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Personal Identification
Personal Identification (PI) - proving of individual’s identity that he is the
same person he claims or alleged to be,
or if not, he is pretending to be
somebody else who he really is.
 Importance of PI to the individual and society ?

.. MEANS of PI Among Uncivilized People:

1. TATTOO MARKS
2. SCAR MARKS

.. METHODS of PI:
1. ANTHROPOMETRY
2. PORTRAIT PARLE
3. PHOTOGRAPHY
4. ODONTOLOGY
5. BLOOD
6. HAIR
7. DNA
8. FINGERPRINT (FP)
9. OTHERS

.. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND of FP:

 In tracing the origin of the fingerprint science, we must draw a

distinction between the realization that the tips of the fingers bear
diversified ridges and the application of the knowledge to the
problem of personal identification. Unquestionably, men’s
consciousness of the patterned ridges on his fingers and palms
predates the Christian era.
On the face of a cliff in Nova Scotia has been found prehistoric
Indian “picture writing” of a hand with ridge patterns crude’s
marked. Scholars refer to the impression of fingerprints on clay
tablets recording transaction in Ancient Babylon and to clay seals
of Ancient Chinese origin bearing thumbprints.
 The Apostle Paul concludes with the words, “The salvation of Paul
with mine own hand which is the token in every epistle; so I write.”
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Some have inferred from these words that Paul used his finger
impressions as a distinctive signature. China may have been the
first nation to use fingerprinting as a means of identification… if so,
fingerprinting is well over two thousand years old.
However, the Chinese may have used fingerprinting as part
of a ritual rather than for actual identification. Chinese document
identified with the eight century A.D. (T’ang Dynasty) refer to
fingerprints being impressed upon business contracts. Authorities
have argued the matter both ways, but have not yet been able to
proved either point of view to the satisfaction of all concerned, and,
unless new evidence is discovered, the question of China’s use of
FP remain unanswered. While the Oriental was apparently the
first to use the fingerprint impressions, the Occidental was the first
to recognize them as valuable individual characteristics and the
first to distinguish the various designs.
According to their design (pattern), finger impressions, were
grouped, classified, and coordinated. Thus, were instituted definite
systems with numerous variances, but which were basically
uniform with respect to patterns.
The earliest dated prints of the ridged skin on human hands and feet
were made about 4,000 years ago during the building era in Egypt.
 A common practice for the Chinese was to use inked fingerprints
on official documents, land sales, contracts, loans and
acknowledgments of debts.
From 16th century up to this time, FP is utilize by other countries
(AFIS, NAFIS, IAFIS) JICA and FBI, etc..

Early Publications:
1684 - Dr. Nehemiah Grew published a report, which was read
before the Royal Society of London. He described the
ridges and pores of the hand and feet.
1685 - G. Bidloo published a treatise described sweat pores
and ridges.
1686 - Marcello Malpighi published a book on his study of
ridges and pores.
1751 - Hintze wrote on ridge formation, but dealt with the
subject from the viewpoint of anatomy rather than identification.
1764 - Albinus followed along the same lines as Hintze had
written.
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1788 - JC A. Mayer stated in his book “Anatomische
Kupfertsfeln Nebst Dazi Gehorigen”.. ‘Although the
arrangement of skin ridges is never duplicated in two
persons, nevertheless the similarities are closer among
some individuals.’ He, thus, became the first to state that the
prints of two different persons are never alike.
1823 - Johannes E. Purkinje, professor at the University of
Breslan, Germany, published a thesis (in Latin) describing
the ridges, giving them names, and establishing certain rules
for classification. He identified nine different patterns. He did
not, however, refer to fingerprints for use as identification.
1856 - Herman Welcher took the prints of his own right palm. In
1897, 41 yrs. Later, he printed the same palm to prove that
prints do not change.
Many publication containing authoritative data on the
science of fingerprinting, on its earliest known publications, its
history, its adoption, and its various system are available. With
this in mind, the present author offers a brief chronology of
fingerprints, rather than an actual history.

Fingerprint as Method of PI:

1858 - Sir William Herschel, in Hoogly District of Bengal, India,
printed the palms of natives in order to avoid impersonation
among the laborers, prints of the entire palms were used
instead of signatures. The first person requested permission
to fingerprint prisoners in jail, but denied.
1880 - Henry Faulds, stationed at Tsukiji Hospital, Japan, wrote
on the subject of fingerprints. He advocated their use in the
detection of crime.
1888 - Sir Edward Richard Henry, succeeding Sir William
Herschel at his post in India became interested in fingerprints
and arrived at a classification of his own.
1889 - Sir Edward Richard Henry, at Dover, England, read a
paper detailing his system before the British Association for
Advancement of Science.
1891 - Juan Vausetich developed his own classification. This
was officially adopted in Argentina and is used today in most
Spanish speaking countries.
1892 - Sir Francis Galton, an English biologist, wrote his first
textbooks; he devised a practical system of classification and
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filing. Much of his materials are still in use in some parts of the
world. His book was read at Asquith Committee of London,
England. His system was officially adopted on February 12,
1894.
1900 - Alphonse Bertillon’s system of measurement had by this
date spread throughout the world.
1901 - Henry was appointed Assistant Commissioner at
Scotland Yard. His system was also acclaimed and officially
adopted in Wales as well as throughout England. The
system was so applicable that Henry emerged as the first
man to successfully apply fingerprints to identification.
1914 - Fingerprints were officially adopted in France, replacing
Bertillonage.

Official Use of Fingerprint in the U.S.A.:

1900 - Gilbert Thomas, of the United States Geological Survey,
used thumbprints for camp orders on an expedition to New
Mexico. This was not official but prove useful.
1902 - The New York Civil Commission, on December 19,1902,
required that, henceforth, all civil service applicants were to
be fingerprinted. Dr H. D. De Forest, Chief of Medical
Examiner, put the system into practice.
1903 - James Parke instituted fingerprinting in the state of New
York Department of Prison, Albany, New York. Fingerprinting
was adopted in the following penitentiaries: Sing Sing;
Napanochi; Auburn, Clinton.
1904 - John Kenneth Ferrier of the fingerprint branch of
Scotland Yard attended the St Louis Missouri World’s Fair.
He had been assigned to guard the British Crown Jewels.
American Police officials became interested in fingerprints
through him, and he became their instructor. The City of St
Louis, Missouri became the first city to use fingerprinting.
The police department officially adopted the system on
October 29, 1904.
1904 - FP also adapted in Leavenworth, Kansas.
1905 - Fingerprinting was officially adopted by the U.S. Army.
1907 - Fingerprinting was officially adopted by the U.S. Navy.
1908 - Fingerprinting was officially adopted by United States
Marine Corps.
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1908 - Fingerprinting was officially adopted by the Federal
Bureau of Investigation.
1910 - Frederick A. Brayloy published what appears to be the
first American Book on Fingerprints, their Identification and
Uses. The Book was published in Boston by the Worcester
Press.
1915 - The International Association for Criminal Identification
was founded. The word “Criminal” was later doped from the
association’s name.
1916 - Frederick Kuline published “The Fingerprint Instructor”,
which probably is the first “authoritative” book on
fingerprinting to be published in the U.S..
1919 - the first fingerprint magazine was published.
1924 - By an Act of Congress, the Bureau of Identification
officially established a Fingerprint Bureau. The files of
Leavenworth were combined with those of the Bureau and were
adopted and were transported to Washington, D.C..
JUAN VUCETICH - perfected Dactyloscopy in late 19 th and
early 20th century

Methodology:
When a person touches something with his fingers, there will be
a visible or invisible residue left on the touched surface. The residue
is patterned as a copy of the person’s fingerprint and can be collected
for visual study and comparison. Traditionally, finely ground powders
of chalk or coals have been used to make the fingerprint clearly
visible.
The powder adheres to the fingerprint residue but not the
surrounding surface. Sometimes the prints are invisible in which case
they are called “latent fingerprints”. There are chemical techniques
such as Cyanoacrylate and ninhydrin spray/brush that can help make
them visible.

.. TERMINOLOGIES IN FINGERPRINTING:
Dactyl - from Latin word means “finger or toe”.
Dactyloscopy - the science of identification by means of fingerprints;
or the technique of comparing fingerprints, typically those found at
the crime scene and those of a suspect.
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Fingerprints - are prints of a finger found on the terminal areas of the
(body) hands and the finger in particular the palm and sole of the
foot; or imprint made by the pattern of ridges on the pad of human
finger.
Dactylography - The science of fingerprint for the purpose of
identification.
Dermatoglyphics - are the lines, tracing designs, etceteras, on the
skin of fingers, palms, and soles.
Dactylomancy - is an attempt at character reading through the
patterns of fingerprints. It is not an accepted method. It was
attempted, and is sometimes still practiced by the Chinese and
Japanese.
Polydactyl Hand - is a hand having more than the normal number of
fingers.
Focal points - Within the pattern area of a loops and whorls are
enclosed the focal points w/c are used to classify them. These
points are core and delta.
Core - is called the inner terminus, which serves as characteristic
point in ridge counting to determine the number of ridge
intervening between the core and the delta.
Delta - is called the outer terminus, which may be found by
bifurcation or ridges; or is that point on a ridge at or in front of and
nearest the center of the divergence of the type lines.
Friction Skin - it is the epidermal hairless skin found on the lower
surface of hands and feet covered with minute ridges.
Flexure Line - a permanent creases in the skin at the knuckles,
which permits the skin to flex when the finger is extended. Flexure
lines become more prominent and more numerous with age.
Palmar - pertaining or corresponding to the palm of the hand.
Plantar - pertaining to the sole of the foot.
Poroscopy - it is the scientific study of the pores.
Chiroscopy - it is the scientific study of the hands.
Podoscopy - it is the scientific study of the sole of the foot.
Ridge Characteristics - are those little points of detail in the
formation of the pattern, which are used in comparing two
fingerprints in order to determine its identity.
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Furrows - are the canals or depressions found on the epidermis of
the skin containing sweat pores. They appear as white lines in an
inked finger impression.
Ridges - are the tiny elevations or hill-like structures found on the
epidermis of the skin containing sweat pores. They appear as
black lines with tiny white dots, called pores in an inked finger
impression. Other term for ridges- the friction ridges are
sometimes referred to as papillary or epidermal ridges. These
terms are used in medical works because this pertains to the skin,
technically referred to as epidermis.

Fingerprint Formation:
Fingerprints - are the distinctive ridge-outlines, which appear on the
inside of the end joints of the fingers and thumbs.
Bulb of Fingers - the bulb of the fingers and thumbs is the portion on
the inside of the tips of the fingers and thumbs, in the first phalanx
and from one nail joint to the opposite nail joint.
Friction Skin - is the skin covering the bulb of the fingers and
thumbs, the palm slippage.
Formation of Friction Skin - Friction skin is composed of ridges and
furrows (depression).
Epidermis - is the scientific term for the outer or top skin, which is
also identified as the surface skin.
Components of Epidermis - consist of two main layers, the stratum
corneum and stratum mucosum.
Stratum Corneum - it covers the surface on which the ridges are
visible.
Stratum Mucosum - is the layer beneath the stratum corneum, and
forms the ridges that run lengthwise and correspond to the surface
ridges.
Dermis - is the scientific term for the deeper inner, or true skin. It is
within the structure of the dermis that the individual characteristic
of ridges and patterns are formed.
Components of Dermis - The main components of the dermis are
the sweat pores, the sweat glands, and the dermal papillae.
Sweat Pores - The sweat pores run in single rows along the ridges,
and communicate through the sweat ducts with the sweat glands.
Sweat Glands - The sweat glands are below the entire epidermis,
and are not visible.
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Dermal Papillae - are the nerve endings located between the dermis
and the epidermis. The papillae occur in various and irregular
numbers. By their location, proximity, and fusion, they control the
course of flow of the subsequent ridges, and mold the outer
surface of the skin.
Pores - the pores, per se, are individual characteristics. They are not
considered in the classification of fingerprints according to the
Galton-Henry system and the FBI extension.
Appearance of Skin on Paper - for identification and classification
purposes, the epidermis is inked and its impression transferred
into paper. All of the characteristics and the formation of the ridges
will now appear on the paper.
Appearance of ridges - on a white card or paper, the ridges appear
as black lines.
Appearance of depressions - on such a card or paper, the
depressions, or furrows, appear as white spaces between ridges.
Flow of ridges - the ridge flow in various directions, forming
numerous designs or patterns. They are the individual
characteristics of the person.
Consideration of impressions - for classification and identification
purposes, only the ridges are counted and/or traced. The
depressions or white spaces between the black lines are not
considered in classifying fingerprints
Fragmentary ridges - are considered in the classification of
fingerprints if they appear as dark and as thick as the surrounding
ridges within the pattern area. Fragmentary are sequences of short
ridges embedded in the furrows.
Scarf Skin - is a dry dead skin, which has scaled and peeled away
from the surface skin. This may become embedded in the furrows
and may resemble fragmentary ridges.
Incipient ridges - are malformed, thin, short or broken ridges, which
appear in the depressions between two well-formed ridges. They
may be undeveloped or degenerated ridges, or tiny strip of
scarfskin, which is splitting or fraying from a ridge.

Ridge Characteristics:
Ridge - a ridge is a raised strip of skin on the inner side of the end
joints of fingers and thumbs.
Ridge formation - ridge appears in various formations, such as re-
curving, converging, short, long, etcetera.
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Short ridge - is what the name implies. It is used in the ridge count
only when it appears as thick and as dark as all of the surrounding
ridges.
Re-curving ridge - is a ridge which, at a certain point in its course,
curves back in the direction of its starting point.
Converging ridges - are two ridges suddenly tending to approach
each other at one point; they may even meet and continue as a
single ridge.
Divergence - is a spreading apart of two ridges, which after running
parallel, or nearly parallel, suddenly separate, spread apart, and
cease to be parallel.
Bifurcation - is one single ridge splitting or forking into two or more
branches.
Inverted Bifurcation - an inverted bifurcation is the bifurcation of one
single ridge, splitting or forking in the opposite direction from line of
flow of the surrounding ridges.
…Difference: Bifurcation and Divergence. In fingerprints, for
purposes of classification, it is very important not to confuse a
bifurcation with divergence. The rule is:
Bifurcation - result from one single ridge; Divergence - results
from two distinct ridges.
Enclosure - is formed by a bifurcation when the branches, once
separate ridges, meet again and become one ridge.
Dot - is exactly what the word implies, a dot.
Island - an island resembles a circle, or a dot, or at times an oval, It
is formed by single ridge which, after bifurcating for short space,
converges and continues as a single ridge. An enclosure and an
island are often referred to as one and the same; however, an
island is always much smaller than the enclosure.
 Angle - an angle is the result of two or more ridge meeting each
other.
 Ending ridge - an ending ridge is a ridge abruptly stopping its
course therefore “ending”. It is considered an ending ridge only if it
stop within the pattern area.

.. Why we must study Fingerprint ?

Criminal identification by means of fingerprints is one of the most
potent factors in obtaining the apprehensions of fugitives who
might otherwise escape arrest and continue their criminal activities
indefinitely.
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From earliest fingerprinting, because of its peculiar adaptability to the
field, has been associated in the lay mind w/ criminal identification
to the detriment of the other useful phases of the science

.. Three Principles of FP
1. Individuality - no two persons having fingerprints identically alike.
2. Permanency - constant / unchanging.
3. Infallibility - reliable (establishing identities of criminals reluctant to
admit previous arrests. Other personal characteristic
changes but fingerprints do not.

.. Can you force a person to be fingerprinted?

As long as the person is under legal arrest, he can be forced to be
fingerprinted. A person under arrest who refuses to be
fingerprinted may be prosecuted by disobedience to the agent of
the person in authority (Art. 151, RPC).

.. What to emphasize in human fingerprint?

 Friction ridge comparison.. is a forensic science.
The individualized characteristics will never be affected by
physical growth or aging of human body. These factors were firmly
proven scientifically through various experimentations and
research known as the theory of “everybody differ each other”
during the lifetime of individual.
Rooting on this logic, we can attend to the confirmation of the
suspect’s identity, and criminal history; the disclosure of the
identity of unidentified persons; to deduce criminal’s identity from
fingerprints gathered from the crime scene.

Fingerprint is truly a reliable weapon of detective action against

criminal. By maximum utilization of the fingerprint, it could easily
trigger the identification of the suspect.

.. Types of Prints:
Invisible Latent Prints - latent prints whose markings are caused by
the sweat that left on the surface whenever our fingers touch on
object.
Visible Prints - are prints which are left on the surface when our
fingers are smeared with any colored substances such as wet
paint or blood, oil or dust.
Semi-visible Prints - are prints, which are marked on the surface
whenever our fingers touch soft object like wax or candle.