What is the definition of endangered?

A species classified as endangered is in serious danger of extinction in the near future. As of May 2014,
there were nearly 17,000 endangered species in the world, according to Endangered Species International.
The most common reason species become endangered is due to habitat loss. Logging, mining, cattle ranching
and oil development are just a few of the activities that contribute to this.
In some cases, a species becomes endangered because other plants or animals have been introduced
to their ecosystems. These additional species may compete for resources or carry diseases that kill native
species.
Population growth and pollution also put plants and animals at risk. When the population of an area
expands, there is a greater need for housing and food. Humans may clear natural areas to build new homes or
start eating more of the plants in an area. Pollution damages the ozone layer, contributing to global warming
and putting plants and animals at risk.

What is being done to protect the blue whale from extinction?

The blue whale is being protected from extinction through several conservation methods, such as being
listed and protected under the Species at Risk Act and the Endangered Species Act. These laws protect blue
whales under international law and make it illegal to kill them. Not only are whales protected under the Species
at Risk Act and the Endangered Species Act, they are also protected by entities such as the International
Whaling Commission, the International Union for Conservation of Nature and the Convention on International
Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora.
Meanwhile, several not-for-profit organizations help to bring awareness to the plight of the blue whale,
as well as fund conservation efforts. Among these charities are the Sea Shepherd Conservation Society and the
Save the Whales organization. These organizations are trying to get lawmakers to crack down on illegal whaling
and replace it with ecotourism. Furthermore, according to Fisheries and Oceans Canada, a recovery strategy
for large whales is being implemented.
According to the Save the Whales organization, only 1,200 to 1,700 blue whales remain in the North Pacific and
only 9,000 remain in the southern hemisphere. This is a fraction of the number that lived only a few hundred
years ago. Both illegal whaling and environmental changes negatively affect these mammals.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of wind energy?

Wind energy is praised for being a renewable, nonpolluting source of electricity, but it can also produce
intermittent streams of energy, and wind-generating equipment may be costly and troublesome to repair and
maintain. One of the primary benefits of wind energy is that, unlike coal, oil and other fossil fuels, it does not
emit toxic byproducts into the air and water.
Wind energy must often be supplemented with other forms of electricity because it does not produce
enough energy to meet consumer base demands. In addition to providing clean energy, wind turbines are quite
space efficient and can be sited in a variety of locations, including urban centers, brown fields and even
offshore. However, turbines do produce some noise, which can be problematic for neighboring communities.

What is the advantage of ex situ conservation?

The major advantage of ex situ conservation is the relative low-cost methods used to cryogenically
freeze genetic materials of animals, according to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations. Collecting, cryogenically freezing and storing specimens does not take a lot of space, and staff
maintenance is minimal. Plus, samples do not suffer from genetic drift while in suspended animation.
Another advantage for ex situ conservation lies in research. Frozen genetic material can be purchased by
laboratories and scientists for experimentation. Livestock breeders may also want access the material. Very
large populations can be stored in small spaces, so there are ample supplies for researchers. Frozen
specimens have a disadvantage in that this material cannot be displayed in zoos for public awareness
initiatives.
Ex situ conservation is possible for plant life in regions that can support such flora. Seeds can be
collected at sites and transported to nearby nurseries for cultivation and storage. Botanic Gardens Conservation
International states that the successful "ex situ" conservation of endangered plants can lead to reintroduction of
species into the wild.
Ex situ conservation methods refer to taking plants and animals out of their natural habitats to prevent
extinction. Sites of "ex situ" conservation efforts include zoos, aquariums and botanical gardens.

Is a whale shark bigger than a blue whale?

A whale shark is not bigger than a blue whale. They both, however, hold "world's largest" distinctions.
The whale shark is the largest living fish, while the blue whale is the largest living animal.
According to National Geographic, the average weight of a whale shark is 20.6 tons. The length of a whale
shark ranges from 18 to 32.8 feet. In comparison, the average weight of a blue whale is close to 200 tons. In
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addition, the length of a blue whale ranges from 82 to 105 feet. This makes the blue whale the clear winner, in
both weight and length.

How much does a baby blue whale weigh?

A baby blue whale weighs as much as three tons at birth and is 25 feet long. The mother blue whale
nurses her calf for at least a year, and the calf gains 200 pounds a day during that time. Female blue whales
breed once every three years, and the gestation period lasts 11 to 12 months. Only one calf is normally
produced at a time. Once the calf is born, the mother and other females guide the calf to the surface of the
water so that she can breathe. The calf forms a strong bond with the mother and often swims close to her.

What are tropical rainforest landforms?

Tropical rainforest landforms are areas that lie between the Tropic of Capricorn and the Tropic of
Cancer, are covered in forest and experience a high level of rain. While many small tropical rainforests persist
on Earth, the three primary tropical rainforest landforms occur in the Amazon basin of South America, equatorial
Africa and the Southeast Asian peninsula and archipelago. Tropical rainforests absorb a lot of carbon dioxide
from the atmosphere and produce much of the planet’s oxygen. Additionally, as trees engage in a process
known as transpiration, they pump water from underground and release it into the atmosphere. This has a
cooling effect on the planet and helps to moderate the temperature.

Each rainforest differs slightly from the others. For example, the rainforests of Southeast Asia have
much higher canopies than those of Amazonia or Africa. This has led to the evolution of many flying and gliding
animals, such as flying snakes and gliding frogs.

Tropical rainforests are the most biologically diverse landforms in the world, and they hold more species
of plants, fungi, insects, reptiles and birds than anywhere else does. Many scientists suspect that only a small
percentage of the species living in these habitats have been cataloged.

What is the purpose of the water cycle?

The purpose of the water cycle is to constantly replenish the most important natural resource needed
for all living things to exist: water. NASA describes water as not only necessary to sustain life on Earth but to tie
together the Earth’s lands, oceans and atmosphere in an integrated system. The water cycle functions such that
water transfers form in continuous movement, according to “HowStuffWorks”. The continuous recycling of water
through nine processes makes up the hydrologic, or water, cycle, according to the Northwest River Forecast
Center. The physical processes are evaporation, condensation, precipitation, interception, infiltration,
percolation, transpiration, runoff and storage.

The sun is the most important participant in the water cycle and responsible for its two critical
processes: condensation and evaporation. Water is evaporated into the atmosphere as water vapor, cools and
rises into clouds, condenses into droplets as precipitation, and falls back to Earth in the form of rain, sleet, hail
or snow. The water cycle process improves the quality of water as it moves through different forms, however,
influences such as water pollution decrease water quality. Kids Environmental Health explains that Earth has a
limited amount of water in a closed system, and water that is currently used has been recycled many times
since the Earth was formed. Water cannot be manufactured or created, and therefore, it must be preserved in a
cycle of replenishment.

What are the water cycle steps, in order?

The steps of the water cycle are evaporation, condensation, sublimation, precipitation, transpiration,
runoff and infiltration. Together, all of the steps help regulate the Earth’s water supply and climate.
Water covers roughly 70 percent of the Earth’s surface and is one of the basic elements of nature. It allows
organisms to thrive, regulates temperature and drains toxic substances. The water cycle, or the hydrologic
cycle, allows water to move through all three of its phases: the gas, liquid and solid phases. It occurs over four
spheres: the atmosphere, the lithosphere, the hydrosphere and the biosphere. Throughout the water cycle, rain
and storms are created, rocks are turned into soil, and minerals are circulated through the spheres. Overall, the
water cycle contributes to every part of biological and chemical life.

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What are the segments of the general environment?

The six segments of the general environment are political, economic, social, technological,
environmental and legal. These six external segments influence a company while remaining outside the
company's control. The process of examining how each segment can affect a company is known as PESTEL
analysis.
The political segment primarily covers governmental actions, such as taxation, trading policy and
general government stability. The economic segment deals with macroeconomic issues, including inflation,
interest and unemployment rates, as well as the overall health of the economy. The social segment is mostly
concerned with population demographics, which involves watching cultural as well as sociological changes over
the short and long term.
The technological segment includes any technological changes in the market, such as the rate of the
development of new products, and advances in automation or service industry delivery speeds. For the
environmental segment, analysis is directed toward changes in weather patterns or any natural disasters that
occur. Finally, the legal segment covers new laws and regulations that affect businesses. These statutes may
include new health and safety regulations, unemployment laws and antitrust legislation. Through analysis of the
six segments, a company can minimize the damage resulting from negative changes or take advantage of
those changes that prove useful.

Why should we protect the environment?

It is important to protect the environment because man-made disruptions to ecosystems can cause
extinction, because pollution creates dangers for both animals and people, and because mankind owes the
natural world a moral obligation. Many of the dangers to the environment come from practices designed to
make human life easier but actually threaten the long-term health and prosperity of humans.

One of the most important reasons to protect the environment is because it helps protect different
ecosystems. Over the years, humans have discovered that many ecosystems are more complex than was
originally thought and are deeply connected to other ecosystems. Human changes to one ecosystem, whether
through environmental pollution or deliberate manipulation, can actually put multiple species in danger of
extinction, necessitating the need to protect the environment.

Protecting the environment also protects humanity. A great deal of pollution, especially ocean pollution,
ends up affecting creatures that humans later consume, meaning that humans are ingesting toxins.
The final reason to protect the environment is that humanity has a moral obligation to the world and its
creatures. Humans are responsible for taking care of the world, and protecting the environment is one way to be
responsible stewards of the world entrusted to their care.

How does limestone affect the environment?

While limestone itself doesn't affect the environment, limestone mining can have a negative impact. On
the other hand, the environment can affect limestone by breaking it down.
Limestone mining can pollute water and create sinkholes. When limestone dissolves while it's still in the ground,
caves and gullies form, a natural phenomenon known as karst. Although this doesn't hurt the environment in its
natural form, once the limestone is mined out, sinkholes can form and disrupt underground waterways. This
changes the natural water table. The actual mining process also changes existing waterways, adding additional
water to streams and other bodies of water that not only floods the surrounding area, but adds pollutants to it as
well. At the same time, it draws water from other features such as lakes and ponds.

Limestone can be damaged by the environment through weather and water erosion. The stone absorbs
water that can cause it to deteriorate over time. If the water has a high acidity content, the damage is more
immediate. Wind can wear away stone detailing. Limestone is also prone to discoloration by exposure to oil,
dyes or even organic material, such as bird droppings or decomposing plant matter. It can even get rust stains if
exposed to oxidizing iron.

What are the stages of ecological succession?

The stages of ecological succession are primary succession, when opportunistic species move into a
mostly lifeless environment, and secondary succession, when new species displace the primary succession
species once the latter has modified the environment. In some cases, secondary succession proceeds to a
climax community.

A climax community is a final, relatively permanent result of secondary succession. The species in a
climax community have complex interactions and can, barring a natural disaster, out-compete any other species
that tries to establish itself. Not all environments achieve a climax community. Often, small disruptions to the
environment keep the species there in flux, so that at any time, one species or another can become dominant.

Primary succession only occurs after a natural disaster has cleared away life and well-processed soil
from an environment. New lava flows, new sand dunes or bare rocks left behind by glaciers are all examples of
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environments suitable for primary succession. As the species adept at primary succession move in, they start to
alter the environment by doing things like breaking down rocks, changing mineral compositions in soil or
creating shade.
Secondary succession is not a single change in the species that occur in an environment, but all the
transitions in species dominance that occur after primary succession.

What is an invasive species?

An invasive species is any organism that causes damage to an ecosystem in which it did not
originate. An invasive species may cause reduced biodiversity and extinction of other plants and animals in a
new environment incapable of defending against its effects.

An invasive species may be disruptive to a new ecosystem by preying upon the native organisms,
rapidly depleting natural resources and causing diseases that the ecosystem has no defense against. It may
have detrimental effects on the environment, resulting in the destruction of native species' habitats. An invasive
species may reproduce at a rapid rate, causing competition for food and other necessities that may result in the
starvation or extinction of organisms that flourished prior to its arrival.

What are some types of environmental hazards?

Pesticides, lead, contaminated water, mercury, carbon monoxide, tobacco smoke and asbestos are
types of environmental hazards that pose health risks. Many people are exposed to environmental hazards at
industrial work sites or when using chemicals and appliances in private homes.
Toxic substances typically cause health complications through accidental consumption or inhalation. For
example, breathing in a harmful amount of carbon monoxide gas from a home appliance can disrupt brain
function and lead to death.

Exposure also occurs when building materials in older homes and buildings begin to break down,
releasing noxious waste products. Prior to the 1980s, lead was widely used to make pipes, leading to blood
poisoning from contaminated water, toys and food. Similarly, asbestos fibers in old insulation may become
fragmented and dispersed in the air, impairing lung function when inhaled.

What are pioneer species?

Pioneer species are species which recolonize an area after there has been damage or disruption to the
ecosystem. These types of plants are normally hardy plants that need very little to survive, such as lichen or
plants with very long roots that give them better access to nutrients.
Pioneer plants also have seeds that can lay dormant for long periods of time, waiting on conditions to improve
before growing. Weeds are a common pioneering plant and can grow rapidly to fill the damaged area. These
pioneer plants will often die and create plant litter that helps increase the nutrients available for plants that will
grow during the secondary succession.

How do decomposers help the environment?

Decomposers help the environment by breaking down large organic molecules into forms that other
organisms can use, releasing them into the ground, water and air.They can get energy from organic compounds
other species cannot. Without decomposers, many of these compounds would remain unusable and would
even obstruct new life.

The primary organisms that perform the role of decomposition are fungi and bacteria. Fungi are
particularly prominent in forests, although they survive in a wide variety of habitats, including tundra. The forest
environment is particularly hospitable to fungi, however, since the forest floor is dark and damp and collects the
remains of many dead plants and animals.

Fungi are crucial for living ecosystems to continue, particularly because some elements, which are not
plentiful, are nonetheless necessary for many organisms. Phosphorus and usable nitrogen are relatively rare,
and are consumed and bound in plant tissues. In order for new plants to grow, these nutrients must be made
available. Fungi can do this because of their method of obtaining nutrients. Fungi digest food items with
enzymes prior to ingesting them. Because the dead organic matter is broken down outside of the fungi, some of
it remains available for other organisms to use.

What are causes of wildlife extinction?

Some causes of wildlife extinction include habitat destruction, pollution, hunting and introduction of
foreign species to an environment. Many causes of extinction are directly related to humans.
The growth of the human population has led to the destruction of many animal habitats. As forests are cut down
to make room for new homes and developments, animals are left with nowhere to live. If they cannot find
another suitable area to live, many species face extinction.
Overfishing and unregulated hunting caused many animal species, such as the wild buffalo, to disappear.
Several states and countries have now placed limits on the hunting of endangered or high risk species to
prevent this problem.

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What is the difference between an environment and an ecosystem?

An environment generally refers to the surroundings of various living residents, while an ecosystem is a
community consisting of both living and non-living things that work together. In general, an ecosystem is defined
by its environment, and all organisms within the ecosystem must work in tandem to create a successful living
space.
Ecosystems do not have one set size, and they can range from a small puddle to a much larger one,
such as a lake or a desert. There are also artificial ecosystems, such as with a terrarium. There are three
categories of organisms within an ecosystem: consumers, producers and decomposers. All living elements in
an environment need to adapt to conditions in their environment, including soil nutrients, temperature, light and
humidity.

Who are some famous environmental scientists?

Two famous environmental scientists are John Muir, whose work helped create Yosemite National
Park, and Rachel Carson, who wrote the book "Silent Springs" about the risks of DDT. Chico Mendes is also
well known for his work to save the rain forests in Brazil.

John Muir was Scottish by birth, but his family moved to Wisconsin when he was young. He lived from
1838 to 1914, and was passionate about preserving the land in the western United States. Muir was
instrumental in creating Yosemite and Sequoia National Parks, and often worked alongside President Theodore
Roosevelt.

Rachel Carson, who lived from 1937 to 1964, is often seen as the founder of the modern environmental
movement. A graduate of Johns Hopkins University, she became aware of the devastating effects of pesticides
such as DDT on plants, animals and humans, and wrote the book "Silent Springs" to raise public awareness of
the issue. She not only inspired Americans to think about environmental issues, but her work eventually led to
changes in national pesticide policies, including the banning of DDT.

Chico Mendes was a Brazilian who was born in 1944 and murdered by cattle ranchers in 1988. His
family supplemented their income by collecting rain forest products in sustainable ways. When he became
aware of the vast destruction of the rain forests by timber companies, he helped begin an international effort to
protect the rain forests.

What are the differences between a habitat and a niche?

A habitat is where an organism or a community of organisms’ lives, and a niche is the specific place an
organism has in an ecosystem. A habit can help define the niche of particular creature but cannot describe it
entirely.
A habitat can range in size from a host creature where parasites live to a grove of trees or a pond to
things much larger. They must provide the organisms that live there with what they need to survive such as
food, water, oxygen and minerals. If the habitat provides these things to the organisms that live there, those
creatures will stay in the habitat. If these needs are not met, however, the organisms that live there will move
elsewhere.

A niche, on the other hand, reflects an organism's behaviors and other variables like wind or
temperature that affect those behaviors. Evolution helps species adapt over time until it evolves to successfully
fill a place within a certain environment. Some species evolve so well, however, that it may no longer be suited
to another environment. It is also possible for similar environments to help similar species evolve that do not live
close together. For example, cattle in North America and wildebeests in Africa are similar because they evolved
in similar niches in their environments.

How can wildlife be protected?

Strategies to protect wildlife include preserving natural habitats, supporting conservation organizations
and reducing invasive species. While many of these steps are small, they all contribute to protecting and
preserving wildlife.

Preserving animals’ natural habitats is one of the most effective ways to protect wildlife. Animals face
many threats to their habitats, including farming, development and deforestation. All of these processes can
lead to extreme climate and environmental changes, such as soil erosion and desertification. Habitat
destruction can cause species extinction, and the preservation of natural land is one of the major ways to
protect wildlife from destruction.

Conservation organizations make a concentrated effort to protect animals and habitats. Different
organizations have different goals, from preserving certain areas or species to influencing government policy,
but they all work for the benefit of animals and the environment. Supporting these organizations financially
through donations or volunteering time is an effective and accessible way for ordinary citizens to aid in wildlife
preservation.

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 Invasive plant and animal species can also have a negative effect on native wildlife and habitats.
Working to reduce invasive plant species and support native animal species both aid in wildlife preservation.
This can be as simple as eliminating invasive plants in back yards and planting native plant species. Supporting
native animal populations also helps maintain a balanced ecosystem.

Is coal an environmentally friendly fuel?

The extraction and combustion of coal negatively impacts the environment, causing water and air
pollution, acid rain, mountaintop depletion and acid mine drainage.Harmful emissions from incomplete burning
of coal also pose serious environmental hazards to biotic communities due to drastic changes in atmospheric
conditions.

Fossil fuels are bio-fuels that formed millions of years ago from the decayed organic remains of
prehistoric organisms. Coal, natural gas and oil constitute the bulk of the non-renewable sources of energy that
provide usable power to produce electricity, heat households and fuel transportation. However, burning of these
materials contribute to global warming and environmental degradation.

Coal particularly affects the air through the various pollutants emitted during combustion. In the United
States, typical emission rates include 2,249 lbs/MWh for carbon dioxide, 6 lbs/MWh for nitrogen oxides and 13
lbs/MWh for sulfur dioxide, as reported by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Other pollutants include
carbon monoxide and particulate matter. Coal also contains methane, which is a source of greenhouse gas that
results in global warming.

Power plants that use coal-fired boilers also contribute to water contamination. Industrial waste water
often contain toxic chemicals, such as arsenic, lead and chromium, that pollute waterways. Coal mining may
also cause surface and groundwater pollution due to acid mine drainage. Acid rain, which damages
ecosystems, is produced when nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide chemically combine with hydroxyl
compounds. Mountaintop coal mining is a method that denudes forests and bares the upper layer of soil, often
resulting in increased runoff.

What are some solutions to habitat loss?

Some solutions to habitat loss include land use and development regulation, monitoring and reporting,
zoning, and the creation of effective networks of protected wilderness areas and wildlife reserves. The issue of
habitat destruction is complex because of the interconnected nature of the planet's habitats.

While conservation, reduction and reuse on an individual level help decrease the amount of natural
resources that are extracted from the environment, collective action is also necessary to solve the problems
created by the destruction of habitats. The National Park systems that exist in the United States and Canada
are two examples of a nation's government taking action to prevent further habitat loss. Costa Rica has
designated roughly 26 percent of its national territory as protected in order to preserve the habitats of its wildlife
and maintain the rich biodiversity that exists there.

Marine reserves provide ecosystem protection by prohibiting fishing, mineral extraction and other
habitat-altering activities. Zoning is a type of land-management system by which the ecosystem-altering
activities of humans are regulated to allow habitats to remain healthy. Methods of monitoring and reporting
include the sampling and testing of water quality, photographing damaged areas, and raising awareness
through education and journalism focused on habitat loss.

What is a good example of resource partitioning?

A good example of resource partitioning is the interacting of several species of Caribbean anoles in the
same environment. Although several species may live in the same forest, each restricts its habitat to a particular
part of the forest, such as the tree canopies or tree trunks.
Resource partitioning occurs when species have similar habitats and needs, but do not want to compete for
those same resources. They instead find a way to use the limiting resources separately. The idea of resource
partitioning has been explained by several experiments and mathematical models that have shown if both
species use the same limited resource in the same manner, only one species continues to thrive.

How can humans reduce soil erosion?

The most effective soil erosion reduction methods include the use of diversions and terraces, mulch,
and surface cover; however, the most sustainable method of preventing soil erosion is by using the land
responsibly according to its capability. Soil type, slope and the land's position may determine its vulnerability to
soil erosion.
Surface cover controls soil erosion by absorbing the impact of rain drops as the fall on base soils. They also
prevent wind from carrying away soil particles. Adding mulch on top of the soil also reduces the impact of rain
drops and wind. On steep slopes, runoff is typically at higher velocities and can develop into a powerful erosive
force. Diversions and terraces can be used alongside surface cover to control sheet erosion.

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What is the definition of environmental ethics?

Environmental ethics is a form of philosophy that considers the ways humans interact with their natural
environment and with nonhuman animals. This includes a moral consideration of the human approach to natural
resources.

Ethics are a branch of philosophy that considers moral values, obligations and other factors relating to
human conduct and relationships. Environmental ethics applies this style of philosophical consideration to the
ways humans interact with the earth, natural resources and nonhuman animals, including domestic animals
such as dairy cows and wild animals including whales. Studying environmental ethics involves a consideration
of the morality of how humans exist in the world. The discipline was largely developed in the late-mid 20th
century.

How can humans reduce soil erosion?

The most effective soil erosion reduction methods include the use of diversions and terraces, mulch,
and surface cover; however, the most sustainable method of preventing soil erosion is by using the land
responsibly according to its capability. Soil type, slope and the land's position may determine its vulnerability to
soil erosion.
Surface cover controls soil erosion by absorbing the impact of rain drops as the fall on base soils. The also
prevent wind from carrying away soil particles. Adding mulch on top of the soil also reduces the impact of rain
drops and wind. On steep slopes, runoff is typically at higher velocities and can develop into a powerful erosive
force. Diversions and terraces can be used alongside surface cover to control sheet erosion.

Which heats faster and why: land or water?

Solar radiation heats land faster than water for multiple reasons, including the higher heat capacity of
water, water's reflectivity and the more absorbent, textured surface of the earth. Water reflects solar radiation,
while land absorbs the sun's heat because land is generally darker than water.

Darker surfaces like land absorb more heat than reflective surfaces, which send heat and radiation
back into the atmosphere. Textured surfaces, such as land, also absorb heat more efficiently than flatter
surfaces like water. The fluid molecular structure of water, in which water molecules move fluidly against each
other, causes water to have a higher heat capacity than land, which has a solid molecular structure. Having a
higher heat capacity means it requires more energy to heat the same volume of water than land.

Based on heat capacity alone, it takes longer to heat up the same volume of water than land. Having a
higher heat capacity also means that the oceans store much more heat than land. They also store more heat
than land because water covers more of the Earth's surface. Water temperatures fluctuate less rapidly than land
temperatures, and oceans maintain approximately the same temperatures regardless of season and air
temperature. The constant temperatures of the oceans maintain and regulate the overall climate of the Earth.

What is the definition of "water-holding capacity"?

Water-holding capacity is defined as the water retained between field capacity and wilting point. Field
capacity is the saturated state of water in the soil that can drain freely due to the force of gravity. Wilting point is
the soil water level after its absorption by a plant.

The water that remains in the soil after draining is held by a force greater than gravity. The water level
in the soil that can no longer be absorbed by the plants is referred as the permanent wilting point, and this water
is strongly attached to the soil particles. The available water to the plant is considered to be 50 percent of the
soil's water-holding capacity. The water level that is held by the soil between saturation and field capacity is
referred as gravitational water.

How do landfills work?

Landfills make use of a bottom liner and a daily covering of soil in order to ensure trash remains dry and
does not come into contact with surrounding air or groundwater. Landfills serve to keep buried trash isolated
from the surrounding environment.
Landfills must be carefully constructed and require several components in order to function properly. The
bottom liner used in a landfill serves to isolate trash and waste that would otherwise contaminate groundwater
and may be constructed of either clay or a synthetic plastic liner. Landfills separate buried trash into a series of
compartmentalized cells and utilize a storm-water drainage system in order to regulate moisture. While
decomposition of stored waste is minimal, most landfills make use of a collection system to capture the
methane gas produced during the breakdown of stored trash.

While landfills are designed to keep buried trash as dry as possible, many sites still need to employ a
leachate collection system in order to collect, filter and regulate rainwater that has percolated through the cells.
This water may contain high levels of metals and contaminants from biological waste and is typically very acidic.

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A covering or cap is used on the surface of a landfill, which acts as a seal and provides a greater degree of
protection for buried trash.

What are the pros and cons of clear cutting?

Advantages of clear cutting include the ability to manage forests economically, the creation of sunny
spaces for sun-loving plant species, and the development of forage habitats for deer, elk and wildlife.
Disadvantages include the disruption of existing ecosystems, the unsightly appearance and increased risk of
erosion.

Clear cutting as a way to manage tree stands is a much-debated topic that offers both subjective and
objective viewpoints. Supporters argue that clear cutting is no longer the same as deforestation. Forests that
are clear-cut are thinned so that the best trees are taken and the smaller trees are left behind. Clear cutting
allows foresters to replant species that are best adapted to clear-cut areas where there may be extensive
undergrowth and shrubs. Clear cutting also provides foresters an economical and sustainable way to manage
forests while at the same time creating pastures, farmland or habitats for wildlife that feed or grow on sun-loving
shrubs and grasses.

Opponents of clear cutting suggest that the method increases erosion because fewer trees are able to
take up excess water from streams and underground aquifers. Although clear cutting still allows trees to
rebound and grow back, the process takes as long as 45 to 50 years for the trees to develop fully and become
valuable for foresters again.

Clear cutting is not the right forestry technique for every type of forest. Landowners and foresters must
still consider soil viability after cutting, the quality of current trees and how the method affects streams and other
bodies of water.

What are the 10 major land biomes?

There is some debate among scientists as to the number of terrestrial or land biomes, but most lists
include desert, tundra, tropical rainforest, temperate forest and temperate grassland. Most scientists also list
savannah, taiga, chaparral, and the alpine or polar biomes.
The desert biome can be either hot or cold and is characterized by being incredibly dry, with extremely small
amounts of precipitation. The tundra biome only occurs in the far northern regions of the planet and is
characterized by extremely cold temperatures. The growing season in the tundra is too short to support trees,
meaning the primary vegetation in these areas consists of grasses and small shrubs.

Tropical rainforests occur in a belt that stretches from the Tropics of Cancer to Capricorn and are
characterized by large amounts of rainfall and fairly consistent temperatures throughout the year. Temperate
forests also experience large amounts of precipitation and primarily feature deciduous trees, which lie dormant
during the cold winter months. Taiga is the third type of forest biome, which consists mostly of coniferous
evergreen trees. These areas also experience extremely cold winters.

Savannahs are quite dry, open grasslands that feature very few, if any trees, while temperate
grasslands contain the same types of vegetation, but are generally found in colder areas. Most temperate
grasslands have now been converted for agriculture. The chaparral biome is a mix between forest and
grassland, but is mostly dominated by small evergreen shrubs. Temperatures are extremely cold all year round
in the polar or apline biome, causing these areas to have very little, if any vegetation.

What is the impact of human activities on the environment?

Human activities have impacted the environment more than any other species, including deforestation,
natural resource depletion, reduced biodiversity, and pollution of the air, land and water. Humans have been
impacting the environment for thousands of years; however, since the industrial revolution in the 1800s, the
impact has drastically increased due to increased population, industrial manufacturing and agricultural
practices.
As the human population has grown, the need for more land has caused an increase in the cutting down of
forest lands for habitation and farming. The result has been an increase in soil erosion, an increase in species
extinction from habitat loss, and a reduction of oxygen supplied by the trees, as well as lower amounts of
carbon dioxide being removed from the atmosphere.

Much of the land that has been cleared is used for agriculture to feed Earth's growing population. To
increase output farmers have turned to chemical fertilizers and defoliants that pollute the soil and watersheds.
Increased production of limited types of crops and livestock for food has reduced the amount of different plant
and animal species on the planet.

Industrial and personal use of fossil fuels has dramatically increased the amount of air pollution in the
atmosphere while systematically using up the supply of the non-renewable resources such as coal, oil and
natural gas.

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What factors affect the salinity of seawater?

An ocean's salinity is affected by water and air temperature, the volume of water that flows into it, its
age and the chemical composition of surrounding geological formations. Because the effect of these factors
varies over the area of an ocean, different levels are found within the ocean.

The hotter the air surrounding an ocean, the more evaporation that takes place, particularly when
accompanied by high winds. Only the water is lost in this process, so the salts become more concentrated. The
Mediterranean Sea's high salinity level is attributed to the combination of warm air and low rainfall levels.
Oceans that receive a lot of rain tend to have lower salinity levels near the surface where the water is more
diluted. This effect is intensified by the lower density of fresh water, which stays at the surface while the more
dense salt-rich water sinks.

Thawing ice burgs also add freshwater to oceans, as do the rivers that empty into it. The Baltic Sea has
a very low salinity due to the hundreds of rivers that flow into it. In contrast, the water that enters the Dead Sea
is full of various types of salts because of the mineral-rich river beds that feed into it. This sea has no outlet. The
only water lost is through evaporation, making it the saltiest body of water on earth.

How does carbon dioxide cause global warming?

Carbon dioxide contributes significantly to global warming by entering the atmosphere and waterways
through many human activities, such as farming, industrial operations and changes in land use, primarily to
agricultural production. Carbon dioxide occurs naturally through some activities, such as plant respiration,
volcanic activities and the interaction between oceanic waters and the surrounding air. However, human
activities increase the amount of carbon dioxide in the air, which in turn offsets the delicate balance of gases in
the atmosphere and air temperature.

Although it occurs in small quantities naturally, carbon dioxide classifies as a greenhouse gas, along
with methane and nitrous oxide. Carbon dioxide, along with the other greenhouse gases, creates a heat-
trapping effect in the atmosphere when produced excessively. These gases escape into the lower levels of the
atmosphere. Instead of biodegrading, they bio-accumulate by forming tight bonds. These resulting compound
molecules do not break down in the atmosphere. Instead, they build up in the air, much like a bathtub fills with
water when drainage proves inadequate. The accumulation of carbon dioxide in the air stems from several
activities, including deforestation and burning of fossil fuels. These activities reduce the size and efficiency of
natural carbon dioxide filters or drains, which include large forests and land. In addition to creating warmer
temperatures, excess carbon dioxide lets stronger sun rays penetrate the atmosphere, which also causes rising
temperatures.

What are some effects of human activities on the environment?

Some of the effects of human activities on the environment include global warming, habitat destruction,
land degradation, overpopulation, pollution and resource depletion. These effects are a result of human
activities such as intensive farming, overexploitation of minerals and natural resources, industrialization,
deforestation, illegal dumping of waste materials, poor disposal of waste materials and overfishing.
Industrialization and intensive farming are huge contributors to air, soil and water pollution. Greenhouse gases
in large amounts, such as carbon dioxide and methane, cause the Earth’s temperatures to rise, a phenomenon
known as global warming.

According to a report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, scientists are 95 percent
certain that high levels of greenhouse gases are the cause of global warming, which leads to climate change.
Extreme weather conditions such as heavy snowfall, heavy rainfall, heat waves and drought are all effects of
global warming.

Poor disposal of waste products poses a serious risk to human health and the world’s ecosystems. It
also causes soil and water contamination, as well as air pollution. Contaminated water causes infections,
transmits diseases and pollutes ecosystems.

Effects such as land degradation and habitat destruction are a result of deforestation. Species become
endangered and at risk of becoming extinct. Deforestation also contributes to soil erosion and can cause
flooding. It also affects indigenous communities, culturally and physically.

How are we destroying the environment?

Humans are destroying the environment through ways such as burning fossil fuels, deforestation,
farming and industry, all of which produce copious amounts of greenhouse gases. The phenomenon of global
warming is argued to be caused by humans due to the many ways humans pollute the environment with
greenhouse gases.

Scientists agree that burning fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas to generate large amounts of
energy is the human activity that has the greatest impact on global warming. Deforestation for housing, farming
and industry has a direct effect on ecosystems and endangered species. Trees absorb carbon dioxide

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emissions from the environment, and when large areas are cleared through deforestation, stored carbon is also
released into the atmosphere.
Industry and agriculture produce large amounts of greenhouse gases through fertilizers, mining and
release from factories. Use of landfills also has an impact on the release of greenhouse gases into the
environment. As food, paper, vegetation and sewage wastes break down in landfills and waste sites, they
release carbon dioxide and methane.

Evidence of climate change is observed in rising sea levels over the last century, the rise in global
temperature since 1880, warming oceans, shrinking Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets, declining arctic sea
ice, glacial retreat, extreme high temperature events, ocean acidification, and decreased snow cover.

What are the effects of environmental destruction?

Effects of environmental destruction include global warming, climate change, ozone layer depletion,
land degradation and human disease. Environmental destruction occurs when events deplete the earth's natural
resources. Its main causes are technological, institutional and socio-economic activities.
Emission of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere causes global warming. These gases, which include nitrous
oxide, methane, chlorofluorocarbons and carbon dioxide, block heat radiated from the Earth. Global warming
leads to flooding, soil erosion, drought and rise in sea water levels.

The ozone layer sits at about 20 to 30 kilometers above sea level. It provides a protective layer, which
prevents the sun's harmful ultraviolet rays from reaching the Earth. Environmental destruction activities, such as
chemicals, human activities, and the release of chlorofluorocarbons’ to the atmosphere, trigger the depletion of
the ozone layer. Ultraviolet rays lead to skin diseases, lower agriculture production and death of aquatic life.
Human activities that increase the levels of carbon dioxide and other heat trapping gases in the atmosphere
trigger climate change. A rise in air temperature increases evaporation from bodies of water and affects marine
life. It also degrades water sources.

Constant use of pesticides and insecticides results in land degradation. It makes the soil infertile and
affects plant growth. Industrial chemical waste disposal also affects the quality of soil.
Environmental destruction causes various diseases that affect human health. For instance, air pollution causes
respiratory problems, such as lung cancer and asthma. Air pollution also either directly or indirectly causes
various cardiovascular diseases.

How can people stop ozone depletion?

According to the Environmental Protection Agency, ozone depletion is mostly due to the corrosive
actions of certain chemical compounds, such as refrigerants. Halting ozone depletion hinges on banning the
use of these substances or preventing their release into the atmosphere. Because many of these compounds
are extremely long-lived, molecules that escape into the atmosphere can cause ozone damage for decades.

Ozone molecules consist of three oxygen molecules, and are an important protective part of Earth's
atmosphere. Certain catalysts, such as hydroxyls, nitric oxide, chlorine and bromine atoms, have the ability to
break the bonds of ozone molecules, effectively destroying them by converting the oxygen into other
compounds. Compounds called chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs, contain many of these catalysts, and are
particularly dangerous to the ozone layer. The Montreal Protocol banned their use in 1989, although they are
not the only source of potentially ozone-destroying compounds.

As of 2014, any chemical that contains catalysts that could be dangerous to ozone is heavily regulated.
Many of these substances are vital for manufacturing and chemical engineering, and are used in tightly-
controlled conditions to prevent their escape into the atmosphere. The reduction in ozone-depleting chemicals
is expected to allow the ozone layer to recover to pre-1980 levels by the year 2075.

What would happen if the ozone layer vanished?

Without the ozone layer, the sun's ultraviolet radiation would negatively affect life on land and in the
water, leading to mass extinction. The ozone layer is a protective area of the Earth's stratosphere that absorbs
between 97 and 99 percent of the sun's UV radiation, allowing life to exist.

The ozone layer is not evenly distributed throughout the globe; it is thicker near the Polar Regions than
around the equator. Seasonal changes also influence the ozone layer's thickness, with the highest levels of
thickness found in the spring. Free radical catalysts are responsible for the worldwide depletion of the ozone.
Such agents include nitric oxide, nitrous oxide, bromine, chlorine and hydroxyl. The commercial production of
chlorofluorocarbons and bromofluorocarbons utilizes bromine and chlorine in levels that are not found in nature.
When chlorofluorocarbons and bromofluorocarbons, which are very stable, rise into the stratosphere, chlorine
and bromine radicals are freed by UV light and begin to break down ozone molecules.

Ozone, or tri-oxygen, is an allotrope of oxygen that is known for its pale-blue color and strong smell,
which is similar to chlorine. It results from the reaction between di-oxygen and ultraviolet light or atmospheric
electrical discharges. Not all ozone is relegated to the stratosphere; a minute amount is found throughout the
atmosphere. When condensed at cryogenic temperatures, ozone becomes a dark-blue liquid before becoming
a near-black solid

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What will happen if the greenhouse effect continues to increase?

The increasing of the greenhouse effect causes a more rapid global warming. The manifestation of
global warming in the rise of the average global temperature, in the melting of glaciers and land ice, rises in the
sea and ocean level and the increased frequency of extreme weather, like floods and hurricanes.

Almost all science organizations acknowledge the existence of the greenhouse effect and global
warming. The greenhouse effect results from the interaction between incoming solar radiation from the sun and
the Earth's atmosphere. Gases in the atmosphere absorb about 90 percent of the heat and radiate it back to the
surfaces. When the intense human activity causes the high concentration of these gases to grow, the heat
trapped in the atmosphere increases. This accumulated heat increases the average temperatures and thus
changes weather and climate patterns.

The higher temperature of the planet's surface makes ice melt, which may cause the water basins to
rise. More heat also makes the water evaporate more intensely, causing more rains and floods. The
temperature difference between the warm tropical ocean and the cold upper atmosphere forms hurricanes. All
the effects of the greenhouse gases piling up in the atmosphere can hasten the extinction of some species.

How does gold mining affect the environment?

Gold mining affects the environment in many negative ways, including the release of large amounts of
exhaust from heavy equipment and transport, toxic drainage into nearby waterways and the release of mercury
fumes from ore processing. Gold is most commonly mined in open pits dug specifically for that purpose. Even in
the richest of mines, the gold content is a tiny fraction of the material dug up.

Gold mining creates large amounts of waste rock, more than almost any other type of mining. This is
because of the relative rarity of gold, with almost all large deposits easily obtained near the surface having
already been extracted. The rocks in which gold is found tend to be high in sulfur compounds, and when
exposed to air and water via the digging of large pits, these rocks easily leach toxic chemicals into the
environment, according to The Washington Post. In addition, some mining operations use cyanide compounds
to help process ore, which leak and even spill into the environment.

The quantities of waste rock produced by these mines must be transported away, requiring a great deal
of fossil fuel consumption and emissions. The leftovers of this waste, once processed, are full of toxic metals
that never biodegrade, creating permanent toxic hazards at disposal sites.

What is the difference between global warming and climate change?

Global warming indicates a change in the average temperature of the Earth as a whole, while climate
change involves several factors in a localized situation. The media uses the two terms interchangeably, which
often leads to confusion.

Global warming is a one-dimensional change. It is a global increase in temperature caused by an

increase in greenhouse gases. These gases form an insulating layer that allows light and heat to pass, but it
prevents heat from escaping back into the atmosphere.
In contrast, climate change is multidimensional and includes precipitation, humidity, winds and temperature.
Changes in the distribution of precipitation throughout the year are considered climate changes even though the
annual precipitation remains the same.

While global warming and climate change are significantly different, global warming affects climate. The
increase in temperature often results in less precipitation. It may change the form of precipitation in a location
from snow to rain. Warmer temperatures cause a decrease in humidity and precipitation. These changes bring
about drought conditions in areas where rains once provided the necessary moisture for survival.
Burning fossil fuels is a major contributor to the increase in greenhouse gases that cause global warming.
Carbon dioxide, ozone, methane and nitrous oxide are the primary greenhouse gases that humans produce,
according to About.com.

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