . Here the segments AB and AC are
called a pair of arms of the angle. The formation
of the angle at A is denoted by a small arc
Figure 6.1
starting from one arm to the other arm (see
Figure 6.1).

If the arms are understood, we simply

write the angle simply as ∠A . Just like a line
segment, an angle also has a measure. We shall
denote the measure of the angle ∠A by m∠A.
The measure does not depend on the lengths of
the arms. Angles are measured by a unit called
degree. When a ray makes one complete rotation
on the plane about its initial point, we say that an Figure 6.2
angle of measure 360 degrees (written as 360º) is
formed. (see Figure 6.2)
Here the two arms of the angle coincide. Measurement of all other angles are made based on a
1
360º angle. When a ray makes th part of one complete rotation, an angle of measure
4

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1 1
(360º) = 90º is formed. When a ray makes th part of one complete rotation, an angle of
4 6
1 1
measure (360º) = 60º is formed. When a ray makes th part of one complete rotation,
6 360
1
an angle of measure (360) = 1º is formed.
360

Figure 6.3 Figure 6.4 Figure 6.5

If m ∠BAC = 90º then ∠BAC is called a right angle (see Figure 6.3). If m ∠BAC is greater
than 90º, then ∠BAC is called an obtuse angle (see Figure 6.4). If m ∠BAC is less than 90º,
then ∠BAC is called an acute angle (see Figure 6.5). If m ∠BAC = 180º, then ∠BAC is
called a straight angle (see Figure 6.6). If ∠BAC is a straight angle, then BC is a line
segment and the points A, B and C are collinear; that is,

Figure 6.6 Figure 6.7

↔ ↔
they lie on a straight line. When two lines BD and CE intersect at the point A, the two angles
∠BAC and ∠DAE are called vertically opposite angles. We observe that ∠CAD and ∠BAE
are also vertically opposite angles (see Figure 6.7). If m ∠BAC is greater than 180º but less
than 360º, then the angle is called a reflex angle (see Figure 6.8).

Figure 6.8 Figure 6.9 Figure 6.10

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If two angles have a common vertex and lie on the opposite sides of a common arm, then the
angles are called adjacent angles. (see Figure 6.9). In the Figure 6.9, ∠BAD and ∠DAC are
adjacent angles since they have the common vertex A and lie on the opposite sides of the
common arm AD . We observe that ∠BAC and ∠BAD are not adjacent angles since they are
on the same side of the common arm AB .Two adjacent angles are said to be complementary
angles if the sum of their measures is 90º (see Figure 6.10). In Figure 6.10,
m ∠BAD + m ∠DAC = 90º and so ∠BAD and ∠DAC are complementary angles. Here
m ∠BAD = 90º − m ∠DAC and we say that one angle is the complement of the other.

If the sum of the measures of two adjacent angles is

180º, then the two angles are called supplementary
angles and we say that one angle is the supplement of
the other (see Figure 6.11). In figure ∠BAD and
∠DAC are supplementary angles and we observe that Figure 6.11
m ∠DAC = 180º − m ∠BAD .

6.1.2 Axioms and Theorems on lines

We present below some axioms and theorems on lines for understanding.

Activity: Plot two points A and B on a plane.

Figure 6.12

Through A, we can draw several (infinite number of ) lines (see Figure 6.12). Of these lines,
↔
there is one and only one line, namely AB which passes through the point B. Similarly,
through B, we can draw infinite number of lines. Of these lines, there is one and only one line,
↔
namely the line AB which passes through A.

From the above activity, we postulate the following property:

Property 1: Given any two points on a plane, there is one and only one line containing them.

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Note: From the above property, we observe that

(i) Two distinct points in a plane determine a unique line. If X and Y are any two points on a
↔
line, the line XY is denoted simply as the line XY, omitting ‘↔’.
(ii) Three or more points are called collinear points if they all lie on the same line.
(iii) Three or more points are called non-collinear points if at least one of them does not lie
on the line passing through two of the points.

Activity: Draw two distinct lines AB and CD in a plane. We observe that these lines can have
either one point in common or no point in common (see Figure 6.13).

Figure 6.13

From the above activity, we enunciate the following property.

Property 2: Two distinct lines cannot have more than one point in common.

Note: If two distinct lines have a common point, then the lines are called intersecting lines. If
two distinct lines in a plane have no point in common, then the two lines are called
non-intersecting lines. Two non-intersecting lines are called parallel lines.
↔
Activity: Draw a line AB and mark a point P not on the line. Draw lines through P. We
↔
observe that there is a unique line passing through P and parallel to AB (see Figure 6.14).
From this activity, we have the following property.

Figure 6.14
Property 3: Given a line and a point not on it, there is one and only one line that passes
through the given point and is parallel to the given line.

Note: If three or more lines pass through the same point, then the lines are called concurrent
lines.

135
 ↔ ↔
Activity: Draw two intersecting lines AB and CD. Make the point of intersection as O.
Measure the angles ∠AOC , ∠BOD , ∠AOD and ∠BOC (see Figure 6.15

We observe that
m ∠AOD = m ∠BOC ,
m ∠AOC = m ∠BOD.

The angles ∠AOC and ∠BOD are said to form a

pair of vertically opposite angles. Similarly ∠BOC
and ∠AOD are vertically opposite angles.
Figure 6.15
From the above activity, we get the following:
Property 4: If two lines intersect, then the vertically
opposite angles are equal.

Note: Let m ∠AOC = xº and m ∠AOD = yº. Then, using the above axiom, m ∠BOD = xº and
m ∠BOC = yº. But m ∠AOC + m ∠BOC + m ∠BOD + m ∠AOD = 360º
or xº + yº + xº + yº = 360º or 2xº + 2yº = 360º or xº + yº = 180º. So xº and yº are supplementary
angles. Thus, we observe that m ∠AOC + m ∠BOC = 180º and m∠BOD + m∠AOD = 180º,
m∠AOC + m∠AOD = 180º and m ∠BOC + m ∠BOD = 180º. That is, ∠AOC and ∠BOC,
∠BOD and ∠AOD, ∠AOC and ∠AOD and ∠BOC and ∠BOD form pairs of supplementary
angles.
↔ ↔ ↔ ↔
Activity: Draw two parallel lines AB and CD . Draw a line PQ not parallel to AB
(see Figure 6.16).

Figure 6.16
↔ ↔ ↔ ↔ ↔
We observe that PQ intersects AB and CD . Mark the common point of AB and PQ as L
↔ ↔
and the common point of CD and PQ as M. Measure the angles ∠PLB , ∠PLA,
∠BLM , ∠ALM , ∠LMD , ∠LMC , ∠CMQ and ∠QMD . We observe that
m ∠PLB = m ∠LMD ,
m ∠BLM = m ∠DMQ,
m ∠PLA = m ∠LMC ,
m ∠ALM = m ∠CMQ. From the above activity, we get the following property.

136
Property 5: If a transversal intersects two parallel lines, then any pair of corresponding
angles are equal.
Note: (i) The angles ∠ALM and ∠LMD are said to form a pair of alternate interior angles.
The angles ∠BLM and ∠LMC are alternate interior angles. In the above activity, we
observe that ∠BLM = ∠LMC and ∠ALM = ∠LMD . We state this fact as a theorem.
Theorem 1: If a transversal intersects two parallel lines, then any pair of alternate interior
angles are equal.
(ii) The angles ∠PLA and ∠DMQ are said to form a pair of alternate exterior angles. The
angles ∠BLP and ∠CMQ are alternate exterior angles. We observe from the activity that
m ∠PLA = m ∠DMQ, m ∠BLP = m ∠CMQ.
We state this fact as a theorem.
Theorem 2: If a transversal intersects two parallel lines, then any pair of alternate (interior or
exterior) angles are equal.
(iii) The angles ∠BLM and ∠LMD are said to form a pair of interior angles on the same
side of the transversal. Similarly, the angles ∠ALM and ∠LMC are interior angles on the
same side of the transversal. We observe from the activity that
m ∠BLM + m ∠LMD = 180°,m ∠ALM + m ∠LMC = 180°. We state this fact as a theorem.
Theorem 3: If a transversal intersects two parallel lines, then any pair of interior angles are
supplementary.
↔ ↔
Activity: Draw a line AB . Draw another line PQ
↔
which is not parallel to AB . Mark the intersecting
↔ ↔ ↔
point of AB and PQ as L. Take a point M on PQ
other than L.. Measure the angle ∠ALM . Draw a
↔ Figure 6.17
line CD through M such that m ∠ALM = m ∠LMD
↔
(see Figure 6.17). We observe that PQ is a
↔ ↔
transversal of the lines AB and CD , and the two
↔ ↔
lines AB and CD do not meet at all. From this
activity, we have the following property.

Property 6: If a transversal cuts two lines such that a pair of alternate angles are equal, then
the lines are parallel.

As a consequence of the above property, the following theorems can be proved.

Theorem 4: If a transversal intersects two lines such that a pair of corresponding angles are
equal, then the lines are parallel.
Theorem 5: If a transversal cuts two lines such that a pair of interior angles on the same side
of the transversal are supplementary, then the lines are parallel.

137
Example 1: In Figure 6.18, the line L1 is parallel to the line L2 and the line L3 is the
transversal of the lines L1 and L2 . If the measures of the angles ∠1 and ∠2 are in the ratio
4:5, find the measures of the angles ∠1 , ∠2 , ∠3 , ∠4 , ∠5 , ∠6 , ∠7 , and ∠8 .

Figure 6.18

m∠1 4 4
Solution: m ∠1 : m ∠2 = 4 : 5 ⇒ = ⇒ m ∠1 = × m ∠2 .
m∠2 5 5
But m ∠1 + m ∠2 = 180° since they are supplementary angles.
4 4 × m∠2 + 5 × m∠2
∴ × m ∠2 + m ∠2 = 180° or = 180°
5 5
or 9× m ∠2 = 180 × 5 or m ∠2 = 100°.
∴ m ∠1 = 180° − m ∠2 = 180° − 100° = 80°.

Now m ∠3 = m ∠1 (vertically opposite angles) = 80°,

m ∠4 = m ∠2 (vertically opposite angles) = 100°,

m ∠5 = m ∠1 (corresponding angles) = 80°,
m ∠6 = m ∠2 (corresponding angles) = 100°,
m ∠7 = m ∠5 (vertically opposite angles) = 80°,
m ∠8 = m ∠6 (vertically opposite angles) = 100°.
↔ ↔ ↔ ↔
Example 2: In Figure 6.19 prove that AB is parallel to CD and AC is parallel to BD .

Solution: Figure 6.19

↔ ↔ ↔
CD is a transversal to the lines AC and BD and m∠ACD + m∠CDB = 50° + 130° = 180°.
So the two angles ∠ACD and ∠CDB which are on the same side of the transversal are

138
 ↔ ↔
supplementary. Hence AC and BD are parallel. Then the corresponding angles ∠XCA and
↔
∠CDB are equal. So m ∠XCA = 130°. Now, we observe that AC is a transversal to the lines
↔ ↔
AB and CD and m ∠XCA = m ∠CAB = 130°. That is, the alternate angles ∠XCA and
↔ ↔
∠CAB are equal. Hence the lines AB and CD are parallel.

6.1.3 Axioms and Theorems on a triangle

We know already about a triangle. A plane triangle

or simply a triangle is a geometrical figure formed
↔ ↔
by three lines in a plane. In Figure 6.20 DE , XY
↔ ↔ ↔
and PQ are three lines. The lines PQ and XY
↔ ↔
intersect at A, the lines DE and XY intersect at B,
↔ ↔
and the lines PQ and DE intersect at C. We name Figure 6.20
the shape bounded by the line segments AB, BC ,
CA as the triangle ABC. The line segments AB, BC and CA are called the sides of the
triangle ABC. The points A, B and C are called the vertices of the triangle ABC. The angles
∠BAC , ∠ABC and ∠BCA are called the interior angles or simply the angles of the triangle
ABC.

They are also simply denoted by ∠A , ∠B and ∠C respectively. The angle ∠PAB is called
an exterior angle of the triangle ABC. We observe that the angles ∠DBA ,
∠YBC , ∠BCQ , ∠ECA and ∠CAX are exterior angles of the triangle ABC.

From what we have studied in our earlier classes, we recall the following definitions:

(i) If no two sides of a triangle are of equal length, then the triangle is called a scalene
triangle.
(ii) If two sides of a triangle are of equal length, then the triangle is called an isosceles
triangle.
(iii) If all the sides of a triangle are of equal length, then the triangle is called an equilateral
triangle.
(iv) If each of the three angles of a triangle is an acute angle, then the triangle is termed an
acute angled triangle or simply acute triangle.
(v) If one angle of a triangle is an obtuse angle, then the triangle is called an obtuse angled
triangle or simply obtuse triangle.

139
(vi) If one angle of a triangle is a right angle (i.e., of measure 90°), then the triangle is called
a right angled triangle or simply right triangle.
We now state certain theorems on triangles.
Theorem 6: The sum of the measures of the three angles of a triangle is 180°.

Theorem 7: If a side of a triangle is produced, then the exterior angle so formed is equal to
the sum of the interior opposite angles.
Proof: ABC is a given triangle. Produce BC and
take a point X on the extension of BC as in
Figure 6.21. Now m∠ACX is an external angle
and ∠A and ∠B are interior opposite angles. We
have to show that m∠ACX = ∠A + ∠B . Now
∠ACX and ∠C are supplementary. Figure 6.21
∴ ∠ACX + ∠C = 180°.
But ∠A + ∠B + ∠C = 180°.
∴ ∠ACX + ∠C = ∠A + ∠B + ∠C .
Cancelling ∠C on both sides, we get
∠ACX = ∠A + ∠B .

Activity: Draw a triangle PQR as in Figure 6.22. Measure the lengths of the sides PQ ,
QR and RP .Compute the sums PQ + QR, QR + PR and PR + PQ. We observe that
(i) PQ + QR > PR,
(ii) QR + PR > PQ,
(iii) PR + PQ > QR.
From the above activity, we have the following property.

Property 7: The sum of any two sides of a triangle is greater than Figure 6.22
the third side.
Note: We observe that in any triangle ABC,
(i) AB < BC + CA (ii) BC < CA + AB (iii) CA < AB + BC.
These inequalities are called triangle inequalities.

Activity: Draw a triangle ABC (see Figure 6.23). Measure

the angles ∠A , ∠B and ∠C . Measure also the lengths of
the sides AB, BC and CA. Compare the measures of the
angles and find out which angle has the greater measure.
Compare also the lengths of the sides and find out which
side has the larger length. We observe that the greater angle Figure 6.23
has the larger side opposite to it, where we have named the
angle of greater measure, the greater angle and the side of
greater length, the greater side. The above fact is put as the
following property.

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Property 8: In any triangle, the largest side has the greatest
angle opposite to it.

Note: Consider a line l and a point P not lying on l

see Figure 6.24. Draw the perpendicular line-
segment PL to the line l. The point L is called the
foot of the perpendicular from P to l. Take any Figure 6.24
point M other than L on l. Now the triangle PLM is
a right triangle. Since PL is perpendicular to l,
m ∠PLM = 90°. Since m ∠PLM + m ∠LMP + m ∠LPM = 180°, we get
90° + m ∠LMP + m ∠LPM = 180° or m ∠LMP + m ∠LPM = 90°
∴ m ∠LMP < 90°, m ∠LPM < 90° and m ∠LMP = 90° − m ∠LPM .
That is ∠LMP and ∠LPM are acute angles and are complementary angles. So ∠PLM is the
greater angle in the triangle PLM. Hence the side PM is the greater side. This means that PL <
PM, where M is any point on the line. Hence the perpendicular segment PL has length smaller
than the length of any other line-segment drawn from P to the line. Thus, the perpendicular
line segment PL is the shortest of all line-segments drawn from P to the line l.

6.1.4 Congruent triangles

In the study of geometry, congruent triangles occur frequently. We shall list some
important facts, about congruent triangles.

Activity: Take two blank papers and put a carbon sheet between them. Now draw a triangle
on one paper. We observe that another triangle of identical nature (mirror image or carbon
copy) is produced on the other paper. We say that the two triangles are congruent triangles. In
the two triangles, we can match the equal sides and the equal angles. The matched sides and
matched angles are called corresponding sides and corresponding angles. Thus, we say that
two triangles are congruent, if all the sides, and angles of one triangle are equal to the
corresponding sides and angles of the other triangle. For example, consider the two triangles
ABC and DPX (see Figure 6.25).

Figure 6.25

141
where AB = DX, BC = PX, CA = PD; ∠B = ∠X , ∠C = ∠P, ∠A = ∠D. Observing the
corresponding angles, we write that ABC is congruent to DXP. We write this fact as
∆ABC ≡ ∆DXP.

There are six corresponding equations when we have congruency of triangles. Conversely, if
the six corresponding equations are given, then the triangles are congruent.
We have learnt in our earlier classes that a triangle can be constructed if one of the following
three sets is given:
(i) The length of two sides and the measure of the included angle.
(ii) The length of all the three sides.
(iii) Measures of two angles and the length of one side.
The congruency of two triangles can be ensured by establishing any one of the following
correspondences:

(i) Side-Angle-Side.
(ii) Angle-Side-Angle.
(iii) Side-Side-Side

Activity: Draw two triangles ABC and PQR such that AB = PQ, ∠A = ∠P and AC = PR.
Now, cut out the two triangles ABC and PQR. Place the triangle PQR on ABC and try to fit
one triangle with the other (see Figure 6.26).

Figure 6.26

We are able to adjust them and we observe that the triangles fit exactly such that the vertex P
coincides with A, Q coincides with B and R coincides with C. The ∠A is called the included
angle between the sides AB and AC. Similarly, ∠P is the included angle between the sides
PQ and PR. Thus, we have the following property.

Property 9: If any two sides and the included angle of one triangle are equal to any two sides
and the included angle of another triangle, then the two triangles are congruent.

142
Note: The above property is known as Side-Angle-Side criterion or simply SAS criterion for
congruence of triangles.

Activity: Draw two triangles ABC and PQR such that

∠B = ∠Q, BC = QR and ∠C = ∠R (see Figure 6.27)

Figure 6.27
Now cut out the two triangles and place them one over the other and adjust them in such a
manner that they fit exactly as one triangle. From this activity, we state the following criterion
which can be proved. However, we do not give the proof here and simply state the important
criterion as a theorem.

Theorem 8: Two triangles are congruent if any two angles and the included side of one
triangle are equal to the two angles and the included side of the other triangle.
Note: The above criterion is known as Angle-Side-Angle criterion or simply as ASA
criterion. We observe that in this criterion, a side and the angles on this side of one triangle
should correspond to a side and the angles on it of another triangle for congruency.
Activity: Draw two triangles ABC and DEF such that ∠A = ∠D, ∠B = ∠E and BC = EF (see
Figure 6.28).

Figure 6.28

Since ABC is a triangle, ∠A + ∠B + ∠C = 180° (1)

Since DEF is a triangle, ∠D + ∠E + ∠F = 180°
But ∠D = ∠A, ∠E = ∠B. ∴ ∠A + ∠B + ∠F = 180° (2)
From (1) and (2), we get ∠A + ∠B + ∠C = ∠A + ∠B + ∠F .
∴ ∠C = ∠F .

143
Now, in triangles ABC and DEF, we observe that the side BC and the angles ∠B and ∠C on
it correspond to the side EF and the angles ∠E and ∠F on it. Hence by ASA criterion,
∆ABC ≡ ∆DEF. Thus, we have the following theorem.

Theorem 9: Two triangles are congruent if any two angles and a side of one triangle are equal
to the two angles and the corresponding side of the other triangle.
Note: The above criterion for congruency is known as the Angle-Angle-Side or AAS
Criterion.
Activity: Draw the triangles ABC and DEF such that BC = EF, CA = FD, AB = DE (see
Figure 6.29).

Figure 6.29
Cut the triangle DEF and place it over ABC and adjust such that they fit exactly as one. In
this position D stands on A, E stands on B and F stands on C and ∆ABC ≡ ∆DEF. The result
of the activity is stated as the theorem given below.
Theorem 10: Two triangles are congruent if the three sides of one triangle are equal to the
three sides of the other triangle.

Note: The above criterion is known as Side-Side-Side or SSS criterion for congruence of
two triangles.

Now, we shall examine whether we can have SSA criterion or AAA criterion for
congruency of two triangles.

Activity: Draw a triangle ABC and a line XY parallel to the side BC (see Figure 6.30). Mark
the point of intersection of line XY and the side AB as D, and the point of intersection of the
line XY and the side AC as E. Since the side AB and the side AC are transversal of the parallel
line segments XY and BC, ∠D = ∠B, ∠E = ∠C (corresponding angles).

Figure 6.30

144
∴ The two triangles ABC and ADE have AAA property. However, they are not congruent
since the corresponding sides are not equal. Hence, we conclude that AAA correspondence
cannot be a criterion for congruency of triangles.
Activity: Draw a line AX sufficiently long. Draw a line segment AB of length a such that the
angle ∠BAX has some specified measure. Draw a circle with B as its centre and some radius
b (< a). We observe that the circle crosses the line AX at two points C and D (see Figure
6.31).

Figure 6.31

In triangles ABC and ABD, we have SSA correspondence. But AC ≠ AD. So ∆ABC ≡ ∆ABD.
Hence, we conclude that SSA correspondence cannot be taken as a criterion for congruency of
two triangles.
Activity: Draw line segments BC and QR such that BC = QR = a units. Mark the mid points
a
of BC and QR as X and Y respectively. Draw circles with X and Y as centres and radius
2
units. Now cut arcs of radius b(< a) units with centres at B and Q. Mark the points of
intersection of these arcs with the circles as A and P respectively (see Figure 6.32). Join AB,
AC, PQ and PR. We observe that AC = PR. Hence ∆ABC ≡ ∆PQR. From the above activity,
we conclude the following theorem.

Figure 6.32

Theorem 11: Two right triangles are congruent if the hypotenuse and a side of one triangle
are respectively equal to the hypotenuse and a side of the other triangle.

Note: The above criterion is known as the Right-Hypotenuse-Side or RHS criterion for
congruence of right triangles.

145
6.1.5 Properties of parallelogram

We know that a quadrilateral is a closed figure formed by four line segments and a
parallelogram is a quadrilateral in which the opposite sides are parallel to each other.

Figure 6.34
Figure 6.33
In Figure 6.33, ABCD is a quadrilateral. In Figure 6.34. PQRS is a parallelogram in which
PQ || SR (i.e., PQ is parallel to SR) and PS || QR.

Property 1: In a parallelogram, the opposite sides are of equal length.

Proof: Let ABCD be a parallelogram. Join BD (see Figure 6.35). Consider the triangles ABD
and BDC. Since AB || CD and BD is a transversal of AB and CD, m ∠ABD = m∠BDC. Since
AD|| BC and BD is a transversal of AD and BC,
m ∠ADB = m∠DBC. The side BD is common to
both ABD and BDC. Hence, by AAS property,
∆ABD ≡ ∆BDC.
∴ The corresponding sides are equal. Hence
AB = CD and AD = BC.
Property 2: In a parallelogram, the opposite angles are Figure 6.35
of equal measure.
Proof: Let ABCD be the parallelogram. Join BD (see Figure 6.36). Since AB || DC and BD is
a transversal to AB and DC,
m ∠ABD = m∠BDC.
Since AD || BC and BD is a transversal
to AD and BC,
m ∠ADB = m∠CBD.
∴ m ∠ABC = m∠ABD + m∠DBC
= m ∠BDC + m∠ADB
= m ∠ADC.
Similarly, m ∠BAD = m∠BCD.
Figure 6.36
Property 3: The diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.
Proof: ABCD is a parallelogram. AC and BD are diagonals.
By ASA criterion, ∆AMB ≡ CMD (see Figure 6.37).

∴AM = CM, BM = DM.

∴The diagonals bisect each other.

Figure 6.37

146
Property 4: If the opposite sides of a quadrilateral are of equal length, then the quadrilateral
is a parallelogram.
Proof: Let ABCD be a quadrilateral where AB = CD, AD
= BC. Join AC. Consider the triangles, ACB and ADC.
By SSS criterion, ∆ABC ≡ ∆CDA (see Figure 6.38).
Then m ∠BAC = m∠ACD , m ∠CAD = m∠ACB.
∴ AB || CD and AD || BC. Hence ABCD is a
parallelogram.
Figure 6.38

Property 5: If the opposite angles in a quadrilateral are of equal measure, then the
quadrilateral is a parallelogram.
Proof:
ABCD is a quadrilateral (see Figure 6.39).
m ∠BAD = m∠BCD. and m ∠ABC = m∠ADC .
Join BD. Consider the triangles ABD and CDB.
Now, m∠1 + m∠2 + m∠BCD = 180°
and m∠3 + m∠4 + m∠BAD = 180°
∴ m∠1 + m∠2 + m∠BCD = m∠3 + m∠4 + m∠BAD Figure 6.39
m∠BCD = m∠BAD
∴ m∠1 + m∠2 = m∠3 + m∠4 (1)
But m∠1 + m∠3 = m∠ABC , m∠2 + m∠4 = m∠ADC
∴ m∠1 + m∠3 = m∠2 + m∠4
i.e., m∠1 − m∠2 = m∠4 − m∠3 2)
(1) + (2) ⇒ 2m∠1 = 2m∠4 ⇒ m∠1 = m∠4.
∴ AD || BC.
(1) − (2) ⇒ 2m∠2 = 2m∠3 ⇒ m∠2 = m∠3
∴ AB || CD. Hence ABCD is a parallelogram.

Property 6: If the diagonals of a quadrilateral bisect each other, then the quadrilateral is a
parallelogram.
Proof:
ABCD is a quadrilateral. AC and BD are diagonals.
AC and BD bisect each other at M (see Figure 6.40).
∴AM = CM, BM = DM.
∴ m∠AMB = m∠CMD , m∠AMD = m∠BMC .
∴ By SAS criterion, ∆AMB ≡ ∆CMD, ∆AMD ≡ ∆CMB
∴ AB || CD, AD || BC.
Hence ABCD is a parallelogram. Figure 6.40

147
Theorem 12: A quadrilateral is a parallelogram if one pair of opposite sides are parallel and
equal.
Given: ABCD is a quadrilateral where AB || CD and AB = CD.
To prove: ABCD is a parallelogram.
Construction: Draw the diagonal AC (see Figure 6.41).
Proof: In triangles ABC and ADC,
(i) AB = CD (given)
(ii) AC is common
(iii) m∠BAC = m∠ACD Figure 6.41
∴ By SAS criterion, ∆ABC ≡ ∆ADC.
∴ Corresponding sides are equal; AB || CD,
and corresponding angles are equal AC is a transversal to AB and CD,
∴ AD = BC, m∠DAC = m∠ACB. ⇒ alternate angles are equal.
∴ AD || BC.
Hence ABCD is a parallelogram. The theorem is proved.
Property 7: If there are three or more parallel lines and the intercepts made by them on a
transversal are equal, then the corresponding intercepts on any other transversal are also
equal.
Proof:
The lines l1, l2, l3 are parallel to each other. PQ
and XY are transversals to l1, l2, l3, AC = CE.
We have to prove that BD = DF.
Draw AG || BD and CH || DF (see Figure 6.42).
We observe that AGDB and CHFD are parallelograms.
∴ AG = BD, CH = DF (1)
In triangles ACG and CEH,
CE = AC,
m∠GAC = m∠HCE (corresponding angles) Figure 6.42
m∠ACG = m∠CEH (corresponding angles).
∴ by ASA criterion ∆ACG ≡ ∆CEH.
∴ AG = CH (2)
From (1) and (2) BD = DF.

Property 8: In a triangle, the line joining the mid points of two sides is parallel to the third
side and is equal to one half of it.
Proof:
ABC is a triangle. D and E are mid points of AB and AC respectively.
1
To prove DE || BC and DE = ( BC ).
2
Draw CF || BD to meet DE extended at F (see Figure 6.43). Consider the triangles ADE and
CFE. AD || CF and AC is transversal to them
∴ m∠DAE = m∠ECF
AD || CF and DF is a transversal to them
∴ m∠ADE = m∠CFE
Also AE = EC, since E is the mid point of AC.

148
∴ By AAS criterion, ∆ADE ≡ ∆CFE.
∴ AD = CF and DE = EF.
But BD = AD, since D is the mid point of AB
∴ BD = CF
Already BD || CF.
∴ BCFD is a parallelogram.
∴ DF = BC and DF || BC or DE || BC.
ie., DE + EF = BC or DE + DE = BC or 2DE = BC.
1 Figure 6.43
Thus DE || BC and DE = ( BC ).
2

Property 9: In a triangle, the line drawn through the mid-point of one side, parallel to another
side, bisects the third side.
Proof:

Figure 6.44
Let ABC be the given triangle and D be the mid point of AB. Draw DE parallel to BC to meet
AC at E (see Figure 6.44). We have to prove that E is the mid point of CA.
BC || DE and AB is a transversal to BC and DE.
∴ m∠ADE = m∠ABC, (1)
AD || CF and DF is a transversal to AD and CF.
∴ m∠ADE = m∠EFC (2)
and ∴ m∠AED = m∠BCE, (3)
From (1) and (2), m∠ABC = m∠EFC, (4)
AD || CF and AC is a transversal to AD and CF.
∴ m∠BAC = m∠ACF. (5)
Now m∠BCF = m∠BCE + m∠ECF
= m∠AED + ∠ACF by (3)
= m∠AED + m∠DAE by (5)
= m∠BDE (since ext. angle = sum of int. opp. angles)
i.e., m∠BCF = m∠BDE (6)
From (4) and (6), BCFD is a parallelogram.
∴ BD = CF, BC = DF
Consider the triangles ADE and CFE.
Here CF = AD, since CF = BD = AD.
∴ by ASA criterion, ∆ADE ≡ ∆CFE.
∴ DE = EF, AE = EC.
∴ E is the mid point of AC.

149
6.1.6 Concurrency of lines

If three or more lines pass through the same point P, the lines are said to be
concurrent and the point P is called the point of concurrence.
Activity : Draw a triangle ABC. Draw the
perpendicular bisectors DX and EY of the
sides BC and CA (see Figure 6.45). Mark
their point of intersection as S. Now draw the
perpendicular bisector FZ of the side AB. We
observe that FZ passes through S. From the
above activity, we understand the following Figure 6.45
theorem.
Theorem 13: The perpendicular bisectors of the sides of a triangle are concurrent.

Note: The point of concurrence of the perpendicular bisectors of the sides of a triangle is
called the circumcentre of the triangle and denoted by the letter S.
Activity: Consider a triangle ABC. Find out the circumcentre S of ABC. Join SA, SB and SC.
Measure the lengths of SA, SB and SC. We observe that SA = SB = SC. Draw a circle with
centre at S and radius equal to SA. We observe that this circle passes through the three vertices
of the triangle. This circle is called the circumcircle of the triangle and its radius namely
SA(= SB = SC) is called the circumradius of the triangle.

Activity: Draw a triangle ABC. Draw AD

perpendicular to BC to meet it at D. Draw BE
perpendicular to CA to meet it at E. Mark the point
of intersection of AD and BE as H. Now, draw CF
perpendicular to AB to meet it at F (see Figure 6.46).
We observe that CF passes through the point H. The
perpendiculars AD, BE and CF are called the
altitudes of the triangle. Figure 6.46
From the activity, we understand the following
theorem.

Theorem 14: The altitudes of a triangle are concurrent.

Note: The point of concurrence of the altitudes of a triangle is called the orthocenter of the
triangle and is denoted by the letter H.

150
Activity: Draw a triangle ABC. Draw the angle
bisector of the angle ∠A. Draw the angle bisector of
the angle ∠B. Mark the point of intersection of these
two bisectors as I. Now draw the angle bisector of
the angle ∠C (see Figure 6.47). We observe that this
bisector passes through the point I. From the above
activity, we are able to understand the following Figure 6.47
theorem.

Theorem 15: The bisectors of the angles of a triangle are concurrent..

Note: The point of concurrence of the angle bisectors of a triangle is called the incentre of
the triangle and is denoted by the letter I.

Activity: Draw perpendiculars from I to the sides of

the triangle ABC and measure their lengths. We
observe that all of them are equal. Now draw a circle
with centre at I and radius as the common length of
the three perpendiculars (see Figure 6.48). We
observe that this circle touches all the sides of the
triangle. This circle is called the incircle and its Figure 6.48
radius is known as the inradius of the triangle ABC.

Activity: Draw a triangle ABC. Mark the mid points

of the sides BC, CA and AB as D, E and F
respectively. Join AD and BE. Mark the meeting
point of AD and BE as G. Now, join CF (see Figure
6.49). We observe that CF passes through the point
G. The lines AD, BE and CF are called the medians
Figure 6.49
of the triangle ABC. Measure the length AG, GD,
BG, GE, CG, GF. We observe that
AG BG CG 2
= = = .
GD GE GF 1
From the above activity, we understand the following theorem.

Theorem 16: The medians of a triangle are concurrent and the point of concurrency divides
each median in the radio 2:1.

151
Note: The point of concurrency of the medians of a triangle is called the centroid of the
triangle and is denoted by the letter G.
Activity: Draw a line segment AB and a line l parallel to AB.
Mark two points C and D on l such that AB = CD. We
observe that ABCD is a parallelogram. Draw AL perpendicular
to l. Measure the length of AL. Now, calculate the area of the
parallelogram ABCD. It is equal to base × height = AB × AL.
Now, mark two other points P and Q, on l such that PQ = AB Figure 6.50
(see Figure 6.50). We observe that ABPQ is also a
parallelogram. Its area is equal to base × height = AB × AL.
Thus, we understand the following theorem.

Theorem 17: Parallelograms on the same base and between the same parallels are equal in
area.

Activity: Draw a line segment AB. Draw a line l parallel

to AB. Mark a point C on l. Draw AL perpendicular to l.
Measure the length of AL. (see Figure 6.51).

1
We find the area of the triangle ABC as × base × height
2
1
= × AB × AL. Mark another point P on l. We find the
2
1 1
area of ∆ABP as × base × height = × AB × AL. thus,
2 2
we observe that the area of the triangle remains the same
for all positions of the vertex C on the line l. From this Figure 6.51
activity, we are able to understand the following theorem.

Theorem 18: Triangles on the same base and between the same parallels are equal in area.

Exercise 6.1

Which of the following statements are true and which are false:
1. If two lines are intersected by a transversal, then the alternate angles are equal.
2. If two parallel lines are intersected by a transversal, then the corresponding angles are
equal.
3. If two parallel lines are intersected by a transversal, then the interior angles on the same
side of the transversal are equal.

152
6.2 Theorems with logical proofs

So far we have performed certain activities and verified certain axioms and theorems.
Now, we proceed to give logical proofs for certain theorem on angle and triangles

Theorem 19: If a ray stands on a line, then the sum of the adjacent angles so formed is 180°.
Given: The ray PQ stands on the line XY.
To Prove: m∠QPX + m∠YPQ = 180°.
Construction: Draw PE perpendicular to XY.
Proof: m∠QPX = m∠QPE + m∠EPX
= m∠QPE + 90° (1)
m∠YPQ = m∠YPE − m∠QPE
= 90° − m∠QPE (2)
Figure 6.52
(1) + (2) ⇒ m∠QPX + m∠YPQ = (m∠QPE + 90°) + (90° − m ∠QPE) = 180°.
Thus the theorem is proved.

Theorem 20: If two lines intersect, then the vertically opposite angles are of equal measure.
Given: Two lines AB and CD intersect at the point O (see Figure 6.53).
To prove: m∠AOC = m∠BOD, m∠BOC = m∠AOD.
Proof: The ray OB stands on the line CD.
∴ m∠BOD + m∠BOC = 180° (1)
The ray OC stands on the line AB.
∴ m∠BOC + m∠AOC = 180° (2)
From (1) and (2),
m∠BOD + m∠BOC = m∠BOC + m∠AOC
∴ m∠BOD = m∠AOC.
Since the ray OA stands on the line CD,
m∠AOC + m∠AOD = 180° (3)
Figure 6.53
From (2) and (3), we get
m∠BOC + m∠AOC = m∠AOC + m∠AOD
∴ m∠BOC = m∠AOD.
Hence the theorem is proved.

Theorem 21: The sum of the three angles of a triangle is 180°.

Given: ABC is a triangle (see Figure 6.54).
To prove: ∠A + ∠B + ∠C = 180°.
Construction: Through the vertex A, draw the line
XY parallel to the side BC.
Proof: XY || BC.
Figure 6.54

153
Now, AB is a transversal to the lines XY and BC.
∴ m∠XAB = m∠ABC (alternate angles).
= ∠B. (1)
Next, AC is a transversal to the parallel lines XY and BC.
∴ m∠YAC = m∠ACB (alternate angles) = ∠C. (2)
We also have m∠BAC = m∠A. (3)
(1) + (2) + (3) ⇒ m∠XAB + m∠YAC + m∠BAC = m∠B + m∠C + m∠A
⇒ (m∠XAB + m∠BAC) + m∠CAY = m∠A + m∠B + m∠C
⇒ m∠XAC + m∠CAY = m∠A + m∠B + m∠C
⇒ 180° = m∠A + m∠B + m∠C.
Hence the theorem is proved.

Theorem 22: The angles opposite to equal sides of a triangle are equal.
Given: ABC is a triangle where AB = AC (see Figure 6.55).
To prove: ∠B = ∠C.
Construction: Mark the mid point of BC as M and join AM.
Proof: In the triangles AMB and AMC
(i) BM = CM (ii) AB = AC (iii) AM is common.
∴ By the SSS criterion, ∆AMB ≡ ∆AMC.
∴ Corresponding angles are equal. In particular, ∠B = ∠C.
Hence the theorem is proved. Figure 6.55

Theorem 23: The side opposite to the larger of two angles in a triangle is longer than the side
opposite to the smaller angle.
Given: ABC is a triangle, where ∠B is larger than ∠C, that is m∠B > m∠C.
To prove: The length of the side AC is longer than
the length of the side AB.
i.e., AC > AB (see Figure 6.56).
Proof: The lengths of AB and AC are positive
numbers. So three cases arise
(i) AC < AB
(ii) AC = AB
(iii) AC > AB
Figure 6.56
Case (i) Suppose that AC < AB. Then the side AB has longer length than the side AC. So the
angle ∠C which is opposite to AB is larger measure than that of ∠B which is opposite to the
shorter side AC. That is, m∠C > m∠B. This contradicts the given fact that m∠B > m∠C.
Hence the assumption that AC < AB is wrong.
∴AC < AB.
Case (ii) Suppose that AC = AB. Then the two sides AB and AC are equal. So the angles
opposite to these sides are equal. That is ∠B = ∠C. This is again a contradiction to the given
fact that ∠B > ∠C. Hence AC = AB is impossible. Now Case (iii) remains alone to be true.
Hence the theorem is proved.

154
Theorem 24: A parallelogram is a rhombus if its diagonals are perpendicular.
Given: ABCD is a parallelogram where the diagonals AC and BD are perpendicular.
To prove: ABCD is a rhombus.
Construction: Draw the diagonals AC and BD. Let M be the point of intersection of AC and
BD (see Figure 6.57).
Proof: In triangles AMB and BMC,
(i) ∠AMB = ∠BMC = 90°
(ii) AM = MC
(iii) BM is common.
∴ By SSA criterion, ∆AMB ≡ ∆BMC.
∴Corresponding sides are equal.
In particular, AB = BC.
Since ABCD is a parallelogram, AB = CD, BC = AD.
∴ AB = BC = CD = AD. Figure 6.57
Hence ABCD is a rhombus. The theorem is proved.

Example 3: Find the complement of the following angles:

(i) 30° (ii) 45° (iii) 55° (iv) 81°
Solution: Since the sum of complementary angles is 90°
(i) the complement of 30° is 90° − 30° = 60°.
(ii) the complement of 45° is 90° − 45° = 45°.
(iii) the complement of 55° is 90° − 55° = 35°.
(iv) the complement of 81° is 90° − 81° = 9°.
Example 4: Find the supplement of the following angles:
(i) 70° (ii) 45° (iii) 120° (iv) 155°
Solution: Since the sum of supplementary angles is 180°,
(i) the supplement of 70° is 180° − 70° = 110°.
(ii) the supplement of 45° is 180° − 45° = 135°.
(iii) the supplement of 120° is 180° − 120° = 60°.
(iv) the supplement of 155° is 180° − 155° = 25°.

Example 5: Find the angles in each of the following:

(i) The angles are supplementary and the larger is twice the small.
(ii) The angles are complementary and the larger is 20° more than the other
(iii) The angles are adjacent and form an angle of 120°. The larger is 20° less
than three times the smaller.
(iv) The angles are vertically opposite and complementary.
Solution:

(i) Let the smaller angle be x°.

Then the larger angle = 2x°.
Since the two angles are supplementary x° + 2x° = 180°
or 3x° = 180° or x° = 60°.
∴ smaller angle = 60°, larger angle = 120°.
Figure 6.58

155
(ii) Let x° be the smaller angle.
Then the larger angle = x° + 20°.
Since the angles are complementary,
x° + (x° + 20°) = 90° or 2x° = 70° or x° = 35°.
∴ smaller angle = 35°, larger angle = 35° + 20° = 55°.

Figure 6.59
(iii) Let x° be the smaller angle.
Then the larger angle = 3x° − 20°
The angles are adjacent and form an angle of 120°.
∴ x° + (3x° − 20°) = 120°.
∴ 4x° = 140° or x° = 35°.
Figure 6.60
∴ smaller angle = 35°,
larger angle = 3 × 35° − 20°
= 105° − 20° = 85°.

(iv) Let the vertically opposite angles be x° each.

Since they are complementary,
x° + x° = 90° or 2x° = 90° or x° = 45°.
Figure 6.61
∴ The angles are 45° and 45°.

Example 6: In Figure 6.62 the line l3 is a transversal to the parallel lines l1 and l2.
Find the angles x and y.
Solution: Alternate angles are equal.
∴ x = 130°.
Interior angles on the same side of the transversal are
supplementary.
Figure 6.62
∴ y + 130° = 180° or y = 180° − 130° = 50°.

Example 7: Find x and y in Figure 6.63 where the

line l4 is a transversal to the parallel lines l1, l2 and l3.
Solution:
Corresponding angles are equal.
∴ x = 75°.
Interior angles on the same side of the
transversal are supplementary. Figure 6.63
∴ y + 75° = 180° or y = 180° − 75° = 105°.

156
Example 8: Find the angles x and y in Figure 6.64 where the lines l1 and l2 are parallel and l3
is a transversal to l1 and l2.
Solution: 4y + 92° = 180° (since the interior angles on
the same side of the transversal are supplementary).
∴ 4y = 180° − 92° = 88° or y = 22°.
Now, since the corresponding angles are equal,
x + 2y = 92° ⇒ x + 44° = 92°
⇒ x = 92° − 44° = 48°.
Figure 6.64
Example 9: If the angles of a triangle are in the ratio 3 : 4 : 5, find them.
Solution: Let the angles be 3x, 4x, 5x.
Then 3x + 4x + 5x = 180° or 12x = 180° or x = 15°.
∴ The angles are 3 × 15°, 4 × 15°, 5 × 15°, or 45°, 60°, 75°.

Example 10: Find the angles x and y marked in Figure 6.65.

Solution: In ∆ABC, x + 65° + 90° = 180°
or x + 155° = 180° or x = 180° − 155° = 25°
In ∆BDC, x + y + 90° = 180° or 25° + y + 90° = 180°
or y + 115° = 180° or y = 180° − 115° = 65°.

Example 11: Find x and y from the following figures: Figure 6.65

(i) (ii)

Figure 6.66
Figure 6.67
Solution:
(i) AD = BC, AB = CD.
∴ ABCD is a parallelogram.
∴ 2x = 24°, 3y = 60° (alternate angles are equal)
∴ x = 12°, y = 20°.

(ii) In triangles ACD and ACB, AD = AB, CD = BC and AC is common.

∴ ∆ADC ≡ ∆ABC.
∴ Corresponding angles are equal. ∴ x + 20° = 26°, y − 5° = 42° or
x = 26° − 20°, y = 42 + 5 or x = 6°, y = 47°.

157
Example 12: Prove that the bisector of the vertex angle of an isosceles triangle is a median to
the base.
Solution: Let ABC be an isosceles triangle where
AB = AC. Let AD be the bisector of the vertex
angle ∠A. We have to prove that AD is the median
of the base BC. That is, we have to prove that D is
the mid point of BC. In the triangles ADB and
ADC,
we have AB = AC, m∠BAD = m∠DAC AD is an Figure 6.68
angle (bisector), AD is common.
∴ By SAS criterion, ∠ABD ≡ ∆ACD.
∴ The corresponding sides are equal.
∴ BD = DC.
i.e., D is the mid point of BC.

Example 13: ABC is a triangle and D is the mid point of BC. DA is drawn. If DA = DC, prove
that ∠BAC is a right angle.
Solution:
Given DA = DC. Since D is the mid point of BC, BD = DC. The triangles ABD and ACD are
isosceles.
∴∠DAB = ∠DBA (1)
∠DAC = ∠DCA (2)
(1) + (2) ⇒ ∠DAB + ∠DAC = ∠DBA + ∠DCA
⇒ ∠BAC = ∠DBA + ∠DCA
⇒ ∠BAC = ∠CBA + ∠BCA (3)
But ∠BAC + ∠CBA + ∠BCA = 180° (4)
(4) ⇒ ∠BAC + (∠CBA + ∠BCA) = 180° Figure 6.69
⇒ ∠BAC + ∠BAC = 180° (using (3)) ⇒ 2∠BAC = 180°
⇒∠BAC = 90°.

Example 14: Prove that the sum of the four angles of a quadrilateral is 360°.
Solution: Let ABCD be the given quadrilateral. We
have to prove that ∠A + ∠B + ∠C + ∠D = 360°.
Draw the diagonal AC. From the triangles ACD and
ABC, we get
∠DAC + ∠D + ∠ACD = 180° (1)
∠CAB + ∠B + ∠ACB = 180° (2)
(1) + (2) ⇒ ∠DAC + ∠D + ∠ACD + ∠CAB
+ ∠B + ∠ACB = 360° Figure 6.70
⇒ (∠DAC + ∠CAB) + ∠B + (∠ACD + ∠ACB)+ ∠D = 360°
⇒ ∠A + ∠B + ∠C + ∠D = 360°.

158
Example 15: ABC is an isosceles triangle
with AB = AC. D is a point inside the
triangle ABC such that ∠DBC = ∠DCB.
Prove that AD bisects ∠A.
Solution: Since ∠DBC = ∠DCB, the triangle
DBC is an isosceles triangle. ∴ BD = DC.
Already we have AB = AC and AD is common.
So by the SSS criterion, ∆ADB ≡∆ADC. In
particular, ∠BAD = ∠CAD. Figure 6.71
∴ AD bisects ∠A.

Example 16: AD and BE are two altitudes of a triangle ABC such that AE = BD.
Prove that AD = BE.
Solution: In triangles ADB and AEB, we have
(i) ∠ADB = ∠AEB = 90°
(ii) AB is common.
(iii) BD = AE.
∴ By RHS criterion, ∆ADB ≡ ∆AEB. ∴ AD = BE.
Figure 6.72
Example 17: In a rectangle ABCD, E is the mid point of BC.
Prove that AE = ED (see Figure 6.73)
Solution: In triangles ABE and DCE, we have
(i) ∠ABE = ∠DCE = 90°
(ii) BE = CE (since E is the mid point of BC)
(iii) AB = CD (ABCD is a rectangle)

∴By SAS criterion, ∆ABE ≡ ∆DCE.

∴AE = ED. Figure 6.73

Example 18: In a rhombus, prove that the diagonals bisect each other at right angles.
Solution: Let ABCD be a rhombus, Draw the diagonals AC and
BD. Let them meet at O. We have to prove that O is the mid
point of both AC and BD and that AC is perpendicular (⊥) to
BD.
Since a rhombus is a parallelogram, the diagonals
AC and BD bisect each other.
∴ OA = OC, OB = OD.
In triangles AOB and BOC, we have
(i) AB = BC
(ii) OB is common
(iii) OA = OC
∴ ∆AOB = ∆BOC, by SSS criterion. Figure 6.74
∴ ∠AOB = ∠BOC.
Similarly, we can get ∠BOC = ∠COD, ∠COD = ∠DOA.
∴ ∠AOB = ∠BOC = ∠COD = ∠DOA = x (say)
But ∠AOB + ∠BOC + ∠COD + ∠DOA = 360°.

159
∴ x + x + x +x = 360°
360°
∴ 4x = 360° or x = = 90°.
4
∴ The diagonals bisect each other at right angles.

Example 19: Prove that a diagonal of a rhombus bisects each vertex angles through which it
passes.
Solution: Let ABCD be the given rhombus. Draw
the diagonals AC and BD. Since AB || CD and AC is
a transversal to AB and CD. We get
∠BAC = ∠ACD (alternate angles are equal) (1)
But AD = CD (since ABCD is a rhombus)
∴∆ADC is isosceles.
∴∠ACD = ∠DAC
(angles opposite to the equal sides are equal) (2)
From (1) and (2), we get
∠BAC = ∠DAC Figure 6.75
i.e., AC bisects the angle ∠A.
Similarly we can prove that AC bisects ∠C, BD bisects ∠B and BD bisects ∠D.

Example 20: AB and CD are parallel lines.

A point O lies in between AB and CD (see Figure 6.76)
such that ∠APO = 45° and ∠OQC = 35°. Find ∠POQ
Solution: Produce PO to meet CD at X.
Produce QO to meet AB at Y. Since AB || CD
and PX is a transversal to AB and CD,
∠OXQ = ∠OPY = 45° (alternate angles). Figure 6.76
In the triangle OXQ, ∠POQ is the exterior angle
and it is equal to the sum of the interior opposite angles
∠OXQ and ∠OQX. So ∠POQ = ∠OXQ + ∠OQX = 45° + 35° = 80°.

Example 21: In the ∆ABC the angle B is bisected

and the bisector meets AC in D. If ∠ABC = 80° and
Figure 6.77
∠BDC = 95°, find ∠A and ∠C.
Solution: See the Figure
From ∆BDC, 40° + 95° + ∠C = 180°
⇒ ∠C = 180° − 135° = 45°
From ∆ABC, ∠A + ∠B +∠C = 180°
∴∠A + 80° + 45° = 180° or ∠A =180° − 125° = 55°.

160
Example 22: ABCD is a trapezium is which AB is
parallel to CD. If AD = BC, prove that
∠ADC = ∠BCD.
Solution: Draw BE parallel to AD.
Since ABED is a parallelogram, BE = AD.
But AD = BC. ∴ BC = BE.
So the triangle BEC is isosceles. Figure 6.78
∴ ∠BCE = ∠BEC. (1)
But AD || BE and DEC is a transversal to AD and BE.
∴∠ADC = ∠BEC (corresponding angles) (2)
From (1) and (2), we get
∠BCE = ∠ADC or ∠BCD = ∠ADC.

Exercise 6.2

1. Which of the following statements are true and which are false:
(i) If a ray stands on a line, then the sum of the two adjacent angles so formed is 180°
(ii) If two lines intersect, then vertically opposite angles are equal.
(iii) A triangle can have two obtuse angles.
(iv) The sum of the angles of a quadrilateral is 180°
(v) If ∆ABC ≡ ∆PQR, then ∠A = ∠Q
(vi) If ∆DEF ≡ ∆XYZ, then DE = XY
(vii) In a parallelogram, the diagonals bisect each other.

2. Find the complement of the following:

(i) 20° (ii) 65° (iii) 70° (iv) 78°

3. Find the supplement of the following?

(i) 50° (ii) 130° (iii) 80° (iv) 152°.

4. Find the angles in each of the following:

(i) The angles are complementary and the smaller is 40° less than the other.
(ii) The angles are complementary and the larger is 4 times the smaller.
(iii) The angles are supplementary and the larger is 58° more than the smaller.
(iv) The angles are supplementary and the larger is 20° less than three times the smaller.
(v) The angles are adjacent and form an angle of 140°. The smaller is 28° less than the
larger.
(vi) The angles are vertically opposite and supplementary.

161
5. Find x and y from the following figures:
(i) (ii)

Figure 6.80

Figure 6.79

(iii) (iv)

Figure 6.82

Figure 6.81
6. In each of the following, find x and y:

(i) (ii)

Figure 6.83

(iii) Figure 6.84

Figure 6.85

162
 Answers

Exercise 6.1

1. F 2. T 3. F

Exercise 6.2

1. (i) T (ii) T (iii) F (iv) F (v) F

(vi) F (vii) T
2. (i) 70° (ii) 25° (iii) 20° (iv) 12°

3. (i) 130° (ii) 50° (iii) 100° (iv) 28°

4. (i) 25°, 65° (ii) 18° (iii) 61° , 119° (iv) 50°, 130°
(v) 56°, 84° (vi) 90°, 90°
5. (i) x = 130°, y = 50° (ii) x = 80°, y = 70°
(iii) x = 20°, y = 30° (iv) x = 50°, y = 130°

6. (i) x = 19, y = 8 (ii) x = 48°, y = 12° (iii) x = 6, y = 3.

163
 7. ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY
In Chapter 1, we saw that every point on a straight line is associated with exactly one
real number. In this chapter, we shall examine how a point in a plane can be represented by
real numbers. Rene Descartes, a renowned French mathematician first introduced an
algebraic method (method of using numbers and the four fundamental operations) to analyse
geometry and hence the subject of analysing geometry using algebraic method is known as
algebraic geometry or analytical geometry. As the formulation of this subject was first
made by Rene Descartes, he is known as the father of analytical geometry.

7.1 The Cartesian Coordinate System

We want to study the properties of some figures drawn in a plane. A figure in a plane
is a collection of points of the plane. So a point is a fundamental concept in geometry. We
now proceed to associate a pair of real numbers to every point in the plane.

Consider the plane of the paper as the plane and in the plane, draw two fixed
perpendicular straight lines. We usually draw one straight line horizontally and the other line
vertically as in Figure 7.1. However, they can be drawn in any way as indicated in Figure 7.2.
These two lines intersect at the point named as O and called the origin. The point O is
fixed since the perpendicular lines are fixed. Now, let us scale the lines with the point O

Figure 7.1
Figure 7.2
representing the number 0 for both the lines. We use the same scaling on the two lines. Now
the two perpendicular lines become two perpendicular number lines. The positive numbers for

164
the horizontal line are to the right of O and the positive numbers for the vertical line are above
O. Similarly the left of O and below of O are for negative numbers. This procedure is
indicated by placing arrow heads on the lines as shown in the Figure 7.1. The arrow heads
indicate the ordering of the numbers on the lines. We call the horizontal number line, x–axis
and the vertical number line, the y–axis. The two lines divide the plane into four regions,
called quadrants. These quadrants are named I quadrant, II quadrant, III quadrant and IV
quadrant as shown in Figure 7.1. The point O is common to all the four quadrants. Consider
any point P in the plane. This point P lies in a quadrant. From P, draw a straight line parallel
to the y–axis to meet the x–axis at the point L, and draw a straight line parallel to the x–axis
to meet the y–axis at the point M. Let a be the real number representing the point L on the
x–axis and b be the real number representing the point M on the y–axis. If P lies on the
x– axis, then we observe that b = 0. If P lies on the y–axis, then we observe that a = 0. If P is
not on the x and y axes, but lies within the I quadrant, then a > 0 and b > 0. If a < 0 and b > 0,
then P lies within the II quadrant. If P lies within the III quadrant, then a < 0 and b < 0.
If a > 0 and b < 0, then P lies within the IV quadrant. If P is the point O, then a = 0 and b = 0.
The number a is called the abscissa or x–coordinate of the point P and the number b the
ordinate or y–coordinate of P (see Figure 7.3). We write the numbers a and b within
the parentheses ( , ) separated by a comma as
(a, b) and call it the ordered pair of a and b. It
is called an ordered pair because the number to
the left of the comma is the x–coordinate and
the number to the right of the comma is the
y–coordinate of the point P. The ordered pair
(a, b) is unique for the point P. That is, there is
no other ordered pair of numbers for the same
point P. The point P is represented as P(a, b)
or simply (a, b). We say that P has coordinates
(a, b). Thus, every point in the plane is
Figure 7.3
represented as an ordered pair of real
numbers.

The plane now is called the Cartesian plane to honour the great work of Rene
Descartes. It is also called the rectangular coordinate plane or the xy–plane. The system of
representation of points in the plane by ordered pairs of numbers is called the Cartesian or
rectangular or xy- coordinate system. The two axes are called rectangular or coordinate
axes.

165
We observe that,
(i) The origin O has coordinates (0, 0).
(ii) Any point on the x–axis has its y–coordinate 0.
(iii) Any point on the y–axis has its x–coordinate 0.
(iv) Whenever an ordered pair of real numbers is given, we can locate a unique point in
the Cartesian plane and plot it by a dot at an appropriate place in the plane.
(v) If a point lies within the I quadrant, then both of its coordinates are positive. If the point
lies within the II quadrant, then its x–coordinate is negative and y–coordinate is positive.
If the point lies within the III quadrant, then both of its coordinates are negative. If the
point lies within the IV quadrant, then its x–coordinate is positive and the y–coordinate
is negative. The algebraic signs of the coordinates of any point are as shown in Figure
7.4.

Figure 7.4

(vi) All points on a line parallel to x-axis have

the same y-coordinate(see Figure 7.5)

Figure 7.5

(vii) All points on a line parallel to y-axis have the same x-coordinate (see Figure 7.6).

Figure 7.6

166
If A(x1, ,y1) and B(x2, y2) are any two points in the Cartesian plane, then the horizontal
distance between A and B is
x2 − x1 if x2 > x1,
x1 − x2 if x1 > x2,
0 if x1 = x2
and the vertical distance between A and B is
y2 − y1 if y2 > y1,
y1 − y2 if y1 > y2,
0 if y1 = y2. Figure 7.7
They are respectively denoted by x2 − x1 and
y 2 − y1 . For example, in the Figure 7.7, BN is
the horizontal distance and AN is the vertical
distance between A and B. We observe that
BN = OL + OM = (−x1) + (x2) = x2 − x1,
AN = AL + LN = y1 + MB = y1+(−y2) = y1−y2.
Similarly, in the Figure 7.8, the horizontal
and vertical distances between
A(x1, y1) and B(x2, y2) are respectively
BN = ML = OM – OL
= −x2 – (−x1)
= x1 – x2 ,
AN = LN – AL = BM – (−y1)
= (−y2) + y1
= y1−y2.
Figure 7.8

Example 1: Plot the points A (3, 0), B (0, 2 ), C (4, − 4), D (3, 3), E (−2.5, 1), F (−1, −3),
G (−1, 0) and H (0, −4). Also specify the quadrant in which each point lies.
Solution:
The points are plotted in the coordinate plane as in Figure 7.9. The point A lies on the
positive side of the x–axis, the point B lies
on the positive side of the y–axis, the point
C lies within the IV quadrant, the point D
lies in the I quadrant, the point E lies in the
II quadrant, the point F lies in the III
quadrant, the point G lies on the negative
side of the x–axis and the point H lies on
the negative side of the y–axis.

Figure 7.9

167
Example 2: Find the horizontal and the vertical distances between the points (−3, −4) and
(−9, 11).
Solution: The horizontal distance between the points (−3, −4) and (−9, 11) is a distance
between the point corresponding to x coordinates−3 and −9 on the number line x- axis; i.e.,
(−3) − (−9) = 9 − 3 = 6. and the vertical distances between (−3, −4) and (−9, 11) is the
distance between the points corresponding to y co-ordinates −4 and 11 on the number line y
axis; i.e., (11) − (−4) = 15.

Exercise 7.1

1. Plot the following points and specify in which quadrant each point lies.
(i) (2, 3) (ii) (7, 6) (iii) (−2, −3) (iv) (6, −2)
(v) (−9, 0) (vi) (5, 0) (vii) (0,11) (viii) (−3, 2)

2. Answer true or false

(i) (9, −1) lies in the II quadrant.
(ii) (1, 0) lies on the y−axis..
(iii) (−3,1) lies to the right of y–axis.
(iv) (1, −1) lies below the x–axis.
(v) (0, 0) is the point of intersection of the coordinate axes.
(vi) (− 2, 2 ) lies in the II quadrant.
(vii) (−π,− 3 ) lies in the III quadrant.
(viii) ( 2 − 3 , −1) lies in the IV quadrant.
(ix) (0,−3) lies to the left of x−axis.
(x) (5, 0) lies below the x–axis.
(xi) Any two points on a line parallel to x-axis have equal x-coordinates.
(xii) If (a, b) and (c, d) are two points on a line parallel to y-axis, then a = c.

3. Find the horizontal and vertical distances between

(i) (1, 4) and (3, 5). (ii) (−2, 3) and (4, −6).
(iii) (−3, −5) and (7,2). (iv) (−2, −1) and (−4, −3).

7.2 Slope of a line

First let us proceed to define the slope of a straight line LL′ which is not parallel to x-axis or
parallel to y-axis. For this, we think of a man as a point P(x, y) running along the line. We
observe that the point P can run in one of the two directions (see Figure 7.10 or Figure 7.11).

Figure 7.10 Figure 7.11

168
As P moves in one particular direction along the line, the x-coordinate of P increases (see
Figures 7.12 and 7.13). We call this particular direction, the positive direction of the line.

Figure 7.12 Figure 7.13

The other direction is called the negative direction of the line. We observe that if P moves in
the negative direction, then its x-coordinate decreases.
Let a point P move along the line in the positive direction from the point P1(x1, y1) to
the point P2(x2, y2).Then x2 > x1. We observe that the x-coordinate of P changes from the
value x1 to x2 and the y-coordinate of P correspondingly changes from the value y1 to the
value y2. The change in the x-coordinate value is x2−x1 and is called the run of the moving
point P. The corresponding change in the y-coordinate values is y2 − y1 and is called the rise
of the moving point P. We observe that the run x2 −x1 is positive (see Figures 7.12 and 7.13)
In Figure 7.12, the point P is moving up the line, that is it is rising up the line from P1 to P2
and the point P2 is at a higher position than the point P1. So the rise y2−y1 is positive and
y − y1
hence the ratio 2 is positive. In Figure 7.13, the point P is moving down the line; that
x 2 − x1
is, it is falling down the line from P1 to P2 and the point P2 is at a lower position than the
y − y1
point P1. So the rise y2 −y1 is negative and hence the ratio 2 is negative. Thus, the ratio
x 2 − x1
y 2 − y1 y − y1
is positive for a rising line and it is negative for a falling line. The ratio 2 is
x 2 − x1 x 2 − x1
called the slope of the line.

Next, we shall examine the slope of a

line parallel to the x-axis. In Figure 7.14, the
line LL′ is parallel to the x-axis and we observe
that all points on the line have the same y-
coordinate. If P1(x1, y1) and P2(x2, y2) are two
points on the parallel line, then y1 = y2 and so
the rise y2 − y1 = 0.
y − y1
Hence the slope 2 = 0.
x 2 − x1 Figure 7.14

169
 Next, let us examine the slope of a line
parallel to the y-axis. Let P1(x1, y1) and
P2(x2, y2) be any two points on the parallel line
(see Figure 7.15). Then x1 = x2.
So, the run = x2 − x1 = 0. Since P1 and P2 are
distinct, y1 ≠ y2. Hence, the slope
rise y − y1 y − y1
m= = 2 = 2 .
run x 2 − x1 0
This is undefined.
∴ The slope of a line perpendicular to x-axis Figure 7.15
is undefined.
y2 − y1
> 0 for rising line.
x2 − x1
y2 − y1
< 0 for falling line
x2 − x1
y2 − y1
= 0 for the line parallel to x-axis.
x2 − x1
y2 − y1
is undefined for the line parallel to the y-axis.
x2 − x1

y 2 − y1 − ( y1 − y 2 ) y − y2
We note that = = 1 .Thus, the slope of the line joining the two
x 2 − x1 − (x1 − x 2 ) x1 − x 2
y − y1 y − y2
points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) is 2 = 1 .
x 2 − x1 x1 − x 2
From this, we observe that the slope is
independent of the direction of the line. The
y − y1
slope 2 of the line is also independent of
x 2 − x1
the particular choice of the points P1 and P2.
To understand this fact, consider any other
two points P3 (x3, y3) and P4 (x4, y4) on the line
(see Figure 7.16). Then the slope of the line Figure 7.16
y − y3
from P3 to P4 is 4 .
x4 − x 3
y − y1
The slope of the line from P1 and P2 is 2 .
x 2 − x1

170
But the triangles ∆P1AP2 and ∆P3BP4 are similar.
P A AP2 AP2 BP4
∴ 1 = or = .
P3 B BP 4 P1 A P3B
y − y1 y − y3
∴ 2 = 4 .
x 2 − x1 x 4 − x3
That is, the slope is independent of the positions of two points on the line.

Note: Through two given points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) one and only one straight line can be
y − y1
drawn. The slope of the line is 2 .
x 2 − x1

Example 3: Find the slope of the line passing through (5,6) and (15,9) and state whether the
line is rising up or falling down.
Solution: Take (5,6) as (x1, y1) and (15, 9) as (x2, y2). Then the slope of the line is
y − y1 9−6 3
m= 2 .= = .
x 2 − x1 15 − 5 10

The slope is a positive number and so the line

is rising up as shown in Figure 7.17.

Figure 7.17

Example 4: Find the slope of the line passing through (−16, 29) and (40, −6) and state
whether the line is rising up or falling down.
Solution:
The slope of the line is
− 6 − 29 − 35 − 5
m= = = .
40 − (−16) 56 8

Since m is a negative number, the line is falling

down as indicated in Figure 7.18.

Figure 7.18

Example 5: Interpret the slopes of the following lines joining

(i) (6,4) and (−7, 4) (ii) (−2,8) and (−2, 7).
Solution:
y − y1 4−4 0
(i) Slope of the line = 2 = = = 0,
x 2 − x1 − 7 − 6 − 13
∴ The line is parallel to the x-axis.

171
 y 2 − y1 7−8 −1
(ii) Slope of the line = = = = not defined.
x 2 − x1 − 2 + 2 0
∴ The line is perpendicular to the x-axis.

3
Example 6: Find another point on the line with slope − which passes through the point
5
(−2, 3).
−3
Solution: First we shall write the slope as (i.e., with the denominator as a positive
5
number). Designate the given point (−2, 3)
as P (see Figure 7.19). From P, move 5
units to the right (since the run = 5) to
reach the point Q (−2 + 5, 3); i.e., Q (3,3).
From Q, move 3 units down (since the rise
= −3) to reach the point R (3, 3 + (−3));
i.e., R (3,0). The point R (3,0) is another
point on the line. We can verify that the
slope of the line joining P and R is Figure 7.19
0−3 −3
or .
3 − (−2) 5
7.2.1 The equation of a straight line

Let P (x, y) be a variable point on a given straight line. Then an algebraic equation
connecting the variables x and y is called the equation of the straight line. The co-ordinates x
and y of any point on the straight line satisfy the equation of the line. By plotting the ordered
pairs (x, y) as points in the Cartesian plane, we get the graph of the straight line. A straight
line is hereafter called simply a line. The graph crosses the x-axis at a unique point A and it
crosses the y-axis at a unique point B. Since A lies on the x-axis its y-coordinate is 0. If a is the
x-coordinate of A, then (a, 0) should satisfy the equation of the line. Substituting a for x and 0
for y in the equation of the line, we can solve for the value of a. This value of a is called the
x-intercept of the line. That is, the x-intercept of the line is the x-coordinate of the point
where the line crosses the x-axis. Similarly, since B lies on the y-axis, its x-coordinate is 0.
So, if b is the y-coordinate of B, then (0, b) should satisfy the equation of the line. Replacing x
by 0 and y by b in the equation of the line, we can solve for b. This value b is called the
y-intercept of the line. Thus, the y-intercept of the line is the y-coordinate of the point
where the line crosses the y-axis.

172
Now, let us derive the equation of the line whose slope is m and y-intercept is c.

Since the y-intercept of the line is c,

the point P1 (0, c) is the point at which the
line crosses the y-axis (see Figure 7.20). Let
P (x, y) be any point on the line. Then the
slope of the line is
y−c y−c
or .
x−0 x
But the slope of the line is given to be m.
y−c
∴ = m or y − c = mx or y = mx + c.
x Figure 7.20
The above equation is called the slope –
intercept formula for the equation of a line.

Note: If the line passes through the origin (0,0), then its y-intercept is c =0. So the equation
of the line is y = mx + 0 or y = mx.

1
Example 7: Find the equation of the line having slope and y-intercept −3.
2
Solution: Applying the slope-intercept formula, the equation of the line is
1 1
y= x + (−3) m=
2 2
or 2y = x − 6 c = −3
or x− 2y − 6 = 0. y = mx + c
Example 8: Find the slope and the y-intercept of the line whose equation is 3x + 4y + 5 = 0.
−3 ⎛ −5⎞
Solution: Rewriting the equation, we get 4y = −3x − 5 or y = x+⎜ ⎟.
4 ⎝ 4 ⎠
−3 −5
Comparing this equation with y = mx + c, we get slope m = and y-intercept c = .
4 4

Exercise 7.2
1. Find the slope of the line joining the two given points
(i) (−4,1) and (−5, 2).
(ii) (4,−8) and (5,−2).
(iii) (−5,0) and (0, −8).
(iv) (0,0) and ( 3 , 3).
(v) (2a, 3b) and (a, −b).
(vi) (a, 0) and (0, b).

2. Find another point on the line

(i) through (5, 6) with slope 1.

173
 (ii) through (0, 4) with slope 1 .
4
(iii) through (2, −2) with slope −1.
(iv) through (1, −3) with slope 4.
(v) through (−1, −4) with slope 7 .
3
3. Find the equation of the line whose slope and y-intercept are
(i) −3 and −7.
(ii) 5 and 9.
(iii) −2 and 15.
(iv) 6 and −11.
(v) − 3 and 1.
5
(vi) − 2 and 8 .
5 5
4. Find the slope and y-intercept of the line whose equation is
(i) 3x + 2y = 4.
(ii) 2x = y.
(iii) x − y − 3 = 0.
(iv) 5x − 4y = 8.

7.3 The distance between any two points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2)
The distance between two points is a basic concept in geometry. We now give an
algebraic expression for the same.
Let P1 (x1, y1) and P2 (x2, y2) be two distinct points in the Cartesian plane and denote
the distance between P1 and P2 by d(P1, P2) or by P1P2. Draw the line segment P1 P2 . Three
cases arise.
Case (i): The segment P1 P2 is parallel to the
x-axis (see Figure 7.21). Then y1 = y2. Draw P1L
and P2M, perpendicular to the x-axis. Then
d(P1,P2) is equal to the distance between L and M.
But L is (x1, 0) and M is (x2, 0). So the length
LM = x1 − x2 . Hence d (P1, P2) = x1 − x2 .
Figure 7.21

Case (ii): The segment P1 P2 is parallel to the y-axis

(see Figure 7.22). Then x1 = x2 .Draw P1L and P2M,
perpendicular to the y-axis. Then d(P1, P2) is equal to
the distance between L and M. But L is (0, y1) and M is
(0, y2). So the length LM = y1 − y 2 . Hence
d(P1, P2) = y1 − y 2 .
Figure 7.22

174
Case (iii): The line segment P1 P2 is neither parallel to the
x-axis nor parallel to the y-axis (see Figure 7.23).
Draw a line through P1 parallel to x-axis and a line
through P2 parallel to y-axis. Let these lines
intersect at the point P3. Then P3 (x2, y1). The length
of the line segment P1P3 is x1 − x2 and the length
of the segment P3P2 is y1 − y 2 . We observe that Figure 7.23
the triangle ∆P1P3P2 is a right triangle.

∴ [d (P1 , P2 )] = [d (P1 , P3 )] + [d (P3 , P2 )] = x1 − x 2 + y1 − y 2

2 2 2 2 2

= (x1 − x2)2 + (y1 − y2)2

= (x2 − x1)2 + (y2 − y1)2.
∴ d(P1, P2) = ( x 2 − x1 ) 2 + ( y 2 − y1 ) 2 .

This is called the distance formula which gives the distance d between the two given points
(x1, y1) and (x2, y2). We observe that d(P1, P2) = d(P2, P1). The formula has been derived for
two points which are not on a horizontal line or vertical line. But the formula holds for these
cases as well. When P1 and P2 lie on the same horizontal line, then y1 = y2 and so
x 2 − x1 + 0 2 = x 2 − x1 .
2
d(P1, P2) = ( x 2 − x1 ) 2 + ( y 2 − y1 ) 2 =

When P1 and P2 lie on the same vertical line, then x1 = x2 and so

0 2 + y1 − y 2
2
d(P1, P2) = ( x1 − x 2 ) 2 + ( y1 − y 2 ) 2 = = y1 − y 2 .

Note: Since the origin O is (0,0), then, for any point P (x, y), we have

OP = ( x − 0) 2 + ( y − 0) 2 = x2 + y2 .

This distance x 2 + y 2 is called the radius vector of the point (x, y) from the origin.

Using the distance formula, we can show whether

(i) three given points are collinear or form a right triangle, isosceles triangle or equilateral
triangle.
(ii) four given points form a parallelogram, rectangle, square or rhombus.

175
Example 9: Find the distance between the points A(−15, −3) and B (7, 1).

Solution: Let d be the distance between A and B.

Then d (A, B) = ( x 2 − x1 ) 2 + ( y 2 − y1 ) 2
= (7 + 15) 2 + (1 + 3) 2
(x1, y1) (−15, −3)
= 22 2 + 4 2
(x2, y2) (7, 1)
= 484 + 16
= 500 = 10 5 .

Example 10: Show that the points (−4, −9), (2, 0) and (4, 3) are collinear.

Solution: Let A, B and C be the given points respectively. Then

A (−4,−9)
B (2, 0)

AB = ( 2 + 4) 2 + ( 0 + 9) 2
Rough Sketch
= 6 2 + 9 2 = 36 + 81
= 117 = 9 × 13 = 3 13 .
Figure 7.24
B (2, 0)
C (4, 3)

BC = ( 4 − 2 ) 2 + (3 − 0 ) 2
= 2 2 + 32 = 4 + 9 = 13

AC = ( 4 + 4 ) 2 + (3 + 9 ) 2
= 8 2 + 12 2 = 64 + 144 = 208 = 16 × 13 = 4 13
We observe that AB + BC = AC. 3 13 + 13 = 4 13 .
∴ A, B and C are collinear.

Example 11: Show that the points (3, −2), (2, 5) and (8, −7) form an isosceles triangle.
Solution:
Let the given points be P, Q and R respectively.
One way of proving that ∆PQR is an isosceles
triangle is to show that two of its sides are of equal
length. Here we have
Figure 7.25

176
d(P,Q) = ( 2 − 3) 2 + (5 + 2) 2 = 12 + 7 2 = 1 + 49 = 50 = 5 2.
d (Q, R) = (8 − 2) 2 + ( −7 − 5) 2 = 6 2 + 12 2 = 36 + 144 = 180 = 6 5.
d (R, P) = (8 − 3) 2 + ( −7 + 2) 2 = 5 2 + ( −5) 2 = 25 + 25 = 50 = 5 2.
∴ d (P, Q) = d (R, P) ≠ d (Q, R).
∴ ∆PQR is an isosceles triangle but not an equilateral triangle.

( )
Example 12: Show that the points (0, 3), (0,1) and 3 , 2 are the vertices of an equilateral
triangle.
Solution: Let the points be A, B and C respectively.
One way of showing that ∆ABC is an equilateral triangle
is to show that all its sides are of equal length.
Here we find that
d (A, B) = (0 − 0) 2 + (1 − 3) 2 = 0 2 + ( −2) 2 = 4 = 2.
d (B, C) = ( 3 − 0) 2 + (2 − 1) 2 = 3 + 1 = 4 = 2.
Figure 7.26
d (C, A) = (0 − 3 ) 2 + (3 − 2) 2 = 3 + 1 = 4 = 2.
∴ d (A, B) = d (B, C) = d (C, A).
∴∆ABC is an equilateral triangle.

Example 13: Examine whether the points P (7, 1), Q (−4,−1) and R (4,5) are the vertices of a
right triangle.
Solution: The points P ,Q, R form a triangle. To show that ∆PQR is a right triangle, we have
to show that one vertex angle is 90°. This is done by showing that the lengths of the sides of
the triangle satisfy Pythagoras theorem. Here
PQ = (−4 − 7) 2 + (−1 − 1) 2 = 121 + 4 = 125 = 5 5.
QR = ( 4 + 4) 2 + (5 + 1) 2 = 64 + 36 = 100 = 10.
PR = (4 − 7) 2 + (5 − 1) 2 = 9 + 16 = 25 = 5.
∴ PQ2 = 125, QR2 = 100 and PR2 = 25.
We observe that QR2 + PR2 = PQ2.
∴ The Pythagoras formula is satisfied. Figure 7.27
∴ ∆PQR is a right triangle with right angle at R.

Example 14: Show that the points (1, 2), (2, −1), (5, 3) and (4, 6) taken in order form a
parallelogram. Is it a rectangle ? Justify.
Solution: Let the points be P1, P2 ,P3 and P4 respectively. One way of showing that
P1 P2 P3 P4 is a parallelogram is to show that
the opposite sides are of equal length. Here we find
P1P2 = (2 − 1) 2 + ( −1 − 2) 2 = 1 + 9 = 10.
P2P3 = (5 − 2) 2 + (3 + 1) 2 = 9 + 16 = 25.

Figure 7.28
177
P3P4 = ( 4 − 5) 2 + (6 − 3) 2 = 1 + 9 = 10.
P4P1 = (4 − 1) 2 + (6 − 2) 2 = 9 + 16 = 25.
∴ P1P2 = P3P4 = 10 and P2P3 = P4P1 = 25 .
∴ P1P2 P3P4 is a parallelogram. Since
P1P3 = (5 − 1) 2 + (3 − 2) 2 = 16 + 1 = 17 and
(P1P2 )2 + (P2P3)2 = 10 + 25 = 35, (P1P3)2 = 17, (P1P2 )2 + (P2P3)2 ≠ (P1P3)2.
∴ ∆P1P2 P3 is not a right triangle.
∴ ∠P1P2 P3 is not a right angle.
∴ P1P2 P3P4 is not a rectangle.
Example 15: Show that the points (0, −1), (−2, 3), (6, 7) and (8, 3), taken in order form the
vertices of a rectangle.

Solution: Let the points be A, B, C and D respectively. One way of showing that ABCD is
rectangle is to show that the opposite sides are of equal length and one corner angle is 90°.
One way of showing that one corner angle is 90° is to show that the lengths of the sides of
∆ABC satisfy the Pythagoras theorem. Here we find.
AB = ( −2 − 0) 2 + (3 + 1) 2 = 4 + 16 = 20 = 2 5.
BC = (6 + 2) 2 + (7 − 3) 2 = 64 + 16 = 80 = 4 5.
CD = (8 − 6) 2 + (3 − 7) 2 = 4 + 16 = 20 = 2 5.
AD = (8 − 0) 2 + (3 + 1) 2 = 64 + 16 = 80 = 4 5.
AC = (6 − 0) 2 + (7 + 1) 2 = 36 + 64 = 100 = 10
Figure 7.29
We observe that AB = CD = 2 5 , BC = AD = 4 5
and AB2 + BC2 = 20 + 80 = 100 = AC2
∴ ABCD is a rectangle but not a square.

Example 16: Show that the points (0, −1), (2, 1) (0, 3) and (−2, 1) taken in order form the
vertices of a square.

Solution: Let A, B, C, D be the given points respectively.

One way of showing that ABCD is a square is to

show that all its sides are of equal length and the
diagonals are of equal length.

AB = (2 − 0) 2 + (1 + 1) 2 = 4 + 4 = 8 = 2 2,
BC = (0 − 2) 2 + (3 − 1) 2 = 4 + 4 = 8 = 2 2,
CD = ( −2 − 0) 2 + (1 − 3) 2 = 4 + 4 = 8 = 2 2,
Figure 7.30
AD = (−2 − 0) 2 + (1 + 1) 2 = 4 + 4 = 8 = 2 2,

178
BD = ( −2 − 2) 2 + (1 − 1) 2 = 16 + 0 = 16 = 4,
AC = (0 − 0) 2 + (3 + 1) 2 = 0 + 16 = 16 = 4.
We observe here that
AB = BC = CD = AD = 2 2 and BD = AC = 4.
∴ ABCD is a square.

Example 17: Prove that the points A(2, −3), B(6, 5), C(−2, 1) and D(−6, −7), taken in order
form a rhombus but not a square.
Solution: One way of showing that ABCD is a rhombus is to show that all its sides are of
equal length. One way is showing that a rhombus is not a square is to show that the diagonals
are of unequal length. Here we find

AB = (6 − 2) 2 + (5 + 3) 2
= 16 + 64
= 80
BC = ( −2 − 6) 2 + (1 − 5) 2
= 64 + 16 = 80
AC = ( −2 − 2) 2 + (1 + 3) 2 Figure 7.31
= 16 + 16 = 32
BD = ( −6 − 6) 2 + (−7 − 5) 2
= 144 + 144 = 288
CD = (−6 + 2) + ( −7 − 1) 2
2

= 16 + 64 = 80
AD = ( −6 − 2) 2 + ( −7 + 3) 2
= 64 + 16 = 80 .

∴ AB = BC = CD = AD, AC ≠ BD.
∴ ABCD is a rhombus but not a square.

Exercise 7.3
1. Find the distance between the following pair of points:

(i) (1, 2) and (4, 3) (vi) (a, −b) and (−b, a)

(ii) (3, 4) and (−7, 2) (vii) ( 2 + 1, 1) and (1, 3)
⎛2 5⎞
(iii) (−7, 2) and (3, 2) (viii) ⎜ , ⎟ and (− 1, 2)
⎝3 4⎠

179
 (iv) (4, −5) and (−4, 5) (ix) (2, 0) and (5, −4)
(v) (a, b) and (b, a) (x) (−2, 3) and (−1, −5)
2. Examine whether the following points are collinear:
(i) (5, 2), (3, −2) and (8, 8)
1 3
(ii) ( , 1), (1, 2) and (0, )
2 2
(iii) (1, 4), (3, −2) and (−3, 16)
(iv) (−4, 8), (2, −4) and (3, 16)
(v) (8, 4), (5, 2) and (9, 6).
3. Examine whether the following points form an isosceles triangle:
(i) (5, 4), (2, 0) and (−2, 3).
(ii) (6, − 4), (−2, − 4) and (2, 10).
(iii) (2, −1), (− 4, 2) and (2, 5).
4. Examine whether the following points form an equilateral triangle:
(i) (− 3 , 1), (2 3 , −2) and (2 3 , 4).
(ii) ( 3 , 2) , (0, 1) and (0, 3).
(iii) (0, 3) (0, 5) and ( 3 , 4).
5. Examine whether the following points are the vertices of a right triangle:
(i) (4, 4), (3, 5) and (−1, −1). (ii) (2, 0), (−2, 3) and (−2, −5).
6. Find the type of the triangle whose vertices are given below:
(i) (−3, 7), (−4, 0) and (−10, 8). (ii) (−5, −2), (0, 6) and (8, 1).
7. Examine whether the following points taken in order form a parallelogram:
(i) (3, −5), (−5, −4), (7, 10) and (15, 9).
(ii) (5, 8), (6, 3), (3, 1) and (2, 6).
(iii) (6, 1), (5, 6), (−4, 3) and (−3, −2).
(iv) (0, 3), (4, 4), (6, 2) and (2, 1).
8. Examine whether the following points taken in order form a rectangle:
(i) (8, 3), (0, −1), (−2, 3) and (6, 7)
(ii) (−2, 7), (5, 4) (−1, −10) and (−8, −7).
(iii) (−3, 0), (1,−2), (5, 6) and (1, 8).
(iv) (−1, 1), (0, 0) (3, 3) and (2, 4)
9. Examine whether the following points taken in order form a square:
(i) (1, 2), (2, 2), (2, 3) and (1, 3).
(ii) (−1, −8), (4, −6), (2, −1) and (−3, −3).
(iii) (1, −1), (0, −4), (7, −3) and (8, −10).
(iv) (12, 9), (20, −6), (5, −14) and (−3, 1).
(v) (−1, 2), (1, 0), (1, 4) and (3, 2).

180
10. Examine whether the following points taken in order form the vertices of a rhombus:
(i) (0, 0), (3, 4), (0, 8) and (−3, 4).
(ii) (2, −3), (6, 5), (−2, 1) and (−6, −7).
(iii) (1, 4), (5, 1), (1, −2) and (−3, 1)

Answers
Exercise 7.1

1. (i) I (ii) I (iii) III (iv) IV (v) No quadrant

(vi) No quadrant (vii) No quadrant (viii) II

2. (i) F (ii) F (iii) F (iv) T (v) T (vi) T (vii) T

(viii) F (ix) F (x) F (xi) F (xii) T

3. (i) (2, 1) (ii) (6, 9) (iii) (10, 7) (iv) (2, 2)

Exercise 7.2

−8 ⎛b⎞ −b
1. (i) −1 (ii) 6 (iii) (iv) 3 (v) 4⎜ ⎟ (vi)
5 ⎝a⎠ a
2. (i) (6, 7) (ii) (4, 5) (iii) (3, −3) (iv) (2, 1)
(v) (2, 3)

3. (i) 3x + y + 7 = 0 (ii) 5x − y + 9 = 0 (iii) 2x + y − 15 = 0

(iv) 6x − y − 11 = 0 (v) 3x + 5y − 5 = 0 (vi) 2x + 5y − 8 = 0

⎛−3 ⎞ ⎛5 ⎞
4. (i) ⎜ , 2 ⎟ (ii) (2, 0) (iii) (1, −3) (iv) ⎜ , − 2 ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝4 ⎠

Exercise 7.3

1. (i) 10 (ii) 2 26 (iii) 10 (iv) 2 41 (v) (a − b) 2

481
(vi) (a + b) 2 (vii) 6 (viii) 12 (ix) 5 (x) 65.

2. (i) Collinear (ii) Non-collinear (iii) Collinear

(iv) Non-Collinear (v) Non-Collinear
3. (i) Isosceles (ii) Isosceles (iii) Isosceles

181
 4. (i) Equilateral (ii) Equilateral (iii) Equilateral
5. (i) Right triangle (ii) Not a right triangle
6. (i) right angled isosceles triangle (ii) right angled isosceles triangle
7. (i) parallelogram (ii) parallelogram
(iii) parallelogram (iv) parallelogram
8. (i) Rectangle (ii) Rectangle (iii) Rectangle (iv) Rectangle
9. (i) square (ii) square (iii) not a square (iv) square
(v) Not a square
10. (i) Rhombus (ii) Rhombus (iii) Rhombus

182
 8. TRIGONOMETRY
This branch of mathematics originated several centuries ago in the study of astronomy.
Hipparchus, a Greek astronomer and mathematician developed the subject trigonometry and
used its principles to a large extent in predicting the paths and positions of the heavenly
bodies. The word ‘trigonometry’ is derived from two Greek words ‘trigon’ and ‘metra’. The
word ‘trigon’ means triangle and ‘metra’ means measurement. Thus, the name trigonometry
deals with the subject which provides the relationships between the measurements of sides
and the angles of a triangle. To begin our study of trigonometry, we have to refresh our ideas
about angles and their measures.

Angles and their measures

We say that an angle is formed when two rays originate from a common point. One of

Figure 8.1
Figure. 8.2

the rays is called the initial arm(side) and the

other ray the terminal arm (side) of the angle.
The common point is called the vertex. We note
that when a ray originating from the vertex
rotates from the position of the initial arm to the
position of the terminal arm, the angle is
formed. The rotation of the ray can be
performed either in the anti-clockwise direction
(see Figure 8.1) or in the clockwise direction
(see Figure 8.2). If OA and OB are the initial Figure 8.3
and terminal sides of an angle, then the angle is

183
denoted by the symbol ∠ AOB. Sometimes it is convenient to position an angle in a Cartesian
coordinate plane by taking the vertex as the origin and the initial arm as the positive x-axis
(see Figure 8.3) when an angle is positioned in the above way, we say that it is in the
standard position. To measure an angle we use an unit called degree.

Degree measure

When a ray makes one complete rotation in the anticlockwise direction, we say that an
angle of measure 360 degrees (written as 360°) is formed. Measurement of all other angles are
based on a 360° angle. When a ray makes no rotation, we say that an angle of measure 0° is
formed. For example, when a ray makes 1 th of one complete rotation in the anticlockwise
4

direction, an angle of measure 1 (360°) = 90° is formed. When a ray makes 1 th of one
4 4

complete rotation in the clockwise direction, an angle of measure − 1 (360°) = −90°.is formed
4
Thus, rotations in the anticlockwise direction yield positive angles and rotations in the
clockwise direction yield negative angles. An angle whose measure lies between 0° and 90° is
called an acute angle. A 90° angle is called a right angle and a 180°angle is called a straight
angle. If the sum of two acute angles is 90°, then the two angles are said to be
complementary. When the sum of two positive angles is 180°, the two angles are said to be
supplementary.

Right triangle and Pythagoras Theorem

If an angle of a triangle is of measure 90°, then the triangle is called a right angle. Let
ABC be a right triangle in which the measure of ABC = 90°
(see Figure 8.4). The side AC is called
the hypotenuse of the right triangle. It is
the longest side and is opposite to the right
angle. Greek mathematician Pythagoras
found that the area of the square on the
hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the areas
of the squares on the other two sides. That Figure 8.4
is, AC = AB + BC . This is known as
2 2 2

Pythagoras Theorem.

184
8.1 Trigonometric Ratios

Let us consider any acute angle ∠AOB and

denote it by the Greek letter θ. Let P be a point on
the ray OB and PQ be drawn perpendicular to
the ray OA . Then the triangle OQP is a right
triangle having right angle at the vertex Q. The
side OP is the hypotenuse side of ∆OQP. The
side PQ is opposite to the angle θ and the side
Figure 8.5
OQ is the adjacent to the angle θ. We shall
denote the lengths of these sides by OP, PQ, OQ
respectively. Using these lengths, we define the
six trigonometric ratios as follows:

length of opposite side PQ

sine θ = = ,
length of hypotenuse side OP
length of adjacent side OQ
cosine θ = = ,
length of hypotenuse side OP
length of opposite side PQ
tangent θ = = ,
length of adjacent side OQ
length of hypotenuse side OP
cosecant θ = = ,
length of opposite side PQ
length of hypotenuse side OP
secant θ = = ,
length of adjacent side OQ
length of adjacent side OQ
cotangent θ = = .
length of opposite side PQ

We abbreviate the names of the above ratios as sinθ, cosθ, tanθ, cosecθ, secθ, cotθ
respectively. The values of the above ratios do not depend on the size of the right triangle
OQP. To know this let P′ be any other point on the ray OB and P′Q′ be drawn perpendicular
to the ray OA (see Figure 8.5). Since the right triangles OQP and OQ′P′ are similar,
PQ OQ OP
we get = = .
P ′Q ′ OQ ′ OP ′
From this, we get
PQ P ′Q ′ OQ OQ ′ PQ P ′Q ′
= , = , =
OP OP ′ OP OP ′ OQ OQ ′
OP OP ′ OP OP ′ OQ OQ ′
or = , = , =
PQ P ′Q ′ OQ OQ ′ PQ P ′Q ′

185
Thus the six ratios have the same value regardless of the position of the point P on the ray
OB. From the above six ratios, we find that
PQ OP 1 1
sin θ × cosecθ = × =1 , cos ec θ = , sin θ = .
OP PQ sin θ cos ec θ
OQ OP 1 1
cosθ × secθ = × =1 , sec θ = , cos θ = .
OP OQ cos θ sec θ
PQ OQ 1 1
tan θ × cot θ = × =1 . cot θ = , tan θ = .
OQ PQ tan θ cot θ
⎛ PQ ⎞
⎜ ⎟
sin θ ⎝ OP ⎠ PQ OP PQ
We also note that, = = × = = tan θ .
cosθ ⎛ OQ ⎞ OP OQ OQ
⎜ ⎟
⎝ OP ⎠
cos θ 1
Taking reciprocals, we get = = cot θ .
sin θ tan θ
sin θ cos θ
Thus, we have = tan θ , = cot θ .
cos θ sin θ
Note: When θ is acute and one of the six trigonometric ratios is known, we can find the other
trigonometric ratios by applying the above formulae.
Example 1: Find the six trigonometric ratios sinθ, cosθ, tanθ, cosecθ, secθ and cotθ from
the given right triangle.
Solution: We note that for the angle θ,
length of opposite side = 6; length of adjacent side = 8. (see Figure 8.6)
By Pythagoras theorem,
(length of hypotenuse side)2 = 82 + 62 = 64 + 36 = 100.
∴ length of hypotenuse side = 100 = 10.

Figure 8.6

length of opposite side 6 3 length of hypotenuse side 10 5

sin θ = = = , cosec θ = = = ,
length of hypotenuse side 10 5 length of opposite side 6 3
length of adjacent side 8 4 length of hypotenuse side 10 5
cos θ = = = , sec θ = = = ,
length of hypotenuse side 10 5 length of adjacent side 8 4
length of opposite side 6 3 length of adjacent side 8 4
tan θ = = = , cot θ = = = .
length of adjacent side 8 4 length of opposite side 6 3

186
Example 2: In ∆ABC, m∠B= 90°, AB = 8cm, AC = 17cm. Find all the trigonometrical ratios
for the angles A and C.
Solution: Here A = m∠BAC and C = m∠BCA (see Figure 8.7)
By Pythagoras formula, AC2 = AB2 + BC2
∴ BC2 = AC2 – AB2 = 172 – 82 = 289 – 64 = 225.
∴ BC = 225 = 15. Hence we have
BC 15 AB 8 BC 15
sin A = = , cos A = = , tan A = = ,
AC 17 AC 17 AB 8
1 8 1 17 1 17
cot A = = , sec A = = , cos ec A = = ,
tan A 15 cos A 8 sin A 15
AB 8 BC 15 AB 8
sin C = = , cos C = = , tan C = = ,
AC 17 AC 17 BC 15
1 15 1 17 1 17 Figure 8.7
cot C = = , sec C = = , cos ec C = = ,
tan C 8 cos C 15 sin C 8

Note: In the above problem, we observe that sin C = cos A, cos C = sin A,
tan C =cot A,…. This is so because the angles A and C are complementary.
7
Example 3: If sin θ = , find the other trigonometric ratios.
25
7
Solution: Since sinθ = , let us consider a right triangle ABC in which m∠ABC = 90°,
25
m∠ACB=θ, AB = 7 and AC = 25 (see Figure 8.8). By Pythagoras formula,
AC2 = AB2 + BC2 ∴ 252 = 72 + BC2 or 625 = 49 + BC2
∴ BC2 = 625−49 = 576.

∴ BC= 576 = 24.

BC 24
Hence, cos θ = = ,
AC 25
AB 7
tan θ = = ,
BC 24
1 25
cos ec θ = = ,
sin θ 7
1 25
sec θ = = ,
cos θ 24
1 24
cot θ = = . Figure 8.8
tan θ 7
Example 4: If cosec A = 2 , find (i) sin A + cos A (ii) tan A + cot A.
2 length of hypotenuse side
Solution: Since cosec A = 2= = ,
1 length of opposite side
we consider a right triangle PQR where m∠QRP = A,

187
PR = 2 and PQ = 1 (see Figure 8.9). By Pythagoras theorem,
PR2 = PQ2 + QR2
∴ ( 2 )2 = (1)2 + QR2 ∴ 2 = 1 + QR2
∴ QR2 = 2 – 1 = 1 ∴ QR = 1.
Hence we get
PQ 1 QR 1
sin A = = , cos A = = ,
PR 2 PR 2
PQ 1 QR 1
tan A = = =1, cot A = = = 1. Figure 8.9
QR 1 PQ 1
1 1 ⎛ 1 ⎞
∴(i) sin A + cos A = + = 2⎜ ⎟ = 2,
2 2 ⎝ 2⎠
(ii) tan A + cot A = 1 + 1 = 2.

Note : Whenever we are asked to prove an equation, we adopt any one of the following
methods:
Method 1 : Simplify the expression in the L.H.S. or R.H.S and obtain the expression on the
other side.

Method 2 : Simplify the expression on the L.H.S to a form (1). Next simplify the R.H.S to a
form (2). Show (1) = (2).

tan A + tan B sin A cos B + cos A sin B

Example 5: Prove that = .
1 − tan A tan B cos A cos B − sin A sin B
Solution:
sin A sin B sin A cos B + cos A sin B
+
tan A + tan B
L.H.S = = cos A cos B = cos A cos B
1 − tan A tan B sin A sin B cos A cos B − sin A sin B
1− ×
cos A cos B cos A cos B
(sin A cos B + cos A sin B ) cos A cos B
= ×
cos A cos B cos A cos B − sin A sin B
sin A cos B + cos A sin B
= = R.H.S.
cos A cos B − sin A sin B

tan A + cot B tan A

Example 6: Prove that = .
cot A + tan B tan B
tan A 1 tan A tan B + 1
+
tan A + cot B tan B
Solution: L.H.S = = 1 tan B =
cot A + tan B 1 tan B 1 + tan A tan B
+
tan A 1 tan A

188
 (tan A tan B + 1) tan A
= × .
tan B (1 + tan A tan B )
tan A
= = R.H.S.
tan B

1 + tan θ sin θ + tan θ

Example 7: Show that = .
1 + cot θ 1 + cos θ
1 + tan θ 1 + tan θ
Solution: L.H.S. = =
1 + cot θ 1
1+
tan θ
(1 + tan θ ) ( 1 + tan θ) tan θ
= = × = tan θ (1)
⎛ tan θ + 1 ⎞ 1 ( tan θ + 1 )
⎜ ⎟
⎝ tan θ ⎠
sin θ
sin θ +
sin θ + tan θ cos θ
R.H.S. = =
1 + cos θ 1 + cos θ
(sin θ cos θ + sin θ ) 1 sin θ (cos θ + 1) 1
= × = ×
cos θ (1 + cos θ ) cos θ (1 + cos θ )
sin θ
= = tanθ` (2)
cos θ
From (1) and (2), L.H.S = R.H.S.

Trigonometric ratios of certain angles

We shall find the values of the six trigonometric ratios of the angles whose measures
are 30°, 45° and 60°.

(i) Trigonometric ratios of 30° and 60° angles

We consider an equilateral triangle
ABC with sides of length 2 (see Figure 8.10)
and draw CD perpendicular to AB . Then D
bisects the side AB . Now AD = 1, AC = 2.
m∠DAC = 60°, m∠ACD = 30° and ∆ADC is
a right triangle.
By Pythagoras theorem,

AC2 = AD2 + DC2

22 = 12 + DC2
DC2 = 3
DC = 3 .
Figure 8.10

189
Here from the right triangle ADC, (see Figure 8.11) we get
DC 3 AD 1
sin 60° = = sin 30° = =
AC 2 AC 2
DA 1 DC 3
cos 60° = = cos 30° = =
AC 2 AC 2
DC 3 AD 1
tan 60° = = = 3 tan 30° = =
DA 1 DC 3
DA 1 DC 3 Figure 8.11
cot 60° = = cot 30° = = = 3
DC 3 AD 1
AC 2 AC 2 2 3
sec 60° = = =2 sec 30° = = =
DA 1 DC 3 3
AC 2 2 3 AC 2
cosec 60° = = = cosec 30° = = =2
DC 3 3 AD 1

(ii) Trigonometric ratios of a 45° angle.

We consider the isosceles right angle ABC where m∠B = 90°, AB = BC = 1(see
Figure 8.12). Then m∠CAB = 45° and m∠BCA = 45° . Now from the right triangle ABC, we
get, by Pythagoras theorem, AC2 = AB2 + BC2 = 1 + 1 = 2 and so AC = 2 ,
AB 1
sin 45° = =
AC 2
AB 1
cos 45° = =
AC 2
BC 1
tan 45° = = =1
AB 1
AB 1
cot 45° = = =1
BC 1
AC 2
sec 45° = = = 2
AB 1
Figure 8.12
AC 2
cosec 45° = = = 2
BC 1
(iii) Trigonometric ratios of a 0° angle and
a 90° angle
To get the trigonometric ratios of these
two angles, we consider a circle of radius r
with center at the origin in the Cartesian
coordinate plane. Let P be any point on the
arc of the circle in the positive quadrant
of the coordinate plane (see Figure 8.13). Let
PM be drawn perpendicular to the x – axis.
Let the coordinates of P be x and y.
Figure 8.13

190
Then OM = x and PM = y. By applying Pythagoras theorem in the right triangle OMP, we
get x2 + y2 = r2; ∴ r = x 2 + y 2 . Let ∠MOP = θ. Then θ is an acute angle and
y x
sinθ = , cos θ = .
[

r r
Choosing P at different positions on the arc , we note that as the ray OP turns from the
position OA to the position OB , the angle θ increases from 0° to 90° , x decreases from r to
x
0 and y increases from 0 to r. So as θ increases from 0° to 90° , decreases from 1 to 0 and
r
y
increases from 0 to 1. That is, as θ increases from 0° to 90°, cos θ decreases from 1 to 0
r
and sin θ increases from 0 to 1. Further, we also observe that for each acute angle θ, x and y
are unique and so the trigonometric ratios are unique. When OP is in the position OA , θ =
0 r
0°, x = r and y = 0. So we have sin 0 o = = 0 , cos 0 o = = 1 . When OP is in the position
r r
r 0
OB , θ = 90°, x = 0 and y = r. So, we have sin 90 o = = 1, cos 90 o = = 0 .
r r
o o
sin 0 0 cos 0 1
Now, we have tan 0 o = o
= = 0, cot 0 o = = not defined,
cos 0 1 sin 0 o 0
1 1 1 1
sec 0 o = o
= =1 ; cos ec 0 o = o
= not defined,
cos 0 1 sin 0 0
sin 90 o 1 cos 90 o 0
tan 90 o = = not defined, cot 90 o
= = =0,
cos 90 o 0 sin 90 o 1
1 1 1 1
sec 90 o = o
= not defined, cos ec 90 o = o
= =1 .
cos 90 0 sin 90 1
All the trigonometric ratios for angle of measures 0° , 30°, 45°, 60° and 90° are provided
in the following table:

θ 0° 30° 45° 60° 90°

1 1 3
sin θ 0 2
1
2 2
3 1 1
cos θ 1 2
0
2 2
1 Not
tan θ 0 1 3
3 defined
Not 1
cot θ 3 1 0
defined 3
2 Not
sec θ 1 2 2
3 defined
Not 2
cosec θ 2 2 1
defined 3
Table - 1

191
Notation. We write (sinθ)2 as sin2θ but not as sin θ 2. Similarly (tan θ)3 is written as tan3θ.

Example 8: Evaluate 2cos2 30° tan260° − sec245° sin260°.

3 3
Solution: cos 30° = , tan 60° = 3 , sec 45° = 2 , sin 60° = .
2 2
∴2cos230° tan260° − sec2 45° sin2 60°
2 2
⎛ 3⎞
= 2 ⎜⎜
2
⎟
⎟ 3
2
( ) ( )
− 2
2 ⎛ 3⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
3 3 9 3
= 2 × × 3 – 2 × = − = 3.
4 4 2 2

sin 60 o
Example 9: Find the acute angle A if tan A = .
1 + cos 60 o
3 1
Solution: sin 60° =, cos 60° =
2 2
3 3
3 1 1
∴ tan A = 2 = 2 = = . But tan 30° = . ∴ A = 30°.
1 3 3 3 3
1+
2 2

Example 10: If 2 sin (A + B) = 3 and 2 cos B = 1 , find A and B.

3
Solution: Since 2 sin (A + B) = 3 , we get sin (A + B) = .
2
3
But sin 60° = . So A + B = 60°. (1)
2
1
Since 2 cos B = 1, we get cos B = .
2
1
But cos 45° = . So B = 45°. (2)
2
Solving (1) and (2), A = 15°.

192
 Exercise 8.1

In problems 1 to 4 find the indicated trigonometric ratios in the given right triangle.
1. 2.

sin B, cos C, tan B sec X, cot Z, cosec Z

Figure 8.14 Figure 8.15

3. 4.

tan M, sec N, cosec N

cos Q , tan R, cot Q

Figure 8.16 Figure 8.17

In problems 5 to 10 find the other trigonometric ratios.

3 12 2
5. cos θ = 6. sin θ = 7. sec θ =
5 13 3
1 2
8. cosec θ = 10 9. cot θ = 10. tan θ =
7 5
35 sec A + tan A 3 cos ecθ
11. If cos A = , find 12. If sin θ = , find
37 sec A − tan A 5 cot θ − cos θ

sin θ
13. If cosec θ = 2, find the value of cot θ + .
1 + cos θ

193
 1 1 − cos 2 θ 3
14. If cot θ = , show that = .
3 2 − sin 2 θ 5
3 sin θ + 2 cos θ
15. If 3 cot θ = 4, find the value of .
2 sec θ + 3 cos ec θ
16. Evaluate
(i) cosec2 45° cot230° + sin2 60° sec2 30° (ii) cos2 30° − sin2 30° − cos 60°
tan 45 o
(iii) 8 sin2 60° cos 60° (iv)
tan 30 o + tan 60 o
17. Verify the following:
(i) sin230° + cos230° = 1 (ii) sec260° − 1 = tan2 60° (iii) 1 + cot2 30° = cosec2 30°
18. If sin (A+B) = 2 sin (A – B) = 1, find A and B.

8.2 Trigonometric Identities

We shall derive three fundamental trigonometric identities. Although we derive these
identities for acute angles, they also hold for general angles. Let θ be an acute angle.
The vertex of θ is taken as
the origin and the initial arm of θ is taken as the positive x-axis. Let P (x, y) be on the
terminal arm of θ (see Figure 8.18). Let PQ be
drawn perpendicular to x – axis.
Then OQ = x, PQ = y. Let OP = r.
Applying Pythagoras identity in the right triangle
OQP, we get x2+ y2 = r2 .
x2 + y2 r2
Dividing both sides by r , 2
= (or)
r2 r2 Figure 8.18
x2 y2
+ =1 .
r2 r2
y x
But sin θ = , cos θ = . ∴ (cos θ)2+ (sin θ)2 = 1.
r r
or cos2θ + sin2θ = 1 (1)

Dividing both sides of (1) by cos2θ, we get

2
cos 2 θ + sin 2 θ 1 cos 2 θ sin 2 θ ⎛ 1 ⎞
= (or) + =⎜ ⎟
cos θ
2
cos 2 θ cos 2 θ cos 2 θ ⎜⎝ cos θ ⎟⎠
2 2
⎛ sin θ ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (or) 1 +(tan θ)2 = (sec θ)2
⎝ cos θ ⎠ ⎝ cos θ ⎠

194
 (or) 1 + tan2θ = sec2 θ (2)

Dividing both sides of (1) by sin2θ, we get

PQ OQ OP
= =
′
P Q ′ OQ ′ OP ′
2
cos 2 θ sin 2 θ ⎛ 1 ⎞
(or) + =⎜ ⎟ = (cosec θ ) 2 (or) cot2θ + 1 = cosec2θ
sin 2 θ sin 2 θ ⎜⎝ sin θ ⎟⎠

(or) 1 + cot2θ = cosec2θ (3)

The three identities (1), (2) and (3) are based on the Pythagoras identity. We deduce some
more identities from them.
Using the fundamental identity (1), we have
(i) sin2θ = (sin2θ + cos2θ)− cos2θ = 1 – cos2θ.
(ii) cos2θ = (cos2θ + sin2θ) – sin2θ = 1 – sin2θ.
Using the fundamental identity (2), we get
(i) tan2θ = (1 + tan2θ) – 1= sec2θ − 1
(ii) sec2θ − tan2θ = (1 + tan2θ) – tan2θ = 1.
Using fundamental identity (3), we get
(i) cot2θ = (1 + cot2θ) – 1 = cosec2θ − 1
(ii) cosec2θ − cot2θ = (1 + cot2θ) – cot2θ = 1.
We list the identities in the following table
sin2 θ + cos2θ ≡ 1
1 + tan2θ ≡ sec2θ
1 + cot2θ ≡ cosec2θ
sin2θ ≡ 1 – cos2θ
cos2θ ≡ 1 – sin2θ
tan2θ ≡ sec2θ − 1
sec2θ − tan2θ ≡ 1
cot2θ ≡ cosec2θ − 1
cosec2θ − cot2θ ≡ 1

We again mention here that an identity is applied in both ways, left to right or right to left.

Example 11: Prove that sin4θ + cos4θ = 1 – 2sin2θ cos2θ .

Solution:
L.H.S. = sin4θ + cos4θ = (sin2θ)2 + (cos2θ)2
= [sin2θ + cos2θ]2 – 2 (sin2θ)(cos2θ) ( a2 + b2 = (a + b)2 – 2ab)
= (1)2 – 2sin2θ cos2θ = 1 – 2sin2θ cos2θ
= R.H.S.

195
 cos θ
Example 12: Prove that = secθ − tan θ.
1 + sin θ
Solution:
cos θ cos θ 1 − sin θ
L.H.S. = = ×
1 + sin θ 1 + sin θ 1 − sin θ
cos θ ( 1 − sin θ) cos θ ( 1 − sin θ)
= =
1 − sin θ2
cos 2 θ
1− sin θ 1 sin θ
= = −
cos θ cos θ cos θ
= sec θ − tan θ = R.H.S.

1 + cos A
Example 13: Prove that = (cos ec A + cot A) 2 .
1 − cos A
Solution :
1 + cos A 1 + cos A
L.H.S = ×
1 − cos A 1 + cos A
(1 + cos A) 2 ⎡1 + cos A ⎤
2 2
(1 + cos A) 2 ⎛ 1 cos A ⎞
= = =⎢ ⎥ =⎜ + ⎟
1 − cos A
2 2
sin A ⎣ sin A ⎦ ⎝ sin A sin A ⎠
= (cosec A + cot A)2 = R.H.S.
Alternately,
2 2
⎛ 1 cos A ⎞ ⎛ 1 + cos A ⎞
R.H.S. = (cosec A + cot A) = ⎜⎜2
+ ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ sin A sin A ⎠ ⎝ sin A ⎠
AC 2 (1+ cos A) 2
= = =2 =
AD 1 1− cos 2 A
(1 + cos A) 2 1 + cos A
= = = L.H.S.
(1 + cos A) (1 − cos A) 1 − cos A

Example 14: Prove that sin4θ − cos4θ = sin2θ − cos2θ.

Solution:
L.H.S. = sin4θ − cos4θ = (sin2θ)2 – (cos2θ)2
= (sin2θ + cos2θ) (sin2 θ − cos2θ ) =(1) (sin2θ − cos2θ)
= sin2θ − cos2θ = R.H.S.
1
Example 15: Prove that sec A – tan A = .
sec A + tan A
Solution :
1 1 sec A − tan A
R.H.S. = = ×
sec A + tan A sec A + tan A sec A − tan A
sec A − tan A sec A − tan A
= = = sec A – tan A = L.H.S.
sec A − tan A
2 2
1

196
Example 16: Prove that (sec θ + cosθ) (secθ − cosθ) = tan2θ + sin2θ.
Solution :
L.H.S. = (sec θ + cosθ) (secθ − cosθ) = sec2θ − cos2θ
= (1 + tan2θ) – cos2θ = tan2θ + (1 – cos2θ)
= tan2θ + sin2θ = R.H.S.

1 1
Example 17: Prove that + = 2cosec2θ.
1 + cos θ 1 − cos θ
Solution :
1 1 1(1 − cos θ ) + 1(1 + cos θ )
L.H.S. = + =
1 + cos θ 1 − cos θ (1 + cosθ ) (1 − cos θ )

1 − cos θ + 1 + cos θ 2
= = = 2cosec2θ = R.H.S.
1 − cos θ
2
sin θ
2

Example 18: Prove that sin2A sin2B + cos2A cos2B + sin2A cos2B + cos2A sin2B = 1.
Solution :
L.H.S. = (sin2A sin2B + sin2A cos2B) + (cos2A cos2B + cos2A sin2B)
= sin2A (sin2B + cos2B) + cos2A (cos2B + sin2B)
= sin2A(1) + cos2A (1) = sin2A + cos2A = 1 = R.H.S

Example 19: If m = tan A + sin A, n = tan A – sin A. Prove that m2 – n2 = 4 mn .

Solution :
L.H.S. = m2 – n2 = (tan A + sin A)2 – (tan A – sin A)2
= tan2 A + sin2 A + 2 tan A sin A – (tan2A + sin2A – 2 tan A sin A)
= 4 tan A sin A
y
R.H.S = 4 mn = r

sin 2 A
= 4 tan A − sin A = 4
2 2
2
− sin 2 A
cos A
sin 2 A − sin 2 A cos 2 A sin 2 A (1 − cos 2 A)
=4 = 4
cos 2 A cos 2 A
= 4 sin 2 A tan 2 A = 4 sin A tan A = L.H.S.

Example 20: Prove that cos6θ + sin6θ = 1 – 3 cos2θ sin2θ

Solution : L.H.S = cos6θ + sin6θ
= (cos2θ)3 + (sin2θ)3 = (cos2θ + sin2θ) (cos4θ − cos2θ sin2θ + sin4θ)
= (1) (cos4θ + sin4θ − cos2θ sin2θ) = [(cos2θ)2 + (sin2θ)2] – cos2θ sin2θ
= [(cos2θ + sin2θ)2 – 2 cos2θ sin2θ] – cos2θ sin2θ
= (1)2 – 3 cos2θ sin2θ = 1 – 3 cos2θ sin2θ = R.H.S.

197
Example 21: Prove that 1 + 2 sin θ cos θ = sin θ + cos θ
Solution: L.H.S = sin 2 θ + cos 2 θ + 2 sin θ cos θ 1 = sin 2 θ + cos 2 θ
= ( sin θ + cos θ) 2
= sinθ + cosθ = R.H.S

Exercise 8.2
1. Prove that sec A − 1 = sin A sec A .
2

2. Prove that (sin A + cos A)2 + (sin A – cos A)2 = 2.

cot 2 θ − cos ec 2 θ
3. Simplify : .
sec 2 θ − tan 2 θ
sec A + tan A 1 + sin A
4. Prove that = .
sec A − tan A 1 − sin A
1 1
5. Prove that + = 2 sec 2 θ .
1 + sin θ 1 − sin θ
6. If x = r sin A sin B, y = r sin A cos B, z = r cos A, find the value of x2 + y2 +z2.
7. Show that tan A + cot A = cosec A sec A.
1 − tan 2 A
8. Prove that = 2 cos 2 A −1 .
1 + tan A
2

1
9. Prove that = cosec θ + cot θ.
cos ec θ − cot θ
10. Prove that (tan A + cot A)2 = sec2 A+ cosec2A.
cos A sin A
11. Prove that + = sin A + cos A .
1 − tan A 1 − cot A
tan A + sec A − 1 1 + sin A
12. Prove that = .
tan A − sec A + 1 cos A
13. Prove that (tan A – tan B)2 + (1 + tan A tan B)2 = sec2A sec2B.
tan θ cot θ
14. Prove that + = sec θ cosec θ +1.
1 − cot θ 1 − tan θ
2
⎛ 1 + sin θ − cos θ ⎞ 1 − cos θ
15. Prove that ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = .
⎝ 1 + sin θ + cos θ ⎠ 1 + cos θ
16. Prove that (sin θ + cosec θ)2 + (cos θ + sec θ)2 = 7 + tan2θ + cot2θ.
cos 3 θ + sin 3 θ cos 3 θ − sin 3 θ
17. Prove that + = 2.
cos θ + sin θ cos θ − sin θ
1 − cos 4 θ + sin 4 θ
18. Prove that = tan 2 θ .
1 − sin θ + cos θ
4 4

198
8.3 Trigonometric Ratios For Complementary Angles
We have already learnt about
complementary angles in a right triangle. In
the right triangle OQP (see figure 8.19), right
angled at Q, the angles ∠QOP and ∠OPQ are
called complementary angles. Since the sum
of their measures is 90°. Let ∠QOP = θ.
Then ∠OPQ = 90° − θ. Using the definition of
trigonometric ratios, for the angle θ, we get
PQ OQ PQ
sin θ = , cosθ = , tan θ = , Figure 8.19
OP OP OQ
……….. (1)
OP OP OQ
cos ecθ = , secθ = , cot θ =
PQ OQ PQ
Similarly, for the angle 90°− θ, we get
3 PQ OQ
sin (90° - θ) = cos (90 o −θ ) = , tan(90 o −θ ) = ,
4 OP PQ ……….. (2)
OP OP PQ
cos ec (90 o −θ ) = , sec (90 o −θ ) = , cot (90 o −θ ) =
OQ PQ OQ
Comparing (1) and (2), we get
PQ
= sin θ = cos (90 o − θ )
OP
OQ
= cos θ = sin (90° − θ)
OP
PQ
= tan θ = cot (90°− θ)
OQ
OP
= cosec θ = sec (90° − θ)
PQ
OP
= sec θ = cosec (90° − θ)
OQ
OQ
= cot θ = tan (90° − θ).
PQ

Hence, we obtain the following table:

sin (90° − θ) = cosθ

cos (90° − θ) = sin θ
tan (90° − θ) = cot θ
cot (90° − θ) = tan θ
sec (90° − θ) = cosec θ
cosec (90° − θ) = sec θ

199
 tan 65 o
Example 22: Evaluate .
cot 25 o
Solution : tan 65° = tan(90° − 25°) = cot 25°
tan 65 o cot 25 o
∴ = = 1.
cot 25 o cot 25 o
Example 23: Evaluate sin 20° tan 60° sec 70°
1
Solution : sec 70° = sec(90°−20°) = cosec 20°=
sin 20 o
∴sin 20° tan 60° sec 70° = sin 20° tan 60° cosec 20°
1
=sin 20° × 3 × = 3.
sin 20 o

Example 24: Find x° if cosec x° = sec 25°.

Solution: Since cosec x° =sec(90°− x°),we have sec(90°− x°)= sec 25°. ∴ 90°− x°=25°.
∴ x° = 90°− 25°= 65°.

Note. The above value of x is obtained not by canceling sec on both sides but by using the
property of uniqueness of trigonometric ratios for each acute angle.

Exercise 8.3
o
sin 36 tan 35o
1. Evaluate (i) (ii) (iii) sin θ sec (90° − θ)
cos 54 o cot 55o
tan 33o 1 sin 42 o 3 sec 51o
2. Simplify: (i) + + .
cot 57 o 2 cos 48 o 2 cos ec 39 o
sin 23o sec 47 o
(ii) 3 + 4 .
cos 67 o cos ec 43 o
3. Find x if
(i) sin 60° = cos x° (ii) cosec x° cos54° = 1 (iii) sec x° = cosec 25°
(iv) tan x° tan 35° = 1

Answers

Exercise 8.1

5 5 5 5 1 5 8 8 8
1. , , 2. , , 3. , , 4. 1, 2, 2
13 13 12 2 2 2 17 15 15
4 4 5 5 3
5. sin θ = , tan θ = , cos ec θ = ,sec θ = , cot θ = .
5 3 4 3 4

200
 5 12 13 13 5
6. cos θ = , tan θ = ,cos ec θ = , sec θ = , cot θ = .
13 5 12 5 12
1 3 1
7. sin θ = ,cos θ = , tan θ = , cos ec θ = 2, cot θ = 3 .
2 2 3
1 3 1 10
8. sin θ = , cos θ = , tan θ = ,sec θ = ,cot θ = 3 .
10 10 3 3
7 1 5 2
9. sin θ = ,cos θ = , tan θ = 7 , cos ec θ = , sec θ = 5 2 .
5 2 5 2 7
2 5 29 29 5
10. sin θ = , cos θ = , cos ec θ = ,sec θ = ,cot θ = .
29 29 2 5 2
49 25 34
11. 12. 13. 2 15.
25 8 75
3
16. (i) 7 (ii) 0 (iii) 3 (iv)
4
18. A = 60°, B = 30°

Exercise 8.2

3. −1 6. r2

Exercise 8.3

1. (i) 1 (ii) 1 (iii) 1

2. (i) 3 (ii) 7
3. (i) 30° (ii) 36° (iii) 65° (iv) 55°

201
 9. PRACTICAL GEOMETRY
In Theoretical geometry or pure geometry, we give proofs for theorems on the
properties of geometrical figures by applying axioms and reasoning. Here, we do not
construct exactly the geometrical figures but draw rough sketches of the figures to give
support to our logical reasoning. No geometrical instrument is needed in studying theoretical
geometry. For example in theoretical geometry, when we say that the line segment PQ is the
perpendicular bisector of the line segment AB , we do not actually construct PQ but roughly
draw PQ perpendicular to AB . However, for constructing such geometrical figures, much
ingenuity and skill are needed. To draw geometrical figures, several geometrical instruments
are available. Drawing geometrical figures using geometrical instruments is the subject matter
of practical geometry. However, a challenge is always made to use only two geometrical
instruments namely an ungraduated ruler (also called a straight edge) and a pair of compasses
in construction problems. Great many facts and theorems (for example, the Pythagoras
theorem) have been formulated by considering construction problems.

In our earlier classes, We have learnt the following:

(i) Construction of perpendicular bisector of a line segment.

(ii) Construction of the bisector of an angle.
(iii) Construction of an equilateral triangle.
(iv) Division of a line segment in a given ratio.
(v) Construction of a right triangle.
(vi) Construction of a parallelogram.
(vii) Construction of a Rhombus.
(viii) Construction of concentric circles.
(ix) Construction of a trapezium.
(x) Construction of a triangle when the side lengths are given.
In the present chapter, we shall know the following methods:

(i) To locate the centroid, orthocentre, circumcentre and incentre of a triangle.

(ii) To construct the arithmetic and geometrical means.
(iii) To construct the mean proportional of two numbers.

202
9.1 Concurrency in a Triangle
In theoretical geometry, we have learnt the following:
(i) the medians of a triangle are concurrent and the point of concurrence called the
centroid of the triangle, divides each median in the ratio 2 : 1.
(ii) the perpendicular bisectors of the sides of a triangle are concurrent and the point of
concurrence is called the circumcentre of the triangle .
(iii) the angular bisectors or the internal bisectors of the angles of a triangle are concurrent
and the point of concurrence is called the incentre of the triangle.
(iv) the altitudes of a triangle are concurrent, and the point of concurrence is called the
orthocentre of the triangle

Now we proceed to know how to locate these points of concurrency in practice.

9.1.1 Centroid

The line segment joining a vertex of a triangle and the midpoint of the side opposite to
the vertex is called a median. As there are three vertices, there are three medians of a triangle.
The medians of a triangle are concurrent. The point of concurrency is called the centroid of
the triangle and is usually denoted by the letter G. The point G divides each median in the
ratio 2 : 1. G is more near to the side than to the vertex. Based upon the properties of the
centroid G, we give below the procedure to locate the point G.

Step 1: Draw the given triangle ABC.

Step 2: Locate the mid point D of the side BC and draw the median AD.
Step 3: Locate the mid point E of the side CA and draw the median BE.
Step 4: AD & BE meet at G. G is the centroid of ∆ABC.

Note: In the above procedure, we did not find the third median to locate G since two medians
are sufficient to locate the point of intersection, namely the centroid. If we draw the third
median, we observe that it passes through G.

In any construction or drawing problem, we first know what are the given
measurements and what is required. Then we draw a rough sketch where the steps for the
construction or drawing are indicated.

Example 1: Draw ∆ABC if AB = 7 cm, AC = 7.5 cm and BC = 5.5 cm and find its centroid G.
Write down the ratio in which G divides AD.
Solution: We draw the rough figure of ∆ABC and mark the given measurements (see Figure
9.1). Now we proceed to locate the centroid. The steps are given below:

203
Step 1: Draw the line segment BC with BC = 5.5 cm. With
B as centre, cut an arc with radius 7 cm. Similarly with C as
centre, cut an arc of radius 7.5 cm. These two arcs intersect
at A. Now draw AB and AC . The triangle ABC is drawn.
Step 2: We locate the mid point D of BC and the mid
point E of AC by the perpendicular bisector method.
Step 3: Draw AD and BE. They meet at the point G. G is
Figure 9.1
the centroid of ∆ABC.
Step 4: Locate the mid point F of AB. Draw CF . We
observe that it passes through G.
Step 5: Measure the length AG and GD. We find AG = 4.5 cm, GD = 2.25cm. We observe
AG 4 .5 2
that = = . That is G divides AD in the ratio 2:1.
GD 2.25 1

Figure 9.2

9.1.2 Circumcentre

The perpendicular bisectors of the sides of a triangle are concurrent at a point. This
point is called the circumcentre of the triangle and is usually denoted by the letter S. It is at
an equal distance R from the vertices of the triangle. The circle drawn with S as the centre and
the equidistance R as radius passes through the vertices of the triangle. This circle is called the
circumcircle of the triangle and R is called its circumradius.

To locate the circumcentre and the circumcircle, we adopt the following procedure:
Step 1: Draw the triangle ABC.
Step 2: Draw the perpendicular bisectors of BC and AC.
Step 3: Mark the point of intersection of the perpendicular bisectors of BC and AC as S.
This point S is the circumcentre of ∆ABC.

204
Step 4: Draw the perpendicular bisector of AB. Observe that this bisector passes through S.
Measure the lengths SA, SB and SC and observe that SA = SB = SC. Draw the circumcircle.

Example 2: Draw the triangle ∆ABC if AB = 7cm, m ∠B = 45º, BC = 6cm. Construct the
circumcircle.
Solution: Draw the triangle ABC with the given
measurements (SAS construction). Then, the
following steps are followed:
Step 1: Draw the perpendicular bisectors of BC
and AB.
Step 2: Mark the meeting point S of the
perpendicular bisectors. S is the circumcentre.
Step 3: Measure the lengths SA, SB and SC. We
find SA = SB = SC = 3.6 cm
Step 4: Draw a circle with S as the centre and SA as Figure 9.3
the radius. This circle passes through A, B and C
and it is the required circumcircle.

Figure 9.4
Note: When the circumcircle of a triangle is drawn, we say that the triangle is
circumscribed.

9.1.3 Incentre
The internal bisectors of angles of
a triangle are concurrent at a point. This
point is called the incentre of the triangle
and is denoted by the letter I. An important
property of the incentre is that the
perpendicular segments IL , IM , IN
from I to the sides are equal in length. The
equal distance is called the inradius of the Figure 9.5
circle and it is denoted by r.
The circle drawn with I as centre and r as radius touches all the sides of the triangle
internally. The circle is said to be inscribed in the triangle and it is called the incircle of the
triangle (see Figure 9.5)

205
To locate the incentre, to measure the inradius and to draw the incircle of a triangle, the steps
are given below:

Step 1: Draw the triangle ∆ABC.

Step 2: Draw the internal bisectors of the angles ∠B and ∠C.
Step 3: The point of intersection of the internal bisectors is located as I. The point I is the
required incentre.
Step 4: Verify that the internal bisector of ∠A also passes through I.
Step 5: Draw the perpendicular line segment from I to the side BC. Measure its length. This
gives the inradius r.
Step 6: Draw the circle with I as centre and r as radius. We get the incircle.

Example 3: Draw the incircle of ∆PQR if PQ = 8 cm, m∠P = 50º, m∠Q = 60º. Also
measure the inradius and draw the incircle.
Solution:
In the rough figure of ∆PQR, we have marked the given measurements.

Step 1: Draw the ∆PQR using ASA method.

Step 2: Draw the angle bisector of ∠P.
Step 3: Draw the angle bisector of ∠Q.
Step 4: Mark the point of intersection of the bisectors as
I. The point I is the incentre
Step 5: Draw the perpendicular segment ID to the side
PQ. Figure 9.6
Step 6: Measure the length of ID . This length is the
inradius of the triangle. We find ID = 2 cm.
Step 7: With I as centre and ID as radius, draw a circle. This is the incircle of the triangle.

Figure 9.7

9.1.4 Orthocentre

We recall that an altitude of a triangle is a perpendicular line segment drawn from a

206
vertex of the triangle to the side of the triangle
opposite to the vertex. We observe that there are
three altitudes in a triangle. We have already
learnt that the altitudes of a triangle are concurrent
at a point. The point of concurrence is called the
orthocentre of the triangle and it is denoted by
the letter H. In figure 9.5, ABC is a triangle. AL,
BM and CN are altitudes. They meet at the point Figure 9.8
H, the orthocentre of ∆ABC.
The steps for locating the orthocentre H are given below:
Step 1: Draw the triangle ABC with the given measurements.
Step 2: Draw the altitudes AL, and BM .
Step 3: Mark the meeting point of AL and BM as H. H is the orthocentre of the triangle
ABC.

Example 4: Locate the orthocentre of ∆XYZ if XY = 9cm, YZ = 8 cm and ZX = 7cm.

Solution: Draw a rough figure of ∆XYZ and mark the given measurements.
Step 1: Draw the triangle XYZ using SSS Rough Figure
procedure.
Step 2: Draw the altitudes XL, YM .
Step 4: Mark the point of intersection of XL and
YM as H. H is the orthocentre of ∆XYZ.
Step 5: Join ZH and produce it to meet XY at N.
We observe that ZN is the altitude through Z.
Figure 9.9

Figure 9.10
If we locate the centroid, circumcentre, incentre and orthocentre of various types of triangles,
we observe that their positions are as given below:

207
 Table

Point of Location of the point of

Type of triangle
concurrence concurrence
Centroid Any type of triangle Inside the triangle
Acute angled triangle Inside the triangle
Circumcentre Right triangle Mid point of the hypotenuse
Obtuse angled triangle Outside the triangle
Incentre Any type of triangle Inside the triangle
Acute angled triangle Inside the triangle
Orthocentre Right triangle Vertex of the right angle
Obtuse angled triangle Outside the triangle

Exercise 9.1

In problems 1 to 4, locate the centroid G of the given triangle.

1. ∆ABC, where BC = 6cm, m∠B = 40º, m∠C = 60º.

2. ∆ABC, where all sides are of 6.5 cm long.
3. ∆PQR, where m∠R = 90º, PQ = 7 cm, PR = 6 cm.
4. ∆LMN, where LM = 6cm, m∠L = 95º, MN = 8cm.

In problems 5 to 8, draw the circumcircle of the given triangle. Find also the circumradius.

5. ∆ABC, where AB = 8 cm, BC = 5cm, AC = 7 cm.

6. ∆PQR, where PQ = 5 cm, PR = 4.5 cm, m∠P = 100º.
7. ∆XYZ, where XY = 7 cm, m∠X = 70º, m∠Y = 60º.
8. ∆PQR, where each side is of length 5.5 cm.

In problems 9 to 12, draw the incircle and measure its inradius.

9. ∆ABC, where AB = 9cm, BC = 7cm, CA = 5cm.

10. ∆XYZ, where XY = YZ = ZX = 8cm.
11. ∆PQR, where PQ = 10cm, m∠P = 90º, m∠Q = 60º.
12. ∆ABC, where AB = 5.4 cm, m∠A = 50º, AC = 5cm.

In problems 13 to 16, locate the orthocentre of the triangle.

13. ∆ABC, where BC = 5.6cm, m∠B = 55º, m∠C = 65º.

14. ∆PQR, where m∠P = 90º, m∠Q = 30º, PQ = 4.5 cm.
15. ∆LMN, where, LM = 7cm, m∠M = 130º, MN = 6 cm.
16. ∆XYZ, where XY = 7cm, YZ = 5 cm, ZX = 6 cm.

208
9.2 Geometrical Interpretation of Averages
We shall now study geometrical construction methods to find the arithmetic mean and
geometric mean between two positive numbers.

9.2.1. Arithmetic mean

a+b
The Arithmetic mean between two numbers a and b is . To find the number
2
a+b
geometrically, we proceed as follows:
2
Step 1: Take a line segment PQ whose length is a + b.
Step 2: Draw the perpendicular bisector of PQ .
Step 3: The meeting point of PQ and its perpendicular bisector is marked and its distance
a+b
from P or Q is measured. This distance gives . The reason is that if a line segment XY
2
l
is of length l, then the midpoint of XY is at a distance from X or Y.
2

Example 5: Find the arithmetic mean between 6 and 9.

Solution: The procedure is given below:
Step 1: Draw a line segment sufficiently long. Cut off a line segment AB on it such that AB
is of length 6 cm.
Step 2: Cut off a line segment BC on AX to the right of B such that BC is of length 9 cm.
Step 3: Draw the perpendicular bisector AC . Mark the meeting point of this bisector with
AC . Name the meeting point as M.
Step 4: Measure the distance of M from A or C. We observe that AM is of length 7.5 cm.
This gives the arithmetic mean between 6 and 9.

Figure 9.11
9.2.2 The geometric mean or mean proportional between two numbers a and b
Let a and b be two positive numbers. Then the geometric mean of a and b is ab. If
a x
x = ab, then x2 = ab or x × x = ab or = or a : x = x : b. So x is also called the mean
x b
proportional between a and b. (If a number x is such that a : x = x : b, then x is called the
mean proportional between a and b). To find ab through geometrical constructions, we
proceed as follows:

209
Step 1: Draw a line segment sufficiently long.
Step 2: Along it, cut off the line segments
AB and BC of lengths a and b respectively.
Step 3: Draw a circle with AC as diameter.
Step 4: Draw a chord DE through B
perpendicular to AC .
Step 5: Measure the length of BD or BE.
This length gives the mean proportion
between a and b. Let us now understand how
the length of BD gives the mean proportional
between the lengths of AB and BC.
Figure 9.12
AC is a diameter and D is a point on the circle.
So ∠ADC = 90º. BD is perpendicular to AC .∠B and the side BD are common to the right
triangle ADB and DCB. So these two triangles are similar. Hence the sides are proportional.
AB BD
Then = or BD2 = AB × BC or
BD BC
x2 = ab or x = ab.

Example 6: Find the geometric mean between two segments of lengths 9 cm and 3 cm.
Solution:
Step 1: Draw a line segment AX sufficiently long.
Step 2: Cut off from it line segments AB and BC of lengths 9 cm and 3 cm respectively.
Step 3: Draw the perpendicular bisector of AC and make the meeting point of AC and the
bisector as O.
Step 4: With O as centre and OA as radius, draw a circle.
Step 5: Draw the perpendicular chord DE through B.
Step 6: BD or BE represents the geometric mean between AB and BC . Measure the length
of BD or BE . This length is the geometric mean between 9 and 3. We measure BD and find
BD = 5.2 cm.

Figure 9.13

210
Example 7: Find the mean proportional between 4 and 9.
Solution: We know that the mean proportional between 4 and 9 is 4 × 9 = 6. We find this
value 6 through geometrical construction.
Step 1: First draw a line segment AX .
Step 2: On AX cut off line segment AB of length 4 cm.
Step 3: Starting with B, cut off BC of length 9 cm. to the right of B.
Step 4: Mark the mid point of AC as O.
Step 5: Draw a circle with O as centre and OA as radius.
Step 6: Draw the chord DE through B, perpendicular to AC .
Step 7: BD represents the mean proportional between AB and BC.
Step 8: Measure the length of BD . We find BD = 6 cm. The number 6 is the mean
proportional between the numbers 4 and 9.

Figure 9.14

Example 8: Find geometrically the value of 12.

Solution: We observe that
12 = 4 × 3. So 12 can be
considered as the mean proportional
between 4 and 3. Applying the geometrical
construction for getting the mean
proportional between 4 and 3, we get

Step 1: Cut off line segments AB and

BC on a line AX Such that AB = 4 and
BC = 3.
Step 2: Draw the circle with AC as one
of its diameter.
Step 3: Draw the chord DE through B Figure 9.15
perpendicular to AC .
Step 4: Measure the length of BD . We
find that it is 3.4 cm.

211
 Exercise 9.2

In problems 1 to 4, find the arithmetic mean between the given numbers.

1. 6 and 4 2. 10 and 5 3. 9 and 3 4. 2.5 and 6.5

In problems 5 to 8, find the geometric mean between the given numbers.

5. 3.2 and 1.8 6. 2.2 and 5 7. 4 and 1.6 8. 6 and 4

In problems 9 to 12, find the square root of the given number.

9. 15 10. 18 11. 21 12. 24

Answers
Exercise 9.1

5. 4 cm 6. 3.7 cm 7. 4.7 cm 8. 3.2 cm

9. 1.65 cm 10. 2.3 cm 11. 3.7 cm 12. 1.5 cm

Exercise 9.2

1. 5 2. 7.5 3. 6 4. 4.5

5. 2.4 6. 3.3 7. 2.5 8. 4.9

9. 3.9 10. 4.2 11. 4.6 12. 4.9

212
 10. HANDLING DATA
We come across innumerable numerical figures, called data, in our day-to-day life. For
example, when we read a newspaper, we find information about the storage level of water in a
dam or the quantity of inflow of water into the dam. These numerical facts are recorded at
regular time intervals in order to know about their future trend. The data collected may be
huge in size and so a scientific method is needed to handle them in order to derive purposeful
information. Statistics is that branch of applied mathematics which deals with the scientific
analysis of data. The subject had been started in the early days as an arithmetic to assist a
ruler(a political state) who needed to know the wealth of his subjects to levy new taxes. Now,
it has developed to a great extent and plays a vital role in almost all organizations in their
decision making and planning. The word ‘Statistics’ is derived from the Latin word ‘Status’
which means ‘political state’. We shall review what we have already learnt in our earlier
classes about collection of data and their presentation.

Data are of two kinds, primary data and secondary data. The data collected by the
investigator himself is known as a primary data. Sometimes an investigator utilizes the
primary data of another investigator collected for a different purpose. Such data are called
secondary data. The data collected by an investigator is called ungrouped data or raw data.
This raw data can be condensed in a proper way by grouping and presenting it in the form of a
table, called a frequency table. Data presented in the form of a frequency table is said to form
a grouped data. For example, consider the raw data of marks of 30 students in mathematics
given below.
31 39 37 46 39 49
42 31 31 40 43 46
48 42 30 43 42 42
46 48 40 56 56 50
37 50 45 37 45 48
Let us arrange the given marks in the ascending order. Then, we get
30, 31, 31, 31, 37, 37, 37, 39, 39, 40, 40, 42, 42, 42, 42, 43, 43, 45, 45, 46, 46, 46, 48, 48, 48,
49, 50, 50, 56, 56
In the above list, the mark 30 appears once, 31 thrice, 37 thrice and so on. Counting the data
in this way we get a following table called a frequency table for ungrouped data. Let x
denote the mark and f denote the number of students or frequency of mark x.
x 30 31 37 39 40 42 43 45 46 48 49 50 56
f 1 3 3 2 2 4 2 2 3 3 1 2 2

213
Here, x is called the variable or variate of measurement (here mark) and f, the frequency or
the number. of times of the occurrence of a particular value of the variable.
Here, the largest value = 56 and the smallest value = 30. So,
The range = The largest value − The smallest value = 56 − 30 = 26.
We shall form intervals called class intervals to include the given marks. The first class
interval is 30-34. This interval includes the marks 30, 31, 32 ,33 and 34. The next class
interval is 35-39. Proceeding in this way the last class interval is 55-59 which includes the
marks 55, 56, 57, 58 and 59. The class intervals are inclusive since the lower and upper limits
of each interval are included in that interval. Now, we shall form the frequency table.

Class Interval Tally bars Frequency

30-34 |||| 4
35-39 |||| 5
40-44 |||| ||| 8
45-49 |||| |||| 9
50-54 || 2
55-59 || 2
Total 30

Read the observation in the data one by one. For each observation, locate the class
interval in which the observation lies and to account this, put a vertical bar like ‘|’ (called tally
bar) in the box against the class interval. For every 5th observation that occurs in a class
interval, put a cross tally bar like ‘ \ ’ across the four tally bars already there. This process is
carried out till all observations are exhausted. In the above table, the number of tally bars
marked for a particular class is called the frequency of the class. The table is called a
frequency table for grouped data. In this table, the intervals do not cover marks such as
34.5, 39.5. To cover such situations, we can alter the intervals as 29.5-34.5, 34.5-39.5, …,
54.5-59.5 with the convention that each interval does not include its upper limit. The modified
frequency table is presented below.

Class Interval Tally bars Frequency

29.5-34.5 |||| 4
34.5-39.5 |||| 5
39.5-44.5 |||| ||| 8
44.5-49.5 |||| |||| 9
49.5-54.5 || 2
54.5-59.5 || 2
Total 30

214
Here, we say that the frequency table represents continuous variation of the variate x. In this
representation, the difference between the upper limit and the lower limit of a class interval is
called the size of the class interval and the average of the upper limit and the lower limit is
called the class mark of that interval. Here, for the class interval 34.5-39.5, the size is 5 and
the class mark is 37, the mid value of the interval. From the above table we observe that the
number of students who have obtained marks below 34.5 is 4, the number of students who
have obtained marks below 39.5 is 4 + 5 = 9, the number of students who have obtained
marks below 44.5 is 4 + 5 + 8 = 17, the number of students who have obtained marks below
49.5 is 4 + 5 + 8 + 9 = 26, the number of students who have obtained marks below 54.5 is
4 + 5 + 8 + 9 + 2 = 28 and the number of students who have obtained marks below 59.5 is
4 + 5 + 8 + 9 + 2 + 2 = 30. These frequencies are called cumulative frequencies (c.f)
corresponding to the frequency table. The table of c.f’s is given below.

Class Interval Mid-value x f c.f

29.5-34.5 32 4 4
34.5-39.5 37 5 9
39.5-44.5 42 8 17
44.5-49.5 47 9 26
49.5-54.5 52 2 28
54.5-59.5 57 2 30
Total 30

10.1 Measures of Central Tendency

Having presented the raw data in the form of a frequency table, we are able to get a
satisfactory picture of the data. To get more information about the tendency of the data to
deviate about a particular value, there are certain measures which characterize the entire data.
These measures are called the Measures of Central Tendency. They are also called the
Measures of Location. Some such measures are
1. Arithmetic mean
2. Median
3. Mode.

10.1.1 Arithmetic mean

Consider the observations 11, 22, 7, 33, 27. If we subtract 20 from each of the
observations, we get −9, 2, −13, 13, 7. Adding all these differences, we get 0. This means
that the number 20 is centrally located to the given 5 observations. It is the mean or average or
arithmetic mean of the observations. In general, the arithmetic mean (A.M) or simply the
mean or average of n observations x1, x2, …, xn is defined to be the number x such that the
sum of the deviations of the observations from x is 0. That is, the arithmetic mean x of n
observations x1, x2, …, xn is given by the equation
(x1 − x ) +(x2 − x ) + ... +(xn − x ) = 0 or ( x1 + x 2 + ... + x n ) − n × x = 0.

215
Hence
x 1 + x 2 + ... + x n
x= .
n
In mathematics, the symbol ∑, called sigma notation is used to represent summation. With
n

this symbol, the sum x1 + x 2 + ... + x n is denoted as ∑x i =1

i or simply as ∑x i
. Then, we have

x=
∑x i
.
n
If the observations are represented in the form of a frequency table, the mean x is given by
f x + f 2 x 2 + ... + f n x n
x= 1 1 ,
f1 + f 2 + .... + f n
where x1, x2, …, xn are the individual values or the mid-values of the class intervals whose
frequencies are f1, f2,…,fn. In this case, with sigma notation, we have

x =
∑ f i xi , where N = f + f + .... + f .
1 2 n
N
If the observed values x1, x2, …, xn are numerically large, the mean can be calculated by a
short-cut method. Let A be a suitably chosen number. We form the deviations
x1− A, x2 − A, …, xn − A.
If these deviations have a common factor c, then form the ratios
x1 − A x 2 − A x −A
, ,..., n .
c c c
Let them be d1, d2, …,dn.. Then
x −A x −A x −A
∑ f i d i = f1 × d1 + f2 × d2 + …..+ fn × dn = f1 × 1 c + f 2 × 2 c + ... + f n × n c .
= [( f 1 x1 − f 1 A) + ( f 2 x 2 − f 2 A) + ... + ( f n x n − f n A)]
1
c
= [( f 1 x1 + f 2 x 2 + ... + f n x n ) − A( f 1 + f 2 + ... + f n )] = [∑ f i xi − A × N ].
1 1
c c
∴ ∑ f i xi − A × N = c × ∑ f i d i
∑fx ∑fd
or ∑fx i i
= A × N + c ∑ f i d i or x =
N
i i
= A + c×
N
i i
.

Example 1: Calculate the mean of the data 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19.

Solution : x =
∑ xi = 9 + 11 + 13 + 15 + 17 + 19 = 14.
N 6

Example 2: Compute the A.M. of the following data:

x 10 11 13 15 16 19
f 4 5 8 6 4 3

216
Solution:
Direct Method: Short-cut Method:
Take A = 14, c = 1, d = x − A
x f f×x
10 4 40 x f d f×d
11 5 55 10 4 −4 −16
13 8 104 11 5 −3 −15
15 6 90 13 8 −1 − 8
15 6 1 6
16 4 64
16 4 2 8
19 3 57
19 3 5 15
Total N = 30 ∑ fx = 410 Total N=30 ∑fd =29−39 = −10

x=
∑fx i i
=
410
= 13.67. ∑ fd =14 + 1 − 10
∴
N 30 x = A+ c × ×
N 30
≈14 − 0.33 = 13.67.

Example 3: Calculate the A.M. for the following data:

80
Marks 85 90 95 100
5
No. of students6 6 2 1
x− A
Solution: Take A = 90 , c = 5 and d = .
c
X f d f×d
80 5 −2 −10
85 6 −1 −6
90 6 0 0
95 2 1 2
100 1 2 2
N = 20 ∑ fd = −12

∴ A.M. = x = A+ c ×
∑ fd
N
− 12
= 90 + 5 × = 90 − 3 = 87.
20

Example 4: Calculate A .M for the following data:

Class Interval 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60

Marks 12 18 27 20 17 6

217
Solution:
Direct Method:
Class Mid-value x Frequency f f×x
0-10 5 12 60
10-20 15 18 270
20-30 25 27 675
30-40 35 20 700
40-50 45 17 765
50-60 55 6 330
N = 100 ∑ fx = 2800

From the table, we get N = the total frequency = 100, ∑ fx = 2800.

∴ x=
∑ fx =
2800
= 28.
N 100
Short-cut Method:
x− A
Let A = 30, c = 5 and d = .
c

Class Mid-value x d Frequency f f×d

0-10 5 −5 12 −60
10-20 15 −3 18 −54
20-30 25 −1 27 −27
30-40 35 1 20 20
40-50 45 3 17 51
50-60 55 5 6 30
N = 100 ∑ fd = 101−141= −40

∴ A.M. = x = A+ c ×
∑ fd
N
− 40
= 30 + 5 × = 30 − 2 = 28.
100

Exercise 10.1.1

1. Calculate the mean of 7, 12, 18, 14, 19, 20.

2. If in a class of 15 students, 4 students have scored 66 marks, 5 students have scored 67
marks and 6 students have scored 68 marks, then compute the mean of the class.
3. Calculate the Arithmetic mean of the following data:

218
 X 5 10 15 20 25 30
f 4 5 7 4 3 2

4. Obtain the A.M. of the following:

Marks 65 70 75 80 85 90 100
No. of students 11 6 3 6 4 10 4

5. Find the A. M. of the following data:

Variable 15 25 35 45 55 65 75 85
Frequency 12 20 15 14 16 11 7 8

6. Find the Arithmetic mean from the following table:

Class
10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60
interval
Frequency 8 14 7 10 11

10.1.2 Median

When the given raw data are arranged in ascending or descending order, we can find a
value which is centrally located in the arranged order. This central value or the middle most
value is called the median of the data.
For example, consider the data 14, 28, 20, 29, 18, 25, 26, 17, 36. Arranging them in
the ascending order, we get 14,17,18,20,25,26,28,29,36. We observe that 25 is centrally
located in the series. Hence, it is the median of the data. We note that there are odd number of
observations and so we are able to locate the median as an observed value in the series.
Consider the data 85, 79, 57, 59, 66, 26, 40, 33, 48, 53. Arranging them in the
ascending order, we get 26, 33, 40, 48, 53, 57, 59, 66, 79, 85. Since there are even number of
observations, we get 53 and 57 centrally located in the series. Hence, we take their average,
53 + 57 110
namely = = 55 as the middle most value for the series. This is the median of the
2 2
given data. Thus, to get the median for a raw data, we proceed as follows:

First we arrange the entire data in the ascending order. Let N be the number of
⎛ N + 1 ⎞ th
observations. If N is an odd integer, then there is only one middle term and it is the ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
term of the given set of observations. This is the median. If N is an even integer, there are two

219
 N ⎛N ⎞
middle terms. They are the th
term and ⎜ + 1⎟ th
term. Hence the median is the average of
2 ⎝2 ⎠
these two terms.

When the data are arranged in the form of a frequency table, we proceed to find the
median as follows:
N
First, form the cumulative frequency column and then find the value of where N is
2
the total frequency. Then we locate the class interval or the value of the variate in the table for
N N
which the cumulative frequency is either equal to or just greater than . This is the
2 2
median class of this distribution. The value of the variable in the table corresponding to the
median class is the median of the given data.

Example 5: Find the median of 23, 25, 29, 30, 39.

Solution: The given values are already in the ascending order. No. of observations N = 5.
⎛ N + 1 ⎞ th ⎛ 5 + 1 ⎞ th
This is an odd number. So the median = ⎜ ⎟ term = ⎜ ⎟ term
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
= 3 rd term =29.
∴ Median = 29.
Example 6: Find the median of 3, 4, 10, 12, 27, 32, 41, 49, 50, 55, 60, 63, 71, 75, 80.
Solution: The given values are already in the ascending order.
N = No. of observations = 15, odd number.
⎛ N + 1 ⎞ th ⎛ 15 + 1 ⎞ th
∴ Median = ⎜ ⎟ term = ⎜
th
⎟ term = 8 term = 49.
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠

Example 7: Find the median of 29, 23, 25, 29, 30, 25, 28.
Solution: Arranging the observations in the ascending order, we get
23, 25, 25, 28, 29, 29, 30.
N = Number of observations = 7, odd integer.
⎛ N + 1 ⎞ th ⎛ 7 + 1 ⎞ th
∴ Median = ⎜ ⎟ term = ⎜
th
⎟ term = 4 term = 28.
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠

Example 8: Find the median of 26, 25, 29, 23, 25, 29, 30, 25, 28, 30.
Solution: Arranging the observations in the ascending order, we get
23, 25, 25, 25, 26, 28, 29, 29, 30, 30.
N = No. of observations = 10, an even integer.
N th ⎛N ⎞
∴ Median = average of and ⎜ + 1⎟ th terms = average of 5th and 6th terms
2 ⎝2 ⎠
26 + 28
= average of 26 and 28 = = 27.
2

220
Example 9: Calculate the median of the following table:

Variable ( x) 5 10 15 20 25 30
Frequency( f ) 3 6 10 8 2 3

Solution:

Cumulative
x f
frequency
5 3 3
10 6 9
15 10 19
20 8 27
25 2 29
30 3 32

N
Total frequency = N = ∑f = 32 and so = 16.
2
⎛N⎞
The median is the ⎜ ⎟ th value = 16th value. But the 16th value occurs in the class whose
⎝2⎠
cumulative frequency is 19. The corresponding value of the variate is 15.
Hence, the median = 15.

Exercise 10.1.2

1. Find the median of the following set of variables:

(i) 66, 63, 55, 60, 46, 10 (ii) 35, 39, 36, 34, 28, 27, 45, 41
(iii) 60, 61, 60, 58, 57, 59, 70 (iv) 41, 45, 36, 37, 43, 45, 41, 36

2. Find the median for the marks of 40 students

Marks 24 20 35 52 50 48
No. of students 4 7 3 9 5 12

3. Find the median for the following data

x 1 2 3 4 5 6
f 4 6 5 3 2 5

4. The wages of 43 employees are given. Find the median.

Wage 25 35 45 55 65
No. of Employees 3 5 20 10 5

221
10.1.3 Mode

Mode is also a measure of central tendency.

(i) In a set of individual observations, mode is defined as the value which occurs most
often.
(ii) If the data are arranged in the form of a frequency table, the class corresponding to the
maximum frequency is called the modal class. The value of the variate of the modal
class is the mode.

Example 10: Find the mode of 7, 4, 5, 1, 7, 3, 4, 6,7.

Solution: Arranging the data in the ascending order, we get
1, 3, 4, 4, 5, 6, 7, 7, 7.
In the above data 7 occurs maximum number of times. Hence mode = 7.
Example 11: Find the mode of 19, 20, 21, 24, 27, 30.
Solution: The data are already in the ascending order. Each value occurs exactly one time in
the series. Hence there is no mode for this data.

Example 12: Find the mode for 12, 15, 11, 12, 19, 15, 24, 27, 20, 12, 19, 15.
Solution: Arranging the data in the ascending order, we get
11, 12, 12, 12, 15, 15, 15, 19, 19, 20, 24, 27.
Here 12 occurs 3 times and 15 also occurs 3 times.
∴ both 12 and 15 are the modes for this data. We observe that there are two modes for the
given data.

Example 13: Find the mode from the following frequency table:

Wage 45 50 55 60 65 70 75
No. of Employees 12 11 14 13 12 10 9

Solution: We observe from the table that the maximum frequency is 14. The value of the
variate (wage) corresponding to the maximum frequency 14 is 55. This is the mode of the
data.

Exercise 10.1.3
1. Find the mode of the following data:

(i) 84, 91, 72, 68, 87, 84

(ii) 65, 61, 72, 81, 51, 31
(iii) 38, 31, 22, 20, 31, 61, 15, 20
(iv) 15, 11, 18, 23, 11, 19, 11

222
2. Find the mode for the following distribution

x 10 20 30 40 50 60
f 8 15 12 10 9 6

3. Find the mode for the following table.

x 60 61 62 63 64 65
f 5 8 14 16 10 7

Answers

Exercise 10.1.1

1. 15 2. 67.1 3. 15.6 4. 79.1 5. 45 6. 35.4

Exercise 10.1.2

1. (i) 57.5 (ii) 35.5 (iii) 60 (iv) 41

2. 48 3. 3 4. 45

Exercise 10.1.3

1. (i) 84 (ii) No mode (iii) 20, 31 (iv) 11

2. 20 3. 63

223
 11. GRAPHS
In fields such as science, engineering and business, we come across several variables
which take real values. For example, in business, the supply (s) and price (p) of a commodity
are real variables. These variables may be connected by an equation. Using this equation, we
can get a value for p for each value of s and obtain a set of ordered pairs (s, p) of real
numbers. All these ordered pairs (s, p) can be plotted as points in the Cartesian plane where its
horizontal axis is the s-axis and the vertical axis is the p-axis. These points now define what is
called the graph of the relation. The graph displays the nature of relationship between the
variables. One of the most useful graph that we obtain quite often is the linear graph. We now
proceed to know about linear graphs, how they are drawn and applied to solve some
equations.

11.1 Linear Graphs

Let x and y be two variables. If they are connected by an equation of the form
y = mx + c, then we say that x and y are linearly related. We have already seen in the chapter
on algebraic geometry that the equation y = mx + c represents a straight line in the Cartesian
plane. This is the reason why the relationship between x and y is called linear. For each value
of x, the equation y = mx + c gives a value of y and we obtain an ordered pair (x, y) of
numbers. The set of all such ordered pairs defines the graph of y = mx + c, called a linear
graph. We recall that in the equation y = mx + c, the number m is called the slope of the line
and c is known as the y-intercept. The y-intercept is the value of y when x = 0. Sometimes the
y-intercept c is 0. In this situation, the equation of the line is y = mx and we say that the line
passes through the origin.
We now proceed to draw linear graphs under several situations. The basic principle
behind drawing a linear graph is that we need only two points to graph a straight line. The
following procedure is followed in drawing linear graphs:

Step 1:By substituting two different values for x in the equation y = mx + c, we get two values
for y. Thus we get two points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) on the line.
Step 2:Draw the x-axis and y-axis on the graph paper and choose a suitable scale on the
coordinate axes. The scale for both the axes is chosen based on the values of the
coordinates obtained in step 1. If the coordinate values are large, then 1 cm along the
axes may be taken to represents large number of units.
Step 3:Plot the two points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) in the Cartesian plane of the paper.
Step 4:Join the two points by a line segment and extend it in both directions of the segment.
This is the required linear graph.

224
Example 1: Draw the graph of the line joining the points (2, 3) and (−4, 1).
Solution: Draw the x-axis and y-axis on a graph paper and take 1 cm = 1 unit on both the
axes. Let A and B be the points (2, 3) and
(−4, 1). We mark these points on the graph
paper. We join the points A and B by a line
segment and extend it along the two
directions. The required graph is now obtained
(see Figure 11.1)

Figure 11.1
Example 2: Draw the graph of y = 2x.
Solution: Since the equation of the line is y = 2x, the line passes through the origin.
Substituting x = −1, 0, 1 in the equation of the
line , we get correspondingly y = −2, 0, 2. We
form the table as given below:

x −1 0 1
y −2 0 2

We plot the points (−1, −2), (0, 0) and (1, 2) in

the graph sheet by taking 1 cm = 1 unit for both Figure 11.2
the axes. We join the points by a line segment and extend it in both directions. We get the
required linear graph (see Figure 11.2).

Example 3: Draw the graph y = 3x −1.

Solution: Substituting x = −1, 0, 1 in the
equation of the line, we get y = −4, −1, 2
correspondingly. In a graph, plot the points
(−1, −4), (0, −1) and (1, 2).

x −1 0 1
y −4 −1 2

Join the points by a line segment and extend

it in both directions. Thus we get the
required linear graph ( see Figure 11.3). Figure 11.3

225
Example 4: Draw the graph of the line whose slope is − 3 and y-intercept is −3.
2
Solution: The equation of the line is y = mx + c or
−3 −3
y= x + (−3) or y = x −3
2 2
Substituting x = −2, 0, 2, we get
y = 0, −3, −6 respectively. Plot the points
(−2, 0), (0, −3) and (2,−6) in the graph
paper.

x −2 0 2
y 0 −3 −6

Join the points by a line segment and extend

it in both directions. We now get the Figure 11.4
required linear graph (see Figure 11.4).

Example 5: Draw the graph of the line 2x + 3y = 12.

Solution: The given equation is rewritten as
⎛−2⎞
3y = −2x + 12 or y = ⎜ ⎟ x + 4.
⎝ 3 ⎠
Substituting x = −3, 0, 3, we get y = 6, 4, 2
respectively. Plot (−3, 6), (0, 4) and (3, 2) in
the graph sheet.

x −3 0 3
y 6 4 2
Join the points by a line segment and extend Figure 11.5
it in both the directions. This is the required
linear graph.(see Figure 11.5).

Example 6: Draw the graph x = 3.

Solution: We observe that y is not specified in the
equation x = 3. So, any value of y gives x = 3.
Choose any two values say 1 and 2 for y and get
two points (3, 1) and (3, 2)on the line x = 3.

x 3 3
y 1 2

Figure 11.6

226
Plot these points on the graph paper. Join these two points by a line segment and extend it in
both the directions. We get the required linear graph (see Figure 11.6). Note that the line is
parallel to the y-axis.

Example 7: Draw the graph of y = −4.

Solution: We observe that the value of y is fixed as
−4 and the value of x is not specified in the
equation. So, we choose any two values for x, say x
= −2, 2. Then we get two points
(−2, −4) and (2, −4) on the line y = −4. Plot these
two points in the graph paper.

x −2 2
y −4 −4

Figure 11.7
Join the two points and extend it in the both directions. The required graph is the resulting
graph(see Figure 11.7) The line is parallel to the x–axis.

Exercise 11.1

1. Draw the linear graph through the points

(i) (2, 3) and (4, −6) (ii) (−1, 0) and (−2, −5)
(iii) (−3, 2) and (5, −1) (iv) (−2, −3) and (5, −4)
2. Draw the graph of the following:
(i) y = −2x (ii) y = 3x (iii) x = 5y (iv) x = −4y
3. Draw the graphs of the following:
(i) x = −3 (ii) y = 5 (iii) x = 5
(iv) y = −4 (v) 2x + 3 = 0. (vi) 1 + 2y =0.
4. Draw the graph for y = mx + c when
−2
(i) m = 3 and c = 4. (ii) m = and c = 3.
3
(iii) m = −3 and c = −4 (iv) m = 2 and c = −5
5. Draw the graph of the following equations:
(i) 2x + 3y = 12. (ii) x −5y = 10.
(iii) y + 2x −5 = 0. (iv) x −2y + 1 = 0.

227
11.2 Application of Linear Graphs
Without doing any algebraic manipulations, we can solve two simultaneous linear
equations in x and y by drawing the graphs corresponding to the equations together. A linear
equation in x and y is of the form ax + by + c = 0. The equation represents a straight line, So,
the problem of solving two simultaneous linear equations in x and y reduces to the problem of
finding the common point between the two corresponding lines. Here, three cases arise.

In the first case, the two linear graphs i.e., lines are coincident; that is, the graphs are
one and the same. In this situation, there are infinitely many points common to both the
graphs. That is, there are infinitely many solutions to the given equations.

In the second case, the linear graphs are not coincident but are parallel. In this
situation, the two linear graphs do not meet at all. So there is no point common to both the
lines. Hence the simultaneous equations have no solution.

In the third case, the two linear graphs intersect exactly at one point. In this situation,
the given simultaneous equations possess a unique solution namely the coordinates of the
intersecting point.

Example 8: Solve graphically the simultaneous equations 2x + y = 1 and 4x + 2y = 2.

Solution: We graph the two equations together.

Line 1: y = −2x + 1 Line 2: 2y = −4x + 2 i.e., y = −2x + 1

x −1 1 x −1 1
y 3 −1 y 3 −1

Plot the points corresponding to the

two equations in the same graph paper. Join
the corresponding points by line segment
and extend them in both the directions. Then
we get two coincident lines (see Figure
11.8). Any point on one line is also a point
on the other. That is, there are infinitely
many points common to both the equation.
So there are infinitely many solutions for the
given simultaneous equations.

Figure 11.8

228
Example 9: Draw the graphs x − 2y = 4 and x − 2y = −6 and hence solve the simultaneous
equations.
Solution: We find points for plotting the two lines.

Line 1: x − 2y = 4 Line 2: x −2y = −6

or 2y = x + 6
y = ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ x + 3
or 2y = x −4 1
or
⎝2⎠
y = ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ x −2
1
or
⎝2⎠ x 0 2
X 0 2 y 3 4
Y −2 −1

We plot the points (0, −2) and (2 ,−1) in the

graph paper and draw the line through them. Next,
we plot the points (0, 3) and (2, 4) in the same
graph paper and draw the line through them. We
find that the two linear graphs are parallel. So
they do not intersect. Hence the simultaneous
equations have no solution (see Figure 11.9).

Figure 11.9
Example 10: Solve graphically the simultaneous equations x + y = 5, x − y = 3.
Solution: We draw the graphs for the two equations in the same graph sheet.
Line (1): x + y = 5 Line (2) : x −y = 3
or y = −x + 5 or y = x −3

X −2 −1 3 x 1 0 3
Y 7 6 2 y −2 −3 0

Plot the points (−2, 7) , (−1, 6) and (3, 2) on

the graph paper. Draw the line passing
through them. This is the linear graph for line
(1). Next, plot the points (1, −2) (0, −3) and
(3, 0) in the same graph paper. Draw the line
passing through these points. This is the linear
graph for line (2). The two linear graphs
intersect at the point P (4, 1) (see Figure
11.10). Since this point lies on both the lines,
the solution of the simultaneous equation is
x = 4, y = 1.
Figure 11.10

229
 Exercise 11.2

In problems 1 to 10, solve graphically the following system of equations:

1. x + y = 0, x = 4. 6. 2x + y = 1, 4x + 2y = 2.
2. x − y = 0, y = −3. 7. x + 2y = 4, x + 2y = 6.
3. x + y = 2, x − y = 2. 8. x − 3y = 4, x + 2y = −1.
4. x −y = 6, 2x + y = 9. 9. 3x + y = 2, 6x − y = 7.
5. x + y = 5, x − y = 1. 10. 2x + 3 = 0, 4x + y + 4 = 0.

Answers
Exercise 11.1

1. (i) 1. (ii) 1. (iii)

1. (iv)
2 (i)

x −1 0 1
y 2 0 −2

2. (ii)

x −1 0 1
y −3 0 3

230
2. (iii) 2. (iv)
x 0 5 −5 x 0 4 −4
y 0 1 −1 y 0 −1 1

3. (i) (ii)
x −3 −3 −3 x 1 2 −1
y 1 2 −1 y 5 5 5

(iii) (iv)
x 5 5 5 x 0 1 −1
y 0 1 2 y −4 −4 −4

231
(v) (vi)
x −1.5 −1.5 −1.5 x 0 1 −1
y 0 1 −1 y −0.5 −0.5 −0.5

4 (i) (ii)
x −1 0 1 x −3 0 3
y 1 4 7 y 5 3 1

(iii) (iv)
x 0 1 −1 x 0 1 2
y −4 −7 −1 y −5 −3 −1

232
5 (i) (ii)
x −3 0 3 x 5 0 −5
y 6 4 2 y −1 −2 −3

(iii) (iv)
x −1 0 1 x 1 3 5
y 7 5 3 y 1 2 3

Exercise 11.2

1.

x −1 0 1 x 4 4 4

y 1 0 −1 y 1 0 −1

Solution is x = 4; y = −4.

2.

x −1 0 1 x 0 1 2

y −1 0 1 y −3 −3 −3

Solution is x = −3; y = −3.

233
3.

x 0 1 2 x 3 4 5

y 2 1 0 y 1 2 3

Solution is x = 2; y = 0.

4.

x 3 4 5 x 2 3 4

y −3 −2 −1 y 5 3 1

Solution is x = 5; y = −1.

5.

x 2 3 4 x 2 3 4

y 3 2 1 y 1 2 3

Solution is x = 3; y =2.

6.
x -1 0 1 x −1 0 1
y 3 1 −1 y 3 1 −1

Infinitely many solutions.

7.

x 0 2 4 x 0 2 4

y 2 1 0 y 3 2 1

No solution.

234
8.

x −2 1 4 x −1 1 3

y −2 −1 0 y 0 −1 −2

Solution is x = 1; y = −1.

9.

x 0 1 2 x 0 1 2

y 2 −1 −4 y −7 −1 5

Solution is x = 1; y = −1.

10.

−3 −3 −3
2 2 2 x −2 −1 0
x
y 4 0 −4
y −2 0 2

Solution is x = −3; y = 2.
2

235
 LOGARITHMS

Mean Differences
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1.0 .0000 .0043 .0086 .0128 .0170 .0212 .0253 .0294 .0334 .0374 4 8 12 17 21 25 29 33 37

1.1 .0414 .0453 .0492 .0531 .0569 .0607 .0645 .0682 .0719 .0755 4 8 11 15 19 23 26 30 34
1.2 .0792 .0828 .0864 .0899 .0934 .0969 .1004 .1038 .1072 .1106 3 7 10 14 17 21 24 28 31
1.3 .1139 .1173 .1206 .1239 .1271 .1303 .1335 .1367 .1399 .1430 3 6 10 13 16 19 23 26 29
1.4 .1461 .1492 .1523 .1553 .1584 .1614 .1644 .1673 .1703 .1732 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27
1.5 .1761 .1790 .1818 .1847 .1875 .1903 .1931 .1959 .1987 .2014 3 6 8 11 14 17 20 22 25

1.6 .2041 .2068 .2095 .2122 .2148 .2175 .2201 .2227 .2253 .2279 3 5 8 11 13 16 18 21 24
1.7 .2304 .2330 .2355 .2380 .2405 .2430 .2455 .2480 .2504 .2529 2 5 7 10 12 15 17 20 22
1.8 .2553 .2577 .2601 .2625 .2648 .2672 .2695 .2718 .2742 .2765 2 5 7 9 12 14 16 19 21
1.9 .2788 .2810 .2833 .2856 .2878 .2900 .2923 .2945 .2967 .2989 2 4 7 9 11 13 16 18 20
2.0 .3010 .3032 .3054 .3075 .3096 .3118 .3139 .3160 .3181 .3201 2 4 6 8 11 13 15 17 19

2.1 .3222 .3243 .3263 .3284 .3304 .3324 .3345 .3365 .3385 .3404 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
2.2 .3424 .3444 .3464 .3483 .3502 .3522 .3541 .3560 .3579 .3598 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 15 17
2.3 .3617 .3636 .3655 .3674 .3692 .3711 .3729 .3747 .3766 .3784 2 4 6 7 9 11 13 15 17
2.4 .3802 .3820 .3838 .3856 .3874 .3892 .3909 .3927 .3945 .3962 2 4 5 7 9 11 12 14 16
2.5 .3979 .3997 .4014 .4031 .4048 .4065 .4082 .4099 .4116 .4133 2 3 5 7 9 10 12 14 15

2.6 .4150 .4166 .4183 .4200 .4216 .4232 .4249 .4265 .4281 .4298 2 3 5 7 8 10 11 13 15
2.7 .4314 .4330 .4346 .4362 .4378 .4393 .4409 .4425 .4440 .4456 2 3 5 6 8 9 11 13 14
2.8 .4472 .4487 .4502 .4518 .4533 .4548 .4564 .4579 .4594 .4609 2 3 5 6 8 9 11 12 14
2.9 .4624 .4639 .4654 .4669 .4683 .4698 .4713 .4728 .4742 .4757 1 3 4 6 7 9 10 12 13
3.0 .4771 .4786 .4800 .4814 .4829 .4843 .4857 .4871 .4886 .4900 1 3 4 6 7 9 10 11 13

3.1 .4914 .4928 .4942 .4955 .4969 .4983 .4997 .5011 .5024 .5038 1 3 4 6 7 8 10 11 12
3.2 .5051 .5065 .5079 .5092 .5105 .5119 .5132 .5145 .5159 .5172 1 3 4 5 7 8 9 11 12
3.3 .5185 .5198 .5211 .5224 .5237 .5250 .5263 .5276 .5289 .5302 1 3 4 5 6 8 9 10 12
3.4 .5315 .5328 .5340 .5353 .5366 .5378 .5391 .5403 .5416 .5428 1 3 4 5 6 8 9 10 11
3.5 .5441 .5453 .5465 .5478 .5490 .5502 .5514 .5527 .5539 .5551 1 2 4 5 6 7 9 10 11

3.6 .5563 .5575 .5587 .5599 .5611 .5623 .5365 .5647 .5658 .5670 1 2 4 5 6 7 8 10 11
3.7 .5682 .5694 .5705 .5717 .5729 .5740 .5752 .5763 .5775 .5786 1 2 3 5 6 7 8 9 10
3.8 .5798 .5809 .5821 .5832 .5843 .5855 .5866 .5877 .5888 .5899 1 2 3 5 6 7 8 9 10
3.9 .5911 .5922 .5933 .5944 .5955 .5966 .5977 .5988 .5999 .6010 1 2 3 4 5 7 8 9 10
4.0 .6021 .6031 .6042 .6053 .6064 .6075 .6085 .6096 .6107 .6117 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 9 10

4.1 .6128 .6138 .6149 .6160 .6170 .6180 .6191 .6201 .6212 .6222 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
4.2 .6232 .6243 .6253 .6263 .6274 .6284 .6294 .6304 .6314 .6325 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
4.3 .6335 .6345 .6355 .6365 .6375 .6385 .6395 .6405 .6415 .6425 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
4.4 .6435 .6444 .6454 .6464 .6474 .6484 .6493 .6503 .6513 .6522 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
4.5 .6532 .6542 .6551 .6561 .6571 .6580 .6590 .6599 .6609 .6618 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

4.6 .6628 .6637 .6646 .6656 .6665 .6675 .6684 .6693 .6702 .6712 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 7 8
4.7 .6721 .6730 .6739 .6749 .6758 .6767 .6776 .6785 .6794 .6803 1 2 3 4 5 5 6 7 8
4.8 .6812 .6821 .6830 .6839 .6848 .6857 .6866 .6875 .6884 .6893 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 7 8
4.9 .6902 .6911 .6920 .6928 .6937 .6946 .6955 .6964 .6972 .6981 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 7 8
5.0 .6990 .6998 .7007 .7016 .7024 .7033 .7042 .7050 .7059 .7067 1 2 3 3 4 5 6 7 8

5.1 .7076 .7084 .7093 .7101 .7110 .7118 .7126 .7135 .7143 .7152 1 2 3 3 4 5 6 7 8
5.2 .7160 .7168 .7177 .7185 .7193 .7202 .7210 .7218 .7226 .7235 1 2 2 3 4 5 6 7 7
5.3 .7243 .7251 .7259 .7267 .7275 .7284 .7292 .7300 .7308 .7316 1 2 2 3 4 5 6 6 7
5.4 .7324 .7332 .7340 .7348 .7356 .7364 .7372 .7380 .7388 .7396 1 2 2 3 4 5 6 6 7

236
 LOGARITHMS

Mean Differences
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

5.5 .7404 .7412 .7419 .7427 .7435 .7443 .7451 .7459 .7466 .7474 1 2 2 3 4 5 5 6 7

5.6 .7482 .7490 .7497 .7505 .7513 .7520 .7528 .7536 .7543 .7551 1 2 2 3 4 5 5 6 7
5.7 .7559 .7566 .7574 .7582 .7589 .7597 .7604 .7612 .7619 .7627 1 2 2 3 4 5 5 6 7
5.8 .7634 .7642 .7649 .7657 .7664 .7672 .7679 .7686 .7694 .7701 1 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 7
5.9 .7709 .7716 .7723 .7731 .7738 .7745 .7752 .7760 .7767 .7774 1 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 7
6.0 .7782 .7789 .7796 .7803 .7810 .7818 .7825 .7832 .7839 .7846 1 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 6

6.1 .7853 .7860 .7868 .7875 .7882 .7889 .7896 .7903 .7910 .7917 1 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 6
6.2 .7924 .7931 .7938 .7945 .7952 .7959 .7966 .7973 .7980 .7987 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 6 6
6.3 .7993 .8000 .8007 .8014 .8021 .8028 .8035 .8041 .8048 .8055 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 5 6
6.4 .8062 .8069 .8075 .8082 .8089 .8096 .8102 .8109 .8116 .8122 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 5 6
6.5 .8129 .8136 .8142 .8149 .8156 .8162 .8169 .8176 .8182 .8189 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 5 6

6.6 .8195 .8202 .8209 .8215 .8222 .8228 .8235 .8241 .8248 .8254 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 5 6
6.7 .8261 .8267 .8274 .8280 .8287 .8293 .8299 .8306 .8312 .8319 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 5 6
6.8 .8325 .8331 .8338 .8344 .8351 .8357 .8363 .8370 .8376 .8382 1 1 2 3 3 4 4 5 6
6.9 .8388 .8395 .8401 .8407 .8414 .8420 .8426 .8432 .8439 .8445 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 6
7.0 .8451 .8457 .8463 .8470 .8476 .8482 .8488 .8494 .8500 .8506 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 6

7.1 .8513 .8519 .8525 .8531 .8537 .8543 .8549 .8555 .8561 .8567 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 5
7.2 .8573 .8579 .8585 .8591 .8597 .8603 .8609 .8615 .8621 .8627 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 5
7.3 .8633 .8639 .8645 .8651 .8657 .8663 .8669 .8675 .8681 .8686 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 5
7.4 .8692 .8698 .8704 .8710 .8716 .8722 .8727 .8733 .8739 .8745 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 5
7.5 .8751 .8756 .8762 .8768 .8774 .8779 .8785 .8791 .8797 .8802 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 5 5

7.6 .8808 .8814 .8820 .8825 .8831 .8837 .8842 .8848 .8854 .8859 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 5 5
7.7 .8865 .8871 .8876 .8882 .8887 .8893 .8899 .8904 .8910 .8915 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
7.8 .8921 .8927 .8932 .8938 .8943 .8949 .8954 .8960 .8965 .8971 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
7.9 .8976 .8982 .8987 .8993 .8998 .9004 .9009 .9015 .9020 .9025 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
8.0 .9031 .9036 .9042 .9047 .9053 .9058 .9063 .9069 .9074 .9079 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5

8.1 .9085 .9090 .9096 .9101 .9106 .9112 .9117 .9122 .9128 .9133 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
8.2 .9138 .9143 .9149 .9154 .9159 .9165 .9170 .9175 .9180 .9186 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
8.3 .9191 .9196 .9201 .9206 .9212 .9217 .9222 .9227 .9232 .9238 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
8.4 .9243 .9248 .9253 .9258 .9263 .9269 .9274 .9279 .9284 .9289 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
8.5 .9294 .9299 .9304 .9309 .9315 .9320 .9325 .9330 .9335 .9340 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5

8.6 .9345 .9350 .9355 .9360 .9365 .9370 .9375 .9380 .9385 .9390 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
8.7 .9395 .9400 .9405 .9410 .9415 .9420 .9425 .9430 .9435 .9440 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
8.8 .9445 .9450 .9455 .9460 .9465 .9469 .9474 .9479 .9484 .9489 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
8.9 .9494 .9499 .9504 .9509 .9513 .9518 .9523 .9528 .9533 .9538 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
9.0 .9542 .9547 .9552 .9557 .9562 .9566 .9571 .9576 .9581 .9586 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4

9.1 .9590 .9595 .9600 .9605 .9609 .9614 .9619 .9624 .9628 .9633 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
9.2 .9638 .9643 .9647 .9653 .9657 .9661 .9666 .9671 .9675 .9680 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
9.3 .9685 .9689 .9694 .9699 .9703 .9708 .9713 .9717 .9722 .9727 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
9.4 .9731 .9736 .9741 .9745 .9750 .9754 .9759 .9763 .9768 .9773 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
9.5 .9777 .9782 .9786 .9791 .9795 .9800 .9805 .9809 .9814 .9818 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4

9.6 .9823 .9827 .9832 .9836 .9841 .9845 .9850 .9854 .9859 .9863 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
9.7 .9868 .9872 .9877 .9881 .9886 .9890 .9894 .9899 .9903 .9908 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
9.8 .9912 .9917 .9921 .9926 .9930 .9934 .9939 .9943 .9948 .9952 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
9.9 .9956 .9961 .9965 .9969 .9974 .9978 .9983 .9987 .9991 .9996 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 3 4

237
 ANTILOGARITHMS

Mean Differences
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
.00 1.000 1.002 1.005 1.007 1.009 1.012 1.014 1.016 1.019 1.021 0 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2

.01 1.023 1.026 1.028 1.030 1.033 1.035 1.038 1.040 1.042 1.045 0 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2
.02 1.047 1.050 1.052 1.054 1.057 1.059 1.062 1.064 1.067 1.069 0 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2
.03 1.072 1.074 1.076 1.079 1.081 1.084 1.086 1.089 1.091 1.094 0 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2
.04 1.096 1.099 1.102 1.104 1.107 1.109 1.112 1.114 1.117 1.119 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2
.05 1.122 1.125 1.127 1.130 1.132 1.135 1.138 1.140 1.143 1.146 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2

.06 1.148 1.151 1.153 1.156 1.159 1.161 1.164 1.167 1.169 1.172 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2
.07 1.175 1.178 1.180 1.183 1.186 1.189 1.191 1.194 1.197 1.199 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2
.08 1.202 1.205 1.208 1.211 1.213 1.216 1.219 1.222 1.225 1.227 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 3
.09 1.230 1.233 1.236 1.239 1.242 1.245 1.247 1.250 1.253 1.256 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 3
.10 1.259 1.262 1.265 1.268 1.271 1.274 1.276 1.279 1.282 1.285 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 3

.11 1.288 1.291 1.294 1.297 1.300 1.303 1.306 1.309 1.312 1.315 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 3
.12 1.318 1.321 1.324 1.327 1.330 1.334 1.337 1.340 1.343 1.346 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 3
.13 1.349 1.352 1.355 1.358 1.361 1.365 1.368 1.371 1.374 1.377 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3
.14 1.380 1.384 1.387 1.390 1.393 1.396 1.400 1.403 1.406 1.409 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3
.15 1.413 1.416 1.419 1.422 1.426 1.429 1.432 1.435 1.439 1.442 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3

.16 1.445 1.449 1.452 1.455 1.459 1.462 1.466 1.469 1.472 1.476 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3
.17 1.479 1.483 1.486 1.489 1.493 1.496 1.500 1.503 1.507 1.510 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3
.18 1.514 1.517 1.521 1.524 1.528 1.531 1.535 1.538 1.542 1.545 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3
.19 1.549 1.552 1.556 1.560 1.563 1.567 1.570 1.574 1.578 1.581 0 1 1 1 2 2 3 3 3
.20 1.585 1.589 1.592 1.596 1.600 1.603 1.607 1.611 1.614 1.618 0 1 1 1 2 2 3 3 3

.21 1.622 1.626 1.629 1.633 1.637 1.641 1.644 1.648 1.652 1.656 0 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3
.22 1.660 1.663 1.667 1.671 1.675 1.679 1.683 1.687 1.690 1.694 0 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3
.23 1.698 1.702 1.706 1.710 1.714 1.718 1.722 1.726 1.730 1.734 0 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 4
.24 1.738 1.742 1.746 1.750 1.754 1.758 1.762 1.766 1.770 1.774 0 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 4
.25 1.778 1.782 1.786 1.791 1.795 1.799 1.803 1.807 1.811 1.816 0 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 4

.26 1.820 1.824 1.828 1.832 1.837 1.841 1.845 1.849 1.854 1.858 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 3 4
.27 1.862 1.866 1.871 1.875 1.879 1.884 1.888 1.892 1.897 1.901 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 3 4
.28 1.905 1.910 1.914 1.919 1.923 1.928 1.932 1.936 1.941 1.945 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
.29 1.950 1.954 1.959 1.963 1.968 1.972 1.977 1.982 1.986 1.991 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
.30 1.995 2.000 2.004 2.009 2.014 2.018 2.023 2.028 2.032 2.037 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4

.31 2.042 2.046 2.051 2.056 2.061 2.065 2.070 2.075 2.080 2.084 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
.32 2.089 2.094 2.099 2.104 2.109 2.113 2.118 2.123 2.128 2.133 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
.33 2.138 2.143 2.148 2.153 2.158 2.163 2.168 2.173 2.178 2.183 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
.34 2.188 2.193 2.198 2.203 2.208 2.213 2.218 2.223 2.228 2.234 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
.35 2.239 2.244 2.249 2.254 2.259 2.265 2.270 2.275 2.280 2.286 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5

.36 2.291 2.296 2.301 2.307 2.312 2.317 2.323 2.328 2.333 2.339 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
.37 2.344 2.350 2.355 2.360 2.366 2.371 2.377 2.382 2.388 2.393 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
.38 2.399 2.404 2.410 2.415 2.421 2.427 2.432 2.438 2.443 2.449 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
.39 2.455 2.460 2.466 2.472 2.477 2.483 2.489 2.495 2.500 2.506 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 5 5
.40 2.512 2.518 2.523 2.529 2.535 2.541 2.547 2.553 2.559 2.564 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 5

.41 2.570 2.576 2.582 2.588 2.594 2.600 2.606 2.612 2.618 2.624 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 5
.42 2.630 2.636 2.642 2.649 2.655 2.661 2.667 2.673 2.679 2.685 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 6
.43 2.692 2.698 2.704 2.710 2.716 2.723 2.729 2.735 2.742 2.748 1 1 2 3 3 4 4 5 6
.44 2.754 2.761 2.767 2.773 2.780 2.786 2.793 2.799 2.805 2.812 1 1 2 3 3 4 4 5 6
.45 2.818 2.825 2.831 2.838 2.844 2.851 2.858 2.864 2.871 2.877 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 5 6

.46 2.884 2.891 2.897 2.904 2.911 2.917 2.924 2.931 2.938 2.944 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 5 6
.47 2.951 2.958 2.965 2.972 2.979 2.985 2.992 2.999 3.006 3.013 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 5 6
.48 3.020 3.027 3.034 3.041 3.048 3.055 3.062 3.069 3.076 3.083 1 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 6
.49 3.090 3.097 3.105 3.112 3.119 3.126 3.133 3.141 3.148 3.155 1 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 6

238
 ANTILOGARITHMS

Mean Differences
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0.50 3.162 3.170 3.177 3.184 3.192 3.199 3.206 3.214 3.221 3.228 1 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 7

0.51 3.236 3.243 3.251 3.258 3.266 3.273 3.281 3.289 3.296 3.304 1 2 2 3 4 5 5 6 7
0.52 3.311 3.319 3.327 3.334 3.342 3.350 3.357 3.365 3.373 3.381 1 2 2 3 4 5 5 6 7
0.53 3.388 3.396 3.404 3.412 3.420 3.428 3.436 3.443 3.451 3.459 1 2 2 3 4 5 6 6 7
0.54 3.467 3.475 3.483 3.491 3.499 3.508 3.516 3.524 3.532 3.540 1 2 2 3 4 5 6 6 7
0.55 3.548 3.556 3.565 3.573 3.581 3.589 3.597 3.606 3.614 3.622 1 2 2 3 4 5 6 7 7

0.56 3.631 3.639 3.648 3.656 3.664 3.673 3.681 3.690 3.698 3.707 1 2 3 3 4 5 6 7 8
0.57 3.715 3.724 3.733 3.741 3.750 3.758 3.767 3.776 3.784 3.793 1 2 3 3 4 5 6 7 8
0.58 3.802 3.811 3.819 3.828 3.837 3.846 3.855 3.864 3.873 3.882 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 7 8
0.59 3.890 3.899 3.908 3.917 3.926 3.936 3.945 3.954 3.963 3.972 1 2 3 4 5 5 6 7 8
0.60 3.981 3.990 3.999 4.009 4.018 4.027 4.036 4.046 4.055 4.064 1 2 3 4 5 6 6 7 8

0.61 4.074 4.083 4.093 4.102 4.111 4.121 4.130 4.140 4.150 4.159 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0.62 4.169 4.178 4.188 4.198 4.207 4.217 4.227 4.236 4.246 4.256 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0.63 4.266 4.276 4.285 4.295 4.305 4.315 4.325 4.335 4.345 4.355 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0.64 4.365 4.375 4.385 4.395 4.406 4.416 4.426 4.436 4.446 4.457 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0.65 4.467 4.477 4.487 4.498 4.508 4.519 4.529 4.539 4.550 4.560 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

0.66 4.571 4.581 4.592 4.603 4.613 4.624 4.634 4.645 4.656 4.667 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9 10
0.67 4.677 4.688 4.699 4.710 4.721 4.732 4.742 4.753 4.764 4.775 1 2 3 4 5 7 8 9 10
0.68 4.786 4.797 4.808 4.819 4.831 4.842 4.853 4.864 4.875 4.887 1 2 3 4 6 7 8 9 10
0.69 4.898 4.909 4.920 4.932 4.943 4.955 4.966 4.977 4.989 5.000 1 2 3 5 6 7 8 9 10
0.70 5.012 5.023 5.035 5.047 5.058 5.070 5.082 5.093 5.105 5.117 1 2 4 5 6 7 8 9 11

0.71 5.129 5.140 5.152 5.164 5.176 5.188 5.200 5.212 5.224 5.236 1 2 4 5 6 7 8 10 11
0.72 5.248 5.260 5.272 5.284 5.297 5.309 5.321 5.333 5.346 5.358 1 2 4 5 6 7 9 10 11
0.73 5.370 5.383 5.395 5.408 5.420 5.433 5.445 5.458 5.470 5.483 1 3 4 5 6 8 9 10 11
0.74 5.495 5.508 5.521 5.534 5.546 5.559 5.572 5.585 5.598 5.610 1 3 4 5 6 8 9 10 12
0.75 5.623 5.636 5.649 5.662 5.675 5.689 5.702 5.715 5.728 5.741 1 3 4 5 7 8 9 10 12

0.76 5.754 5.768 5.781 5.794 5.808 5.821 5.834 5.848 5.861 5.875 1 3 4 5 7 8 9 11 12
0.77 5.888 5.902 5.916 5.929 5.943 5.957 5.970 5.984 5.998 6.012 1 3 4 5 7 8 10 11 12
0.78 6.026 6.039 6.053 6.067 6.081 6.095 6.109 6.124 6.138 6.152 1 3 4 6 7 8 10 11 13
0.79 6.166 6.180 6.194 6.209 6.223 6.237 6.252 6.266 6.281 6.295 1 3 4 6 7 9 10 11 13
0.80 6.310 6.324 6.339 6.353 6.368 6.383 6.397 6.412 6.427 6.442 1 3 4 6 7 9 10 12 13

0.81 6.457 6.471 6.486 6.501 6.516 6.531 6.546 6.561 6.577 6.592 2 3 5 6 8 9 11 12 14
0.82 6.607 6.622 6.637 6.653 6.668 6.683 6.699 6.714 6.730 6.745 2 3 5 6 8 9 11 12 14
0.83 6.761 6.776 6.792 6.808 6.823 6.839 6.855 6.871 6.887 6.902 2 3 5 6 8 9 11 13 14
0.84 6.918 6.934 6.950 6.966 6.982 6.998 7.015 7.031 7.047 7.063 2 3 5 6 8 10 11 13 15
0.85 7.079 7.096 7.112 7.129 7.145 7.161 7.178 7.194 7.211 7.228 2 3 5 7 8 10 12 13 15

0.86 7.244 7.261 7.278 7.295 7.311 7.328 7.345 7.362 7.379 7.396 2 3 5 7 8 10 12 13 15
0.87 7.413 7.430 7.447 7.464 7.482 7.499 7.516 7.534 7.551 7.568 2 3 5 7 9 10 12 14 16
0.88 7.586 7.603 7.621 7.638 7.656 7.674 7.691 7.709 7.727 7.745 2 4 5 7 9 11 12 14 16
0.89 7.762 7.780 7.798 7.816 7.834 7.852 7.870 7.889 7.907 7.925 2 4 5 7 9 11 13 14 16
0.90 7.943 7.962 7.980 7.998 8.017 8.035 8.054 8.072 8.091 8.110 2 4 6 7 9 11 13 15 17

0.91 8.128 8.147 8.166 8.185 8.204 8.222 8.241 8.260 8.279 8.299 2 4 6 8 9 11 13 15 17
0.92 8.318 8.337 8.356 8.375 8.395 8.414 8.433 8.453 8.472 8.492 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 15 17
0.93 8.511 8.531 8.551 8.570 8.590 8.610 8.630 8.650 8.670 8.690 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
0.94 8.710 8.730 8.750 8.770 8.790 8.810 8.831 8.851 8.872 8.892 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
0.95 8.913 8.933 8.954 8.974 8.995 9.016 9.036 9.057 9.078 9.099 2 4 6 8 10 12 15 17 19

0.96 9.120 9.141 9.162 9.183 9.204 9.226 9.247 9.268 9.290 9.311 2 4 6 8 11 13 15 17 19
0.97 9.333 9.354 9.376 9.397 9.419 9.441 9.462 9.484 9.506 9.528 2 4 7 9 11 13 15 17 20
0.98 9.550 9.572 9.594 9.616 9.638 9.661 9.683 9.705 9.727 9.750 2 4 7 9 11 13 16 18 20
0.99 9.772 9.795 9.817 9.840 9.863 9.886 9.908 9.931 9.954 9.977 2 5 7 9 11 14 16 18 20

239