bo AFHRL-TP-80-41

STUDY AND DE3IGN OF HIGH G AUGMENTATION DEVICES-

SFOR FLIGHT SIMULATORS

Gerald J. Kron
Frank M. Cardullo
Li.k Div., The Singer Company
Binghamton, NY 13902

SI Laurence R. Young
Massachusetts Institute of Technology ' .,

Cambridge, MA 02139 K

Final Report
"I December 1981

APPROVED FOR PUBLIC RELEASE

D DISTRIBUTION,, UNLIMITED
C.:1
LLJ PREPARED FOR
U. S. AIR FORCE HUMAN RESOURCES LABORATORY

I1 WRIGHT-PATTERSON AIR FORCE BASE, OHIO

THIS

81 12 28 11

S .... .. I.... . I
 p

DISCLAIMER NOTICE

THIS DOCUMENT IS BEST QUALITY

PRACTICABLE. THE COPY FURNISHED
TO DTIC CONTAINED A SIGNIFICANT
NUMBER OF PAGES WHICH DO NOT
REPRODUCE LEGIBLY.

.. Sitw
 !I
4
AFIIRL-TP-80- 1

STUDY AND DESIGN OF HIGH G AUGMENTATION DEVICES

FOR FLIGHT SIMULATORS

Gerald J. Kron
Frank M. Cardullo
Link Div., The Singer Company
Binghamton, NY 13902

Laurence R. Young
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Cambridge, MA 02139

Final Report
December 1981

APPROVED FOR PUBLIC RELEASE

DISTRIBUTION UNLIMITED

iOPERATIONS TRAINING DIVISION

AIR FORCE HUMAN RESOURCES LABORATORY

WILLIAMS. AIR FORCE BASE. ARIZONA 85224

I .]

I
II
 1REORT
SCCURITY CLASSIFICATION OF THIS PACE (*

~)CUZENATIOI PAE
REPOT DCUANTATON
Data Entered)

AGEBEFORE
1READ INSTRUCT!ONS
COMPLETING FORM
I4&RORT hUIAi&.R4. GOVT ACCESSION NO RCIPsENT*S
A3 CATALOG NUMBER

T.IYTLE (ani Subtitle) Fin.

TYEO RPR PERIOD COVERED

I . PERFORMING ORO. REPORT NtUMBER

AUTGerald CONTRACT OR GRANT NUMBER(@)

Frank M. Cardullo F33615-77<'..0055
Laurence R. Young - Massachusetts institute of Tech ____________

II. PERFORMING ORtGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS 10. PRO3RAm Ei..EMENT. Pq~jEC-, TASKC
AREA a WORK UNIT NUMBWERS'
Singer Caypany - Link Division 62S
* Binghamton, New York 13902 622108F

I I. CONTROLLING OFFICE NAME ANO ADDRESS

Hq. Air Force Himian Resources Laboratory (AFSC) I
12. REPOR~T ýATE
December1981
Brooks AFB, Texas 78235 544UME F AE
i 4. MAONITORIN4G A,.ýENC't NAME & AOýRESS(dt djlh~ttnt fron' '.ontroii~ng Office) IS. SECURITY CLASS. (of Villi report)

Operations Training Divijsion Unclassified

Air Force Human Resources Laboratory 15s.. EZ.SdCTC,
Williams Air Force Base, Arizona 85224 SHDL

16 ISTRi IC-4ON~ ST.AlZMLNT (of thl~a Rep'ort)4

APProved for Public Release Distribution Unlimited.

1.1 17, DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT (of the abotraet en~tered In Block 20, It different fromn Report)

III. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

I IS KEY WORDS (C.4ntfnue ean

Simrulation
toyota.

Motion
did* it nece..ar anid Identify by block airmber)
G-Seat BicrechanicalI
Flight Simiulation Acceleration Stress Labyrinthine
Santic G-Cuing Cardiovascular Auditory
Perception Anti-G Suit Protective Devices Lacrimation

,,_ABSTRACT (Conitnue an reverse side it necessary and Identify by block number)

-Tr' physiological effects of accelerated flight are considered to contain
perceptual infonmaticrn b%=potant to vehicle control and contribute to defjinin
flight envelopes accessible to the pilot. As such, these effects, or acceptable
I surrogates thereof, must be considered for incl1usion within ground-based de-
[ vices designed to train pilots for their flight mission. This study inrvesti-
gates the physiological effects of accelerated fligjht within the cardiovascular
imusculloskeletal, visual, aud~itory, tactile, and respiratory systemi. Th
study advances conceptual designs of research-oriented devices thought capable

EDD i'A"7 1473 EDITION OF IMNOV 45 IS OBSOLETE TrTASEE

SECURITY CLASSiFICATON OF THIS PAGE (14hon Dada Entered!)

~. ~(fl...,..a-
19. Key Words (continued) Ji

Extremities Sustained Acceleration Neck Forces

Shou•1der Harness Prolonged Acceleration Oculcneter
Visual
Liquid Acuity
Crystals Human
Pilots Plethymwcgraphic
Variable Goggles
Transparency
Cockpit Lighting Acceleration Tolerance Visor
Muscle Loader Thresholds Acceleration Grayout
Pheripheral Light Loss Physiological Effect Acceleration Blackout
Hypoxia Endurance Central Light Loss
Skin Temperature Positive G Negative Pressure Breathing
M1 Maneuver Vision Retina Circulation
Valsalva Respiration Interocular Pressure
Helmet Loader Manual Control Lower Body Negative
Vestibular Tactile Pressure (LONP)
Efference Copy Envirorarental Force Thermoelectric Module
Acceleration Physiology Musculoskeletal Oculogravic Illusion

0. Abstract (continued)

f irducing, in the unaccelerated state, the perception of accelerated

flight physiological effects. The authors conclude that one of the most
ximportant effects hmpacting vehicle control and successful mission execu-
tion is loss of visual acuity under accelerated flight conditions and
propose a dual effect matrixed liquid crystal variable transparency visor
to replicate this effect. A math mrodel to simulate the effect is also
presented. The study contains a bibliography of 277 references pertinent
to accelerated flight physiological effects and equivalent simulation
device design. The study presents an appendix containing an annotated
bibliography of 133 references.

. _ - _ __

LA
1L

H
Fy

S 2S;........ .... ...... . 5

 -•--. - * .1•1

I
II
I

[ The authors acknowledge the research contri-

butions of Timothy Hale, Karen Wike and
George Minnich as being essential to the
conduct of the High G Augmentation Devices
Study. In addition a debt of gratitude is
owed to Margaret Conklin of the Link Library
for her efforts concern,-d with the prodi-
[ gious task of obtaining reference material
necessary to the performance of this study.

It
At

I
K
r--••
'L ' • " .•,-•.•i-,,* ,-",,i-',,', ',.•''- --- -, :. • -• •.• .,,,:. --, • . ... • *'p
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section Title Page
1. INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background 1
1.2 Approach 4
1.3 Study Objectives 7
2. LITERATURE SEARCH 8
2.1 Sources 8
2.2
•. NTIS Interactive Search Key Words 9
2.3 DDC Search Key Words 10
2.4 Medlars II Search Key Words 10
2.5 Catalog and Review 11
2.6 Personal Contacts 13
3. HIGH G PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS 14
3.1 General 14
3.2 Physiological Systems Affected by Excessive
G Levels 14
4. MECHANIZATION 18
4.1 General 18
. 4.2 Lower Body Negative Pressure 19
4.2.1 Background 19
4.2.2 LBNP Research 20
4.2.3 LBNP Applications 24
4.2.4 Non-Invasive Cardiovascular Monitors 32
4.3 High G Visual Effects Generation 38
"4.3.1 General 38
S
4.3.2 Oculometer 40
4.3.3 Simplified High G Visual Acuity Model 41
1. 4.3.4 Ophthalmodynamometry: Plethysmographic
Goggles 60
4.3.4.1 Introduction 60
4.3.4.2 Similarities Between Effects of Acceleration
"and of Plethysmographic Goggles 6'-
4.3.4.3 Hardware Considerations - Plethysmographic
Goggles 66

L:
4.3.5 Area of Interest Variable Transparency V3.isor 68
4.3.5.1 Visor Concept 70
4.3.5.1.1 Dual Optical Effects of Interest 71
4.3.5.1.2 Flat Plate Display Prototype 73
4.3.5.1.3Matrix Addressing 75
4.3.5.1.4Display Pattern of Specific Interest 76
4.3.5.1.5Multiplexing, Drive Waveform, and Power 77
4.3.5.2 Visor Response 78
4.3.5.3 Visor Subsystem Structure and Developmental Approach 82
436Diminution of Visual Acuity Simulation 84
4.3.6.1 Flight Instruments 84
4.3.6.2 Visual Displays 86
4.3.6.3 Visual System Drives 88
4.3.6.4 Cockpit Lighting Drives 91
4.4 Musculoskeletal Loaders 94
4.4.1 Head/Neck Loading 94
4.4.1.1 Helmet vs Head Motion 109
4.4.2 Upper/Lower Arm Loaders 111
4.4.2.1 Introduction 1J
4.4.2.2 Concept 113
4.4.2.3 Drive Scheme 119
Tactile Devices 124

1
4.5
4.5.1 Shoulder Harness 124
4.5.2 Skin Temperature Driver 127
4.5.3 Face Mask Loader 137
4.5.4
4.6
4.6.1
Localized Firmness Cells
Respiratory Devices
Subatmospheric Face Mask
142
146
146
1
4.6.2 Hypoxia Induction 151
4.6.3 Respiration Rate Monitoring Devices 132
5. SUGGESTED MECHANIZATION PLAN 154
6. SUMMARY 159
7. BIBLIOGRAPHY 167-202
APPENDIX A
A. HIGH G PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS

A.1 General
-iv-
-

i
 A.2 Cardiovascular Effects A-4
A.2.1 Effects of Acceleration on the Cardiovascular
System A-17
A.2.2 Effects of Transverse Acceleration A-27
A.2.3 Protective Devices A-27
A.3 Visual System A-40
A.3.1 Visual Effects of Vertical (G ) Acceleration A-43
A.3.2 Visual Effects of Transverse Acceleration A-62
A.3.2.1 Lacrimation A-62
A.3.3 Summary A-68
A.4 Musculoskeletal A-68
A.4.1 Extremities A-68
A.4.2 Head/Neck A-90
A.4,2.1 Helmet vs. Head Motion A-99
A.5 Auditory Effects A-103
A.5.1 Auditory Perception Under High G A-103
A.5.2 Auditory Stimulus Composition Change A-104

I,
A.6
A.6.1
Tactile
Tactile Sensation in Ischial Tuberosity,
Shoulder Harness and Face Mask Regions
A-10i

A-105
A.6.2 Temperature/Pressure Relationships A-108

A.7 Respiration A-113

A.7.1 Respiration in the Unaccelerated Environment A-114

A.7.1.1 Ventilation A-114

A.7.1.2 Perfusion A-119
""A.7.1.3 Ventilation-Perfusion Ratio and Gas Exchange
-- in the Lung at 1G A-122
A.7.1.4 Control of Respiration and Work of Breathing A-125
A.7.2 Respiration in the Accelerated Environment A-126
- A.7.2.1 Lung Mechanics Under Acceleration A-127
A.7.2.2 Similarity of Negative Pressure Breathing to
1. +G Effects A-129
A.7.2.3 Effects of A.cceleration on Ventilation/Perfusion
Ratio, Gas Exchange and Arterial Saturation A-132
" ~APPENDIX B
B. AN1NOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY B-1

U1
 LIST OF FIGURES
__ure Title Page

1.1-1 G levels experienced in a 1938 Heinkel 50 flight 1

1.1-2 Recorded G levels 2
1.1-3 FI5 engagement capabilities 2
4.2.2-1 Comparison of the effects of 15 minutes LBNP at
20, 40, and 60 mm Hg 22
4.2.3-1 Vacuum/pressure chamber 26
4.2.3-2 Vacuum/pressure chamber control system diagram 29
4.2.3-3 Possible configuration of LBNP device 31
4.2.4-1 Automatic electrosphygmomanometer 33
4.3.4-1 Monocular visual field loss 65
4.3.4-2 Component parts of the plethysmographic
gogqle 67
4.3.4-3 Goggles seal 68
4.3.5-1 Helmet assembly without shroud 71
4.3.5-2 Flat plate visor display 75
4.3.5-3 Dual frequency addressing and one third voltage
select method 80
4.3.6.1-1 Region of diminution of visual acuity 85
4.3.6.3-1 Selected spot dimming block diagram 89
4.3.6.3-2 Raster with selected spot dimming 90
4.3.6.4-1 Visual display/instrument panel blending of
selected spot dimming 91
4.3.6.4-2 Cockpit interior selected spot dimming block
diagram 92
4.3.6.4-3 Instrument panel light addressing 93
4.4.1-1 Heavy fluid cavity approach 96
4.4.1-2 Head/helmet apparent weight as a function
of Gz 98
4.4.1-3 Helmet loader installed in DMS 100
4.4.1-4 Step response 101
4.4.1-5 Helmet loader control diagram 102
4.4.1-6 Helmet firmness bladder 104

-Vi-I
 4.4.1-7 Helmet firm'ness bladder control diagram 104
4.4.1-8 Cable/boom and drogue approach 106
4.4.1.1-1 Dual firmness bladder helmet 109
4.4.2-1 Arm loader arrangement 114I
4.4.2-2 Lower arm loader motor detail 115
4.4.2-3 Upper arm loader windlass mechanism 117
4.5.1-1 Functional layout of shoulder harness tension
system 126
4.5.1-2 Example shoulder harness loader 128
4.5.2-1 Typical thermoelectric module 129
F4.5.2-2 Thermoelectric module cross-section 130
4.5.2-3 Typical thermoelectric assembly installation
and heat flow capability 131
4.5.2-4 Thermoelectric assembly control loop 13ý
4.5.2-5 Isch'ial tuberosity heat flow diagram 134
4.5.2-6 Skin temperature change resulting from current
doublet of various magnitudes 135
4.5.2-7 Thermoelectric module plate temperature 136
4.5.3-1 Face mask loader arrangement 138
4.5.3-2 Face mask loader motor 139
r4.5.4-1 Helmet firmness cells 143
4.5.4-2 Arm undersurface firmness bladder 144
4.5.4-3 Boot innersole firmness bladder 144
4.5.4-4 Firmness cell control system 145
4.5.4-5 G-seat firmness cell response 145
4.6.1-1 Respiratory rate as a function of Gx148
*4.6.1-2 Respiration dynamics control system 148
4.6.1-3 Partial 02 pressure 150
A.2-1 Simplified diagram of circulation through the
heart A-6
A.2-2 Blood pressure throughout the systemic circulation A-8
A.2-3 Effect of hydrostatic pressure on the systumic
pressure throughout the body A-11
A.2-4 Dynamics of various arterial pressure control
1..systems A-13

-vii-
 A.2-5 Baroieceptor system A-14
A.2-6 Baroreceptor response as a function of arterial
pressure A-15
A.2.1-1 Seated systolic blood pressure as a function of Gz A-19
A.2.1-2 Mean arterial blood pressure as a function of Gz A-21
A.2.1-3 G-Tolerance curve with various acceleration rates A-22
A.2.1-4 Effects of +3.5 G stress on cardiovascular function A-23
A.2.1-5 The effect of +Gz upon cerebral arterial and
jugular venous pressure A-23
A.2.1-6 A typical response to +7 G in an unanesthetized
miniature swine A-25
A.2.3-1 Arteriai Pressure (AP) and Heart Rate (HR)
response to the valsalva maneuver A-30
A.2.3-2 Psa response during PPB and during MI
maneuver at +8.0 G for 60s A-31
A.2.3-3 Mean eye-level blood pressure changes during
+G while performing the Ml and Ll maneuvers A-31
z
A.2.3-4 Comparison of M1 maneuver and positive pressure
breathing A-32
A.2.3-5 Direct paper chart recording during a rapid-
onset (ROR) and slow-onset (SOR) +G acceleration
profile A-33
A.2.3-6 Mean blood pressure for eight subjects during
rapid onset run 0.2-0.3 G prior to the run in
which peripheral light loss occurred A-34
A.2.3-7 Increase in +Gz tolerance afforded by a
standard 5-bladder anti-G suit A-36
A.2.3-8 Effects of +Gz Acceleration with and without
an anti-G suit A-37
A.2.3-9 Decreased vertical heart-to-eye distances
obtained by tilting backward A-38
A.3-1 Right eye showing visual axis passing through
center of lens to point of sharpest vision
I at fovea ±t-1

-viii-
 A.3-2 Dimensions of the human eye A-42
A.3.1-1 a, b, & c Degradation in the field of view
at three levels of acceleration A-44
K A.3.1-1 d, e, & f Monocular visual field loss A-45
A.3.1-2 Remaining upper half of three seat-back angles A-46
A.3.1-3 Responses of subject operating visual field
limit tracker du-.ing simulated ACM G stress at
650, 45°, and 130 seatback angles A-47
A.3.1-4 Mathematical model of visual effects of acceler-
ation A-48
A.3.1-5 Decreased vertical heart-to-eye distances obtained
by tilting bu.ckward A-49
A.3.1--6 Heart-to-eye verticui distance as a function of
seat-back angle A-50
A.3.1-7 G-tolerance curve with various acceleratioa rates A-52
A.3,1-8 Changes in P associated with various levels

of HSG A-56
A.3.1-9 Visual acuity relative to the fovea at a function
of eye-level blood pressure A-57
A.3.1-10 Blood diagram of modification to visual effects
model A-58
A.3.1-11 Eye-level arterial pressure and blood flow
responses during rapid onset run A-59
A.3.1-12 Occurrence of retrograde flow in the temporal
artery prior to peripheral light loss and sub-
sequent blackout A-60
A.3.2.1-1 Sagittal section through eyelid and eyeball A-63
A.3.2.1-2 Frontal diagram of selected elements of the A
Sright eye A-64
A.3.2.1-3 Primary afferent and efferent pathways
affiliated with the lacrimal gland A-65
A.4.1-1 Model for Golgi Tendon organ function A-71
A.4.1-2 Muscle sensors A-73
A.4.1-3 Qualittive discharge patterns of spindle
primary and secondary afferents A-74

Iix
• _____________________________ ____________________-i
x -_____________________
 A.4.1-4 Reaching error in +G environment without
z
hand/eye fixation A-80o
A.4.1-5 Direction and error of reaching moments in
S~z +G environments A-86
A.4.1-6 Maximal hand/arm forces in various +G
environments A-88
A.4.2-1 Neck muscles used to control head motion A-91
A.4.2-2 Head/muscle system A-92
A.4.2-3 Lateral head/neck proprioceptor model A-93
A.4.2-4 Inner ear labyrinth A-94
A.4.2-5 Semicircular canal cupula A-95
A.4.2-6 Sensing stratoconia of the utricle A-96
A.4.2-7 Ormsby model of the vestibular system A-97
A.4.2-8 Head rotations, all helmet loadings averaged A-99
A.4.2-9 Linear depression of the left pupil A-100
A.4.2.1-1 Helmet pitch relative to head pitch A-101
A.4.2.1-2 Reticle depression in z direction with
respect to left pupil A-102
A.6.1-1 Pilot's face at +4.5 Gz A-107
A.6.1-2 Pilot's face at +7.5 Gz A-108
A.6.2-1 Changes in nerve impulse amplitude as a function
of temperature A-110
A.7-1 Effect of pleural pressure gradient ',n the volume A
distribution of gas within the lung A-115
A.7-2 Regional subdivisions of lung volume in seated
men A-117
A.7-3 Effects of pulmonary arterial, alveolar and
venous pressures on the topographical distri-
bution of blood flow in the lung A-120
A.7-4 Reduction of blood flow of the most dependent zone
of the lung as a result of a raised interstitial
pressure A-121
A.7-5 The effect of positive acceleration on the
variation in ventilation A-123 .1
A.7-6 Extremes of ventilation-perfusion ratio A-123

, xA
A.7-7 The effect of forward acceleration on lung
capacity A-128
A.7-8 Effect of back angle on respiration in room
air A-129
A.7-9 Static relaxation pressure-volume curves A-130
A.7-10 Mean values from all respiratory quantities
investigated at +G acceleration A-133
A.7-11 Changes of the 02 and CO2 alveolar plateaus
for increasing values of +G acceleration A-134
A.7-12 Time course of changes in arterial oxygen
saturation induced by positive acceleration A-135
A.7-13 Arterial oxygen saturations reported during
exposure to varying levels and axes of
acceleration A-136
A.7-14a Actual mean response and mean response pre-
dicted by initial synthetic transfer function
to ACM G stress A-139
A.7-14b Predicted response to 6-G pulse A-139
A.7-15 Effects of forward (+G ) acceleration on
z
intrathoracic pressures A-141
A.7-16 Relative ventilation-perfusion ratios plotted
against distance A-142
A.7-17 Effect of exposing an anaesthetised dog to
-7G on arterial oxygen saturation and venous
pressure A-144
A.7-18 Changes in arterial oxygen saturation during
acceleration when breathing oxygen or air A-144

*-xi-"
f:
I LI
 NET-,

LIST OF TABLES
Table Title Page

2-1 Bibliography topical di.stribution 11

4.2.2-1 Mean percent change in blood pressure by

source and for various levels of LBNP 21

4.2.2-2 Mean physiological responses of men and
women during -20, -40, and -60 mm Hg LBNP 23
4.2.3-1 Mean systolic pressure 28
4.3.4-1 Compari.-on of visual and plethysmographic
goggle effects 62
4.4.1-1 Head and helmet weight as a function of Gz 95
4.6.1-1 Summary of high G effects on the respiratory
system 147
5-1 High G augmentation devices development
process 156-158
A-1 Axis system definition A-3
A.3.1-2 +Gz levels at which end points occurred along t
with visual symptoms at each end point and
time at which they occurred A-53
A.5.1-1 Light and sound reaction times as a function
of G A-103
A.7-1 Oxygen exchange under various conditions of
acceleration A-137

,I

It

H
V
1. INTRODUCTION

iI i1.1 Background

11For tactical air superiority a pilot should know where in the

flight envelope he enjoys slight advantage, attempt to structure
the engagement to enter this region, and be willing to travel to
the border of his flight envelope to capture the advantage.
Unfortunately, in the very important case of maneuverability, for
years the borders of the flight envelope have produced bodily
acceleration levels which- represent a physiologically hostile
environment. The acceleration data plotted in Figure 1.1-1 is
taken from a 1938 flight of a Heinkel He 50 b12ilane dive bomber
(18) and demonstrates very significant acceleration onset rates to
the 4g level and elevated G levels sustained for up to six
seconds.

KI

Figure 1.1-1 G lavels experienced in a 19.38 Heinkel

50 flight (from Von Seckh (is)) (courtesy
of Aerospece Medical Association).

The evolution of tactical aircraft has intensified this hos-

tile environment in terms of acceleration magnitude, duration, and
frequency of occurrence as demonstrated in Figure 1.1-2 which il-
lustrates G levels recorded during an actual N4E combat engagement
(154). The newest domestic tactical aircraft designs have further
intensified acceleration levels as depicted in Figure 1.1-3 demon-
strating F15 engagement capabilities (86). We often think of such
maneuvering as being the sole province of air combat maneuvering
(ACM); however, close air support and other air to ground sorties
can employ low level terrain avoidance flight strategically.

.- 1-
 F4E ACM

10

ACCELERATION
+G

S2040 60 80 100 120 140

SET
Figure 1.1-2 Recorded G levels (from Leverett & Burton
(154)) (courtesy of Advisory Group for
Aerospace Research and Development).

F-1 5
12 COMPUTER-SIMULATED ENGAGEMENT

IoI

Z,,
0 20 40 so o 100
SECONDS

Figure 1.1-3 FIS engagement capabilities (from Gillingham

£ Krutz(8))•.

Perdriel and Whiteside (170) report on significant acceleration in-

duced visual degradation occurring in such flight. It is evident
that the technology of aircraft des4tgn and mission strategy have
produced increases in flight acceleration boundaries reaching the

-2-
 threshold of that which can be withstood by pilots. Assuming such
advantages have been provided friend tnd foe alike, the mea~sure of
advantage may more directly fall1 on the efficacy of protective de-
vices a pilot is provided with to help increase his resistance to
the adverse effects of elevated acceleration and how well trained
the pilot is in functioning in this environment.

Entrance to and operation in the high G environment occurs

for strategic reasons to gain advantage, and affects, depending on
the severity of the acceleration levels encountered, pilot air-
craft control (50, 98). Similarly, maneuvering tactics are struc-
tured to accommodate the physiological stresses of high G and at-
tempt to minimize the more sp:ious physiological abuse which could
lead to catastrophic consequences. Thus, during World War Il dive
bomber pilots found it preferable to enter a dive with a roll over
maneuver which would maintain "positive G's" rather than a push-
over which would expose them to the whipsaw effect of "negative
G's" during the dive with immediate reversal to positive G's dur-
I' ing the subsequent dive pullout. In the latter case the cardiovas-
cular system would complete its compensation for a negative G con-
dition and leave the pilot very unfavorably prepared for the subse-
quent onslaught. of positive G. Even in the more advantageous con-
dition of maintenance of positive G's throughout the maneuver, un-
consciousness with resulting involuntary relaxation of the stick
was feared and aircraft were normally trimmed up nose-high such
that, should syncope (brief loss of consciousness due to sudden
lowering of blood pressure) occur, the aircraft might fly itself
out of th.e dive (176).

Simulation for the purposes of pilot training, in the main,

has not provided means to replicate the physiological effects of
high G. Although centrifuges are invaluable for research, they
are not practical for pilot training. Even the lower acceleration
levels of normal maneuvering have been exceedingly difficult to

-3-
 simulate satisfactorily through the use of large simulated cockpit
motion systems,

The G-seat approach to somatic stimulation teaches that di-

rect sensory stimulation can be acceptable, useful, and perhaps
extended to produce some of the high G effects of importance for
* training. But what are the effects associated with high C? Which
effects are important to pilot control of the aircraft? Which ef-
fects alter the structure of a mission? How might these effects
be beat generated in the lg training environment? Do the physio-
logical effects include lower acceleration range stimuli useful to
the pilot in a broader range of maneuvering circumstances than
just those found at high G levels? Are the inclusion of these

f effects within tactical aircraft simulation worth the cost and

possible pilot encumbrance necessary to generate the effects?

These are questions without readily available answers. Yet

the trend of aircraft technology indicates both a greater utiliza-
tion of the high G regime and increased reliance on simulation for
training. Therefore those responsible for tactical aircraft pilot
training programs and equipment must be concerned with addressing
these questions and initiating work leading to their answer.

1.2 hpproach

The answers to these questions posed above are rooted in an under-

standing of the behavioral changes which occur as a function of
acceleration induced physiological change. At least two poss'Ible
approaches could be taken: experimentation within the actual. task
and attempt to monitor the relationship of individual physiologi-
cal variables to behavior or, secondly, work within a totally sim-
ulated environment and sequentially add the sim2Jlation producing
additional physiological stimuli while observing behavioral
change.

-4- j
 The prognosis in using th fir-it approach to determine the
importance of high G effects is unfavorable. Collyer, in a 1973 t
report (50) addressing psychomotor testing, addresses this point
pessimistically.

"The studies reviewed in this report section indicate

that only a few attempts have been made to measure, simultan-
eously, G-induced changes in both the behavioral and the
physiologic variables. The results have generally been dis-
appointing. Indeed, considecabla doubt has been expresssed
by some researchers that the combined physiologic-psychologic
approach has a significant probability of success in the near
future. The main reason for this doubt is the complexity, in
all psychomotor tasks, w:ich makes it difficult (if not impos-
sible) to establish connection between behavioral integrity
and the integrity of physiologic systems. Howard has stated
that 'alterations in performance cannot, in general, be pre-
dicted from the physiological response to acceleration, be-
cause the ability to carry out a task always depends on the
ii functioning of more than one system' (ref. 37; p. 652).
Other authors, such as Chambers (14), have stressed that
previous research has shown the difficulty of predicting the
acceleration thresholds for a performance drop on the basis
of those for physiologic changes. The commonly employed
physiologic indices have not been reliable or sensitive
correlates to the subtle changes in human psychomotor effi-
ciency -- especially in comparatively complex tasks which
approximate operational conditions.

Another reason for this difficulty, of formulating gen-

eral principles for the prediction of behavioral change based
on physiologic change, is that both physiology and behavior
are affected by stress. As pointed out by Hartman (36)
changes in a specific physiologic parameter mey be evident as
the G-level is gradually increased; but measurable behavioral

-5- I
 f
,changes may not occur until n relatively high G-level has
been reached -- at which time the performance decrement may
be sudden and dramatic."

We have selected the second approach which advocates that the

importance of an acceleri -ion effect can be best evaluated through
production of the effect itself within a simulation of the task in
which the effect is normally experienced. The Air Force Human
Resources Laboratory (HRL) has commissioned the study reported on
herein as a step toward that end. We see the overall approach
being executed in three phases. This study forms the first phase
with an objective of identifying the physiological consequences
of, and stimuli associated with, exposure to the high G regime.
An engineering assessment of the high G physiological effects is
employed with the objective if establishing concepts by which
these effects might be introduced in lg laboratory simulation. We
believe that a greater numbe of devices, thus a greater number of
high G effects can be initially simulated and investigated in a
* laboratory environment in which the design of the device may make
certain trespasses on environmental fidelity and pilot imposition
which may not readily be accepted in line simulation.

The second phase would deal with the design, construction,

installation, ;,erification and use of the laboratcry devices set
forth in the study. This would be the critical phase in identi-
fying the importance of acceleration induced physiological effects
as it pertains to the pilot training effort and it is expected
that the high G simulation augmentation device would be employed
in an otherwise high fidelity task simulation to determine its
effect on pilo, performance and mode of control. Comparison of
pilot simulator performance with and without the benefit of the
high G effect would be made against the performance observed in
the actual task. It is therefore anticipated that either instru- U
mented aircraft flight or, where feasible, centrifuge simulation
would be required to support the investigation. In comparisons of

-6-

.+~ ~ ~~~~
.... . . . .• h+ ,%_ .++..,,.
....:+•,
...
.i
.-
.--
+?. ••. ,• , • ++... + •• V+...+
 this nature '*he more "favorable" simulation performance, and thus
a measure of the importance and suitability of thj physiological
effect under examination, would be defined as that which more
closely approximates pilot performance and behavior in the actual
task, irrespective of the quality of the performance measured
* against any other standard.

The objective of the thiLJ phase would be to move those high

G augmentation devices found to increase the fidelity of high G
simulation from laboratory configuration to that configuration
acceptable in line simulation. In some cases we would expect the
laboratory configuration to be directly acceptable and little
effort need be expended in the transfer. However there would
rlikely be other device configurations in which design effort would
be required in an attempt to find a configuration which would be
acceptable to line pilots.~ It is unfortunate# but entirely pos-
sible, that some of. the laboratory devices would demonstrate the
importance of a high G effect but not lead to acceptable line sim-
ulation implementation.

1.3 Study Objectives

As mentioned above the study phase involves a review and

search of acceleration induced physiological effects which are
likely to alter pilot performance or mission structure as well as
an engineering assessment of concepts which might be employed to I

introduce these effects within laboratory simulation. The auth-

ors' backgrounds represent a mix of expertise in physiological re-I
search and principles of simulation. Past experi.ence has provided
us with an awareness of the peculiarities of pilot acceptance of
simulation techniques. Therefore the thrust of this study is not
directed at adding to the body of knowledge pertaining to the I
* physiological effects of high G but rather to cull this body of
knowledge for effects we suspect are important and might be sub-
* ject to a form of s'.mulp'tion.

-7-
 This technical report is structured in three basic sectiones
(a) high G physiological effects, (b) mechanization concepts by
which some of these effects can be introduced in laboratory simu-
lation, and (c) an appendix containing a summary of information
from the more pertinent references discovered during the litera-'
ture search.

It is apparent that the human physiological processes can be

substantially affected by the administration of various chemical
substances. Likewise there are physiological effects, or conitrol4
thereof, which might be most directly achieved via invasive tech-
niques. Based on the potential hazards which exist in both of
these areas, they have been excluded from consideration herein.

2. LITERATURE SEARCH

2.1 Sources

The literature search supporting this study was two phased.

in the initial phase a search was conducted of the following data
banks employing key words relevant to acceleration induced physio-
logical effects:

A) National Technical Information Service

B) Defense Documentation Center

C) Medlars Il

Abstract listings were obtained, reviewed, and pertinent re-

ports ordered. These reports in turn referenced material not ap-
pearing in the initial search. In the second phase second gener-
ation references such as these were made available to us through

the Link Library dealing primarily with DDC. Additional refer-

-8-
ences were obtained through the libraries of the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology and the State University of New York.

2.2 NTIS Interactive Search Key Words

MIT facilities permitted an interactive search of the NTIS

reference bank. The key words selected (and number of items
found):

Group I
Sustained Acceleration (12)
Long Term Acceleration (1)
Prolonged Acceleration (21)
Long Acceleration (5)

Group II

Acceleration Physiology (562)

Group III

Human (15416)
Humans (2979)
Man (4076)
Astronauts (461)
Pilots (2271)

Grouping

Group II/and/Group III (33)

Group IIl/and/Group I (53)
Group III/and/Group I/and/Group II (20)

-9-
 L••;• - -.. - .... ... . .....

2.3 DDC Search Key Words

The DDC search was not conducted in an interactive mode and

employed the following key words:

Group I

Acceleration
Acceleration Tolerance

Group II

Tolerances
Thresholds
Stress
Endurance
Acceleration Tolerance
Physiological Effect

Each item from Group II individually was logically "anded"

L1 with Group I to form the elements of the subset representing the
product of the search-approximately 250 references.

2.4 Medlars II Search Key Words

The MEDLARS data bank contains references pertinent to the

medical field. The key words employed in this search were:

Acceleration/and/Physiology

Approximately 170 references were cited under this key .ord

combination.* .1

:1
-10- ,

ilki
 2.5 Catalog and Review

All the abstracts obtained in the foregoing search were re- I

viewed by each of the authors. The references which appeared to
be useful enough to warrant acquisition were ordered and cataloged
according to basic topical relevance. This selection process con-
tributed to the 277 references listed in Section 7 which forms the
bibliography of this study. Table 2-1 demonstrates the topical ap-
plicability of this bibliography.

Table 2-1 Bibliography topical distribution.

NUMBER OF REFERENCES
RANK TOPIC SIGNIFICANTLY ADDRESSING
LISTED TOPIC

I Cardiovacular Effects 71

2 Visual Effects 47
3 Misc. (ncludes Physiological monitoring devices, 40
data useful to mechanization section herein, etc.

V 4 General Physiological " 33

1! 5 High G Protective Devices 25

6 Respiratory Effects 21

7 Lower Body Negative Pressure 21

8 Biomnechenical (Static/sustained effects and general 19

information
Biomechanical (Dynamic, Musculoskeletal Impedance, 16
vibration reaction, impact reaction

10 General Review ! High G Origin and Effects 10

11 Manual Control Effects 9

12 Simulation 7

13 Labryinthine 6

14 Tactile 6

15 Environmental Force -flects 5

16 Auditory Effects 15
Note: Documents with major applicability in more than one topic are
included in total for each topic.

-11
I.
-' - -II-
 Each author reviewed all the references pertaining to his
area of responsibility and as many of the other references as time
would permit. Annotated bibliography data sheets (presented in
Appendix B of this study) were employed to record particularly
pertinent information from the references. In general, annotated
bibliography sheets were not used in the review of lengthy works
such as text books covering a broad range of physiological infor-

maton contract statement of work we were to be alert specifi-

cally to information relevant to acceleration induced physiologi-

cal effects related to:

a) Head/helmet loading stimuli

b) Shoulder strap tactile stimuli

C) Extremity (arm) loading stimuli

d) Audition alteration

e) Visual alteration

Further, lower body negative pressure/upper body positive

pressure was to be investigated for its simulation applicability.I

As can be seen in Table 2-1, only minor amounts of information
were discovered in the biomechanical audition and wide field
tactile areas where as the majority of information pertains to the
cardiovascular and visual areas.

-12-
 2.6 Personal Contacts

In addition to the formal literature search using computer

data bases and conventional bibliographic tracing, some extremely
valuable leads were generated by discussions with several outside
specialists regarding work in progress or additional avenues for
exploration. In particular, we received important leads from Dr.
1. Thomas Duane in the area of plethysmographic goggles, Dr. Kent
Gillingham in consideration of the relationship between G stress
and visual field using quantitative models, Dr. Dana Rogers in the

modeling of grayout, Dr. Ralph Goldman in the matter of localized

skin heating and cooling, and Dr. Emilio Bizzi in the area of
extremity loading.

l.K.
i13

ilii
Li
•'J•-.3-
"[1 ---- --.• :• 4.; • -•,..,7.. . •,¢'• '•. ••••.' ,'•:4 "•'
3. HIGH G PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS

3.1 General

This section briefly introduces the physiological effects we

consider to have significance in pilot training. For an extensive
examination of the physiological systems at work during sustained
high G levels and the resulting effects of high G maneuvers upon
these systems, refer to Appendix A.

3.2 Physiological Systems Affected by Excessive G Levels

THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

The circulatory system is severely disturbed by excessive

inertial forces with the most noticeable and gross effects
occurringj under increasing positive GZ9 As +Gz increases, the
blood vessels in the legs passively dilate in response to increas-

Ithe
ing hydrostatic pressure causing the blood from the upper part of
the body to be drained toward the lower extremeties. As a result,

venous return decreases causing a decrease in cardiac output.

The upper part of the body does not receive its required amount of
nourishment. The pilot notices this deficiency by experiencing a
diminution of vision, progressively approaching "blackout" and

ultimately loss of consciousness.

It is believed that -Gz causes blood from the lower part of

the body to be drained towards the head producing a full frpeling
in the head and pain in the face and eyes. There exist a con-
troversy as to whether or not this phenomenon causes the so called
"redout" (Appendix A).

The circulatory system is not effected by transverse accelera-

tions. However, visual disturbances have been reported above 1.2
Gx (71). Blurring of vision is not uncommonly experienced at rela-

-14-
 I-I

tively high levels of Gx. Visual blurring has been attributed to

lacrimation, the process of tears forming in the eyes disrupting
the path of incoming light rays, and is also associated with +G,
effects induced by other physiological phenomena. Thus, the vis-
ual effects of Gx can be generated indirectly by the approaches
suggested for the simulation of the visual Gz effects.

EXTREMITIES

Subjected to conditions of +2Gz, a person can barely rise

from his seat; +3Gz makes it nearly impossible to raise the leg;
+6Gz restricts arm movement to head level; +8Gz does not allow the
forearm to be raised from a horizontal rest (120, 256). A study
of the mechanization of limb proprioception under high G and of
some physiological performance findings (Appendix A) suggests
means to recreate these effects in the ig environment. Based on
this study, we conclude that actual skeletal segment external
loading will be required to appropriately generate proprioceptive
cuing of environmental acceleration magnitude and to place the
proper constraints upon manual task performance.

HEAD/NECK

A review of the literature has indicated a significant amount

of head and neck motion exist as a result of acceleration (74,
135, 142, 182). Perception and resistance of head movement are of
primary interest to the purpose of this study. Perceptual infor-
mation relating to head position and movement is supplied pri-
marily by two, possibly three, sensory systems. Besides resisting

the inertial reaction of the head, the head/neck musculature de-

tects external displacement forces. The vestibular apparatus
supplies information relating to head attitude. It is further
believed that the joint receptors may add to the ability of per-
ceiving head/neck motion.

U11
 AUDITORY EFFECTS

It has been found that there exist a diminution of auditory

acuity at high G levels (42). The occurrence of this is so close
to the point of unconsciousness that the two are treated as one
and the same.

Since there exist no degradation in auditory acuity until

unconsciousness is approached, it was of concern that possibly
there might be a need to simulate acoustic characteristics pecu-
liar to the acceleration forces on the airframe. However, no
evidence of such specific acoustics existing has been found.

F Thus, it is the conclusion of this study that no useful training

value can be derived in this area of physiological effects.
TACTILE

j The most important tactile effects of the high G environment

are results of touch and pressure sensations. We are concerned
with mainly three tactile effects; perception and magnitude dis-
crimination of large field flesh pressure, perception of light
contact of the skin with foreign objects providing an appreciation
of the magnitude of inertial load by estimation of body tissue
deformation, and perception of the magnitude of skin tension
.1and/or outright scrubbing induced in those areas restrained by or
supporting a foreign body.

The literature search revealed a paucity of data concerning

* these physiological tactile effects occurring under G loading.
However,, the effects of tactile stimuli on the piloting task must
be considered important until proven otherwise.

TEMP ERATURE/P RES SURE

It has been found that there exists a sensory relationship

-16-
 between pressure and temperature perceptions. Because of the
difficulty of producing pressure stimuli in the ig environment
within safety limitations, temperature will be considered as a
means to produce and/or strengthen pressure sensation.

RESPI RATION

The effects of acceleration upon respiration is most dis-

turbing under the conditions of +Gx and +Gz. As a result of
pulmonary shunting associated with pooling of blood in the lower
I' regions of the pulmonary circulation and filling of the upper
parts of the lung with air under +Gz conditions, there is a
decrease in oxygen transport, inspiration becomes difficult, and
there is a reported tendency for the breath to be held during
[ ~inspiration. Under +5 and +6Gx conditions, difficulty of
breathing and chest tightness producing much pain are reported.
As the G level increases approaching +12 Gx, the breathing
difficulty and chest pain become severe and gas exchange is
- inefficient to the point of producing hypoxia.

Negative pressure breathing appears to have nearly identical

effects on lung mechanics as does forward acceleration, and conse-
quently is considered as a high G augmentation concept. Another
approach is to reduce the oxygen content of the inspired air on a
breath by breath basis.

-17-

Li4
4. MECHANIZATION

4.1 General

During the literature search supporting the High G physio-

logical effects discussion presented in Appendix A, the auth6rs
searched for information concerning the methods by which a desired
physiological effect might be generated in a laboratory simulation
environment. Careful attention was paid to investigating whether:

a) A suitable device or concept had been postulated by

others and, if so, evaluating its applicability to this
program.

b) A by product of an unrelated activity might form a means

of generating a physiological response sought herein.

c) A direct address of the physiological system monitoring

or sensing the high, G effect would form the most favor-
able approach in view of encumbrances and side effects
resident in the direct approach device.

Ea ai of the above considerations has yielded concepts or de-

vices included within the mechanization section. For instance the
Nationai Aeronautics and Space Administration has already devel-
oped a helmet loader which may be suitable for use in part of this
program. Duane's (63) plethysmographic goggles may form a suit-
able surrogate system to initially evaluate the importance of vis-
ual peripheral and central light loss in the tactical aircraft
training task. It may be economically preferable to employ the
goggles first before committing to the final, and likely expen-
sive, development of a light metering device which directly ad-
dresses the eye's photo sensors and is suitable for line simula-
tion prcduction of high G visual effects.
S~.1

L '• •.... . . •z•-18-:

 The organization of the mechanization section is closely pat-
terned after the discussion of high G physiological effects. Ap-
proaches to stimuli production are advanced in the cardiovascular,
musculoskeletal, visual, tactile and respiratory areas. Where pos-
sible, the authors have carried the conceptual development to
sketch level and identified potential hardware component selection
as information supporting the current state-of-the-art feasibility
of constructing the device. In those areas where we have discover-
eO that the method by which the device should be driven contains
non-obvious elements, a development of the presently envisioned
drive scheme is provided.

4.2 Lower Body Negative Pressure

4.2.1 Background

The application of reduced pressure to various parts of the

human body has been the subject of investigation for quite some
time. Early studies centered about reduced pressure applied to
relatively small portions of the anatomy sucn as the calf, foot,
hand, etc. Later interest has been focused on leg negative pres-
sure (LNP), where the reduced pressure has been applied to the
total leg, and lower body negative pressure (LBNP), where the area
from the iliac crest to the bottoms of the feet are subjected to
reduced pressure.

The first such experiments were conducted in 1841 by Junod as

reported by Wolthuis (260). He recommended reduced pressure ap-
plied to small anatomical areas, to effect localized hyperemia,
thereby drawing blood away from diseased organs or areas of the
body. He further noted that the resultant pooling of blood in the
extremities could induce syncope, which at the time was a satis-
factory state for surgery.

-19-
 In the 1960's LBNP and LNP were the subjects of investigation
for two primary purposes, both related to cardiovascular decondi-
tioning. Aerospace researchers connected with the manned space
program were interested from the point of view of countering the
effects of long periods of weightlessness on circulation. Medical
researchers were also interested in the possible application of
the technique to patients enduring long periods of bed rest.

The application of LBNP to flight simulation was first pro-

by Howard (118 ) in 1976. Sposedef-
He theorized that the visual
fects of high G flight could be induced in a flight simulator by
artifically reducing venous return from the legs by LBNP.

Another possible application of LBNP to the training of

pilots of high performance aircraft is in the training of strain-
ing maneuvers such as Ml/L1 etc. This concept would address the r
concerns of Gillingham (82) with regard to potential blood pres-
sure changes affiliated with practicing Ml or Ll under 1g. LBNP
could be employed to maintain the eye level blood pressure at safe
levels.

4.2.2 LBNP Research

As was indicated above, the LBNP research that has been con-
ducted has not been performed with the application to high G simu-
lation as the intention. The research has been directed towards
the previously mentioned applications, however, there is some indi-
cation from these data that, at least in terms of magnitude, the
desired levels can be achieved. Table 4.2.2-1 reproduced from
Wolthuis (260) shows the mean percent change in blood pressure for
various levels of LBNP recorded by several researchers. These
data are somewhat inconclusive. There are not enough cases at the
various LBNP levels to demonstrate the gradient in blood pressure
as a function of LBNP level. Some of the data were taken by
direct arterial measurement (designated D in Table 4.2.2-1) and
2
-20-
 Table 4.2.2-1 :lean percent chance in blood pressure by
source and for various levels of LBNP
(fror Wolthuis (260)).

Slood Preasare So.ae

SI-40 -50 -o -60

Systolic
a* Stevens at &I. 8l) - 7
Stevens and Lamo t801 -10 - 9

Murray et al. 057) - 2 5

WOlthuis at al. 090) - 6
Sorrier at al. %43) -7 - 9

Wolthuis at al. tna. in prep. - 4

Diastolic
D Murray et al. (57) .10 .14
Stevens at 31. (81) - 3
I Wolthuis at al. (90) - i
Hoffler et al. (43) +6 + 7
Wolthuis et al. (ms. in prep.) + 2

Pulse
a Stevens and Lamb (80) -17 -20
Powell at al. (73) -40
Hoffler at al. (43) -23 -32
Wolthuis et al. kms. in prep.) -14

Mean
D Dowell et al. (23) - 6
Gilbert and Stevens (33) - 4

I
0 Murray at al. (57) + 4 + 2
Rowell at al. 03) -13
Abboud at al. (1)
Stevens at al. (81)

0 - direct arterial measurements;

D I - indirect Korotkov.

some were taken by indirect, i.e., Korotkoff sounds (designated I

in Table 4.2.2-1). The systolic pressure shows a general decrease
with LBNP as expected. However, the diastolic pressure data pro-
duced some rather surprising results; these show either an in-
crease or a very slight decrease.

These results were confirmed to some extent by Musgrave et al

(180). Musgrave found that while systolic pressure dropped signi-

-21-

rI
 ficantly (up to 20 mm Hg) the diastolic pressure increased slight-
ly with incroase in LBNP (Figure 4.2.2-1).

140. CONTROL jLBNP OR ?0°TILT I RECOVERY

I
130, •U, 0!

110, IaP6
BLOOD
PRESSUREI
(rmmMg) 9

70

0 10 15S 20 25 30 35 40
TIME (MIN)

Figure 4.2.2-1. Comparison of the effects of 15 minutes

of LBNP at 20, 40 and 60 mm Hg, *3nd
a tilt at 600 on blood pressure (from
Musgrave (180)).

Woithuis et al (260) also report a general reduction in pulse

pressure with LBNP. The mean blood pressure data are influenced
by the diastolic results and are therefore of questionable use
here.

The fact that the diastolic pressure does not seem to follow
S the pattern of the systolic pressure is in itself an interestingj
question which was not resolved by this study. This is an area
 r~i 1
where more data are necessary. Montgomery et al (153) add some in-
teresting data to the controversy over diastolic pressure. They
show a sex related difference; males produced similar results to
the previously cited work, while females show a decreasing diastol-
ic pressure with increasing LBNP (Table 4.2.2-2).

Table 4.2.2-2 Mean physiological responses * S.E.

of ,en and women durina the rucum-
bent control period and at peak stress
during -20, -40, and -60 mm Ha LBNP
(from Montgomery (177)f,

' i

I. Other sex linked differences are noticeable such as; the sys-
tolic differential pressure is greater for women, also the heart
rates are significantly higher for women. This aspect is not of
substantial concern at the present time, but if women do become a
significant portion of the pilot population, these differences
would have to be accounted for if LBNP were employed in a simula-
tor. Further indication that the required magnitude of blood
pressure change is achievable with LBNP is that several authors
including Wolthuis et al (260) and Shaw et al (220) report that
syncope has been induced by LBNP.

However, the question that currently does not have an answer

isi does LBNP provide sufficiently high rates oa change of blood
pressure to follow a lOg/sec or so aircraft profile? The pre-
sently available data does not provide an answer to this question.

-23-
Looking at the slopes of Figure 4.2.2-1 there is
this may be accomplished.

Musgrave (180)
some hope that

et al raise an interesting point concerning

I
the feasibility of using LBNP in a flight simulator to induce the
cardiovascolar effects of high G flight. They state that an in-
crease in LBNP produces a sensation of head up tilt, while a de-
crease in LBNP produces a sensation of head down tilt because of
altered blood flow to or from the head. This phenomenon, while
understandable, could cause some interference with motion system
cuing. Further, no research has been done concerning combinations
of LBNP and upper body positive pressure (UBPP).

4.2.3 LBNP Applications

Because of the unanswered questions concerning the applica-

bility of LBNP to the stimulation of the visual effects of high G

flight in a flight simulator, it is the re immendation of this
study that further research be conducted to verify the concept.
The approach appears promising but the following points must be
addressed:

o Will LBNP provide suitable cardiovascular time response?

o What is the cause and effect of the diastolic anomaly?

o Are the conditions reprolucible?

o Can the safety of the pilot be ensured via non-invasive

monitoring techniques?

o Can a suit be designed which permits sufficient mobility

to the pilot?

o Is the use of Anti-G Suits and LBNP mutually exclusive?

-24-
il
 O Are combinations of LBNP/UBPP and lower body positive
pressure (LBPP) upper body negative pressure (UBNP)
viable concepts?

o Do the orthostatic effects of LBNP give false cues of

subject attitude and therefore interfere with other
motion cuing devices?

While all these questions must be addressed prior to consider-

ing a device for implementation in a flight simulator there is an
order which is felt should be followed. Also there is a manner in
which the experiments should be run to extract the desired data.

It is suggested that the Air Force engage the services of a

research organization that possesses sufficient physiological re-
sources to conduct these experiments. Further it would be desir-
able to engage an organization skilled in taking c1...rifuge data
and conducting acceleration research directed at determining vis-
"I ual endpoints. Organizations such as the USAF School of Aerospace
Medicine or the centrifuge facility at the Naval- Air Development
Center are examples.

EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS

It is felt that the cardiovascular dynamics under LBNP should

first be established. These experiments should be conducted in a
chamber which would enclose the subject's lower body from just
above the iliac crest. The chamber should permit the subject to
be seated as in an aircraft seat with his feet on simulated rudder
pedals. Figure 4.2.3-1 illustrates a concept for a LBNP chamber.
The chamber is designed in two modules; a lower body module (LBM)
and a torso module (TM). These are designed such that they are
pressure isolated from each other in order that the torso module
may have positive pressure while the lower body module is experi-
encing negative pressure or vice versa. The two modules should be

-25-

AAA.&"
 TORSO "
MODULE LOWER
LOER
A-. MODULE

I II
3 1 Q** /52#'

I_ \\
""I-- _ __ __

"
24"1 BENCH
, _ • " 36"

1
Fiaure 4.2.3-I 'acuum/pressure chamber.

separable such that LBNP experiments can be executed without the

encumberances on the subject of the torso module.

The openings in each of the modules which permit passage of

body elements (head, arms, torso) must have an adjustable seal.
Wolthuis (261) presents a design for an adjustable seal that was
developed for NASA. This seal consists of a three panel iris type
device constructed of 3/4" masonite which close around the body
protruding from the chamber. The panels form the support for the
rubber sheet that completes the actual air seal. This sheet is
11-13 mil thick dental dam material purchased from Hygenic Manu-
facturing Company, Akron, Ohio. Rubber sheets should be employed
on either side of the panels to provide appropriate seals for both
the positive and negative pressure cases.

-26-

"-" -]. --
 ......... _______________________

The chamber itself should be constructed from 3/411 plywood

which has been calculated to provide a safety factor of about nine

in compression. The plywood should be glued and caulked on a'l

joints to ensure a proper seal. Both torso and lower body rnoules
should be designed to separate at the mid-point fore and aft. The
sections should be held together with an adjustable snap lock and
the joints should be edged with a compressible material such that
when the snap -,ck is tightened an airtight seal will be formed.

The lower body module shall be 'constructed with an integral

bench, including a fascia member, all constructed from 3/4 inch
plywood. These joints should also be glued and caulked. A piece
of 3/4" plywood should also be used for the simulated rudder
pedal.

The lower body module should also be fitted with a simulated

side arm control stick on the right side and a simulated throttle
lever, on the left side. These are to provide hand grips and to
permit the evaluation of the effects of muscle tension on the ex-
periments.

The volume of the vacuum/pressure chamber is the sum of the

torso module and the lower body module. The volume of the torso
module is 3.4 cubic feet and the volume of the lower body module
is 21 cubic feet. The maximum rate of change of acceleration in
the airplane can be considered to be 10 g/sec, It must now be de-
termined what flow capacity is required to control the pressure in
the chamber.
:
Stevens and Lamb (233) state that -80 mm Hg is sufficient to
induce symptoms of impending syncope. They also state that at a
LBNP level of -80 mm Hg there is a 37% reduction in systolic pres-
sure. Based on the fact that a nominal level for central light
loss is 5g then one might assume that the pre-syncopal episode
occurs at approximately the same blood pressure as central light

-27-

Li
loss and therefore -80 nmm Hg would produce about the same reduc-
tion in eye level blood pressure as Sg acceleration. The rate of
change of pressure in the chamber would then be about -80 mm Hg in
0.5 sec or 160 mm Hg/sec which is approximately 3.2 psi/sec. These

are then the pneumatic criteria for the design of the vacuum sys-

jects in the Stevens and Lamb (233) experiments.

7aib~e 4,2.3-1 Mean systolic pressure (from Stevens,

___-(m Hg) %Reduction

0 0
-25 12 I
-40 23
-60 32
-80 37

The control system required for the conduct of these experi-

ments is shown in Figure 4.2.3-2. A compressor unit as well as a
vacuum pumping station are required. The flow to the two modules
is controlled by a flow control valve for each module. The flowI
control valves are driven by a microprocessor which can be program-
med with various profiles simulating aircraft acceleration pro-
files. The microprocessor should also sequence the solenoid val-
yes. Pressure feedback to the microprocessor is provided by a
pressure transducer associated with each module. The pressure
profile could be programmed either with a table lookup technique
or with an analytic expression relating pressure as a function of
time.

-28-

____ ____ ___A

 I Ii

F7.:ure 4.2.3-2 V.ac~ur"pressure chamber ccentro1 system

d iao~rar ,

iA light bar similar to that used by Rositanc et al (209)

-fi should be employed to investigate the visual effects induced by
If "- LBNP. The data that are required as results of these experiments

S• are, in decreasing order of importance.

- -TRANSDUCER
!o Blood pressure as a function of LBNP level

So Time response of blood pressure

o Visual acuity as a function of LBNP level

? Visual acuity time response4

o Determine the effects of anti-G s~it and straining

maneuvers

o Employ all modalities LBNP alone, LBNP and UBPP, UBNP

LBPP Pand

• -29-
 Blood pressure and heart rate should be continuously moni-
tored during these experiments. Non-invasive blood pressure moni-

toring devices ave discussed in a following section (4.2.4). itI

may be useful to conduct these experiments with both invasive and
non-invasive measuring devices in order to evaluate the effective-
ness of the non-invasive devices.

PORTABLE [JBNP DEVICE

If the results of the experiments are favorable, the next

step would be to construct a LBNP device that could be worn in the
simulator and employing an existing simulator in an attempt to as-
certain

0 If the motion and LBNP cues conflict

o If there are any artifacts due to LBNP

0 If so, what are their effects?

0 If the device is suitable for use in a simulator

A~ possible design of a portable LBNP device is shown in Fig-

ure 4.2.3-3. Four pressure vessels are required one enclosing
each 'Leg (leggings), one enclosing the lower torso (lower torso
girdle) and one enclosing the upper torso (upper torso vest). The
pressure vessels are to be of rigid or stiffened construction with
articulated joints to provide mobility. These vessels must be
able to support a pressure differential of at least 2 psi (there
does not appear to be a differential difficulty of joint movement
at high and low pressures with & P = 2 psi), the pilot must be
able to fly the simulated aircraft while in this device and there
should be consideratiokl given to the possibility of heat genera-
tion inside the suit. Further, the system must not interfere with

-30- i
 T
...
S. ................ .

QI.'E TC"ýSO
GIRDE

X RIGHT
UPPER TORSO LEGGING S~vEST

FL o: 4.2. )-3 Possible confiouration of LBNP device.

G-seat operation. Consideration must also be given to the visual

and tactical environmental fidelity loss due to this device.

A possible vendor for the LBNP device is the David Clark Com-
"pany of Worcester, Mass. They have experience in pressure suits
and space suits. They also built a collapsible LBNP for Cooper
and Ord (51) for their LBNP experiments.

USE OF LBNP FOR Ml/Ll MANEUVER TRAINING

It is well known that the Ml/Li maneuvers provide significant

relief from the effects of high sustained/rapid onset accelera-
tions (section A.2 of this report). However there may be problems
associated with practicing these maneuvers in a one G environment.
Dr. Gillingham of USAF School of Aerospace Medicine (82) states
that a properly performed Ml/L1 maneuver will raise the eye level
blood pressure by 100 to 150 mm Hg. This, Gillingham believes, is
an unacceptable risk. As was indicated previously, a possible ap-
plication of LBNP is suggested by these facts. As reported by

-31-

LA....................... V
Stevens and Lamb (233), a better than 50 mm Hg drop in systolic
pressure was observed with the application of -80 mm Hg LBNP.
This would seem to alleviate most of the concern Giilingham has
expressed if pilots were to train in an LBNP device for the Ml/Ll
maneuvers. This has an obvious cost advantage over training in
the centrifuge. Also, one of these devices could be provided at
each USAF base, thereby eliminating the need for travel to a
centrifuge for this training. It is suggested that the feasi-
bility of this approach be verified as part of the research
recommended herein.

CONCLUSIONS

Since insufficient data on the time response of blood pres-

sure to LBNP and since no data directly applying this technique to
the problem addressed here is available, it is recommended that
research be conducted to ascertain the viability of this approach.
Hardware required was specified. A possible mechanization for
line simulation use was also presented. Finally, an additional
use of LBNP was suggested for the training of pilots in the proper
execution of the Ml/Ll maneuvers.
4.2.4 Non-Invasive Cardiovascular Monitors

During exposure to LBNP it is necessary to monitor the sub-

jects cardiovascular condition (particularly blood pressure) con-
tinuously. There are two reasons for this; the first is to ensure
subject safety and the second to provide feedback for the control
of vacuum in 1-h- ,3NP ?ice. For the research phase, it would be
possible to employ ivasive techniques. However, in either appli-
cation directed to training pilots, either in a flight simulator
or in the Ml/Ll trainin'- device, it would be extremely undesirable
and indeed perhaps imp .ble in some instances to resort to inva-
sive techniques. Therefore, it is relevant to this study that
non-invasive techniques be investigated. A device must be found

S~~-32-
i

1-17' 7 '1.
. .
 to monitor automatically, continuously and non-invasively the
blood pressure of the subjects in the LBNP research apparatus, in
the simulator LBNP device, and the Mi/LI training device.

AUSCULATORY BLOOD PRESSURE TECHNIQUES

The most common method for measuring human blood pressure in-
directly is the ausculatory method proposed by Korotkoff in 1905.
This technique employs a sphygmomanometer and relies on the inter-
pretation of the Korotkoff sounds and relating them to a pressure
reading on a mercury manometer. The ausculatory method can be
automated. Nolte (130) reports on a device designed by Martin
Marietta Co., Denver, for use on the Skylab flights. Figure
4.2.4-1 illustrates the system. There are several of these de-
vices available such as one reported on by Fernandez and Robinson
(68) and another described by Cromwell et al (53) and manufactured
by Narco Biosystems Inc., Houston. In general these systems all
have automatic cuff inflators, pressure transducers and signal
B

t
"I K SOUNDS HEARTBEAT
_______E,,,0 nmn-2BVnC -

[ .,
REMICROPHONE LGHT D
KLICIRCTION F A TOT D ]N
A TOO

r'•OUND SYSTOLIC DIGITAL'

PREAMPLIFIER - DETECTOR DIASTOLIC DECIMAL

N , FILTER
, S,
I CRC,N
C10
DECISION DECODER

CUFF-
occ~~~us~~Lo
CUFfL
- ELECTRO
NIC-;
"T-
- --I
"-"--RANSDUCER
1T /

-T

AN? VENI

GALIRAETION SIGNAL

DISPLAYS

F'ioure 4.2.4-1 Automatic elec:'rosphyqmomanometer designed

b': Martin Mainetta of Denver for the
kylab prooram (from Nolte(130)).
CAIBATO
SINA
-3 3- -. "
IE --
processing equipment to identify automatically the Korotkoff
sounds and correlate a cuff pressure reading with it. The Narco
unit does not have signal processing electronics.

While the ausculatory method has merit in that it provides

reasonably accurate results, it has some drawbacks, the major draw-
back being that these devices are not truly continuous siice they
can be sampled only once every 30 seconds or so. The reason for
this as stated by Geddes (76) is that the cuff deflation rate
should be 2-3 mm Hg/sec to prevent venous conjestion in the distal
bed.

Another disadvantage to the ausculatory technique is that the

presence of an inflating/deflating cuff would be a distracting
artifact to the pilot.

ULTRASONIC BLOOD PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS

One method of monitoring blood pressure ultrasonically is

similar to the ausculatory method described above. However, the
interpretation of Korotkoff sounds is replaced by the Doppler
shift of the transmitted ultrasonic frequency. This shift is
proportional to the arterial wall velocity which gives information
to identify the instant that the vessel opens and closes. This
method also employs a pneUmatic cuff and is therefore subject to
the same restrictions as the ausculatory. A device employing this
technique is marketed by the Roche Medical Electronics Division of
Hoffmann-La Roche Inc., Cranbury, N. J. It is marketed under the
trademark Arteriosonde.

Another ultrasonic technique employed is the use of a ultra-

sonic signal to determine the velocity of blood flow in an artery.
The Doppler shift of the signal reflected from the moving red
cells is proportional to the velocity of the blood flowing in the
artery. This method may also be used with a cuff and provides the

-34-

i%
same information as the arteriosonde except the diastolic pressure
may be more inaccurate and is subject to the same limitations. A
device of this type is manufactured by Parks Electronics Lab.,
Beaverton, Oregon and is called an Ultrasonic Doppler Flow Detec-
tor, Model 811.

The Doppler flow velocity may possibly be used to directly

determine blood pressure. If it can be assumed that the vascular
resistance is constant for some small length of artery and for a
given person then the relation

V - [Eq. 4.2.4-1]
R

should hold; where Vis blood velocity, R is vascular resistance,

and AP is pressure change. Therefore blood pressure may be con-
sidered proportional to velocity. While this method is not very
accurate, if each subject is calibrated it may be sufficient for
monitoring purposes during LBNP in a training device. But, it
would not be adequate if any quantitative measure is required.

PULSE WAVE VELOCITY

Pulse wave velocity is a measure of the velocity of the pulse

wave as the pulsatile pressure wave of blood courses through the
vascular syste~m. The pulse wave is detected at two points, for
example, the brachial artery and the radial artery, then knowing
the distance between the points and the transit time of the pulse
wave, the velocity may be computed. The proponents of this tech-
nique claim that blood pressure may be inferred from the velocity
if the subject is calibrated. In 1976 Geddes (76) was skeptical
of the claims of the proponents of pulse wave velocity primarily
because, at that point in time, no reliable means for detecting
the pulse wave had been developed. Today, however, it appears
that the detection problem may have been solved. The Cyborg Corp.

-35-
of Boston, Mass. has developed a pulse wave velocity monitor which
employs a displacement transducer applied over an artery close toI
the surface to detect the passage of the pulse wave. Cyborg
claims a -0.913 to -0.98 linear correlation with blood pressure

measured by cuff or cannula.

The disadvantage to this device is that it is highly subject
to artifact due to movement. The processor has an artifact de-
tection algorithm and suppresses the output at that time. Cyborg
claims to be presently developing a system which will be less sub-
ject to artifact. It uses the output of a ECG sensor placed on
the radial artery together with a displacement transducer located
at another artery. This may have merit since the other sensor
could be placed on the temporal artery and eye level blood pres-
sure could be monitored. This sensor may be subject to artifact
due to jaw movement such as talking.

EAR OXIMETRY

An ear oximeter is a photoelectric device for measuring the

02 saturation of the blood in the ear or the amount of blood in
the vessels of the ear. The former uses red light at 64.0 mu and
the latter infrared at 800 mu. Although this technique will not
provide blood pressure directly, the amount of blood in the ear is
a good indicator of cardiovascular performance and may be used as
an indicator of LBNP effectiveness. Geddes and Baker discuss this
technique at some length (77).1

This may be the best technique which could be employed to I

monitor blood pressure in a flight simulator or Ml/Ll training

device during LBNP. The most difficult aspect may be to gain ac-
ceptance of pilots having the sensor attached to their ears.

-36- .J
 PLETHYSMOGRAPHY

Plethysmography is the measurement of blood volume by measur-

ing pressure changes in a pressurized chamber surrounding a limb
of interest. The instrument, described by Cromwell et al (53)
uses electrical sensors to measure changes in impedance as an in-
dicator of volume changes. This technique is not very accurate in
terms of absolute magnitude. However, it is quite good in terms
of measuring changes in volume. This technique might be more ac-
j ceptable to pilots than the pneumatic plethysmographs since it has
fewer encumberances.

HEART RATE MONITORS

Monitoring heart rate indirectly is a much simpler problem to

solve than that of monitoring blood pressure. Indeed, there are
many devices on the market which serve quite nicely. Mennen C
Grealbatch Inc. of Clarence, New York, NARCO Bio-Systems Inc. of
Houston, Texas and Cyborg Inc. of Boston, Mass, are three compan-
ies that manufacture devices that would be quite suitable for the
intended application. The device woold be used to monitor heart
rate during LBNP episodes either in the flight simulator, the
MI/Ll traininc device or the LBNP research device.

Some of these devices are stand-alone heart rate monitors;

others are a by-product of other measuring devices such as ECG or
pulse wave velocity.

CONCLUSIONS

As yet the state of the art has not advanced to the point of
providing suitable unencumbering devices, free from artifact, as
accurate as direct measurement techniques which provide continuous
monitoring of blood pressure in a flight simulator or a Ml/Ll
training device. Among the most promising of these apparatus for

-37-

LL.1 7<. j
the aforementioned applications are ear oximetry, pulse wave velo-
city and impedance plethysmography, not necessarily in that order..
It is worthwhile to note that Miller (173) provides a comprehen-
sive survey and annotated bibliography of non-invasive physiologic
measurement techniques.

4.3 High G Visual Effects Generation

4.3.1 General

the high G environment the most often reported, the most

In
thoroughly documented, the most exhaustively studied phenomenon is
that of diminution of visual acuity. The physiological basis for
these effects is discussed in section A.3 of this report. As is
described in section A.2 of this report, the cardiovascular stress
induced by high G flight is the primary source of all visual ef-
fects. The emphasis of this study is on the visual effects and
their causes. The reason for this emphasis is because of the high
degree of importance that this effect has on the pilot's per-
formance. During air-to-air combat, with degraded peripheral
vision a pilot may not see an attacking aircraft. Obviously, if
the pilot blacks out (loss of central lights) during a high G
maneuver, serious problems to his safety will occur. If these
effects are not present in the simulator, the pilot will employ
maneuvers which would not be possible in the actual aircraft.

The following subsections deal with means to implement these

effects. Three general approaches are discussed. One employs the
principles of ophthalmodynamometry to develop a set of plethysmo-
graphic goggles. These goggles would effectively artificially
raise the intraocular pressure until it is greater than the eye
level arterial pressure, thereby inducing the same effects as a
lowering of the eye level arterial pressure below intraocular
pressure as is the case in the aircraft under high +Gz.

-38-
lI
 A second approach uses liquid crystal technology to develop a
helmet visor with the capability of selective variation of trans-
mission of light. This technique would attempt to imitate the
visual effects by altering the transmissibility of the visor by

controlling the liquid crystal elements within the visor.

The third means of simulating the visual effects is to se-

lectively attenuate the visual scene and the instruments' lighting

to attempt to reproduce the effects of tunnel vision. All three

of these techniques require an algorithm to provide the drive
signals for each system consistent with the acceleration environ-
ment. In section A.3 a sophisticated model of the visual effects
of high +Gz is postulated with some missing elements.

In this section a simplified algorithm is presented which

provides for immediate implementation. The basic algorithm ap-

plies to all three systems.

In order to account for pilot eye movement, an oculometer is

suggested to determine the pilot's line-of-sight thereby permit-
ting a centering of the reduced acuity areas about the foveal
view.

It is recommended that a set of plethysmographic goggles be

evaluated along with an integrated system comprising an oculometer
and visual system/instrument dimming all being controlled by the
simplified algorithm. It is further recommended that this evalua-
tion be conducted on the SAAC because of its wide field of view
visual system, its six-degree-of-freedom motion system, its
G-Seat, its Anti-G Suit simulation, its provision for air-to-air
combat simulation and because contractor personnel are available
to provide implementation.

The liquid crystal visor is recommended for phased develop-

ment and evaluation.

-39-

'Ri
. 4.3.2 Oculometer

As has been previously mentioned, the most important high G

effect is the diminution of the cone of vision with increasing
4Gz. In order to properly align the "tunnel", it is necessary to
* know in which direction the pilot is looking, i.e., his line of
sight must be known. If the pilot's instantaneous line of sight
is not known and the center of the cone of vision is chosen arbi-
trarily, say along X-body axis of the aircraft and if the pilot
happens to be looking out along the T-body axis of the airplane,
the tunnel will be 900 from the pilot's line of sight and will
appear artificial.

To determine the pilot's line of sight an oculometer has been

chosen. This device will provide the X and Y coordinates of the
line of sight intersection with the plane of interest, such as the
instrument panel or the display screen. The principles of opera-
tion of the oculometer are; a source of infrared light illuminates
the eye, some of this light is reflected by the cornea and some
passes through the pupil and is reflected by the retina and effect-
ively backlights the pupil. This light is then sensed by a vidi-
con which passes a video signal to a signal processor which com-
putes the relative displacement of the corneal reflection relative
to the center of the pupil. The signal processor is a mini-com-
puter with two specialized circuit boards.

Previously available oculometers have restricted head move-

ment first in a one inch cube and then eventually to a one foot
cube. The pilot of a simulator for a high performance aircraft
requires unrestricted head movement thereby precluding the use of
a device of this type. Middleton et al (171) describe the use and
principles of operation of a state-of-the-art oculometer.

The Honeywell Company, Avionics Division located in Minneapo-

lis is presently developing a helmet mounted oculometer which

-40-
 should be available in 1979. An oculometer has been used in many
different eye movement studies and has proved to be a useful
device in locating the line of sight in space. The area that
requires further study is the time lags inherent in the system.
This data won't be available until a helmet mounted system is
built and integrated into a flight simulato~r and tested.

[ If these lags are excessive when the pilot moves his head he
would notice the "tunnel" disappear and then reappear at a new
location. This would be a distracting artifact and could com-
promise the training value.

The oculometer could be used to determine the line-of-sight

for selective dimming of the flight instruments and the visual
scene. It can also be used in the variable transparency visor
application described in section 4.3.5.

4 It isrecommended that the helmet mounted oculometer pre-

sently under development by the Honeywell Corporation be purchased
j
- and tested on the SAAC as part of the system outlined in section
I*- 4.3.1. During this testing the time lag questions can be
answered.

4.3.3 Simplified High G Visual Acuity Model

The high G literature assigns importance to, and dwells ex-

tensively on, G induced visual effects because of, we suspect, the
overt noticability of the effects coupled with the tact that
significant disruption or loss of vision effectively poses a bar
=~ preventing further positive pilot contribution to his required
tasks. Vogl (246) points out that in flight simulation, it is im-
portant to teach a pilot those regions of the flight envelope not
accessible to him physiologically. Vogl uses the discomfiture of
the G-suit as an example of means to limit the pilot to physic-
logically accessible portions of the flight envelope. A parallel

-41-

I "4
 argument can be made for the importance of including high G visual
disruption within tactical aircraft simulation, for it's presence

forces the pilot to recognize his physiological limitations andI

the impact these limitations pose on his mission performance vis-a-
vis his control strategy and skill level.

In section A.3.1 of this study, the structure of a model de-

fining visual perception degradation as a consequence of exposure
to high Gz conditions is presented. The model parallels that
suggested by Rogers and Quam (206) and employs G induced change in
blood pressure as its primary drive parameter. At present the
model lacks data specifying the very important relation between
localized retinal hypoxia and acuity. It is expected that effort
will continue to develop missing data in a context useful to this
model and eventually the blood pressure model will form the basis
for altering simulator visual effects in response to high G con-
ditions. However in the interim, because of the apparent impor-
tance of the visual disruption, a simplified surrogate model is
required for the purposes of developing visual disruption tech-
niques as well as providing a basis for initial evaluation of the
credibility and importance of the effect. This section presents a
model the authors have developed to serve this purpose. it is
presented in flow chart form and is directly suitable for implemen-
tation within digital computational simulation. A definition of
symbols employed immediately follows the model flow chart.

As is the case in some of the other simulator models devel-

oped to approximate high G visual effects, the model developed
I
* herein is structured in the context of G magnitude as opposed to
blood pressure change. Salient features which may be somewhat
different however are:

1) Rather than strict sole dependance upon a threshold G

level for producing the visual disruption, the model
employs both G level and onset G rate as Stoll's data

-42- I
 (234) suggests in order to establish the dynamics of the
ensuing visual disruption.

2) The G level above which visual disruption eventually

will occur is permitted to vary as advocated by Rogers
and Quam (206) based on G-suit operation and Mi/LI man-
euver execution.

3) A reduction in foveal acuity is scheduled to occur at G

levels below that producing peripheral dimming as sug-
gested by Haines (107) and the data produced by White
(258).

The model is structured to provide outputs to control simula-

tor visual display systems. Cockpit instrument illumination,
and/or an area of interest variable transparency visor is dis-
cussed elsewhere in Section 4 of this study. Inputs are accepted
from these simulator subsystems as well as the flight dynamics
"model, the G-suit system, and an EMG device used to moniL the
subject's execution of MI/LI maneuvers.

Basically the model will command a reduction in either con-

trast ratio or, less preferably, illumination level, of low light
level sources over the total expanse of the visual system and/or
visor. This change will occur in linear relation to Gz acceler-
ation when the Gz level ranges between 1.85 g's (derived from 258)

and that level which will eventually produce peripheral light

loss. Contrast ratio change is preferred because, although data
demonstrates a reduction in acuity in these circumstances, it does
not seem to be subjectively perceived as a light level dimming in
the same sense as peripheral light loss. The contrast ratio of
the cockpit scene, on the other hand, can be altered only by
varying the illumination level of the low light level instruments.

-43-
LIL
 Operation above that Gz level which eventually produces peri-
pheral light loss (termed GCRIT herein) triggers the sequential
collapse of two terminators inward toward the center of the visual
binocular FOV. The rate of collapse is established by the Gz
onset rate extant below GCRIT as modified by the current Gz margin
above GCRIT and has been derived from Stoll (234) data. The FOV
dynamics produced by the derivation show good agreement with

[ !I
Rositano's experimentation (209) but less favorable agreement with
McNaughten's 130 reclined seat centrifuge experience (87). The
McNaughten run demonstrates an inexplicably high rate of FOV clo-
sure. The run also produced a rather precipitous entry to uncon-
sciousness without passage through an identifiable blackout period
and therefore may not form a reasonable comparison.

Both the Rositano (209) and Gillingham (87) work record FOV
remaining and G level on x-t strip chart recordings which demon-
strate a FOV closure profile with characteristics tending toward B
second order response. The model herein employs a two segment
straight line approximation to the response. The first segment is
used between the onset and completion of peripheral light loss and
the second segment between complete peripheral light loss and com-
pletion of central light loss or total "blackout". A number of
references comment on the comparative rapidity of FOV expansion

'
upon return to lower G levels. Using the above mentioned strip
sciosnes
pasag thoug
wthot an denifibleblacoutperod'
chart recordings, a two second dura~tion linear FOV expansion pro-
file was selected for incorporation in the model.
The two terminators employed within this model form concen-

tric circles in the binocular field of view and define a band be-I
tween terminators. The inner terminator is called the zdistur-
obance terminator" which defines, at any instant in time, an in-
cluded circular area in which no visual disruption occurs due to K
Gz levels above the GCRIT value. The outer terminator, called the
"blackness terminator", describes an external area in which total
light suppression is scheduled. Progressive contrast reduction

-44-
and subsequent illumination reduction occur radially within the
annular area between terminators as described in Section 4.3.6.
The width of the annular, or grayout, area is not defined in the
literature reviewed and consequently is established within the
model as a constant, KBAND,
subject to alteration. The model is
responsible for maintaining a definition of the conical angles
associated with both terminators and providing this information to
the simulator visual, visor, and instrument subsystems where it
can be merged with the oculometer data defining the direction of
the subject's line of sight such that the appropriate visual
effect can be properly positioned.

The terminators are both stored outside the binocular FOV,

horizontally 950 (103), during lg conditions. The terminators are
held here until the Gz level surpasses the current value of GCRIT,
or that level which eventually would produce peripheral light
loss, at which time the terminators are permitted to collapse
inward. The rate of collapse will carry the blackness terminator
to the position defined for complete peripheral light loss, nom-
inally set herein at 80, over a duration commensurate with the
data. The disturbance terminator and grayout area precede the
blackness terminator into the shrinking field of view and hold at
the point of peripheral light loss while the blackness terminator
"catches up" causing the grayout band to disappear, replaced by
total light suppression. Once the blackness terminator reaches
the peripheral light loss point, a new rate of closure is computed
causing the remaining central FOV to collapse to total blackout
over two seconds (234). The disturbance terminator and grayout
band do not precede the blackness terminator in the central light
loss phase.

The model will cause total light loss to remain until the Gz
level is either lowered to the GCRIT level or conversely the GCRIT
level is raised, by subject Ml maneuver execution, above the cur-
rent Gz level. Both terminators rapidly expand outwards under

-45-

*M W
 these conditions however the disturbance terminator delays long
enough to reestablish the grayout band. Terminator direction
reversal can occur at any point in the collapse or expansion
sweep; consequently, a subject, by carefully controlling his G
level and Ml executi-in, should be able to exercise some control
over the penetration of the grayout band into his field of view.

The model advanced herein employs circular terminators. How-

ever, the binocular field of view is elliptical in shape (103).
Gillinigham (87) provides some interesting figures (see Figure
A.3.1-2) depicting the shape of the field of view during collapse
which suggests that this elliptical shape is at least preserved,
and perhaps accentuated, during high G visual light loss. Once
provided terminator positional definition in the context of cir-
cles, it is a fairly routine step to convert this information to
elliptical form. However, this step must be undertaken by the
using simulator subsystem in that the required conversion is a
function of locatiou along major and minor axes.

Although the flow chart of the model is liberally annotated

to provide ease of understanding its mechanization, additional
comment is worthwhile in some areas located by the numerical index
provided to the left of the flow chart. At index #2 the critical
Gz level which will eventually produce peripheral light loss is
computed. The critical level is considered to be the sum of a
* basic G level, the protection offered by inoperative and operative
* G-suit, and the further protection offered by execution of the
Ml/LI maneuvers. The basic resistance level of a subject includ-
ing involuntary cardiovascular compensation is taken as 3 g's and
appears to be frequently cited in the literature and the data sup-
porting this literature. The incremental protection of an inoper-
ative and operative G-suit is drawn from Burton (34) and the full
measure of incremental protection afforded by proper execution of
the Ml maneuver is taken from Gillingham (86). Increased fidelity
would be obtained by using a continuous rather than discrete func-

-46-
 tion for the Ml protection. The modifiers converting discret~e to
continuous form can be derived from Rogers and Quam (206) and
probably could take the form of passing the discrete signal

through a first order lag network augmented with fixed decay.

Acuity reduction at levels below, the GCRIT value are computed

for visual display system, instruments, and/or visor between index
#6 and #18. The key expression used herein is found at index #8
where an effective target (foveal view) illumination level reduc-
tion, derived by cross plotting data provided by White (258), is
implemented. The reduction in effective illumination level is
employed, where possible, to alter contrast ratio where contrast
ratio is defined as:

Target Illumination - Background Illumination

CR=
Background Illumination

* and the value of background illumination is considered to remain

constant.

As pointed out by White (258), the significance of this ef-

fect tends to zero as the target illumination approaches the 42 mL
level used in his dial reading experiments. Consequently, the
model requires illumination level as an input and linearly reduces
acuity degradation as a function of increasing illumination level.
Most simulator visual display systems render daylight scenes at
illumination levels below 42 mL. Consequently a philosophical
decision must be made concerning whether the simulated visual
scene illumination level should be applied as input to the model
as opposed to the actual illumination level available from the
visual display system. In the case of cockpit instruments, refer-
ence to U.S. Government and industry specifications governing in-
strument lighting (78, 172) indicates that instrument illumination
in the 1-5 mL range is to be expected and therefore lies in the
range of interest.

-47-
 Index #21 and #22 establish the dynamics of the ensuing FOV
collapse based on the average rate of application of Gz up to the
GCRIT level. The time of collapse is appropriately shortened for
Gz levels above the GCRIT level. The expression at index #21 is
an approximation to the data provided by Stoll (234). By holding
Gz slightly above GCRIT, total peripheral light loss will even-
tually occur. If Gz falls slightly below GCRIT, the inward bound
terminators will reverse direction and enter expansion. Should Gz
again rise above GCRIT a new time for complete peripheral light
loss is computed and the outward bound terminators will reverse
and begin to collapse according to the newly computed duration for
collapse.

Terminator position, an arc measurement between line of sight

and the specific terminator, is computed at index numbers 26, 28,
30, 36, and 38, and output to the user subsystems. The discussion
in Section 4.3.6 treats the disturbance terminator position as R1
and blackness terminator position as R2 .

-48-

II
 SIMPLIFIED HIGH GVISUAL ACUITY MODEL

GO TO TERMINATCR
(1) GZ< I YES EXPANSION

CORPUTE LA^fXITTCAL G LEVEL

(G) (2) CRIT -. 0.2
30 +(IF G SUIT SYSTEM NOT OPERATING)+
1.1 (IF G SUIT IS OPERATING)+
1.5 (IF '11 MANEUVER EMPLOýED)

S O TNET

ONE
RESET FLAG & TIMLR _HTTITMER
1W
(5) GTM• 0.0
ONSET l
1 TIME "GTIME+Q
GCRIT' "CRIT

-4t

-49-
 A

CCOMPUTE PRELIMINARY INSTRUMENT DIMt4ING/VISUAL SYSTEM CONTRAST CHANGE)

(6) GZ rGCRIT YESGOTTEMNORCLAS

GO TO TERMINTRCLAS

NO 2

COMPTRENEFETIVILLUMINATIONLEL

K [N6CE ILLMS TONCAG

MO) ILLMMNAUINTIONP S

1 1
G NONO

S6ATRDINSTRUMENT ILLUMINATIONLEL

-50-R 1,1, ý NR
II
42
=t
 VISUAL SYSTEM ILLUMINATION LEVEL

YES
Y NORM 40 VISUAL SYSTEM CONTRAST

CONTRAST RATIO
-KCR
ALTERNATE VNV _0) KL (1
ALTERNATEPR
F
rNo ILLUMINATST
ON " G INDUCED ILL•UON
ATION CHANGE]
(134) I CANGE

T(NTALTERE VISUAL SYSTEM

CHANNGIO
SG UILLUMINATION LEVEL - V0

VISUAL SYSTEM !LLUMINATION LEVEL

VDM(IF NO VISUAL SYSTEM USE 1

OM

(,6•
PREFERRED
•'ML.,!
YESVNORM NO
PREFERRED
VISOR EFFECTIVE
RATIO"- VCR CONTRAST
RT o

NO NTRAST CHANCEVSO
-- INDUCED CONR-AST PATIO CHANGE
(17) INVISOR IN-VISOf
KV'- V-OR"-
CR V 1 (1 - Ko)(1 -
KV 0O 1
CR VCR

G INDUCED REDUCTION IN
AE TA TVISOR CONTRAST RATIO - Kc
ALTERNATE ALTERNATE
(18) I ChIANGE N VISOR CHANG I
TG ..T iNORM TG' (Ki)(TN'oRM)
- I T.J

\ýG ALTERED VISOR

TRANSMITTANCE TG

GOTO
TERM INATOR
EXPANSION

-51-

'U.,,
(19)21

TERMINATOR COLLAPSE COMPUTATIONS

TIME EQUAL/ABOVE CRITICAL LEVEL

TCRIT * TCRIT ÷

LOSS AT C, LEVEL
TIME OF PERIPHERAL LI(GH4T

-.
(21) TPLL /
PL L GCRIT ."

(22) LIMIT

(Z)YES GT NO
(23)<
N L
(24)
VELOCITY OF CENTRAL VELOCITY RF PERIPHERAL UPPER !
LIGHT LOSS LIGHT LOSS_ LIMIT AT ,
PNLT" AN;BT ANGPLLTT- ANGBT 0/

BT I
(25) AN-A<G

(25) __E__,_________ ____I

(26)
HOLD CENTRA LIGHT LOSS INTEGRATE BLAC-KNESS TERM4INATOR
ANGSTPO- E4TION' IN COLLAP5E
ANGT - 0 ANGST- ANGST ÷(ANST) (Q)

S~POSITION- BLACKNESS TERMINATOR

S

C-

-1
 II
AGT YES
(27))

K. • NO
i POSITION DISTURBANCE
.3,R~~EATER
THAN TERMINAVOR
P•ERIPHERAL WHEN
LIGH TLT''•S

(28) ANGLE
ANG DT ANGBT - KBAND

(29)
NO ANBT YES
>ANG LL

'30)

CARRY DISTURBANCE POSITION DISTURBANCE TERMINATOR

TERMINATOR INWARD AT PERIPHERAL LIGHT LOSS ANGLE
WITH CENTRAL LIGHT LOSS
N -AU
ANGDT = ANpL
ANDIBT

DISTURBANCE TERtIINATOR POSITION

GO TO
GX EFFECTS

(31)

TERMINATOR EXPANSION COMPUTATIONS

RESET PRELIMINARY EFFECTS

GTIME 1 0.0
(32) IG - 'NORM
KCR 0.0
VG VNORM
S- 0.0
CR TNORM
ONSET =

-53-
k33) 4

RESET TIME EOUALJALBOVE

(34)_CRITICAL LEVEL
T 0o.0
CRIT

(3)YES ANG BT NO

(36)
TRMINATORS OUT
HOD INTEGRATE BLACKNfeSS TRMNTO OSTO

ST BAND ANGBTG [
ANGBTT
(37) 95

<K BND KBAN

(37) AGD

~~B
ANGD - BAND

SLACKNESS AND DIS'rURBANCE

COMPUTE GxVISUAL EFFECTS

5 4 -
I-

if >
E
(40) G01 Kx

>0

% DEFOCUSING/DYNAMIC SCATTERING
(4•)OF • Gl"KL
Kx - Kj

(4) DEFOCUSING TO VISUAL',SYSTEM AND .

OR SCATTERING TO VISOR SYSTEM

NOMINAL VALUES:
KXL 6 GX
- 12 GX
it

iI

ij
L
-55-
 SIMPLIFIED HIGH G VISUAL ACUITY MODEL

CONSTANTS SYMBOL DEFINITION

ANGPLL Angular measure of field of view (measured

from center of FOV) considered to exist at
complete peripheral light loss (deg.).
Nominal value = 80.

GONSET Gz level beyond which a significant accel-

eration onset is considered to be in process
(g's). Nominal value = 1.25 g's.

KBAND Visual peripheral angle subtended between

non-disrupted vision and complete light loss
(deg.). Nominal value 20*.

K :•
KX Gx acceleration level for the onset of
lacrimal blurring (g's).
~g's5.
Nominal value = 6.0
.

KXU Gx acceleration level for full blurring effect

(g's). Nominal value = 12.0 g's.

Quadrature interval of the digital simulation. ii

Reciprocal of software iteration rate

(seconds). Nominal value = same as employed
in flight equations of motion software but not
less than 1/20 sec.

VISOR Discrete flag = 1 when high G visor is to be

employed for high G visual effects.

- ~~-56- .j
 VARIABLES

ANGBT Rate of collapse and expansion of visual FOV

under high Gz conditions (Deg/S).

ANGBT Angular measure of FOV (measure from center of

FOV) subtended by the leading edge of visual
distulrbance (deg.).

ANGDT Disturbance terminator.

DF Percent defocusing (or dynamic scattering)

uniformly applied across FOV for blurring ef-
fect (%).

GCRIT Gz acceleration plateau at/or above which

eventual peripheral light loss will occur
S~(g's).

GTIME Elapsed time between the onset of a signifi-

cant Gz acceleration and occurrence of GCRIT
conditions (seconds).

Gx Acceleration level meas.ired along the X

physiological axis (g's,.

GZ
S Acceleration level measured along the Z
physiological axis (g's).

IG Cockpit instrument ill,-imination level altered

for Gz effects below the GCRIT level (mL).

INORM Cockpit instrun-ent illm-nination level dis-

count2.fg Gz effect alteration (mL).

-57-
i A

L-
 KCR Reduction in visual display system contrast
ratio due to Gz effects below the GCRIT level
(%).

KI Cockpit instrument illumination attenuation

factor due to Gz effects below the GCRIT level
(non-dim).

KV Visual display system illumination attenuation

factor due to Gz below the GCRIT level
(non-dim).

KV' Visor transmittance attenuation factor due to

Gz effects below, the GCRIT level (non-dim).
I

KVcR Reduction in visor contrast ratio due to Gz

effects below the GCRIT level (%).

SK 1 Effective target illumination attenuation due

I to Gz effects below the GCRIT level (non-dim).

TCRIT Elapsed time Gz above GCRIT level (seconds).

TG Visor transmittance altered for Gz effects

TNORM
II below the GCRIT level (%),

Visor transmittance discounting Gz effect

alteration (%).

TPLL Time between Gz broaching GCRIT and eventual

complete peripheral light loss (seconds).

TTG Time to go to complete peripheral light loss

(seconds).

-58-
 VG Visual display system illumination level
altered for Gz effects below the GCRIT level
(mL).

VNORM Visual display system illumination level dis-

counting Gz effect alteration (mL).

zI

Ii

lii 9

II-

-59-

- "
 4.3.4 Ophthalmodynamometry: Plethysmographic Goggles

4.3.4.1 Introduction
I
It has been well established, as reviewed in section A.3.1,
that the visual effects of grayout and blackout associated with
+Gz acceleration are attributable to a drop in eye level arterial
pressure. It has been further established that when pressure in
the retinal arteries drops to below intraocular pressure (Pi)
visual impairment results in a matter of a few seconds. It re-
mained for a series of excellent experiments using ophthalmo-
dynamometry, which artificially raised the intraocular pressure to
reach or exceed that of the retinal artery, in order to demon-
strate that the visual effects under both +Gz and increased Pi
were identical, and that each was attributable to the original
collapse of the retinal circulation - first in the temporal
retinal area and then the nasal retinal area, and finally in the
last "island of vision" corresponding to a retinal location be-
tween the macula and the optic disc. The physiological explan-
i ation for the pattern of monocular visual field loss, is believed
to lie within the retina. Dividing the retina into two portions

(temporal and nasal), fifty percent more retina lay temporal to

the optic disc than nasal. Therefore, the temporal arterioles
have considerably more distance and more tissue to nourish than
the nasal arterioles. Also, there does not appear to be any in-
creased vascular network temporally to compensate for nourishment
in this larger area. Hence, monocular visual field loss would be
experienced earliest in the temporal retina producing a nasal
field loss (62), followed by nasal retinal ischemia producing a
temporal field loss. Duane (62) points out this monocular effect
may not be overly apparent because most studies are conducted us-
ing binocular vision. Likewise, we note that the visual distur-
bance associated with high G conditions is predominantly experi-
enced under binocular conditions. The above disturbances origin-
ate both in the temporal and nasal sections of the retina external

-60- I
6
 to the macula (fixation or foveal area) and binocularly material-
ize as disruptions of the peripheral field of view.

As will be discussed below, all of the visual effects asso-

ciated with +Gz can be reproduced in a one G field using ple-
thysmographic goggles - which artificially raise Pi by applying
greater than ambient pressure air to the eye ball. Experiments
with such goggles and centrifuge accelerations have been able to
demonstrate conclusively the anatomical site of the visual phen-
omenon of grayout and blackout.

4.3.4.2 Similarities Between Effects of Acceleration and of

Plethysmog raphic Goggles

Andina (81) is usually credited with the earliest explanation

of acceleration grayout in terms of the effect of the hydrostatic
pressure drop on the retinal circulation. Lambert, in a brief re-
port in 1945, was the first to demonstrate directly that the phys-
iological basis of acceleration blackout could be explained and
mimicked by raising intraocular pressure through ophthalmodynamome-
try (151). He concluded that the visual effects of acceleration
1
.-
.
*
and of externally applied pressure depended only upon the differ-
ence between systemic blood pressure at eye level and any external-
ly applied pressure, as through plethysmographic goggles. He
termed this pressure difference "effective systolic arterial pres-
sure" (AP) and found that the visual field would begin to show
dimming for AP in the region of 30 to 49 mm Hg, that peripheral
vision was lost in the region of AP = 20 to 32 mm Hg, and that
blackout resulted when AP was 0 to 21 mm Hg. He further concluded
that the latency and progress of the development of the visual ef-
fects was the same for use of external pressure as it was for de-
velopment with +Gz on a centrifuge. For a simplified example of
the simulated effects of the plethysmographic goggles, see Table
4.3.4-1.

-61-
 Table 4.3.4-1 Comparison of actual visual effects
due to high acceleration with simu-
lated effects induced by plethysmographic
goacles.

Actual Acceleration Effects

Temporal Level Temporal Artery

Systemic Pressure Intraocular Pressure AP Visual Effects Flow Direction
80 mm Hg 21 mm +59 Normal Vision Posigrade
70 21 +49 Dimming of Posigrade
60 21 +39 visual field
50 21 +29 Peripheral vision Posigrade
40 21 +19 lost
30 21 +09 Posigrade
20 21 -01 Blackout is Retrograde
10 21 -11 experienced Retrograde
0 21 -21

Acceleration Effects Simulated With ?lethysmocraphic Goggles

Temporal Level
Systemic Plethysmographic + Intiaocular aP Visual Temporal Artery
Pressure Goqales Pressure Effects Flow Direction

80 mm Hg 0 + 21 - 21 mm +59 Normal vision Posigrade

80 10 + 21 = 31 +49 Dimming of Posigrade
80 20 + 21
41 +39 visual field
80 30 + 21
51 - +29 Peripheral Posigrade
80 40 + 21
61 +19 vision lost
80 50 + 21
71 +09 Posigrade
80 60 + 21
- 81 -01 Blackout Retrograde
80 70 + 21
91 -11 Retrograde
I0 80 + 21 - 101 -21 1 Retrograde I

The use of ophthalmodynamometry as a clinical tool for invest-

igating the retinal circulation was, of course, an old matter,
stemming from the work of Baillert in 1917. Although a number of
clinical investigators used the springloaded dynamometer to press
against the sclera and observe changes in the retinal circulation,
it was not until a significant research program by members of the
Ophthalmology Department of Jefferson Medical College in Philadel-
phia working with the Johnsville centrifuge began to attack prob-
lems in the 50s and 60s that a clear understanding of the scien-
tific basis of ophthalmodynamography and the practical use of
plethysmographic goggles became established. A comprehensive

-62-
review of ophthalmodynamometry was prepared in 1963 by Wiegelin
and Lobstein. An excellent summary of the vast number of ex-
periments relating visual field changes during positive accelera-
tion and those occurring with increased pressure over the orbit
was the subject of the thesis by Duane, summarized in 1966 (63)
and in a slightly shorter version in 1967 (62). Duane and his
associates demonstrated clearly the quantitative similarities
between the grayout and blackout associated with the use of
plethysmographic goggles and that occurring on the centrifuge.
They further showed that in both cases, the grayout of the visual
field proceeded from temporal to nasal periphery and finally nar-
rowed to the remaining island as the flow was cut off in the cor-
responding areas of the retinal circulation. The peripheral light
loss or grayout, following +Gz occurring at an average of 4.3g's,
corresponds to the initial collapse of the retinal arterioles in
the periphery. Similarly blackout corresponds to complete col-
lapse of the retinal arteries, total arterial exsanguination. The
delay between the objective changes and the visual sensation of
"dimming was approximately 5 seconds for grayout and 2-3 seconds
for blackout. Both af these times are consistent with the dura-
tions associated with anoxia development after impairment ot the
blood supply.

Since the retinal circulation is an "end artery system",

Duane and his associates assume that collapse would occur first in
the smaller arterioles serving the peripheral branches, and only
later in those associated with central vision. The same pattern
of collapse is seen with pressure increase using the plethysmogra-
phic goggles. In addition to the dominant factor of interest for
simulation, that of grayout and blackout, there are other related
similarities of visual effects which are of some importance. Ac-
celeration induced blackout and blackout caused by increased Pi,
both abolish the pupillary response to light. However, as demon-
strated by using monocular increase in Pi, consensual reflexes
associated with illumination of the other eye remain. Eye move-

-63-

L. L
ments were inhibited during positive acceleration, and the hypothe-
sis has been put forward that this "limitation of ocular mobility
in response to acceleration (LOMA)" is associated with a central
nervous dysfunction associated with hypoxia. This explanation,
however, is not obviously consistent with the observation that
negative pressure over the eyes, restoring circulation and vision
to the retinas, returns not only the sensory feedback but also
normal eye movements. The exact relationship between plethysmo-
graphic goggle pressure and LOMA remains to be investigated.
Electroretinography (ERG), a very primitive measure of light
processing by the retina, has light processing to continue
unabated through blackout and up to and including unconsciousness
for +Gz and, apparently also for similar visual stages of
ophthalmodynamometry. The explanation is that the rods and cones
which are required to function for the electroretinogram, as well
as the bipolar cells, are nourished chiefly by the choroid and not
by the retinal circulation. The choroidal flow is not impeded
significantly by stresses. Duane (62) discussed other less direct
results on pupillary response, photic driving and the algorithm
under acceleration and pressure stresses in his review. Finally,
Anderson et al (5) reported that inhalation of 100% oxygen at high
pressure produces "significant prolongation of visual function
after occlusion of the retinal circulation by ophthalmodynametric
pressure on the eye". Although their interests were solely in
clinical applications of hyperbaric oxygen treatment, it is inter-
esting to note that a similar increase in tolerance to grayout or
blackout associated with +Gz is observed when breathing 100%
oxygen. (Obviously,none of the limiting benefits of 100% oxygen
during +Gz associated with altered ventilation and perfusion
ratios are at work in this.)

The specific changes in visual field and visual acuity during

ophthalmodynamometry using the pressure goggles have been publish-
ed and are apparently identical to those observed with centrifuga-
tion yielding +Gz acceleration. The latter is demonstrated by

-64-
Jaeger et al in their paper "Visual Field Changes During Positive
Acceleration" (127) and the former is shown in Jaeger et al "Para-
metric and Visual Acuity Changes During Ophthalmodynamometry"
(128). Figure 4.3.4-1 shows the changes in the field at various
stages of chamber pressure above retinal arterial diastolic pres-
sure. The similarity to +Gz grayouts and blackouts is to be
noted.

Naeal field loss (left eye) approeches fixation and

Initial field loss is pronounced in the nasal field (left , temporel peripheral field lon ismore pronounced.
eye). Temporal field Ica isminimal end limited to thu periphLry
These illustrations rspreent a composite fiRld Ioss of th4 group
este..

The subject isapproaching blackout. Fixation has dit-

appeared and the lest remaining island of vision is located 5-100
peripheral to fixation.

Figure 4.3.4-1 Monocular visual field loss (from Jaecer et

thatal.
(127)). "Field" as used above refers to
field as seen by the left eye.

-65-

Ti
 4.3.4.3 Hardware Considerations - Plethysmographic Goggles

The earliest ophthalmodynamometry equipment was basically an

outgrowth cf the tonometer, permitting the clinician to increase
pressure in the eye by pressing against it and observing the
changes in the fundus. Various clinical versions of this equip-
ment were brought into use as reviewed in several cources (Ref.
Goldstein, Lobstein A. and Nordmann, J. Modern Ophtalm, 1959). An
instrument called the "Ophthalmic Artery Pulsensor" was available
in the early sixties for clinical investigation (240). It did not
permit the subject to see through the device. It remained for
Weeks et al (255) of the aforementioned group in Philadelphia to
develop the Plethysmographic goggle which would permit the subject
wide peripheral field view as well as allowing the experimenter to
observe the retina. They developed a device consisting of two in-
dividually inflatable chambers fit into a mask, and a tigbt fit-
ting seal around the orbits. Straps were used to attach the gog-
gle to the chamber and inflatable bladders placed between the head-
band and the occipital skull to produce a counterpressure for re-
duced diacomfort and better fit. The components of their device
are shown in Figure 4.3.4-2. These goggles could be pressurized
to 200 mm Hg. It was found that grayout occurs at approximately 8
to 25 mm Hg above eye level diastolic pressure. This method, how-
ever, which used a rigid shell of necessity made the problem of
the seal increasingly severe as pressure increase within the gog-
gle tended to pull the shell away from the face. This problem was
solved by a newer design published by Behrendt et al (19) in 1966,
in which they use a soft and flexible material which folds under
at the junction with the orbit so that increasing pressure in the
chamber presses the .eal tighter much in the manner of a tubeless
tire. This goggle is shown schematically and in pictures ln Fig-
ure 4.3.4-3. This system has a leak rate which is maximum between
50 and 80 mm Hg and decreases as pressure goes higher, up to 150
mm Hg. Tape is
used to maintain the seal at low pressures. The
authors reported that pressure decreased only by 1 mm Rg per min-

-66-

:I-
S••
= • . • • •, [., ,•• :-z j -. : • • : - : ' < .~- -- " ''J:i'' • •"•'••:
 - . ...... * I

COUNTERPRESSURE AIR BLADDER

r/ PLASTIC EYE SHIELDS

STRAPPING
:.1

HAND BULB
FOPM RUBBER MASK

PRESSURE GUAGE

Ficure 4.3.4-2 Component parts of the plethysmocaraphic

qoc.le: (1) hand bulb, (2) foam rubber
mask, (3) plastic, eye shields, (4W counter-
pressure air bladýder, (5) strlppi.nq, an,-
(6) pressure k-Muce (from r':eeks (255))
icourt-eF- o" Official Jnurnal •C the
S*A• ican Acader"' of Ne.rl .

ute, which was easily replenished with a hand pump. The goggles
were worn comfortably for one hour, and required on the order of
thirty minutes to fit. Thie version of the goggle appears entire-
ly consistent with the experimental device to be included within
or as an adjunct to the pilot's flight helmet for investigation of
the utility of Qphthalmodynamometry in training.

,¶, Duane reports on some ea y attempts to increase Pi by a full

i face aviator's mask using a f pressure high altitude flyrir-i
suit. They found that the ret. tl circulation could be occluded,
but abandoned the technique as being too cumb rsome anl techni-

-67-
 ~j1
RETAINING
RIGID SHELL STRAP

•- RBIT i

PERIORBITAL STRUCTURES

-A.TRANSMITTE THROUGH
RIGID WALL, PULLS GOGGLE A. RESULTANT MOVEMENTS NOT
AWAY FROM SEAL. TRANSMITTEO TH1ROUGH FLEXIBLE WAL•L
T S. NO INFLUENCE ON SEAL. N EFFECT ON SEAL.
C. HELPS MAINTAIN SEAL BY
C. PRESSES SKIN AWAY FROM PRESSING GOGGLE TO SKIN
SEAL

Abb. 2 a Abb. 2 b

FRONT PLATE

NEW MODEL GOGGLE TUDELESS TIRE

Figure 4.3.4 - 3 Goggles seal (from Behrendt(19))

(courtesy of Keinischi Monatsblatter
Fur Augenheilkunde)

cally difficult. If the effects are deemed worth while, this

could be further investigated.

4.3.5 Area of Interest Variable Transparency Visor

- The pilots of most high performance tactical aircraft wear

helmets equipped with visors which afford protection to the
pilot's eyes and face, and, through the use of filters, improves
vision by cutting glare in daylight operations. In searching for I

-68-

,n,-
 means to alter the simulator pilot's visual environment to repli-
cate the visual effects of high G conditions, the visor offers
many merits as a potential site for such alteration.

1) In that the visor is employed in the actual task of

piloting an aircraft, its presence and use in the simu-
lator is natural and expected. There is no loss of en-
vironmental fidelity which is considered a very impor-
t-ant benefit.

2) As described in prior sections, the pilot's instantan-

eous line of sight is required to appropriately positionI
the high G visual effects and the use of a helmet
mounted oculometer is a preferred method of generating
this information. The helmet mounted oculometer is con-
structed with the visor forming an integral part of its
operation; consequently, the requirement to provide and
use a visor is already established.

3) By concentrating the visual alteration at the visor

* site, the more cumbersome computations and hardware
alterations required to replicate the effects using sim- '

ulator cockpit instrumentation lighting and visual dis-

plays as discussed in Section 4.3.6, could be elimin-
ated. Further, a continuum of effect between cockpit
interior and exterior scene is assured.

4) The visor site permits imposition of effect in those

areas of the field of view in which luminescence is
strictly a consequence of general ambient lighting and
not subject to selective 7'ontrol. This would include
areas such as cockpit panel faces, miscellaneous cockpit
structures, or even portions of the pilot's )wn body.

-69-V
 5) The authors have noted in the literature discussing the
subjective description of the appearance of high G peri-
pheral light loss a consistent suggestion that the ef-
fect is often perceived as a visual description occur-
ring external to the eye as if something intercedes be-
tween subject and scene. Vasil'yev and Kotovskaya (244)
most directly address this where they characterize gray-
out as "a gray veil, fog, whitish fog ..... like looking
through rain or fog." Note the use of the word
'through'. The simulation of such effects can more
faithfully be simulated by introducing the disruption
within a medium through which the pilot must view this
environmental scene rather than at the scene itself.

4.3.5.1 Visor Concept

The visor concept advocated herein is closely related to the

challenging variable transmittance visor work accomplished by
Rockwell International Corporation's J.P. Dobbins in 1973. Under
AMRL contract F33615-71-C-1938, Dr. Dobbins developed and con-
structed helmet visors possessing the capability to vary automati-
cally, and in continuous form, light transmittance such that under
brilliant illumination conditions the light level reaching the
pilot's eyes can be reduced so as to preserve perception of low
light level tactical information displayed to the pilot via on-
board avionic systems. Dobbins employed what currently has become
generically known as liquid crystal techniques to vary the visor
transmittance factor. One of these units is pictured in Figure
4.3.5-1.

Hoyt et. al. in Patent #3,942,270 held by The Singer Company

applied liquid crystal visor construction concepts for the purpose
of gradually dimming, from the periphery of the visor inwards, the
pilot's view in order to replicate high G conditions. This con-
cept held that the center of the visor expanse was the most likely

-70-
.1

Figure 4.3.5 1 Helmet assembly without shroud

(from Dobbins (58)).

position of the pilot's line of sight and that peripheral lumin-

escence dimmning was the effect sought. Visor design established
the center of the visor expanse to be the last area of dimming;
consequently, if the pilot shifted his line of sight without
* moving the visor itself, the clear central field of viewi would not
move with the line of sight. The visor concept discussed herein
extends the liquid crystal approach far beyond that suggested in
this patent and draws on high spee6 liquid crystal display tech- i
niques which are currently in the developmental phase.

4.3.5.1.1 Dual Optical Efffects of Interest

Fundamentally liquid crystals are mesomorphic substances

whose optical activity is alterable based on applied voltage.

Ii Sandwiched between two transparent conductors a thin layer

of

-71-
1.1. k
 liquid cfy posed
P to both dielectric and conduction
forces wbn • the type of liquid crystal, material
selected a ious optical alterations in the light
pquid crystal layer. The optical alteration
occurs of the conductors and reveals the otherwise
nonappa !. attern selected for the conductors. A popular pat-
'.?
tern fo d today the seven individually addressable bars or
segments which.' se the display of a digit employed in liquid
crystal numeri'3hdi plays. The optical change occurs as a volt-
age, higher th:O•threshold voltage, and is applied to the
transpa d psurfaces. The severity of the optical dis-
turbanc i- I the magnitude of the impressed voltage
potenti *~~~lof optical change- to-vol tage change is
thnly a few intermediate states of optical dis-
turbance&', :ý'tn
practice.

Two basic types of liquid crystal electro-optic phenomena

exist: field effects caused by dielectric forces only and con-
duction phenomena induced by a combination of dielectric and
conduction forces. Induced birefringence, twisted nematic,
guest-host interaction, and cholestric-nematic transitions are
found within the field effects category wherein optical disruption
occurs as the liquid crystal deforms due to the presence of a
dielectric field. These phenomena can be employed to block the
passage of light passing through the liquid crystal display and
consequently vary illumination levels of external light viewed
through the display. The twisted nematic used with a polarizing
film is a popular configuration for battery operated watch digital
displays because of its low power requirements. Here light passes
from the front of the display to a reflecting surface behind the
display and back out the front. When the liquid crystal, taken
together with polarizer, is commanded to a light blocking mode,
the shape of the segment becomes apparent by silhouette.

-72-
 Dynamic scattering and storage effects, on the other hand,
produce a different optical appearance and are part of the con-
duction phenomena. Conduction induced fluid flow occurs in ne-
matic materials with negative dielectric anistropy and the wide
angle forward scattering phenomena known as "dynamic scattering"
is the most important by-product of the turbulence associated with
electrohydrodynamic flow. In this case the view through the
display in its non-scattering mode is clear and as the display is
caused to increase in dynamic scattering, it takes on the appear-
ance of increasingly apparent ground glass. Because we are in-
terested in causing the visor to replicate not only the high G
visual effect of light level dimming but also the loss of contrast
associated with grayout, both field effect and dynamic scattering
light crystal phenomena are pertinent to our application. Some
vendors of liquid crystal technology, when briefed on our poten-
tial application, felt that it might be possible to chemically
bond together nematics from the above two categories such that one
film of liquid crystal medium could be made to perform both the
"task of scattering and light level reduction as a progressive
effect. Should this not be possible, it is apparent the two
unique films, one from each category, could be sandwiched to
produce the varied optical effect sought.

4.3.5.1.2 Flat Plate Display Prototype

Developing a visor as a liquid crystal display requires that

the visor be constructed of transparent inner and outer shells
which are separated slightly to permit the insertion of a thin
film of nematic material. The inner and outer shells actually
form a vessel containing the nematic. The inner surface of the
vessel is coated with a thin film of conducting material such that
the nematic can be exposed to dielectric and conducting forces.
In the case where two different and separately contained nematics
are to be employed the vessel must be constructed with three walls
providing two cavities and four conductor films may be employed.
- 3
L
-73
..............
 One of the most serious problems facing Dobbins (58) was the
vessel forming process which would yield not only visors of the
correct contour but, more importantly, would provide dimensional
uniformity in the thickness of the internal cavity. He ultimately
recommended the use of thermosetting castings of allyldiglycol
carbonates (ADC) glazing resins. Nevertheless, of importance is
the fact that generating a curved surface "display" presented
difficulties. Liquid crystal vendors we have contacted seem to
express the same concerns. The concepts suggested herein border
the state-of-the-art in flat plate liquid crystal display tech-
nology without considering curved surface fabrication. None would
say that the principles required to achieve the desired flat plate
display are violated or nonapplicable in curved surface displays,
but most seem to adopt a serial approach to the problem: first
develop and evaluate a suitable flat plate display, then approach
the curved surface fabrication problem. Therefore the balance of
this section will consider the visor display as a flat plate
prototype.

Figure 4.3.5-2 depicts a planform of the flat plate visor

measuring four by eight inches. It would be constructed in either
two or three wall construction depending on the suitability of
chemically bonding or maintaining as separate the field effect and
conduction nematics. Either way, provision is made for both dyna-
mic scattering and light dimming optical effects. If a twisted
nematic is employed for light dimming a set of polarizing films
must cover the display expanse. The addition of a pleochroic dye

mixed with the nematic and operating under guest-host interaction

.ould reduce the polarization requirement to a single film. Selec- I
tion of a cholesteric-nematic mixture could remove the require-
ments for polarization altogether (200) which would be advantage-
ous since polarizer films are susceptible to temperature and
moisture degradation (225). Dobbins avoided the use of "liquid
crystals", per se, and employed a formulation of electrodichroic
crystals in liquid suspension in order to eliminate the need for

A -74-
 - .•'. - . ---

• A

12 '1

I' Fi.gure 43.,5 - 2Flat plate visor disp3.ay.

polarizers and to obtain a lower optical effect-to-voltage drive

gain (58). The latter permits more precise control over the
L degree of transmittance attenuation then that afforded by the
Ii twisted nematic. As we shall see, our configuration may not
require such precise control. :

4..51. atrix Addressing.

l+ The transparent conductor films used in the four by eight inch

flat plate display are deposited on the inner surface of the ves-
S sel so as to form a 40 x 80 matrix of 0.1 x 0.1 inch elements.
That is, on one side of the liquid crystal are located rows of
conductors 0.1 inch wide and on the other side of the liquid
crystal film are located columns of conductor 0.1 inch wide. Thus
* by matrix addressing, wherein a specific row and column are sub-

i! jected to an electric potential, the optical effect can be corn-

manded to occur at selective positions within the expanse of the

-75-

OP 7,
 flat plate visor. Likewise it is possible to "paint" an optical
pattern and cause it to move about the expanse of the flat plate.

4.3.5.1.4 Display Pattern of Specific Interest

The specific pattern of interest to us is illustrated in F'ig-

r ure 4.3.5-2 wherein the paired monocular rendition of high G gray-
out and peripheral light loss is painted centered on the location
of the pilot's current visual line of sight as made known by the
oculometer. Cerebral assimilation of the monocular views produces
a uniform binocular effect. The origin of the radius vectors are

The magnitude of the radius vectors shorten during the onset of

high G visual impairment and expand during recovery and are driven
by an algorithm such as that presented in Section 4.3.3. The
radius ri, corresponds to the "disturbance terminator" and r4
corresponds to the "blackness terminator" as introduced in section
4 4.3.3. Within the area of rl, dynamic scattering and transmission
attenuation would not be scheduled. Between rl and r~, r2 and
r3, and r3 and r4 sequentially more intense scattering and/or a
greater density of elements commanded in dynamic scattering would
be scheduled to replicate grayout conditions. Commencing t~o draw
on the second major optical effect of the visor, between r3 and r4
transmission attenuation might be scheduled by activating a sparse
population of light blocking elements. At r4 a greater density of
light blocking elements would be activated to higher levels of at-
tenuation and at some radius beyond r4 the display would become
completely opaque to simulate complete light loss. As can be
deduced fromn the preceding description, the matrix approach, when
employed to cause visual disruption, lessens dependence upon
driving all elements in intensity variations. The same net effect
can be achieved with less control of the intensity of a given ele-
ment's optical effect supplanted by control over the density of
the effect considered from an area-wise standpoint. This pheno-
mena is somewhat analogous to that employed in printing photo-

-76-
graphs by half-tone methods. For this reason high gain twisted
nematics may be entirely suitable for use in the visor.

4.3.5.1.5 Multiplexing, Drive Waveform, and Power

The optical patterns we wish to construct in the visor are

complex enough to require a modified form of signal multiplexing.
In order to preclude the perception of flicker in the display,
each element should be updated at least 25-30 times a second
(225).
AI
Ideally each element could be individually addressed to

the exclusion of simultaneously addressing all other elements in

the display. This would involve incorporating multiplexers on
both the X and Y axes. The multiplexers could be mounted on the
helmet itself and would reduce the wires servicing the helmet to
the X and Y data chain, X and Y address enables, and multiplexer
power. The luxury of such independent non-simultaneous addressing
reduces individual address duration in our 3200 element display to
approximately 10 microseconds which may be inordinantly short to
successfully stimulate the element within a reasonable response
time.

A more classical form of liquid crystal multiplexing is to

multiplex on but one axis while providing individual and simultan-
eous access to all elements on the other axis. Dividing our dis-
play into two 40 x 40 element sections with the intent of simul-
taneously scanning each section and further stipulating that a set
of 40 individual address lines will be provided to each of the two
sets of 40 Y axis columns will significantly increase element con-
nect duration. In this case the 40 X axis rows are multiplexedI
such that the display is swept, 40 columns at a time, row by row
along the Y axis. Connect time increases from 10 microseconds to
nearly a millisecond.

The life of liquid crystal displays are sometimes quoted as

high as 50,000 hours. However, in order to achieve this type of

-77-
life, it is necessary to drive the display with an AC waveform and
keep residual DC levels below a minimum. Residual DC levels tend
to slowly degrade the optical effect by permitting the accumula-
tion of an insulating film at the anode (2C0,225). Liquid crys-
tals respond to the R.MS voltage potential to which they are ex-
posed; consequently a pulse chain with polarity systematically
reversed is a preferred means to excite the display elements
(225). Threshold voltages depend upon the material but can be
found in the 1-2 Vrms region. Saturation voltages also vary but
may be found in the 10-20 volt region. Typical power requirements
run in the 10-20 micro-amp/cm2 region.

Liquid crystals are sensitive to the frequency employed in

generating the dielectric field. Critical frequencies exist,
peculiar to the material employed, above which activation thres-
holds are increased and delay times decreased. This phenomena is
used to advantage in generating displays by employing a high fre-
quency component to alter response characteristics while simultan-
eously employing a low frequency component to activate the inten-
sity of the electro-optical effect. Dual frequency addressing
will be further discussed in the next section.

4.3.5.2 Visor Response

Many of the problems encountered in developing a liquid crys-

tal display center not so much on generating a display but on de-
veloping a highly responsive display. Because the visor display
must reposition the high G visual impairment pattern according to
the movement of the pilot's line of sight, pattern movement must
occur during visual saccades. Although precise data on acceptable
time decays is missing, it would be appropriate to assume that
pattern repositioning should occur within 100 milliseconds and
this requirement in itself would qualify the visor as a high
response display.

-78-

A
 The rise times at 20*C of the majority of field effect mat-
erials seems to fall in the 100 millisecond region and approxi-
mately 150-200 milliseconds for dynaý.ic scattering materials.
Decay times range from 200-400 milliseconds for field effect and
100 milliseconds for dynamic scattering material.s. Some twistedI
nematics, however, display rise times as shor, as 10 milliseconds.
Multiplexing the matrix as earlier discussed aggravates the situ-
ation by reducing the connect time to each element and promoting
conditions where increased potentials are sought to establish
higher RMS values of applied potential. Higher RMS potentials
indeed reduce optical response time but can contribute to cross
talk between matrixed elements. As of the early part of this
decade displays employing 50 x 50 and 100 x 100 elements with a
scan time of 1 second and a 260 x 260 element array with a 10-20
second scan time were reported. A 120 x 120 array operating at
television update rates was functional but displayed some defects
(200). Smith concludes in his 1978 article on multiplexing of
liquid crystal displays (225) that improved liquid crystal ma-
* terials currently und~r development will make multiplexing easier
and permit the development of large dot-matrix arrays for video
*- games and data display terminals. Techniques have been developed
* to improve the responsiveness of liquid crystal displays. Some of
these techniques must be considered in the design of the visor in
concert with the selected array size. The aforementioned twin 40
x 40 matrix of 0.1 inch square elements must be treated only as a

point of departure and should be reconsidered in a resolution vs.I

The pulse chain generated in the multiplexing process aids .

response time in one aspect in that it permits establishing a
steady state RMS potential just shy of the crystal threshold volt-
age; therefore, the element is "set" to activate without delay
(225). Secondly, rather than establishing the "activate" dielec-
tric potential at the intersection of a row and column by placing

-79-
half the activate potential at one polarity on~ the row and the
 same magnitude but opposite polarity on the column which results
in the unselected elements "seeing" one-half the activate polar-
ity, a one-third voltage select scheme is employed as illustrated
in Figure 4.3.5-3. Note that the unselected elements are exposed
to only one third of the activate voltage. Conversely, if the
voltage residing at the unselected elements is maintained at just
below the threshold level, it is apparent the one-third scheme
permits the "activate" voltage to be of larger magnitude than that
permitted in the former "one-half" scheme. Increasing the acti-
vate potential reduces response time.

" •-
- COLUMNS - X Axis

Vv31•.14 V13 h .V1 V/ITVh V T V'3 V/h

Y AXIS
N 13 W ,V:31 H .I .V;V/3 'V V14
1 3 Y _

-N
+V 13' >V_ Sl~~o~Is RV/3 -- - V

MIULTIPLY)

VI3
N 'V i -V /31 "A -V1 1 -V 3 "VH -V/3 'VH .Y13 VH
•V13',

> _
+VIS
•+V13V" V /31.Vl3 &46+1V .v/3 .VH v13 " HvN.V/3 "Vx
H

Vl
-VI H _Vl/3 'VlS . . • I H V13 .H V,{

"H
-Y13 -V/3VH V3 -V

j *-V13>

Figure 4.3.5 - 3 Dual Frequency Addressing

and One Third Voltage Select
Method (after Priestly (200))
Ll

Another method of further increasing the abovementioned acti-

vate potential is to capitalize on the impact high frequency po-
tentials impose on crystal threshold potentials. Dual frequency
addressing selectively employs both a low frequency activate poten-

80-
 tial and a higher frequency signal, above the nematic's cr.. '-'.
frequency, to raise the thres'iold potential of unseler "• r]J•-
ments. This is demonstrated in Figure 4.5.3-3 by the-Vdt• VH.
By raising the threshold potential of unselected elemenrts, .t is
possible to increase the activate potential which shorten-: re-
L sponse time. Viewed conversely, higher activate potentials in-
ducing quicker response can be employed without encountering cross
talk, or the condition when neighboring unselected elements become
inadvertently active.

Dual frequency addressing displays an additional benefit in

that the high frequency component has the effect of shortening the
decay time of both field effect and dynamic scattering nematics.
In the case of dynamic scattering nematics, for instance, the high
frequency component adds a dielectric orienting field to the ele-
ment which tends to suppress hydrodynamic flow. In the visor ap-
plication the response associated with eliminating an optical ef-
fect is equally as important as the response associated with ini-
tiating the effect. Fortunately the application of high frequency
potentials to shorten decay time is a discretionary action because
slow natural decay makes possible multiplex scanning of arrayed
liquid crystal displays. In fact in some cases it is desirable to
prolong the decay.

Multiplex scanning subjects each element in the array to a

pulse chain. When an element is to be activated, the amplitude of
the pulse is increased such that the RMS potential is raised above
threshold levels. During multiplex scanning an element is exposed
to pulses separated by intervals of zero potential. As the number
of array elements to be scanned per unit time increases these
intervals become longer and the pulse width smaller. The dielec-
tric field is increased during the pulse and permitted to decay
according to its dielectric relaxation time during the interval of
zero potential. Thus even though the pulse width may be small, if

decay is small or can be retarded, the field will persist long

L -81-
Lii
enough to activate the desired optical effect. Consequently, the
selection of the nematic material must, in part, be made based on
its natural decay characteristics compared against the temporal
constraints formed by the multiplexed scan pattern selected.

One of the methods to further retard decay is through the

addition of cholesteric material to the nematic which, it will be
recalled, is also suggested as a method of eliminating light
polarization requirements. A second method to retard decay is to
electrically isolate each element from its common connection to
other array elements in the row or column, thereby reducing di-
electric relaxation via external paths. Polycrystalline thin-
film transistors have been used for this purpose; however, their
applicability to the visor application requires additional inves-
tigation.

This section has concentrated on the question of response be-

cause of its obvious importance in the visor application and also
because it forms a very complex problem involving interrelation-
ships between the selection of nematic materials, selection of
array size and scan patterns, the characteristics of the potential
used in addressing an array element, and the address strategy
itself. Other factors must also be considered in the design of
the display such as temperature and humidity effects, liquid
crystal layer thickness effects, and variation in optical effects
as a function of viewing angle; however, we do not foresee major
difficulties arising from these considerations.

4.3.5.3 Visor Subsystem Structure and Devel' ,mental Approach

The preceding sections have been directed primarily at dis-

cussing the primary element of the subsystem: the visor display
apparatus. We envision the total subsystem to include the visor
display, helmet mounted oculometer, and a microprocessor or mini-
computer containing its own I/O structure to interface the oculo-

-82-[

AI
-7!
 ~-.
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _3

meter and visor together and further to interface these two items
to the host computational system serving the simulator.

A small dedicated computational capability operating at fast

cycle rate~s is required to%

1) Minimize delays between the generation and use of oculo-

meter produced line of sight information.

2) Generate the pulse chains required to activate the dis-

play according to the structure of multiplex scanning
selected.

3) Handle the high speed digital to analog conversion re-

quired by the display.

The visor computer is responsible for converting the patterns

* and location of the patterns sought in the display to appropriate
array element commands and then sequencing these commands accord-
ing to the scan process employed. It is responsible for control-
ling the analog scan process as well as the techniques for re-
sponse enhancement. The high G visual impairment model presented
in Section 4.3.3 could be located in either the simulator host
* computer if experimenter control over model behavior is emphasized
or in the visor computer if a minimum of model adjustment is anti-
* cipated. The latter configuration significantly decreases the
interface between host and visor computers.

* As earlier indicated, we believe the appropriate approach to

developing the visor subsystem is two phased involving the devel-
opment and evaluation of a flat plate display and then, assuming
the evaluation confirms the worth of the concep~t, developing a
similar display in the curved shape of the visor. Because of the
highly specialized technology associated with fabricating liquid
crystal displays and, in particular, addressing matrixed liquid

L ~-83-
 crystal displayse the development of the visor computer, 1/0, and
flat plate display should be maintained as a single effort and the
liquid crystal display vendor selected should demonstrate exper-
tise in the development of specialized displays as well as comn-
* puter systems to drive the displays. In the second phase, where
the flat plate system is converted to a curved surface display it
may be beneficial to attempt to involve Dr. Dobbins or other indi-
viduals key to the earlier AMRL visor contract in order to benefit
by their experiences in fabricating liquid crystal displays in the
form of a visor.

4.3.6 Diminution of Visual Acuity Simulation

F4.3.6.1 Flight Instruments

As mentioned in Section 3, the pilot experiences a diminution

of visual acuity during +Gz. This dimming process begins with an
interruption of vision in the far most periphery proceeded by a
gradual degradation of vision moving inwards towards the foveal.
As the radii of the field of view gradually collapse, a comple~te
loss of vision is experienced.

Two concentric circles define the regions of diminution of

visual acuity from the simplified algorithm (Section 4.3.3) (see

Figure 4.3.6.1-1).
The instrument axis system has it's origin located in the
lower left corner with the positive abscissa extending horizon-
tally out to the right and the positive ordinate extending ver-
tically upwards from the origin.

In Figure 4.3.6.1-1, RI is the radius of the inner circle and

R2 is the radius of the outer circle. RI defines the radius to
the point of interest (I) from the fixation point MF. "I" is the

-84-1
 *1

INSTRUMENT PANEL

K,
0
K0

i.

Figure 4.3.6.1-1 Region of diminution of visual acuity.

point of interest which, in this case, is an instrument located on

the instrument panel.

When RI < RI, visual acuity is normal (K 1)

I"
RI > R2 , there is a total loss of vision (K a 0)

R1 < RI < R2, visual acuity varies linearly (0 < K < 1)

The center of these circles is at the fixation point (F)

which is the intersection of the LOS (line of sight) with the in-
strument panel. The coordinates of F are provided by the oculom-
eter system and are represented by (Xlos, Ylos). The coordinates
of each instrument are fixed relative to the instrument axis sys-
tem and are represented by (XI, Yj) for each instrument. R1 and

-85-
 R2 are provided by the dimming algorithm. Thus, the locations of
thr .Axation point and the instrument are known along with the
radii of the two concentric circles with center F. The objective
is to determine the level of attenuation (K) of a particular in-
strument in relation to it's location relative to R1 and R2 .-

Ri * [(X1 - X1 0 s) 2 + (YI - Ylo 3 ) 2 1/2 [Eq. 4.3.6.1-1]

For RI < RI, K * 1 (there is no dimming effect)

RI > R2 , K - 0 (total loss of vision)

R1 < RI < R2, 0 < K < 1 (visual acuity will vary linearly)
such that

K - RI - Rl [Eq. 4.3.6.1-21
R2 - Rl

f:-Lmfor any given II

instrument.

4.3.6.2 Visual Displays

The foregoing has been a discussion on determining the level

of attenuation of a particular instrument. It is also of impor-I
tance to know the level of attenuation of a particular part of the
visual display in order to obtain the proper dimming effect.

The display axis system is similar to the instrument axis

system with it's origin located in the lower left corner from
which the positive abscissa is directed to the right (XD) and the
positive ordinate is directed upwards (YD)I

Considering a CRT display system, the display consists of

1,000 raster scan lines. If the elements along a horizontal scan .1
line ara designated HD and if each scan line has a vertical desig-

-86-
 nation VD relative to the display axis system, then HD and VD can
both be thought of as counters where HD gives the number of plc-
"ture 31ements along a particular raster scan line and VD gives the
number of raster scan lines. Thus, the fixation point (F) can be
defined in terms oZ (Hlos, Vlos) such that,

H 0os Hmax(E(XIsD). eq. 4.3.6.2-1)

V XD

Vlos (YsD) Eq. 4.3.6.2-21

YD

Swhere

Where Themaiu number of elements alogahrzna

scan line

scan lines
Vmax The maximum number of

ID XD - The XD coordinate of the point of interest on the

display

S~displayYD -The YD coordinate of the point of interest on the

Since the coordinates of the fixation point (F, and the point
of interest (I) have been established, it is now possible to de-
fine RD (the radius from F to I) and thus, the attenuator on the
image intensity (K).

The following computations must be performed by analoq cir-

cuitry because they are required to be done at video frequency.

2 2 1/2
. RD (H( - [Eq. 4.3.6.2-3]

-87-

* LI 4
For
RD _ R1 , K 1 (Normal image intensity)

RD > R2 , K = 0 (Complete blackness)

1~~ RD-R

R1 < RD < R 2 # K = 1 RD R1 [Eq. 4.3.6.2-4]

R2 - Rl

For any point of interest on the visual display.

The above development for the CRT display can also pertain to
the dome display because a light valve maps from a flat plane to a
spherical surface optically, and is a raster scan projector.

4.3.6.3 Visual System Drives

Since both a CRT display and a light valve projector require

raster generation and visual signal processing the technique which
is related herein will be applicable to both schemes.

Consider the hardware described in Figure 4.3.6.3-1. The

hardware described assumes a sweep generating method utilizing a
crystal feeding down counter to determine the timing for the hor-
izontal and vertical sweep generation. These signals would be
compared against those generated by the visual acuity computer to
locate in the raster the center of foveal view and the c,.rraspond-
ing lengths along the raster line as well as the intensity of
visual signal at that point. This information would then be fed
to an in-line video multiplying D/A to properly attenuate the
video prior to going t6 the CRT or light valve projector.

The visual acuity computer (VAC) will determine, from the al-
gorithm, the center of diminution and the radii of pe':ipheral dim- .1
ming and connect them by appropriate 1.ransiarmations to horizontal
and vertical locations within the raster. Further the VAC will

-88-j

6117 7 7 77 >- , .~...-----~"---.-.- ~ ~ - -- -... . . A. . -- ~

 WORM
I

1hihas l te svvi•doli le ftot

I-T
mutilir

riaure 4.3.6.3-1 Selected spot dirning block diagram,..

Figure 4.3.6.3-2 serves as a further aid to explanation of

the type of signal computation considered. The center of diminu-
j tion is 75% along line 11 in the hypothetical raster. Four levels
of acuity are assumed. Proceeding from left-to-right the effect
- of the visual acuity signal from the VAC, after having been trans-
formed and referenced to the raster, is shown for lines 4, 5 and
11. The dotted portions of the raster depict the retrace lines
which are blanked during normal operation.

.
D/A.
The main element outside the VAC is the multiplying video
In terms of this hardware description the amplifier of the
r
D/A will be capable of handling the standard video frequencies
consistent with the resolution and scanning frequencies of the
visual device. Depending on the number of levels of acuity chosen
between complete blackout and clear vision, the settling time of

-89-

M4I
 7 - -
- - :===M-

001111

4 12

L~ZJ1
'It INORMAL VIDEO SIGNAL
(OUTLINED INWHITE) L11

b) ATTENUA7EO VIDEO
(AE0SIGNAL)
L5

L4

MULTIPLIER SIGNAL
FROM SPOT DIMMER LII
r

L5

7icure 4.3.6.3-2 Raster with selected spot dimmidng.

-90 - F-.
 tho D&C will be determined. Consistent with state-of-the-art the
settling times would probably be about SOn-sec. This translates
to a bandwidth of 7 mhz which may cause some loss of resolution
along the scan line at a point where acuity levels are changing.
Because of the nature of the simulation this may cause some blur-
I
ring at changes in acuity level. This is not considered to be a
serious problem at this time but would be a consideration in a
future hardware study.
j
4.3.6.4 Cockpit Lighting Drives

In a situation where the field of view covers the visual dis-

play and the cockpit instrument panel, (7igure 4.3.6.4-1) the vis-
ual display would be covered by the harlware described in section
4.3.6.3. Even though the center of toveal view is off the display

oL

!I

]
I Figure 4,3.6.4-1 Visual dis•play/instrument p~anel blending

of selected spot dimming. 777=

S-91-
A
 JI

screen the radii of diminution will cause the appropriate dimming

in the required area. To simulate the loss of acuity in the cock-
pit interior scene, it has been decided that this loss would be
simulated by dimming the instrument lighting (Figure 4.3.6.4-2).
The following is a description of the simulation hardware.

ACIT
th WhenRN
VAC th A eemn stha agvn intuen.ih

wilhv afxdadrs Figure

n 4.3.6.4-3)
n Thepi
ad-irseetdsptdmn

drese wisulbecontiuly compat r d toC

il rdc
vaue
the enerted byf-

fiediof diminution
fovall withionanthe thesigna ton that l~binghtwl
bexpattenuaed according to the pecie
algorithm.
Normal ocpth ligh-

will
ingswicinenddmmn be as throughegeerthed by
actnulycomplisheto

instrument lighting D/A.s.

Side panel lighting and auxiliary cockpit lighting could be

handled in the same manner as front panel lighting. The amount of
hardware and its complexity could be reduced considerably if this
lighting were considered to be in the area of complete vision loss

-92-
 i[

Ii '

I AZI. EI AZ2. EL2

IAZ 3. ELI 4 , EL
AZ 4

S .. Fiure 4.3.6.4-3 Instrument panel light addressing.

and be driven ir, normal simulator fashion. This possibility could

v- be investigated prior to any hardware implementation.

The D/A utilized in controlling the instrument lighting will

require a current buffer on a standard D/A to handle the current
requirements of the various bulbs used in aircraft instrument
lighting. Again the D/A will be the multiplying type which allows
a variable reference voltage to be used. Since only a single
variable is required the most stringent requirements will be 1)
multiplying capability, 2) current drive capability, and 3) number
of bits required to perform the dimming requirements of the
algorithm.

-93-
 4.4 Musculoskeletal Loaders

4.4.1 Head/Neck Loading

In the environment of high acceleration flight, the forces on

the pilot's head represent a significant obstacle to the pilot
moving his head. Pilots have been quoted as saying their shirt
collar size has increased substantially during their tour of fly-
ing high performance aircraft. This is a result of the neck mus-
culature resisting the inertial effects on the head. Because of
the fact that the neck muscles resist both head and helmet iner-
tial effects, it is logical to assume that if these effects are
reproduced in the simulator the combined inertia of head and hel-
met must be considered.

L Since it was found that there was significant movement of the

helmet with respect to the head as well as the resistive effects
on the neck, it was decided that these two areas should be treated
separately. ThereZfore, the effects of the head and helmet to-
gether stimulating the neck muscles is considered in this section.
Subsequently, the helmet motion relative to the head will be
treated.

In section A.4.2 it is shown that the head responds with both

pitch and vertical motion to +Gz stimuli. The data is lacking in
other degrees of freedom as indicated in section A.4.2. However
the other degrees of freedom could be investigated with some of
' the hardware suggested in th- following sections. This head
motion stimulates three sets of physiological receptors, the
muscle sensors, vestibular eensors and visual perspective. In
addition, the flesh pressure sensors in the head may also be
stimulated by the apparent increase in helmet weight.

Several approaches have been considered in attempting to pro- .-

vide the stimulation indicated above and in section A.4.2.

-94-

_ _ _ _ _ Z:_
 o Heavy fluid/helmet cavity
o Cable torque motor
o Skull pressure firmness bladders
o Cable/boom and drogue
o Magnetic field effects

HEAVY FLUID/HELMET CAVITY

The heavy fluid/helmet cavity approach was first introduced

during the study proposal. The concept employed is to fill cavi-

ties in the pilot's protective helmet with a fluid of sufficient
ii density to stimulate the physiological sensors consistent with an
increase in apparent mass of the head and helmet due to an in-
crease in vertical acceleration. As the acceleration increases
the cavities are filled and as it decreases the cavities are emp-
tied. In order to develop the design parameters of this system
the quantity of fluid required must be determined. Table 4.4.1-1
lists the apparent increase in head and helmet weight as a func-
tion of +Gz. Also presented in this table are the volumes of mer-
cury and a 20% lead slurry required to achieve those apparent head
L. and helmet weights.

Table 4.4.1-1 Head and helmet weight as a function of G

Head Helmet Total Volume Volume

Weight(kg) Weight(kg) Hg(cm3 ) Pb/oil(cm3 )
L.
+Gz
i1.0
Weight(kg)
4.6 1 .1 5.7 0 0
I
2.0 9.2 2.2 11.4 422.2 1.900
I.
3.0 13.8 3.3 17.1 844.4 3800
4.0 18.4 4.4 22.8 1266.6 5700
5.0 23.0 5.5 28.5 1688.8 7600
[ 6.0 27.6 6.6 34.2 2111.0 9500
7.0 32.2 7.7 39.9 2533.2 11400
8.0 36.8 8.8 45.6 2955.4 13300
9.0 41.4 9.9 51.3 3377.6 15200
10.0 46.0 11.0 57.0 3799.8 17100

E. -95-
 The number of heavy fluids available which do not require
spec5 .alhandling are very few. Mercury, because of its toxicity
causes special problems. It is also an expensive fluid. It was C.
eliminated from consideration here because of the safety consider-
ations. The 20% lead/oil slurry would be safe, however the quan-
tities required are very high to effect a 1:1 correspondence to
the actual acceleration. At 5g and 10g, 5.7 and 17.1 liters re-
spectively would be required. The standard USAF helmet modified
with several chambers as shown in Figure 4.4.1-1 would hold ap-
proximately one liter. Rare earth colloidal solutions or slur-
ries, such as depleted uranium may be an alternative with higher
densities but they would be cost prohibitive.

HELMET

tL INLET SJPPLY LINE

SOUTLET RETURN
LINE

COMPRESSED AIR LINE

(AIR WITH OUICK
DISCONNECTS AT
INSTRUMENT PANEL)

CAVITY NO.12
V (1
.-
Y No 2-
CAV IT
CAVIT'Y NO.3

Figure 4.4.1-1 -96-

Heavy fluid cavity approach.

____ I
 In order to scale the system to 10g, which seems to be a
minimum requirement for the present generation of high performance
fighter aircraft, the apparent weight of the head/helmet would
have to be reduced to about 6% for the lead slurry and to abcaut
26% for the mercury which would give the scaled weights in Figure
4.4.1-2. This figure illustrates that at lOg the scaled increase
in apparent weight is only 3.1 kg or 6.8# for the lead slu-:ry and
13.3 kg or 29.3# for mercury while in fact the increase Is 51.3 kg
or 11.2.9#.

These results raised several questions; first, would the gen-

eration of the full forces as indicated above impose a safety haz-
zard to the pilot? Second, what is the value of reduced ampl~itude
cuing? Third, what is the effect of applying the full gravitation-
al load to the helmet and thereby transmitting the force to the
head and neck when in reality those forces are distributed between
the head and helmet in a ratio of their weights?

The safety question is one of considerable concern. While ii

p can be stated th-..t these loads are the same as what could be ex-
pected in flight, it is a fundamental concept of flight simulation
r that these devices actually be safer than the aircraft. Therefore
the imposition of in excess of 50 kg to a pilot's head should be
done with a great deal of care if at all. One major problein here
is that the attitude of the head and neck relative to the spine
cannot easily be determined and therefore the application of this
force could cause injury if the head is not in an optimum position
for transmitting the forces. A further point to be considered is
that the heavy fluid cavity approach does not have the inh~erent
characteristics to make the system totally fail-safe.

Assuming then that it is undesirable to replicate the forces

exactly, but rather to employ a scaled version of the loads, the
concept of reduced amplitude cuing should be considered. This

-97-
 50

45 -

40 _ -
ACTUAL WEIGHT

35 O

S30

S25

< 20 /

LLI
15

S~HO M,,LIE0 WEIGHTI

10

Pb SCALED WEIGHT

1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9,0 10.0
Gz

Figure 4.4.1-2 Head/helmet apparent weight as a function of -1

G2 (actual and scaled).

-98- -'•-] I "

__ _ __ _ _ __ _
 concept has been employed successfully in other areas of simula-
tion. However the concept is not without controversy. Therefore,
to determine the applicability or the value of a reduced amplitude
cue training value, experiiments must be undertaken.

Tethird question concerning the aplcto of the total

head/helmet forces through the helmet is one that requires further
study. It is unrealistic to impose the forces totally through the
helmet since the flesh pressure sensora in the head would indicate
~ Ii. that all the force is applied through the helmet. Perhaps this
F'effect could be countered by the use of firmness bladders in the
helmet liner. These devices would be inflated during this period
to distribute the load over a larger area and thereby reduce the

stimulation of the flesh pressure sensors. This drive philosophy

enhncethe helmet loading cues.

LO course the fallacy in this approach is that to some extent

som ofthe load will be absorbed by the compressibility of the
airinthe firmness bladder. Again this concept can only be yeri-
fied empirically.

Ii ~The high flow requirements indicated in Table 4.4.1-1 for aj

10 g/sec acceleration rate are on the order of 4 liters/sec.
ISince this would impose significant constraints on the design of a

pumping station, it does not seem feasible to use this system

L_ training value of reduced amplitude cuing. Coupling this fact

with the safety aspect and the fact that this would be an expen-
* sive system indicates that another approach be used to develop a
laboratory device to evaluate the concept. This device has al-
* ready been developed, the NASA Langley Helmet Loader.

L -99-
 CABLE TORQUE MOTOR

The cable torque motor approach would employ system

• of
cables attached to the helmet through which tension could be ad-
justed by a torque motor. As was stated above, a device of this
type has been developed, built and tested by NASA Langley. This
device, referred to as a helmet loader is described by Ashworth
and McKissick (8).

The system employs two small strings attached to the helmet

and routed through pulleys on the shoulder harness to a torque
motor and employing a force transducer in the control loop. The
force feedback is utilized in order to follow the pilot's move-
ments while maintaining the appropriate helmet forces. Figure
4.4.1-3 shows the installation of the NASA helmet loader in the
DMS at Langley.

Il)I ATTACHMENT
PO IN
FORC ¢E
T-
--

TRANSDUCER + i

TORQUEU
MOTOR PULLEY

Figure 4.4.1-3 Helmet loader installed in DMS (from

Ashworth and McKissick (8)). (reprinted
with permission from the American
Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics,
AIAA Paper No. 78-1573. Figure 1).

The two small pulleys attached to the pilot's shoulder har-

ness provide a loosening of the straps as force is exerted down-

-100-

;Ii
-.
 ward on the helmet for positive G. Unrestricted head movement is
permitted by the amount of cable wound on the reel of the torque
motor,

The helmet loader system is described by its developers as a

0.4 damped second order system with a 20 msec steady state time
delay. Figure 4.4.1-4 illustrates the response to a 50% step. It
can ',a seen from this figure that the 0-90% rise time is approxi-
'mately 50 msec. The system response as stated in the technical
requirements for this study specify, as a response to a step in-
put, a 50 msec initial response and a 30 msec rise time (10%-90%
I of final value). The NASA helmet loader displays less transport
delay but a slightly longer rise time with the total time lag
{ being less in the case of the helmet loader.

COMMAND. - : " ,'

9
I• _ . .6..

40.0 191 "-"'---- "7•:_ _

FORCE N.z 7 - --. -
- --

11: 0(01

Fiqure 4.4.1-4 Step response (from Ashwort.i and McKissick ( 8

I:
)).

This device is scalea to produce 2/3 of the infiight helmet

loads up to a maximum of 6g where the total force exerted is 9
pounds. The developers state that their studies on the DMS have
shown that the "helmet loader has a measurable effect on the
i pilot/simulator system". They further state that "subjective data
indicates that the cue provided through the use of the helmet
loader is realistic, and there is no noticeable time delay in the

-101-

S-- . . -, - . --. i -.
presentation of the cue. However, the pilots had mixed opinions
about the effect of the helmet on their performance."

The device is designed with pilot safety as a consideration

and thereby uses breakaway snaps on the helmet, current and volt- -

age limiting and small torque motors to ensure that the pilot does
not experience excess force?.

The system is driven with a force command frem the drive al- -
gorithm. This algorithm is very straight forward where the com-
manded force is proportional to the aircraft z-body axis accelera- -
tion. -.

FPH - 1.8 (GS - 1.0) C PH

F 9 [eq. '.4.1-1]

where FH is ti helmet commanded force and GS can be computed from

the expression

Gs - -Ks AZA [Eq. 4.4.1-2]

32.2

where Ks is the scaling coefficieni and is set at 0.667 by Ash-

worth and McKissick. Th- negative sign is in recognition of the
fact the positive G? is ]roduced by a negative AZA. Figure
4.4.1-5 illustrates the system control loop.

FORCE

.........
'IllE
TO~aUE MOTOR HELMET

F
ORCEFEOEDBCK

FORCE
TRANSCUCER

Ficure 4.4.1-5 Helmet loader control diagram.

-102-
I

One disadvantaqe to this system is that it does not lend it-

self to inducing head pitch down resulting from +Gz as is des-
cribed in section A.4.2. However with the addition of one torque
motor and a helmet attach point at the base of the helmet, pitch
up could be achieved as would be expected in +Gx maneuvers. Al-
though the data does not necessarily support this modality, it ap-
pears that there should be head motion in this degree of freedom.
It Piqht be worthwhile at a later date to expand the capability of
this system to accomplish the pitch up capability. Also, the addi-
tion of one torque motcr and isolating the two strings in the cur-
rent design on separate torque motors to permit differential drive
as a function of roll acceleration might be beneficial. These
would be relatively straightforward modifications to the existing
design and could yield useful subjective data.

SKULL PRESSURE FIRMNESS BLADDER

As the aircraft accelerates in a +Gz direction the apparent

weight of the helmet increases according to the data of Table

I
4.4.1-1. This increase in apparent helmet weight manifests itself
in one way as increased skull pressure. This increase in skull
~ pressure is sensed by the flesh pressure sensors in the area over
the skull.

It has been postulated that these sensors can be stimulated

by the use of so-called firmness bladders. These devices, when
deflated, cause an apparent increase in pressure on the flesh
pressure sensors much the same as is cu.rrently employed in the
ALCOGS G-Seat (143). In that device, the firmness bladders are
deflated to cause an apparent increase in pressure on the buttocks
consistent with an increase in +Gz. To enhance this cue, the hel-
met would be designed with an exaggeration of the support members
in the helmet such that the localized pressure sensation would be
increased. Figure 4.4.1-6 illustrates the firmness bladder as em-
ployed here for increase in skull pressure to increase in +G-.,

in -103-
 tii
FIRMNESS
BLADDER

Y
I' I

Fiaure 4.4.1-6 Helmet firmness bladder. Bladder is

illustrated in cross hatched area.

The device would be pressure controlled with the loop closed

on pressure. Figure 4.4.1-7 illustrates the control system re-
quired to appropriately control the pressure in the firmness blad-
der. The firmness bladder should be 6.5 inches front to back and
5 inches side to side and a maximum thickness of 0.75 inches. The
maximum pressure required is 2 psi and the maximum required flow
rate for the bladder should be 1 SCFM. If a hydraulic servo con-
trol flow control valve is employed, scavenge air is required at
about 3 SCFM so 'het the total flow required to the system is 4
SCFM. Also a vacuum at -5 psi is required in order to provide ap-
propriate response at the low pressures used here.

COMMAND PNEUMATIC
SERVO VLE"IN8
BIAS ~~VALVEBLDE

.1
Figure 4.4.1-7 Helmet firmness bladder control diagram.

-104-
j.,
 VI
The firmness bladder would be driven with a pressure commandI
such that the pressure in the bladder would be a function of +Gz.
The algorithm would be of the form
AZAI
Ps +0.009 -+ 0.071 -BIAS (Eq. 4.4.1-31
32.2

A modification of this system would be to employ a loaded helmet

say 10 pounds equally distributed over the helmet and employing an
V elevated pressure in the firmness bladder to redistribute the load-
ing on the skull. This would# when deflated, increase the loading
on the skull and give a cue of a higher acceleration. (With the
firmness bladder described herein the required pressure at lg
I. would be about 0.4 psi.)

The firmness bladder approach is safe, relatively inexpen-

sive, and allows for a significant variation in research proto-
Lcols. It should therefore be given a relatively high priority in
the hierarchy of further investigation.

CABLE/BOOM AND DROGUE

Ii The cable boom and drogue (CSD) approach is an outgrowth of a

- rather simple three cable system which would pull down from either
1. side and the rear of the helmet. The cables would be driven by
helmet mounted torque motors and would be attached to seat back
and harness strapping. Continued assessment of this approach withI
* particular attention to improving visual environmental fidelity,
led to modifications which evolved into the CBD approach, The
approach is briefly introduced here, but not recommended for de-
sign because of its comparative mechanical complexity. The CBD4
approach is depicted in Figure 4.4.1-8.

-105-
 DOGWIE CAPUftE SAPED PAC

VERTCAL ORQU

ULTRASUNE MOTOR~E~ Z OO ----

-7

TPANSEEL

]
totOE THINl
ULTRASONICL
TROP VhEW

F.are .4A-B Ca~e/oo an doMu aproch

The~~~~~~~~~~I prahepostremi cieeeEARNtS:

BB
~
helmet~ drgeplnanMlrOncrndcrTORas
~ ~ ~ ~~~PPactive Aith
~ ~
mitters, aOSCl
laitfrOatrnTtedoOeadscRigtebo
~ ~ ~ ~ APUR
to~~~~~~~~~~~~~ATR
nai-ern-one
thLemtAn RIveboA cpbeTfi

degrees offreeom bo the1-

Cbeboommontin point.
apoaceh tace

toThe helmetpptorquempoyos atthre bomai gcimbalssem would apl

folces wthroughite boomu tolo
the helmtrisodirctproportion toathe
sitaltorqsealrat commcanddturrengt.e Pilotu hand aectrivitye
isopemit

tedatsv fore eivels exeedsioang comandied force.rTven picommandeda

forces can produce all the desired head/helmet goals and would be
controlled so that maximum force available from the system occur-J
red at maximum anticipated simulated acceleration. j
-106-
 The helmet would appear very similar to flight issue and
could be donned before or after entering the cockpit. The boom

would be stowed in the full aft up position with the lariat drive
plonleaes
openandthedroge denegizd ad intheup osi
tion. Plugging the helmet headset into the instrument panel would
activate the ultrasonic transducer helmet transmitters and boom
receivers and cause the boom to extend within the pilot's "blind
spot" and home on the pylon. Excessive pylon/boom relative motion
would cause a pause in the homing. The boom would be driven light-
ly down to the helmet, and upon contact, the drogue capture pylon
leaves would be energized to their horizontal position, trapping
the lariat wires between helmet and pylon leaves. The capture
wormscrew would retract the lariat cable, trapping the pylon be-
tween boomi and lariat spring steel spreader. The system would
then exit the capture mode and begin to display computer-generated
(commanded) helmet forces.

[ Safety would be assured by designing the pylon leaves to

raise if the boom is lifted with a force greater than the maximum
Idesired lifting force. This would permit the drogue to slip from
the lariat's grasp. Pylon leaf raising and boom up motion would
automatically occur under simulator of f conditions or canopy open-
ing.

MAGNETIC FIELD EFFECTS

The magnetic field effects employ the use of magnetic fields

to impose forces on the pilot consistent with the forces of the
high G environment of the simulated aircraft. This approach has
had, for a long time, a certain degree of enchantment because it
does not require any apparatus to be imposed directly on the pilot
thereby maintaining the visual environment fidelity of the simu-
lated cockpit.

-107-
 One of the long time concerns for this approach has been. that
of safety. This does not seen to be of great concern currently
because of the short duration of the exposure. However# the in-
tense magnetic field required could adversely affect other simu-
lator systems. This approach was not pursued to any great extent .
in favor of concentrating resources on the more readily adaptable
approaches such as previously described. The approach should not

N be totally abandoned however. Perhaps some future work could be

done to further explore magnetic field effects.

SUMMARYj

It was found that the heavy helmet fluid cavity had signifi-
cant drawbacks in attempting to implement the concept into hard-
ware which would meet the operating criteria in the high perform-
ance aircraft environment. The cable, boom and drogue approach
and the magnetic field effects approach were discussed and dis-
carded on the basis of complexity. The localized firmness bladder
was determined to provide cues of a somewhat reduced amplitude but
the device is considered worthy of being implemented and subjected
to further experimentation. A major drawback is that it only
stimulates the flesh pressure sensors and does not provide any
stimulation of the neck muscle receptors. Its main value may be
in providing an enhancement of some other method such as being

used in conjunction with the NASA helmet loader to counter theI

ambiguity which arises from applying head and helmet apparent
weight through the helmet.

It appears that the most viable approach to providing head/

neck loading cues is the NASA Langley helmet loader. Primarily
because this device has been built and tested and can be modified -

fairly readily to achieve higher loadings and additional degrees

of freedom. Also, when combined with localized firmness bladders,
it will provide a useful research device.

-108-
 4.4.1.1 Helmet vs. Head Motion

It is shown in section A.4.2.1 that there exists a signi-

ficant amount of relative motion between head and helmet up to
four degrees at 6g mearn for all data. Also demonstrated is a 15
mm. vertical depression of the helmet which is probably just the
jt vertical component of the pitch since this data was taken from a
reticle attached to the front of the helmet.

Th appoac that is recommended here to achieve this move-

men isvia localized firmness bladders in the helmet. Two blad-
ders could be employed and driven differentially to produce helmet
L pith andin unison to provide vertical helmet motion. F'igure
1.4.4.1.1-1 illustrates the configuration. The two firmness blad-
Lders have the same total area as the one in section 4.4.1. Consid-
ering two bla3dders of equal size, 3.25 inches front to back and 5
inches side to side, the required stroke would be a half inch.
rThis is within the capability of the 3/4 inch bladder designed in
section 4.4.1. The total flow parameters are the same as for the
single bladder. Two equivalent HSC valves df the same (each half

9109
the capacity of the one in section 4.4.1) could be employed. Each
firmness bladder will then be 3.25 inches, front to back by 5
inches, side to side.

The algorithm to drive the two bladders would be given as .1

follows. The helmet angle is given by

OH - 0 for Gz < 2.0 [Eq. 4.4.1.1-1]

OH = -Gz + 2.0 for Gz > 2.0 (Eq. 4.4.1.1-2]

The differential vertical excursion of the two bladders is given

by

AZH KH( 3 .2 5 Tan G H) [Eq. 4.4.1.1-31 -

where KH is a gain constant to permit reduced amplitude scaling.

Then the forward bladder excursion would be

ZHF =ZH [Eq. 4.4.1.1-4]

2

The aft bladder excursion is given by

ZHA = -AZH
- (Eq. 4.4.1.1-5]
2

The pressure for each cell is proportional to the excursion

PBF - KpZHF & PBA - KpZHA (Eq. 4.4.1.1-6]

These pressures are about a biased pressure, as employed in sec-.

tion 4.4.1. The control diagram (Figure 4.4.1-7) for the single
bladder is applicable to the dual bladder approach duplicated for
each bladder. I
-110-
 I, This approach is recommended sin~ce it can fulfill the require-
ments of section 4.4.1 as well as this section.

4.4.2 Upper/Lower Arm Loaders

4.4.2.1 Introduction

The rea.'er will recall that the discussion of Section 3.2j

strongly suggested that, in order to obtain useful G induced ex-
tremity loading stimuli. it will be necessary to actually physi-
cally lopad the extremity in question. It is shown in Section
A.4.1 that acceleration effects operating on the upper arm are
indeed significant and lead to cross loading error wherein, in
horizontal plane reaching movements in the presence of +Gz con-
ditions, the hand falls short of its intended target. With this
j inmind the mechanization of arm loading stimuli production re-
quires equipment configured to excert force or load on the arm
V. itself and the mechanization must allow load to be individually
placed on upper and lower arms. The following conceptual devel-
Ijopment will be
sequence: +Gze
limited to the acceleration loading of primary con-

.1 Obviously the inherent high degree of arm mobility and the

requirements to exercise this mobility, in the course of piloting
and operating the onboard systems of a tactical aircraft, severely
constrain the arm loading concepts. It is not satisfactory to re-
quire that the arm be confined to a specific attitude or locationI
in order to permit loading, rather the loader must "follow" arm
motion operating when appropr~ate. Nominally we would expect to
find the upper arm in the neutral position which causes it to be
approximately parallel to the spinal column. In reaching forward
* toward cockpit instruments or controls, shoulder flexion (elbow
K directed forward) up to 900 --
an be expected and occasionally may
be accompanied by some adduction (elbow directed transversely
across the body) or abduction (elbow directed transversely away
H from the body). Shoulder joint forward elevation (elboi
 directed upwards above the horizontal plane) is much less likely
to occur in tactical aircraft due to the absence of controls above
shoulder height.

Under high G conditions the mass of the upper arm, when in

the neutral state, increases the load required to be supported by
the shoulder joint and when in flexion, with or without adduction
or abduction, increases not only load but the torque operating at
the shoulder joint. The load is supported by the skeletal frame
and torso muscular system governing this frame and is likely less
L noticeable than the torque which affects the shoulder joint muscu-
V lar system alone. Under worst case conditions wherein the arm is
horizontally outstretched (zero degrees elbow flexion, 900 should-
er flexion) and assuming a 5 pound upper arm mass operating 5.5
inches from the shoulder joint and a 5 pound lower arm mass oper-
ating 17.5 inches from, the shoulder joint (108), the GZ induced
shoulder torque amounts to approximately 9.5 ft-lb/g. As the
upper arm is rot~ated downwards toward the neutral position, the
ýI effective mass moment arm becomes less and the torque diminishes.

Under nominal cockpit conditionsp we would expect to find the

lower arm in near 90 'flexion (parallel to the horizontal plane
when the upper arm is in the neutral position) and may be rotated
internally (transversely across the body) or in minor amounts
externally (transversely away from the body). Maintaining lower
arm at 900 flexion and raising the upper arm from the neutral
point to 900 flexion causes the lower arm to be vertically
oriented. This position as well as lower arm internal and ex-
ternal rotation from this position produce arm attitudes of a
special nature which impos~e constraints affecting the design ap-
proach and will be addressed later.

A typical reaching maneuver requires the upper arm to move in

flexion various amounts from the neutral point toward 900 flexion
while relaxing the lower arm a commensurate amount from 900 flex-
 Ii ion toward zero degrees (arm horizontally extended forward from
the shoulder). The lower arm is generally maintained somewhat
parallel to the horizontal plane at the varied amounts of upper
arm flexion. Under these conditions high G effects on the lower
arm increase the load and torque. Considering the lower arm
weight to be 5 pounds operating 6.5 inches from the elbow, 2.7
ft-lb/g of torque is experienced.

Initially the authors felt that a suitable mechanization

would employ thin long pneumatic bellows to drive an elbow hinge
embedded within the flight suit and thus torque the lower arm with
respect to the upper arm. This approach was abandoned due to the
problems which arise in accounting for bellows spring rate force
which is positionally dependent and would interact with subject
movement of elbow flexion angle and unduly complicate the drive
model. The characteristics of a torque motor in which torque or
force, independent of position, is obtained is a much more suit-
pable drive device. The recent introduction of samarium cobalt
motors which display up to five times the torque of similarly
- sized Alnico motors makes a torque motor approach feasible. Suit-
S. able force can be generated by devices which are small enough to
be contained on one's person.

4.4.2.2 Concept

The approach selected is illustrated in Figure 4.4.2-1. Lower

arm torque is provided by- a pancake torque motor embedded within~ a
flight suit modified with additional zippers to permit ease of
entry. The torque motor transmits torque to the arms via an ar-
i
rangement of plastic stays and struts sewn between the cloth lay-
era of the flight suit. The weight of the assembly is estimated
to be 2.75 to 3.0 pounds. Upper arm loading is provided by a
torque motor driven tether line shown here embedded within the
flight suit slightly above waist line. This unit will serve to
create shoulder torque, load the upper arm, and retard forward

LI
- .,113-
 -- -- -- -- .....

MODIFIED FLIGHT SUIT

ZIPPERED FLIGHT SUIT AR ,4S

LOADER STAYS AND STRUTS
SEWN IN FLIGHT SUIT

j LOWER ARM LOADER MOTOR

UPPER ARM LOADER AND WINDLASS
,,¢1

Fiaure 4.4.2-1 Arm loader arrangement.

movement of the elbow. The unit is shown situated in the flight

suit wb-re no special action is required to hook tether to arm;
howe,,.4 the unit could be seat frame mounted and tether secured
after i pilot enters the cockpit. The former approach is pre-
ferable in -hat one less unnatural pilot action is required. In
any event. a DC electrical connection to the flight suit will be
required ýLd if undue duty cycles are encountered it may be neces-
sary to .vide cooling medium to the torque motors and this will
represent an additional flight suit connection.
weight The tether loader
is estimated to be 1.0 pound.

Figure 4.4.2-2 is a detail of the lower arm loader. An

Inland Motor samarium cobalt stator and rotor assembly is sup-
ported in a housing designed specifically for this application.
The rotor transmits torque to the outer housing and lower arm j
strut and stays through a servo loop torque load cell which serves
as an internal motor shaft. A Lebow 25 foot-pound torque load

-114-
 BRUSH STATOR *

RING
"SEGMENT

OR UE
CELL \ 4.25

i LOAD CELL COMMUTATOR UPPER ARM LOADER

"SITEIIF. REQUIRED) TETHER ATTACH POINT

Figure 4.4.2-2 Lower arm loader notor detail.

i. cell dimensionally fits this application and is used to close the

lower arm loader servo loop. Since it is necessary to position
the torque load cell between rotor and lower arm strut, it must
rotate through the lower arm• flexion range of 0-145 degrees. Thus
it may be necessary to commutate the torque load cell leads.

Although not shown, it is possible to insert motor stops to

prevent torquing the elbow into the hyperextension. A device for
rotor/stator angular displacement can also be accommodated and
would take the form of a wire wound or carbon filament element
situated either close to the above mentioned commutator or around

iL
 - -

the outside of the stator. The wiper arm would be either rotor
mointed in the first instance or mounted to the inside of the
outer housing in the latter case.

Under +8 Gz loading conditions, it is barely possible to

raise the arm off its support area (24). Using this value as the
maximum, elbow torque can approach 21.6 foot-pounds. The lower
arm torque motor is capable of 4.5 foot-pounds of peak tovque
thereby providing a simulation system loading scale factor of 20%.
Maximum subject induced elbow velocity is taken as 3.9 ral/sec

(175) whereas the maximum no-load motor velocity is more than

sufficient at 139 rad/sec. Likewise motor no-load acceleration of
2 2
over 10,000 rad/sec is much higher than peak 16.0 rad/sec elbow
flexion acceleration (175).

In that the motor is used as a force producer with very lit-

tie positional displacement, temperature rise is of some concern,
however, this is difficult to predict unless realistic duty cycles
are available. Simulation of the 100 second acceleration profile
given in Figure 1.1-3, assuming the lower arm is maintained near
horizontal and peak available torque is to be applied at the peaks
of the acceleration profile, would result in a 500C motor temper-
ature rise. This indicates that, as a minimum, thermal overrides
and thermal insulation along the subject side of the mol.or housing
will be berequired.
cannot Whether an auxiliary cooling medium is required
ascertained at this time.i

The side view of the lower arm loader shows the position
of

the upper arm loader load cell. A Schaevitz tensile load cell is
attached to the upper arm strut and connected via cable-in-guide-
tube to a bail protruding from the back of the flight suit elbow
some 14 inches from the shoulder. The load cell is used to close
the upper arm tether force servo loop. The monofilament tether
extends from an eyelet in the side of the flight suit approxi-
mately 14 inches below the shoulder joint and is attached to the

-116-
 - - ---

above bail. Figure 4,4.2-3 is an illustration of the upper arm

loader which is to be situated within the sides of the flight suit
and to which the tether is attached. The assembly is a torque
Smotor driven geared windlass which retracts the tether and applies
force to the lower arm loader assembly. A small amount of bias
torque is always present in order to keep the tether taut and
avoid fouling.

FLEXIBLE BACKING TETHER

SECURE WITHIN FLIGHT SUIT MONAFILAMENT LINE

WINDLASS (GEAREO
,. ~3.0 1:3 OFF MOTOR)

•I
.1.2

'1.2

*- \TORQUEMOTO'R

TETHER EXTENTION POTENTIOMETER

(GEARED 1: 3 OFF WINDLASS)

ricqure 4.4.2-3 Upper arm loader windlass mechanism.

A ten turn CEC followup potentiometer is further geared off

the windlass to provide a measure of tether line extention which
in turn permits computation of upper arm flexion or abduction an-
gles. Two principle parameters are employed in sizing this torque
assembly. First, under +8 Gz conditions when the upper and lower
I-.
-. 117- i
 arm is horizontally extended, the torque at the shoulder is 76.6
foot-lbs. Maintaining the simulation device consistently scaled
at 201 for both upper and lower arm torquers reduces the 76.6
ft-lb. maximum torque to 15.32 ft-lbs. which requires a peak -
K tether line force of 18.5 pounds. Assuming a maximum upper arm
forward elevation of 250 (above horizontal) 23 inches of tether
line is required and adopting a design goal of limiting windlass
turns to 20 or less yields a windlass diameter of 0.366 inches and
a maximum windlass torque of 54.3 oz-in.

The second parameter of importance is to select a gearing

reduction factor which will satisfactorily relax motor torque
requirements to reduce undue thermal effects yet provide a wind-
lass rotational retract velocity which accommodates peak shoulder
joint velocities. The peak shoulder joint velocity is taken as
1750/sec (175) which can produce a maximum tether line velocity of
approximately 42 inches/second, Selecting a gearing ratio of 3.1
(motor to windlass) reduces the peak motor torque requirement to
18.1 oz. in. and establishes a peak motor velocity requirement of
688 rad/second. The selected Inland Motor samarium cobalt motor
is very compact and displays a peak stall torque of 30 oz-in and a
maximum rotational velocity of 730 rad/second. The latter figure
implies a maximum tether line velocity of 44 inches/second which
is greater than that required by only a small margin. The config-
uration allows a theoretical no-load acceleration capability of
6535 in/sec at the tether line which is well above the 183
in/sec2 anticipated as resulting front peak shoulder joint
acceleration of 750*/sec 2 (175).

Even though a large gearing ratio was selected to suppress

peak motor torque requirements, and the selected motor has a high
motor constant yet modest thermal constant, heating can pose a
problem. As is the case with the lower arm torquer, heating is
directly affected by duty cycle. Employing the same acceleration
profile of Figure 1.1-3 used to evaluate the lower arm loader
-118-;
_____________
...... .....
 thermal increase yields an upper arm loader temperature increase
of 556C for the 100 second profile. Thermal overrides will def in-
ately be required and, similar to the lower arm loader# external
cooling may also be required.

4.4.2.3 Drive Scheme

As was mentioned in Section 4.4.2.1p +G~ load induced torque

experienced at the shoulder and elbow joints is most pronounced
when the arm segment in question is maintained in the horizontal
plane where in the effective mass moment arm is largest. A know-
ledge of the attitude of these arm segments is therefore useful in
I increasing the fidelity of the drive signals provided by the
torque motors. It should also be apparent that there exists an
interrelationship between lower and upper arm loaders in addition
to the obvious fact that the upper arm loader must account for the
load imposed by the lower arm on the upper arm. In lower arm at-
titudes, where the lower arm torquer is activated, it is necessary
to commensurately increase the tension in the upper arm loader
tether line to appropriately represent the lower arm mass moment-
Larm effect upon the shoulder joint.

The following discussion assumes the attitude of lower arm

with respect to upper arm is made available by an angular follow-
-up device included within the lower arm loader. The output of
this dievice, elbow flexion angle S, is measured from the 90* elbow
flexion angle (00 at 90* elbow flexion) and increases positively t

as elbow flexion reduces from 9nO. Secondly, shoulder flexion

and/or abduction angle is a function of the amount of tether liqe
extended, X measured in feet, and is made available by the upper
arm loader windlass potentiometer.

-119-

UA
...
" - "- "+- • : = • - •" - •• •- .• I O.. - .. . .. • -Il - L. --. , . . . ... 1

"Ohs drive equation for the lower arm torque motor is derived
as:
xA
-1 X

TEr- Cos(2Sin- (n)-S) (2.7)(W)

(GJ-) (S.F.) ft-lbs.

(Eq. 4.4.2.3-11

where,

a) Ga is limited or scaled not to exceed 8 Gz input.

b) L is shoulder joint to tether line elbow attach point

r!
distance taken herein as 1.1666 feet.

c) K is a potential attenuation factor to be discussed

later.

d) S.F. is the previously introduced simulation scale

factor of 0.2.
Ii

The expression demonstrates that when the upper arm is left in the
neutral position (X =- 0) and elbow flexion is 900 (S - 0), condi-
tions wherein the lower arm lies in the horizontal plane, elbow
torque is 2.7 ft-lbs/g and employing the simulation scale factor
of 0.2 the torque motor will be driven at 0.54 ft-lbs/g. As the
upper arm is raised to 900 flexion %X - 1.65 feet) while holding
the elbow crooked at 900 flexion (S - 0), the commanded torque
relaxes appropriately following the cosine function. As the lower
arm is allowed to fall forward from this position (S -# 900) as if
in reaching, the lower arm is no longer perpendicular to the hori-
zontal plane and a commensurate increase in elbow torque is exper-
ienced.

__

-120-
o_
2 -" . . .. •• - .. •' ... •',- ,,- ... , :) - • -i .r
 The drive equation for tether line force accounts for the
force application angle formed by the upper arm and tether and is
derived as:

FT= (6.75 (X (SF. + TE)

L~-4L 2

[G~ I+ C lbs.
1J

S[Eq. 4.4.2.3-2]
I,.
where C is the residual tether anti-fouling force and the other
j terms are as defined above.

I The expression demonstrates that when holding the arm ex-

tended forward at shoulder level (90* shoulder flexion or X = 1.65

J feet, 0° elbow flexion) where elbow torque TE is 0.54 ft-lbs/g,

the tether force is 2.32 lbs/g.• This force applied at a 450 angle
I- to the upper arm L feet from the shoulder joint produces a should-
er torque of 1.91 ft-lbs/g or 20% (simulation scale factor) of the
9.57 ft-lbs/g expected for this case. Raising the lower arm to
"the vertical state (900 flexion) while holding the upper arm
raised-at 900 flexion drives TE to zero and reduces FT to 1.66 lbs
producing a shoulder torque of 1.375 ft-lbs/g or 20% (simulation
scale factor) of the 6.875 ft-lbs/g expected of this case.

Holding the lower arm perpendicular to the upper arm (90*

elbow flexion) as above while allowing the upper arm to sag from
900 flexion to 450 flexion should cause torque to build in the
elbow which is reflected as an increased torque at the shoulder
joint. Simultaneously the contribution of shoulder joint torque
made by the upper arm should decrease as the upper arm mass moment
[ -121-
arm decreases to .707 of its former value due to the upper arm
flexion angle of 45 degrees. In this movement S remains at zero
degrees while X reduces to 0.892 feet. TE increases to 0.38
ft-lbs/g and PT reduces to 1.25 lbs/g which due to the new angle
the tether makes with the upper arm (67.50) yields a shoulder
joint torque of 1.34 ft-lbs/g. loth elbow and *houlder joint
torque values, 0.38 and 1.34 ft-lbs/g, are 20% (simulation scale
factor) of their expected "real world" values for this arm posi-
tion. -'

In Section 4.4.2.1 it was noted that an arm attitude in which

the upper arm is directed forward (900 shoulder joint flexion) and
the lower arm is directed upwards with respect to the upper arm
(90* elbow flexion) presents special problems. If the lower arm
is angled forward from this position (decrease i- elbow flexion)
the lower arm loader torque, rlE, will appropriately increase under
+Gz conditions. However should the lower arm be rotated inter-
nally from the upright position the plane of elbow flexion moves
from the vertical plane toward the horizontal plane. Lower arm
loader torque under these conditions will produce forces tn the
lower arm with significant horizontal components which are, of
course, inappropriate under +Gz conditions. The higher the elbow
is held (large upper arm flexion angles), the larger are the
unwanted horizontal components.

This problem could be eliminated if a convenient method of

monitoring elbow rotation (not flexion) could be designed into the
apparatus. We have not found the type of monitoring device we
seek: one.which, with minimum encumberancep provides a progressive
measure of lower arm internal rotation. However a useful discrete
measure might be available through the use of mercury switches
strategically located along the torso side of the arm loader
plastic stays. When these switches (gravity vector detectors)
detect that the plane of elbow flexion is no longer substantially
vertical, the drive to the lower arm loader, TE, could be set to

-122-
. •i -- ----....... --- " -.- : -----.-.......
-'", . ... . .... - • .. . -' . ..

zero. It would be appropriate, in the software, to employ this

discrete sensor in a ramp network to avoid step discontinuities in
TE. The output of the ramp circuit would control the value of the
attenuator, K, found in the expression for TE. The suitability of
this approach can only be determined through experimentation.

A second simpler, but less desirable, approach to this prob-

lem is based on the recognition that the severity of the problem
is related to th.a magnitude of upper arm flexion or abduction
which, as already described, is known by monitoring X, tether line
extension. Under this approach the attenuation factor, K, would
be computed based on the magnitude of X such that further increas-
es above some predetermined upper arm flexion/abuction angle re-
sults in a proportionate attentuation in elbow torque. This lat-
ter approach suffers, of course, from its arbitrary nature and can
reduce lower arm loading in arm reaching conditions when the plane
of elbow flexion is maintained vertical and lower arm load reduc-
S tion is unwanted.

One of the merits of the arm loader embodiment wherein the

loaders are fully contained within the flight suit and powered
through the personal leads block is that no additional impediments
to cockpit ingress/egress are posed by the device. The direction
of upper arm force application should not create safety problems
"and if appropriate lower arm torque motor stops are employed,
hypertension conditions can be avoided. The peak torque employed
V are low enough that, under maximum drive but in the lg environ-
iH
ment, the subject can readily overpower the loaders. To avoid
safety problems which might arise in a loader system inadvertently
entering instability it may be advisable to construct a network
which can monitor polarity changes and rate of change of position-
al followup with a trigger to cause the system to be decoupled
from power in the event of frequency or amplitudes judged dan-
gerous.

-123-
 4.5 Tactile Devices

4.5.1 Shoulder Harness

Tactile stimuli are likely experienced in the shoulder har-

ness area of a pilot subjected to certain high G conditions and
are caused by inertial loading on the upper torso. Present simu-
lation techniques employing the G-Seat provide a part of these
shoulder harness cues by causing bodily movement within the har-
ness. These cues could be made more pronounced by adjusting the
r tension of the shoulder straps themselves. The design of most
current shoulder harness assemblies employ an inertia reel which,
when the pilot places his harness in the "automatic" mode, allows
relatively unimpeded harness extension/contraction at the pilot's
discretion up to the 1.5 - 3.Og region at which time the harness
automatically locks securing the pilot from additional movement.
A "locked" mode is also available to the pilot which simply re-
moves the automatic feature and, when selected by the pilot, se-
cures the shoulder harness against extension/contraction.

By the nature of the inertia reel device operating features,

when in the automatic mode the inertia reel will automatically
lock when subjected to a range of 1.5 - 3g inertia load. Within
the simulation this would be the actuation point for the automatic
mode harness force application. In order to insure proper opera-
tion of the shoulder harness device, the inertia reel must have a
software-controlled electrically operated positive lock feature
4

'
which will lock at the threshold in the automatic mode or can be
manually overridden to the locked state by the conventional means
the pilot uses to lock his harness. This locking action permits
force to be applied to the shoulders.

The harness belt mechanism would consist of the inertia reel

device in a locked mode during high G periods, a cable extending
from the inertia reel to the end of the shoulder strap, pulleys to

-124-
 guide the cable, servo actuator to drive the belt during high G
conditions and a shear pin safety device. If possible the shear
pin assembly should be located at the forward ends of the shoulder
harness (end employed by the pilot in strapping himself into the
cockpit) for accessibility reasons.

[ The shoulder straps would be driven individually or in unison

so that either equal force or differential forces may be applied
as demanded by the situation. Preliminary inspection of commonly
employed ejection seats indicates adequate room exists on the back
H outboard vertical surface of the seat backrest to mount the neces-
sary components. Initially the authors felt that a capability to
move the straps laterally on the pilots' shoulders might be valu-
able. We have found nothing which counters this position however
the overall lack of information concerning the pertinence of
shoulder harness tactical stimuli suggests that the system initi-
ally should not be overly complex with additional capability.

consequence of accelerated flight are permitted to occur only when

th nlertia reel is locked either by pilot manual intervention or
by the G level. During unlocked periods shoulder strap forces are
permitted to vary based on pilot movement within the seat. On the
other hand, once locked, the simulation would call for impressing
a strap force in a direct relationship to G level. The potential
for strap force discontinuities in moving from the variable force
(unlccked) to the simulated force (locked) state is minimized and
the simulation made simpler by employing a ser\?o loop closed on
position rather than force. During unlocked conditions the strap
tension actuator would be held in the midpoint of its travel and
the strap permitted to m~ove over this point according to pilot
movement and inertial reel tension. Upon inertial reel locking
the strap tension actuator would be driven, bidirectionally, ac-
cording to G conditions providing smooth force build up or relax-
ation from those levels extant at the point when the inertia reel

-125-
 IIt

is locked. The position servo loop approach also circumvents

problems arising from intersubject strap tension variations and

right and left shoulder strap force variation observed within a
subject as reported by M. C. Champion (37). The position servo
loop approach also permits subject induced force variation to
occur naturally.

Figure 4.5.1-1 illustrates the functional arrangement of the

shoulder harness system as located on the aft side of the back-
rest. A typical shoulder strap system has an inertia reel which
allows 18 inches of strap movement in an automatic mode. This

STRAP LOAOER

H MOVEABLE PULLEY

CABLE

FIXED PULLEY !

COMPUTER ACTIVATED

SOLENOID CABLE LOCK

Figure 4.5.1-1 Functional layout of shoulder harness

tension system.

-126-
jiC
a
 inertia reel will lock up between 1.5 and 3g inertia load. How-
ever, this lockup feature, in automatic mode, will reset when the
inertia load is relaxed. To avoid inadvertent release of this
lock, there must be solenoid lock energized as part of the inertia
reel during high G activity. Duplicate driven belt systems are
required.

A cable is attached from the inertia reel output to the

shoulder strap. The cable first passes over a fixed-position
pulley and then over a movable pulley which is part of the servo
actuator assembly. With the strap in the locked position, the
servo actuator package will provide the necessary belt tightening
forcs
b diplaingthe pulley, thus pulling on the cable. Re-
& laxation of the straps is also possible by extension of the actu-
j ator.

The strap driver illustrated in Figure 4.5.1-2 is provided as

an example of a modification to an existing position servo actua-
tor design which could be employed to vary strap tension by alter-
ing the position of the movable pulley. Two inches of strap move-
ment would be provided by this design. Strap tension would be in-
creased for -Gx and -Gz conditions and assuming a worst case
condition of -lGx operating on the pilots upper torso. Under
inertia reel locked conditions, a maximum strap tension of 50
pounds must be developed. The example design employs a hydraulic
actuator to meet these force requirements and provide rapid re-
sponse.

4.5.2 Skin Temperature Driver

In section A.6.2, a case for the existence of pressure/temp-

erature relationships is advanced and it is suggested that mild
temperature stimulation could enhance the sensation of pressure.
Further it is noted that conflicting evidence exists concerning
whether elevated or depressed temperature levels intensify the

-127-
,-. . .. .. -...-• . -... .......... .. . . . ... .. . ...

9 INCH

2.5 INCH

L AV MOVING TENSION PULLEY

2.0INCH...
2.0 INCH

Figur• •..1~-2 Example shoulder harness loader.

perception of pressure which increases the importance in advancing

a bidirectionally driven mechanization concept. The approach put
forth herein involves embedding bidirectional thermoelectric
modules in the - •an tiort of the cockpit seat such that the
ischial tuberosity region of a seated subject's buttocks are
brought in close proximity to the thermoelectric modules. The -

ischial tuberosity region I.s selected based on the presumption -•

that this bony region rer .Js with the most intense pressure.1
sensation under high G loading.

L -128- ]

S. .. , , , .. . ,--- -
 The thermoelectric modules suggested for use ace thin wafers
nominally measuring approximately 0.2 inch thick by 1.0 inch
square. A typical module is illustrated in Figure 4.5.2-1.

- Figure 4.5.2-1 Typi.cal thermoelectric module.

- These solid state devices'are miniature heat pumps which operate

on the principle of the Peltier effect. Jean C. A. Peltier in
1834 found that the passage of an electrical current through the
junction of two dissimilar conductors in a certain direction pro-
duced a cooling effect and when in the opposite direction, a heat-
Ling effect. In a thermoelectric cooler, semiconductor materials
with dissimilar characteristics are connected electrically in
series and thermally in parallel so that two junctions, a couple,.
are formed. The semi-conductor materials are N- and P-type. Heat
Ii absorbed at the "cold" junction is pumped to the "hot" junction at
arate proportional to carrier currenit passing through the circuitI
Jfrom a D.C. source.

Coupl'is are added serially to increase n-eat transport capa-

bility as shown in the module cross section of Figure 4.5.2-2.
Current reversal causes the device to be usable as either a heat
pump for heating an object or a heat pipe for cooling that same
object by reversing heat flow.

-129-
 AHEA
ASSORBED (COLD JUNCTION)

9 EAT REJECTED (HOT JUNCTION)

DC SOURCE

Fioure 4.5.2-2 Thermoelectric module cross-section.

A plurality of modules may be arranged in mosaic form to in-

crease area of coverage or stacked vertically to increase thermal
range. Our application will requiire but one level however a 3 x 3
mosaic composed of nine modules is suggested to form a 3.75 inch
square, 0.2 inch thick heating/cooling assembly. Two assemblies,
one per tuberosity, would be employed in the seat pan. This size
assembly is compatible with the pneumatic bellows G-seat in th-at a
3.75 inch square thermal assembly can be rigidly affixed to the
top of the 3.88 inch square bellows top plate stationed beneath
each of the tuberosities. To reduce thermal resistivity, the
closed foam pad normally over-lying the bellows would be cut out
and eliminated in the area of the tuberosity bellows. The thermo-
electric assemblies will ride on the bellows in this cutout area.
The air driven metal bellows will form a good heat sink for heat
rejected from the system.

The approach is also compatible with the USAF Human Resources

Laboratory Advanced G Cuing System G-Seat. In this implementation
the thermoelectric assembly would be rigidly affixed to the metal
seat pan moving plane in the region of the tuberosities. The mov-
ing plane will form a heat sink/source for the device. Firmness
bladder employed in this type of G-seat design would overlay the
thermoelectric assemblies and due to the firmness bladder drive
philosophy which calls for deflation under simulated G load, would

-130-
t
 not pose appreciable additional thermoresistivity between thermo-
electric assembly and buttocks.

Figure 4.5.2-3 depicts a typical installation, the bidirec-

tional mode of the device, and the heat flow capability of a typi-
cal thermoelectric assembly applied to our case. Data presented
in this figure and the preliminary time response analysis pre-
sented in this section is based on a number of assumptions which
will be introduced as needed. The initial assumption pertains to J
buttocks and seat nominal temperature. It is assumed that the
seat (thermoelectric device mounting surface) heat sink/source is
K maintained at approximately 20*C (68*F). The nominal temperature
of the buttocks is taken from Parker (194) as 34.6*C (94.40F).
H The heat flow capabilities tabulatd in Figure 4.5.2-3 demonstrate
asymmetry between heating and cooling. Energy is expended in cre-
ating the heat flow condition and this energy, Joule effect, is
transported in the direction of the heat sink. In the heat pump
mode the buttock forms the heat sink however, in the cooling mode,
the seat assembly is the heat sink.
IL SCNIA
TUBEROSITY
ISCHIAL
TUBEROSITY

. r _ BUTTOCK
4-4
, BUTTOCK,
__ __ I __.._ t_o
THERMOELECTRIC - 'C 0
ASSEMBLY G SEAT BELLOWS THERMOELECTRIC
i. ~~ASSEMBLY G SEAT
'' BELLOWS

AS A HkAT PIPE AS A HEAT PUMP

CURRENT (A).

BTUjHA
BH 0-4 VOC 1TU/HR
B H
28, 2 162
440 4 460
540 6 790
60 8 1180
612 10 1700

F.ýure 4.5.2-3 Typical thermoelectric assembly installation

and heat flow capability.

"RI
 Two aspects of safety have been considered. First, it is ap-
parent that required amperage levels are quite high even though
voltage is maintained in a low region of 0-4 volts. Concern for
shock hazard should be tempered by the fact that, although the
thermoelectric device itself is electrically insulated from its
environment (top and bottom plates are thermoconductors, not elec-
trical conductors),'an additional measure of insulation is pro-
vided by the seat upholstery and subject clothing. Further the
power source is direct current. One might accord the thermoelec-
tric device power the same respect shown in handling an automobile
battery.

A second safety consideration involves acceptable levels of

heat input/extraction from the surface of the body. Woodcock
(266) in reporting on experimentation involving the application of
heat to localized sections of the body advocates, in general, that
heat flow be maintained at not greater than 51 BTU/hr.-ft 2 or
approximately 5 BTU/hr for the area of the applicator suggested
herein. We suspect that this limit is oriented more toward pos-
sible wide field application of heat rather than the small 3.75
inch square area under consideration herein. In one of Woodcock's
experiments a similar sized applicator (10 cm x 10 cm) was used
without adverse effects to provide 22 BTU/hr to the buttocks over
10-20 minute periods. In that our application would involve heat
flow periods of much shorter duration we suggest the larger figure
(22 BTU/hr) is acceptable.

In a related aspect, Woodcock notes that the subjective as-

sessment of "hot" was associated with a buttock skin temperature
of 41.10C or 6.8*C above that which we have assumed to be normal.
Further, subjects reported "slightly warm" at 37.90C in the back
area. In that we wish to subtly employ temperature to attempt to
augment pressure sensation but not forcefully ellicit perceptions "
of warmth and cold, even the latter temperature of 37.90C, or
3.30C above normal, is probably much larger than that sought in

-132-
 this application. Parker (194) indicates that sensations of
warmth and cold occur with skin temperature changes of 0.008*C and
.0040C, respectively, with a latency of 3 seconds. Mueller (178)
suggest a comparable figure of 0.10C. However, neither Parker nor
Mueller indicate the magnitude of surface area over which these
thresholds are applicable. Based on the preceding, we will assume
that the maximum skin temperature change sought over the area of
our applicator is +l.O0C.

Although it might be possible to instrument subjects in the

laboratory environment such that skin temperature is known anA can
be employed in the thermoelectric assembly control loop, this
would be unacceptable in the line simulation environment. The
next best control, admittedly less precise due to subject vari-
ability, is to control thermoelectric assembly plate temperature
according to profiles which nominally produce desired skin temper-
ature. The laboratory version should employ this approach as well

i to validate not only the usefulness of temperature as an augmenta-

tion of pressure but also the acceptability of this type of temper-
ature control when dealing with a variety of subjects. The con-
trol loop suggested is diagrammed in Figure 4.5.2-4 and simply
represents a temperature controller closed on plate temperature.

PLATE TEMPERATURE- V THERMOCOUPLE

"" | ... ITEMPERATURE
. •t IVOL.TAG E TO VOLTAGE.
TEMPERATURE COMMAND-V AV TO I THERMOELECTRIC
S- ,, --•,x, - CURRENT I ASSEMBLY
-, { V I DRIVER

Figure 4.5.2-4 Thermoelectric assembly control loop.

A preliminary analysis of skin thermal response to the ther-

moelectric assembly has been conducted based on the model depicted
in Figure 4.5.2-5. The analysis is based on employing a thermo-

-133-
electric assembly composed of nine Cambioný 3958-01 thermo-
electric modules each containing 31 couples.

i! INTRNAL ,
I+V HEA'I" FTHERMAL
FLESH LOW BTUIHR
CONDUCTION
INTEANAL
TEMP ,T, - •

-I VASCULAR
STRUCTURE
-"'- CAPILLARY BEO
ETC.

SKIN TIMPERAT!JRE SENSq REGION

SKIN TEMP

- -r
FLIGHT SUIT UNDERWEAR
SEAT UPHOLST-RY
+QC CONDUCTIVE HEAT'-
PLATE
TEMP•,--
PLATE .... ' ,, , FLOW THROUGH UPHOLSTERY
P.H EFF. MASS OP DRIVERANCLTIGTIR
/ THERMOELECTRIC" •,

IASSEMBLY • QM.HEAT FLOW OF

"COLD" SIDE----ý" MODULE BTUIHR

TEMP-T,, BELLOWS

Figure 4.5.2-5 Ischial tuberosity heat flow diagram.

The assumptions and constants employed in this analysis are

as follows:

a) Bellow source/siink temperature - 206C constant

b) Buttocks vascular bed temperature - 34.60C constant

c) Median thermoelectric module temperature - 300C constant

d) (Mass)(Specific Heat of Thermal Electric Module) -

(9.486 x 10-4) (0.00527 x T + 2.427) BTU/*C
p

-134-

Jýa
 e) Flight Suit & Underwear Clo Factor - 0.7

f) Seat Upholstery Clo Factor 0.8

Thermal Conductivity of e) f ) f K/L -1.364 BTU/Hr-

ft 2 -_C

g) Skin Thickness - 0.2 inch (from 194)

Skin Specific Gravity = 1.1 (from 194)
Skin Mass 0.111 lbs.

h) Flesh Thermal Conductance f 7.37 BTU/ft 2 -Hr-OC

Thickness = 2 cm @ mean vasoconstriction (from 194)

A 100 second doublet profile was used for current at various

"magnitudes. Figure 4.5.2-6 illustrates the theoretical change in

"skin temperature as a function of time for various thermoelectric

"temperature driver in auqmenting short term transient G loading

NOTE: SKIN TEMPERATURE " i"10A-

INITIAL

-34.60

L 4'
Z 2
<• 0 0 30 40 580 8

1135
•11• TIME -SEC -f

rigure 4.5,2-f. Skin temperature change resulting from

current doublet of various magnitudes.
 ii
pressure sensation appears questionable. However, the response
appears suitable for use as a low pass component in the long term
G loading shown in Figures 1.1-1, 2 and 3. The thermal operating
bounds of the thermoelectric assembly have been taken as +125eC
and Figure 4.5.2-7 demonstrates that, in the heat pump mode, the
higher current levels can be maintained only briefly to hasten
temperature change with low levels used thereafter to maintain
temperature levels,

i10A 8 6 THERMAL
400 OPERATION
. .•'" • / BOUND
350

< 1a%20
2o•-•. ý30 40 .05-- TIME
60 'SEC 70

I-
1200-

THERMAL
150 OPERATION
BOUND

Fig-ire 4.5.2-7 Thermoelectric module plate temperature

(under current doublet). J

Heat flow resistivity of seat upholstery and flight suit form

a major system constraint. Response and range of skin temperature
change will obviously decrease if heavier clothing is worn by the
subject. On the other hand the thermal conductivity factors used
in this analysis demonstrate that heat uptake is limited to 10
BTU/hr at a skin temperature of 10C, our maximum range of inter-
est. In contrast to the upholstery and clothing heat flow resis-
tivity, the thermal conductance of flesh is relatively high de-

-136-

____________ -- -- - . 7:2 . . i
 pressing the range in which skin temperature may be driven. A
value of tissue thermal conductance for mean conditions of vaso-
constriction was employed herein. For full vasoconstriction the
amplitude of the curves in Figure 4.5.2-6 would be doubled and for
full vasodilation the amplitude would be halved.

The drive scheme to be employed will obviously relate temper-

ature change to G load. However, as earlier mentioned, there is
question concerning the sign sense of appropriate drive. Addi-
tional unknown factors involve the import of temperature thres-
hold, the magnitude by which this threshold may beneficially be
exceeded, and the role of temperature adaptation and the latitude
this effect may permit in obtaining temperature augmented pressure
sensation. We would suggest that a simple linear relationship be-
tween G load and temperature command form the initial drive scheme
' with alteration to occur as a function of experimental results.

4.5.3 Pace Mask Loader

The photographs of face mask slippage presented in Figures

A.6.l-1 and A.6.1-2 lead us to believe that tactical stimuli,
probably predominantly experienced as skin tension variation,
[' occur under high G conditions due to inertial loading of the face
mask worn by the pilot. The facial area is noted for low thres-
holds of tactile perception (178). The mechanism suggested herein
provides a means to artifically load the face mask assembly in
concert with simulated G loading,,

The approach selected involves placing a downward force on

the face mask by means of a miniature torque motor and windlass
housed in a G-suit modified for such purpose. The concept is il-
lustrated in Figure 4.5.3-1. In this arrangement the torque motor
drives the windlass around which is wound a monofilament tension
line which leads upwards along the pilot's gig line to the face
mask. The upper end of the tension line is terminated in a clip

-137-
 SWi

FACE MASK

FORCE TRANSOUCEH

,,..,. TE NSIO0NLIN

TORQUE MOTOR POUCH

INMOOIFIEO G SUIT
TORQUE MOTOR
•WINOLAS

MOTOR MOUNT STRUTS

G SUIT STOMACH

Figure 4.5.3-1 Face mask loader arrangement.

which must be snapped over a bail on the lower end of a force

transducer which is secured to the lower surface of the face mask.
The subject, after seating himself and securing the face mask to
the helmet, must withdraw the clip from the G-suit pouch and snap
it over the force transducer bail. Obviously this act is a depar-
ture from real world flight preparation procedure and therefore
may compromise line-simulation utilization of this concept. The
magnitude of this discrepancy is small enough to pose no problems
in a laboratory environment. Considerable thought was given to
other embodiments which might eliminate or disguise any unnatural
act however none was found more favorable.

The servo loop advanced herein is closed on tension line

force by a force transducer mounted on the underside of the face -
mask. Although it should be possible to operate the system in

-138- *
T T
0 WZ1
 open loop form and simply drive the torque motor with a scaled
version of +Gz loading, the closed loop form will allow more
uniform force application in the presence of pilot head movemcnts.
The force transducer site is selected based on simplicity, unob-
trusiveness, and that the electrical leads may be routed along
with the face mask leads and therefore require no unnatural act in
preparing the system for operation. Likewise the location of the
tension line is unobtrusive and minimizes probability of fouling.

SThe torque motor/windlass assembly illustrated in Figure

4.5.3-2 measures approximately 1 x 1 x 2 inches and could be con-
cealed within and secured to the subject's flight suit. This loca-
tion is unfavorable since, depending on the manner in which the
G-suit is worn, the torque motor might become trapped between
stomach bladder and the body which, at best, would be noticeable
and at worst, painful. Locating the torque motor assembly within

TENSION LINE CLIP A

TENSION LINE

1" ,SEMI RIGID BACKER

",-(SECURE TO GSUIT)
. DISTRIBUTION
T STRAPS

"' ýTORQUE MOTOR

"-WINDDLASS

Fiqure 4.5.3-2 Face mask loader motor.

L.-139-
.

... . " - - - -- .:
 a modified G-suit eliminates thin problem and has the following
additional attributes:

a) Reactive forces due to torque motor activity operating j

on the suit are masked by the natural activity of G-suit
bladder inflation affiliated with +Gz loading condi-
tions.

V
F
b) A source of air is naturally made available in close
proximity to the torque motor should cooling be re-
quired.

c) The torque motor power leads may be dressed inside the

G-suit pneumatic supply hose and terminated in such a
way as to be automatically made by the subject during
G-suit hookup at preflight.

In pr-eliminarily sizing the torque motor, the authors assumed

that the pilot could induce peak vertical motion of the face mask
over a maximum distance of 5 inches at peak velocity of 5 inches/
sec and acceleration of 10 inches/second 2 . Although military
specifications were searched, face mask weights were not found and
two pounds is assumed as a representative weight. We further as-
sumed that in order to keep the ten.ion line from fouling, the
torque motor should maintain a minimum 0.25 pounds tension in the
line at all times.

Figure 1.1-3 shows +Gz acceleraticn peaks of llg's which

would imply an inertial face mask load of approximately 22 pounds.
It is seldom necessary to use full scali replication to impart a
realistic kinesthetic cue within simulation and in this case we
tend to believe that full scale force may displace the face mask
more than that experienced in the actual case. Under +Gz loading, -!

the head and helmet as well as the face mask are subject to in- .
cresedloaing Th hemet(and face mask support) lowers on the

creaed
ladig. Te hemet -140-y
 head, the head lowers and pivots slightly forward (142) and tend
to bring the face mask closer to the chest which, in turn, offers
support to the face mask reducing additional slippage. In the
absence of a helmet loading system, the above helmet and head
allied movement will not occur and full scale face mask load is
not warranted. However, to permit experimentation in imparting
loads to the helmet and head through the face mask we have se-
lected a scale factor larger than the 20% used in the extremity
loaders. With this in mind we have assumed a 1/2 scale factor or
approximately 11 pounds of tension line force to be the maximum
desired.

An Inland Motor samarium cobalt motor displaying 11 oz.-in.

of peak stall torque direct driving a windlass shaft of 0.1 inch
diameter would appear to meet our requirements. This implemen-
Li tation would permit a peak line tension of approximately 13 pounds
and a maximum no-load line velocity of approximately 38 inches/
1" second. Temperature increase to maintain the 0.25 pound minimum
tension line force would be acceptable at approximately 1IC.
Temperature rise to simulate the +Gz profile of Figure 1.1-3 is
estimated to be approximately 40 0 C in the absence of special cool-
ing provisions and would be acceptable. However a 100% duty cycle
composed of such profiles would produce unacceptable temperatures
and therefore either special cooling provisions and/or a thermal
override should be incorporated in the design.

The control system must be further protected with an inter-

lock which indicates that the tension line has been secured to the
force transducer such that the force transducer is mechanically
included within the servo loop. This interlock could be an im-
plied interlock wherein the torque motor drive would be limited to
0.25 pound until such time the force transducer registered this
tension. Transient force relaxation registered by the force
transducer due to pilot induced movement would be eliminated by a
low pass filter in the interlock network.

-141-
4.5.4 Localized Firmness Cells

In locations where normal body load causes flesh pressure

conditions, the ability to successfully vary the pressure percep-
tion through the use of firmness cells has been well demonstrated
in the Air Force Human Resources Laboratory Advanced G Cuing Sys-
tem. Firmness cells, thin pneumatic bladders, are located betweenJ
the body and supporting structure and slightly inflated so as toj
suportthe body under near-uniform distribution of tissue pres-
sure in close proximity to -.he supporting structure. Deflation of
the cell transfers support from the compliant cell to the compar-
atively non-compliant support structure and in doing so, alters
load distribution causing localized flesh pressure increase.

This technique has been successfully employed to vary buttock

flesh ptessure and probably could be extended to other regions of
the body where G load induced pressure sensation is pronounced.
As mentioned in Section A.6.1 we suspect other candidate areas to
include the under-surface of forearms when resting against a sup-4
port object, sole area of the feet, and scalp supporting the
weight of the helmet. Although our literature search revealed no
data assigning import to tactile cues, we could advocate the firm-
ness cell approach be employed in tactile cuing experimentation
involving the above-mentioned sites.

In the case of scalp tactile cues the firmness cell(s) would

be located between scalp and helmet as depicted in Figure 4.5.4-1.
As G load increases, firmness cell pressure would be decreased
allowing the helmet load to be concentrated at specific areas of
the scalp. The firmness cells also permit motion of the helmet I
with respect to the skull which, visually, may provide it's own.
set of cues. It is not clear at the present time that both visual
and pressure cues can appropriately be simultaneously delivered
using the firmness cell approach. As is evident in Section
4.4.1.1 we tentatively are assigning higher priority to helmet/

-142-

ýA n
Ir
RELIEF RIGID METAL POINT OF
DESIRED PRESSURE INCREASE
PORE BLADDER AFT BLADDER

I S'

Figure 4.5.4-1 Helmet firmness cells.

skull motion and believe the helmet firmness cells should be em-
ployed .to replicate this effect.

Figures 4.5.4-2 and 4.5.4-3 illustrate the same concept as

"applied to the forearm and foot area. The arm under-surface firm-
ness bladder would be a thin bladder sandwiched between the inner
and outer layer of the flight suit in the under surface area of
the lower arm. During negative or lg simulated flight, the blad-
der would be 3lightly inflated. Upon entering positive G condi-
tions the bladder would be progressively deflated regardless of
the position of the arm. If the arm is not resting on a support-
ing surface nothing is lostp however, should the arm be in contact
"with a supporting surface, strengthened pressure stimuli will oc-
cur as a result of bladder deflation.

-143-
 PLIGHT SUIT
OUTER SUIT
FLIGHT SUIT
,,• .. INNER LAYE

......
FIRMNESS BLADDE R
BETWEEN INNER AND OUTER
FLIGHT SUIT LAYERS

Figure 4.S.4-2 Arm undersurface firmness bladder.

........

FIRMNESSlL.AODER
INNERSOLE

Figure 4.5.4-3 Boot innersole firmness bladder.

in Figure
The firmness cell control system illustrated .
pneumatic flow boosting
4.5.4-4 has previously been employed with
relays to successfully drive fairly large volume G-aeat firmness
4.5,4-5 are
cells. Response characteristics depicted in Figure
6 hz (143). In
rapid with a system bandpass of approximately

-144-
 ALGORITrHM _q LINKAGEK

(COMPRESSED

KFicaure 4.5.4-4 Firminess Cell control system.

frequencv (a) (Hz)

"a--

S 16.4 LBS

FORCE i

Figure 4.5.4-5 G-seat firmness cell response (from

Kron and 1(leinwaks (143)).

-145-
 that the volume of the firmness cells suggested herein is consid-
erably smaller (except for the helmet firmness cell) than that em-
ployed in G-seats there should be no need for flow boosters, how-
ever, the vacuum assist would still be required in order to pre-
serve response at the low pressures utilized in driving the firm-
ness cells. Flow booster capability is received for the helmet
firmness cell.

4.6 Resj~irator'j Devices

4.6.1 Subatmospheric Face Mask

In section A.7 it is stated that the respiratory effects of

+Gz are much less dramatic than the cardiovascular ones. None-
theless they exist and entail an increase in the work of breathing
and decreased oxygen transport. Respiratory reactions are most
noticeable for forwiard acceleration (+Gx) where breathing dif-
ficulties come into play long before any cardiovascular problems

I become evident. These difficulties are manifested as shallow

~breathing in~ reaction to the difficulty of expanding the chest
against the inertial load and combines with a significant increase
in the effective dead space of breathing and a major mismatch
between ventilation and perfusion in the lung region to make gas
exchange inefficient and produce hypoxia even with inspired pure
02. Table 4.6.1-1 lists the acceleration effects on the res-
piratory system that are discussed in section A.7. These effects
may provide useful cues to the pilot of a flight simulator operat-
ing in the high G environment.

An approach for providing these cues could be i~mplemented via

the "subatmospheric face mask." This implementation would simply
reduce the pressure of air in the face mask causing the pilot to
breathe more rapidly in order to satisfy his oxygen deficit. In
section A.7.2.2, the similarity of negative pressure breathing to
the CX effects is discussed and forms the physiological basis for

-146-
 "Table 4.6.1-1 Summary of hinh G•effects on the
respiratory system.

GZ Gx

o Increased work o Shallow breathinq

of breathing o Chest tightness
pain
O Increase respiration
o Decreased 02 rate
transport 0 Inefficient gas ox-
change producing
F hypoxia

the subatmospherLc face mask. Figure 4.6.1-1, which is also pre-

F ~ sented in section A.7, illustrates the effect of Gx on respiration
rate. The subatmospheric face mask would provide breathing air to
I" the pilot at pressures below atmospheric. This can be accomp-
lished by employing a system as shown in Figure 4.6.1-2. For
' accelerations less than or equal to 1.0g, the mask is supplied air
at 0.05 psi and for accelerations in excess of 1.0g, the pressure
is reduced .096 psi/g. This will cause the breathing rate to in-
. L crease probably producing some chest tightness and pain.

For the normal ig condition, the compressor is providing air

to the mask through the dryer and filter (.08 micron). The pres-
sure is then regulated by a fixed regulator to .05 psi. When the
I
effective acceleration component perpendicular to the pilot's
chest (Gp) is greater than 1g, the solenoid is switched exposing
the mask to a partial vacuum. The pressure transducer corrects
the current to the flow control valve permitting the pressure at
the mask to be that which has been commanded by the computer ac-
cording to the algorithm above (-0.096 psi/g). The respiration
rate is monitored simultaneously and fed back to the computer
whereupon it is compared to the computed value and adjustments to

-147-
 RESPIRATORY RATE

30,

26

20

20

2
a1 a Q 2

.6X

Figure 4.6.1-1 Respiratory rate as a function ofG

(modified from Fraser (71)).

RESPIRATION RATE

PRESSURE PRESSURE
COPTR P COiITROL TRANSDUCER
ELECTRONICS
CURREN
VACUM FLW3 LN.1
CNTRO

Figure 4.6.1-2 Respiration dynamics control system.

-148- i
 IW7, ý-7 77-77rý` '77 "M7 WIN

•, fI pressure are made appropriately. The effective perpendicular

acceleration is given by

Gp Gz sin SBA + Gx cos SBA (Eq. 4.6.1-1]

where SBA is the aircraft seat-back angle measured from the verti-
i cal i.e., a zero seat-back angle is one in which the seat-back is
vertical. SBA increases for inclinations backward. The respira-
tion rate is computed from

S.. RR .NORM
= (0.1818 Gp + 0.8182) RR [Eq. 4.6.1-2]

V where RRNORM is the normal respiration rate taken as that value

1.• measured at simulator initialization.

tSYSTEM SAFETY

, The safety of the system can be assured by the respiration

rate being fed simultaneously into the control electronics where-
upon the solenoid is shifted to the pressure breathing side if the
respiration rate falls below some threshold such as 2 breaths/min-

In addition the face mask can be easily removed by the pilot

I•. if he feels distressed.

REDUCED PARTIAL PRESSURE OF 02

Another approach to produce the same effects is to reduce the

partial pressure of oxygen in the breathing air. At sea level the

-149-
[I Ii..,
S • -•.•. .-•.•.••-:.;.:::••,.-.•,,r, • ,m ,. • • • • | m tinT'A
 approximate partial pressure distribution of the gases in breath-
ing air are

02 158 mm Hg
C02 0.3 mm Hg
N2 596 mm Hg
H2 0 5.7 mm Hg
760.0 mm Hg

Since the contribution of carbon dioxide and water vapor com-

bined is less than 1%, they can be ignored and air considered as
composed solely of oxygen and nitrogen. The sea level partial
pressure distribution will then become 159.26 mm Hg for 02 and
600.74 mm Hg for N2 . The alternate system would then employ a I
control system such as depicted in Figure 4.6.1-3.

RESPIRATION RATE

TO FACE MASK

!i~ PRSSRE,,AON

SOURCE . VALVE TR OUEA

I SLEN. -3 CONTROL PR ES
MIXING
F-

Figure 4.6.1-3 Partial 0 2 pressure. "'i

An oxygen and nitrogen source are provided. The pressure of

each gas is controlled by the computer via the pressure control

valves. The established base pressures are those from above. The
partial pressure of 02 is then reduced by 5 mm Hg/g and the res-
piration rate monitor will continually adjust the 02 partial

-150-1.
 pressure until the desired respiration rate is achieved. The par-
tial pressure of N2 is increased by the amount that the partial
pressure of 02 is decreased. The algorithm to implement this
concept is given by

P0 2 159.26 5 Gp - K (RRM - RR) [Eq. 4.6.1-3]

where RRM is the measured respiration rate, and P0 2 is the partial

t : pressure of oxygen
N2i 600.74 + (159.26 - [Eq 4.6.1-4]

where PN2 is the partial pressure of nitrogen.

The same safety capability can be provided for this system as

for the subatmospheric face mask by placing a solenoid between the
02 source and the pressure valve. If the respiration rate falls
dangerously low, the solenoid would shunt pure oxygen directly to
the face mask.

SUMMARY

4. Both systems would probably produce satisfactory results.

(- However the subatmosperic face mask has more substantial theore-
tical basis and is therefore recommended as the device to be used
for laboratory testing for the purpose of determining the cue
value of the device.

C45 ý2 Hypoxia Xnductior

Hypoxia induction is postulated as a technique for causing

the visual effects of high Gz. As was discussed in section 3.2,
as Gz increases, the cardiuvascular effects cause a reduction in
blood supply to the retina. The re~uction in oxygenated blood to
the retina effectively causes localized hypoxia which in turn

•L2
-151-,m, mm~" -'" m u
causes a reduction in visual acuity. The technique described here-
in is an attempt to reproduce this effect by reducing the oxygen
available to the pilot. This can be accomplished in two ways; one
is to reduce the partial pressure of oxygen in the breathing mix-
ture, the other is to reduce the flow rate or pressure of the gas
mixture.

Both of these techniques would reduce the tidal volume (see

section A.7) and thereby induce hypoxia. Unfortunately the de- 4
sired effects will not be realized. If any of the above mentioned
techniques for hypoxia induction are induced via the respiratory
system the following will occur. After an initial decrease in
tidal volume, the respiration rate will increase to compensate
such that the volume of air integrated over a period of time would
be the same as that inhaled under normal lg conditions. In addi-
tion, the pulmonary effects would mimic those of longitudinal ac-
celeration (Gx) rather than vertical (Gz), such as chest pain and
tightness as wt-7ll as the increased respiration rate referred, to
."
above. This would present to the pilot an ambiguity for him to
resolve which is in fact an unrealistic cue.

Further inducing retinal hypoxia in this way would be a

second order effect, i.e., the reduction of oxygen at the retina
is a secondary effect brought about by reduction of blood supply.
This reduction of oxygen available in the lungs which in turn
reduces the oxygen in the blood which finally causes hypoxia at
the retina has a longer delay than that which exists in the real
world. This delay is an additional objection to this approach.
It is for these reasons that no further investigation of this
technique be pursued at present.

4.6.3 Respiration Rate Monitoring Devices

K
In section 4.6.1 a requirement for monitoring respiration
rate was established. There are several devices marketed for this

-152-

m-"a" " " .... "di;' A ''

 purpose. They consist of impedance pneumographs, chest band
pneumographs, thermistor transducers, and flow measurement de-
vices.

Impedance pneumographs are devices which measure impedance

between two electrodes applied to the thorax. Voltage changes
reflecting impedance changes due to tissue volume and conductivity
are sensed and interpreted to reflect respiration rate. This mea-
surement can be made from EKG chest leads without a need for addi-
. •tional
.' leads. These devices are available from several sources;
among them are Narco Biosystems, Houston, Texas and Mennen-Great-
batchEectrics
le •nc., Clarence, New York. The major disadvan-
tage of thi's dev.,ce is the requirement for electrodes attached to
the pilot's chest.

Chest band pneumographs are devices which measure the ex-

pansion and contraction of the chest. They are of several types;
a mercury chestband consisting of a column of' mercury, within a
small bore rubber tube. When the chest expands the resistance of
the, mercury column increases. Honeywell Biomedical Denver, Colo-
rado is a source for this device. Narco Biosysterns produces a
Bellows Pneumograph employing a photoelectric transducer in a
flexible neoprene bellows. A third type of chest band pneumograph
is one in which a potentiometer measures a mechanical displacement
as the chest expands and contracts. Chestband pneumcgraphs are
not suitable for this application because of the encumberances and
artifact introduced by their use.

Thermistor transducers appear to be the mnst applicable res-

piration rate monitoring device for the flight simulation environ-
ment. This device employs a small lead thermistor to measure the
temperature of the breathing air during imnpiition and expira-
tion. The heating of the thermistor durinq ex-piration ind cooling
during inspiration can be interpreted to provide respiration rate.
Devices of this type are available from Honeywell Biomedical and

-153-
Narco Biosystems. It
is recommended that a thermistor transducer
be used in the implementation of section 4.6.1 because it can be
conveniently concealed in the breathing mask and will introduce no
artifact.

Flow measurement devices are also employed as respiration

rate monitors. These are basically of two types; one is called a
spirometer which measures the amount of gas inhaled and exhaled.
Another flow device measures flow as a function of pressure drop
in a small tube. Honeywell Biomedical produces the latter device
and refers to it as a pneumotachometer. The pneumotachometer
would be the second most acceptable respiration rate monitor.
It's main drawback is that it presents more of a packaging problem
than the thermistor. However, it may provide a higher response
capability. J
5. SUGGESTED MEChANIZATION PLAN

As earlier stated, the inclusion of high G augmentation de-

vices within tactical aircraft simulation is warranted only if the
effect produced by these devices causes pilot behavior to more
closely match that which occurs in actual flight and the resultant
improvement in tht fidelity of behavior alters the training task.
The assessment of behavior change can best be accomplished within
a laboratory simulation environment which we will consider to be
the "short term" mechanization goal. In some cases, additional
development will be required prior to arriving at a high G aug-

mentation device design suitable for use in line simulation which I

is the long term goal. Alternately, two or more devices may pro-
duce nearly the same effect and, based on their respective merits,
a decision made as to which to employ within line simulation.

Although the short term goal is the actual experimentation

with a device, developmental work to produce a laboratory-ac- -

ceptable version of the device and its drive algorithms is part of

-154- 1
the short term effort. In some cases the potential success of the
short term form of a device may rest heavily on the acceptability
of a concept or component. In these cases it would be appropriate
to "breadboard test" the concept or component prior to committing
resources for development of the device or concept in laboratory-
acceptable form.

The following table (5-1) offers a plan for each of the de-
vices or techniques introduced herein in terms of progression to
fully developed device. It should be noted that rightward pro-
gression through the table is predicated only on positive findings
in the preceding phase. Because of the preoccupation with visual '
effects demonstrated by the high G literature we would recommend
resource allocation emphasis be provided the plethysmographic
goggles, oculomete'r, visor, instrument and display alteration, and
the simplified visual acuity model.

1:55
 Table 5-1. High G Augmentation Devices Development Process

Device
or
Tecknique
Subsystem
or
Component Test
(if
Short Term
component test
results Juseify)
(If
Lor., Term
laboratory
results justify)
simulation *1
Lower body None Employ research Possible design of part
negative facility to determine task trainer for Ll/Ml.
pressure response & usefulness
(LBNP) to Ll/M1.

Non :invasive None Pulse wave velocity Potential use in Ll/Ml

pressure monitor may be useful PTT.
monitors in LBNP research.

Plethvs- Purchase existing Potential immediate No probable line-simula-

mographic design & test laboratory simulation tion applicability.
goggles usefulness, use to determine G
induced visual acuity
effect on training
task.

Helmet Purchase Honeywell Use with prototype Use with curved visor
mounted unit & test. Use curved visor and/or and/or instrument &
oculo- with flat plate liquid instrument & visual visual system drives for
meter crystal visor tests, system drives for line-simulation of G
laboratory simulation. induced visual effects.

Visor Purchase flat plate Develop curved vessel Develop production visor
system plus mini- visor useinq North for use in line simula-
computer control American Rockwell ' tion if visor technique
from liquid crystal Technology coupled is more attractive than
manufacturer.. Bench with flat plate display instrument and visual
test with oculometer technology developed display alteration.
drive, in component test. Specify such systems
Use in laboratory on future tactical A/C
simulation employing simulators.
simplified visual
acuity algorithm.

Instrument None Develop hardware for If instrument and visual

& visual altering instrument display alteration is
display & visual displays for more attractive than
alteration the specific simula- visor or visor is non
tion system employed standard A/C equipment
as the laboratory specify instrument &
simulation test bed. visual system alteration
on simulator procurement.

Simplified None Program for laboratory Compare against complete

visual simulatory use. Make visual acuity model.
acuity available for line Specify the more attractive
model simulation use if model for line-simulation
satisfactory, use.

-156-i
 Tatle 5-1. ,C.h ,,, A lmentation Devices Development Process

(Con 't)

Device Subsystem Short Term Long Term

or or (If component test (If laboratory simulation
Fechrigus Component Test results justify) results justify)
Complete None None If visual etCects found
visual important to training
acuity and devices to produce
model these eifects are satis-
factory enter into re-
search program to devel-
op c-mplete visual
acuity model and its
mechanization. i

Helmet None Employ NASA Develop device acceptable

loader Langley design, in line-simulation.

Helmet! Verify bladders control Develop prototype Specify in procurarent -

skull helmet motion. Initial helmet/skull motion of high performance
motion assessment of tactile hardware. Employ in tactical A/C simulators.
stimuli, laboratory simulation.

Extremity Purchase & test samar- Develop prototype Develop production systems
loaders & ium cobalt torque motors loader systems - for line-simulation use.
face mask servo loops, & drivers, program for labor-
loader Response & thermal atory simulation
characteristics of use.
particular interest.

Shoulder None Developprototype Specify in tactical simu-

"harness harness loader for lation procurement.
loader laboratory .simula-
tion use. .
I.
S
Localized rest foreerm under- Develop prototype SpEcify in procurement of
firmness surface bladder for bladder system/servo high performance tactical
zells initial assessment for use in laboratory A/C simulators.
of tactile stimuli. simul~tion.

tkirt Construct breadboard Augment G seat with Specify in procurement of

te~per •ure test unit/servo system skin temperature high pe for.:;ance tactical
r measure skin thermal driver test uitit for A/C simulaturs.
response. use in laboratory
simulation.

Suba:nmos- Develop & test pressure Modify mask air system Specify in procuremet of
;heric control servo loop of with Air supply servo high performanze tactical
face mask acpropriate flow sizina. loop system developed A/C simulators.
Develop & test safety in component test-
device. use for laboratory
simulation.

-157- !l
 • i'

Table 5-1. High G Auqmentation Devices Development Process

(Con't)

Device Subsystem Short Term Long Term

or or (If component test (If laboratory simulation
Technique Component Test results -justify) results Justify)

Respiration Purchase and test Use device purchased Employ in line-simulation

rate Honeywell hccudata in component test to if fundamental to sub-
monitors 137 to support sub- support laboratoy atmospheric face mask
atmospheric face mask simulation experi- servo system or safety
test. mentation. device.

-i
_158

-'158-
. 6. SUMMARY

The trend of aiLcraft technology indicates increased utili-

zation of the high G regime and increased dependence upon simula-
tion for pilot training. The study presented herein discusses the
physiological effects of high G exposure and postulates means by

which the more obvious effects might be induced within laboratory

simulation structured to experimentally determine the importance
of these effects in the pilot training task. The type of G load-
V. ing most often encountered in piloting present day aircraft is +Gz
referred to colloquially as "eyeballs down" and arises in dive
pullouts and inside turns, common piloting maneuvers. Patterning
the high occurrence of +Gz, the majority of literature discussing
the physiological effects of high G deals principally with +Gz
physiological effects. The introduction of the reclined seat in-
creases the importance of +Gx physiological effects and, in the
limited instances where +Gx effects are documented, the authors
"have included them within this study.

By far, the physiological system most sensitive to high G

conditions is the cardiovascular system. However, the pilot is
less likely to notice cardiovascular changes themselves as he is
to notice the affiliated visual effects of peripheral and central
light loss induced by the cardiovascular changes. Under elevated
levels of +Gz the blood is inertially forced toward the lower
torso and legs causing a commensurate reduction in blood pressure
and flow rate at the temporal level which, if unchecked, ulti-
mately may produce unconsciousness due to cerebral hypoxia.
Pilots wear G-suits which proportionally squeeze the lower torso
and extremities under +Gz conditions to retard blood mass shift,
prolong useful visual capability, and avoid unconciousness. Fur-
ther, pilots are taught to perform a compressive respiratory maneu-
ver known, based on its variations, as a Ml or Ll maneuver to aid
the G-suit in forestalling blood mass shift. The cardiovascular
system itself enters a compensatory condition and employs increas-

• ! -159-

ff.

S.. ..." ." ...

.... ..... ....
.. .. •""•
• ..... • ' •.... •;.,r- '" "" '••-"J
-• '•'- : • ""
i ,•r • • :•:• •w
ed heart rate and vasodilation and constriction in an attempt to
maintain normal cerebral blood flow. Negative Gz loading, much
less often experienced in aircraft maneuvering, can produce the
opposite conditions (blood engorgement of the upper torso and
cerebral areas).

Exposing the lower portion ol the body to a negative pressure

differential has been shown in thii Salut and Skylab space missions
as well as earth bound experimentation to be capable of replicat-
ing a measure of the blood shift experienced under G load. The
technique, termed lower body negative pressure (LBNP), requires
that the lower torso and/or lower extremities be placed in a con-
tainer capable of supporting subatmospheric conditions. Unfor-
tunately, there does not exist sufficient application-related data
to determ&ne the feasibility of .jsing LBNP in flight simulators
for inducing cardiovascular symptoms of high G flight. The lack
of data is primarily in the response area for it is not known
whether the technique can produce a cardiovascular reaction as
rapidly as experienced under varying aircraft G load. Other un-
answered questions include identification of artifact production,
potential interference with the G-suit, adverse interaction with
motion cuing devices, loss of eavironment fidelity, and potential
safety problems. Blood pressure would form the likely parameter
upon which to close the LBNP control loop and a non-invasive tech-
nique considered near mandatory. Non-invasive devices presently
available fall into the categories of ausculatory devices, ultra-
sonic devices, pulse wave velocity monitors, oximeter and plethys-
mographs. Of these, the ear oaKimeter, pulse wave monitor, and
impedance plethysmographs are the most promising however, artifact
production is also a problem here and accuracy, although probably
not overly severe in the LBNP application, is suspect. We have
concluded that significant additional clinical research must be
conducted in this area before LBNP can be considered a candidate
system for the laboratory form of high G augmentation devices.
Further, the very severe imposition on environmental fidelity will

-160-A

.....
.
 likely exclude the LBNP technique from line simulators employed as
full-, or near full-mission simulators. However, it has been
pointed out that LBNP may be a very useful and acceptable techni-
que to employ in a part-task trainer to teach pilots to appropri--
ately perform the important Ll/Ml maneuvers. Such training is
currently available only in the more expensive environments of the
centrifuge and actual aircraft flight.

sieeRespiratory effects of high G conditions are normally con-

As in the case of the cardiovascular system itself, this impor-

tance stems not from the system itself but because of visual]
liabilities arising from system performance degradation induced by
high G. The cardiovascular system is responsible for delivering
oxygenated blood to the cerebral and retinal areas. If G loading
interferes with the delivery system, adverse conditions ensue.
The respiratory system is responsible for oxygenation of the blood
in the first instance and should this process be degraded by G
loading, similar adverse conditions arise. For +Gz, respiratory
,7 effects are much less dramatic than the cardiovascular ones, and
entail an increase in the work of breathing and decreased oxygen
transport as a result of pulmonary shunting associated with pool-
ing of blood in the lower regions of the pulmonary circulation and
filling of the upper parts of the lung with air. The respiratory

reactions are most noticeable for forward acceleration, +Gx, whereI

breathing difficulties come into play long before any card iovascu-
lar problems become evident and may be characterized as increased
difficulty in breathinge chest pain, and increased respiration
* rate, Positive pressure and 100% oxygen breathing techniques are
* sometimes used to offset the impact of these effects.

This study investigates two methods to replicate the afore-

* mentioned respiratory effects. Negative pressure breathing em-
ployinq a subatmospheric face mask and possible minor reductions
in the partial pressure of oxygen is suggested as a means to

-161-
induce increased breathing difficulty, chest pain, and increased
breathing rate. A second approach, advocating major changes in
the partial pressure of oxygen in order to induce hypoxia and its
related visual disruption, was ruled out due to excessively long
temporal response as well as the obvious safety hazard inherent to
the approach.

The servo loop controlling the subatmospheric face mask

should employ respiration rate as one of its loop closure param-
eters. Respiration rate monitors which were investigated included
impedance pneumographs, thermistor bead pneumographs, bellows
pneumographs, mercury chestband pneumographs, and pressure trans-
ducer augmented flow rate pneumographs. The Honeywell Accudata
137 appears to be well suited to the task in that it includes its
own signal processor and provides versatality by employing ther-
mristor bead, mercury chestband, and flow rate pneumographic de-
tectors.

The high G effect most often reported, surprisingly to the

exclusion of musculoskeletal and tactile effects which quite ob-
viously are also present, is the dramatic visual disruption in-
duced by cardiovascular and respiratory system degradation as well
as inertial loading of the visual apparatus itself. Under +Gz
conditions, peripheral and eventual central light loss, sometimes
referred to as "tunnel vision", progressively occur as the retinal
area enters, from its outer boundaries inward, a condition of hy-
poxia. Large magnitude Gx produces a blurring of vision possibly
related to the production of an excessive tear film across the
cornea area. The lacrimal process was investigated to determine
if a replication of blurring could be satisfactorily induced on
command through the use of eye irritants. This approach was aban-
doned due primarily to the sensation of pain which is allied with
eye irritants but apparently missing in the high +Gx experience
and, secondly, to the fact that apparatus inducing the +Gz peri-

-162- 1
 pheral and central light loss can be developed to also produce
blurring in +Gx.

The study advances the structure of a model defining visual

acuity as a function of +Gz conditions and where data is available
defines relationships employed in this model. The completion of
this model awaits key information relating acuity or minimum
discrimination angle as a function of retinal blood pressure. In
the interim, a simplified model is advanced as a substitute until
the more sophisticated model can be completed. The simplified
model treats the +Gz visual effect as an aberration symetric about
the foveal view. Twc concentric ter-.inators respectively defining
the onset of visual disruption and the loss of all light sensation
are permitted to collapse inward toward the foveal view or expand
outwards in the opposite direction based on +Cz level and onset
"rate. The area between the terminators is subject to radially pro-
gressive light ray disruption, misting or graying, and intensity
attenuation.

Because o2 the importance attached to high G visual disrup-

tion, coosiderable emphasis within the study is devoted to means
by which these effects may be generated within laboratory simu-
lation. A very simple device, plethysmographic goggles, is sug-
gested a means to quickly permit experimentation to begin with-
,ut waiting for the development of other light alteration devices.
Plethysmographic goggles have already been used to successfolly
induce progressive peripher&" and central light loss. The goggles
operate on a principle which dictates that as eyeball ambient pres-
S
sure is increased above atmospheric pressure, a commensurate in-
crease in intraocular pressure is experienced. As intraocular
* pressure approaches the level of retinal blood pressure, retinal
oxygen perfusion decreases with concomitant loss of light sensi-
tivity very nearly identical to nat occurring under +Gz.

ij
L. -163-.J

12
 Although the goggles may be satisfactory for laboratory ex-
perimentation, other visual disruption techniques must be devel-
oped for use in line simulation. The study advances methods by
which present day simulator cockpit instrument lighting systems
and surround visual display systems may be driven to provide a
rendition of the high G physiological visual disruption. Alter-
nately the study discloses a method by which the visor worn by
tactical aircraft pilots may be constructed as a vessel containing
liquid crystal medium(s) capable of being selectively driven to
produce either or both misting and light transmission attenuation.
The disruption location may be commanded to occur anywhere within
the visor expanse as dictated by the computer program controlling
the visor. In terms of environmental fidelity, -he visor approach
holds much promise.

Simuulator instrument lighting alteration, visual display sys-

tem alteration, and the visor effects all are generated about the
foveal view as is experienced in actual high G conditions. There-
fore a definition of the foveal vector orientation is required and
can be provided by a helmet mounted oculometer. Link Division is
currently e.mploying a helmet mounted oculometer approach as an
integral part of an Air Force visual display program. Therefore
the technology, in its developed state, should be directly trans-
ferable to the high G application.

The author's review of the literature dealing with musculo-

skeletal response to tne high G environment causes us to conclude,
particularly in the case of the upper extremities, that simulation
devices intended to provide appropriate musculoskeletal cues must
actually load the body. "-tificial means to induce the kines-
thetic perceptions of such loading, if available, will likely not
suffice. Although the whole body is subject to increased inertial
loading, the pilot is probably most aware of head/neck loading and
4 its affect on visual perspective, and upper extremity loading as
noticeably reflected in disruption of reaching and hand control
14
'I movements. Experimental data demonstrates a very significant rear-
ward force component present when the arm. is outstretched under
+Gz. Consequently the arm loading mechanism suggested for use ina
high G simulation involves not only moment production at the elbow
L but also a separate prime mover to force the elbow rearward toward
the torso. High power miniature samarium cobalt torque motors
embedded within the flight suit form the preferred method for in-
ducing a proportionate level of arm loading to that which exists
under actual 4-Ga conditions.

A number of approaches were investigated pertaining to head/

neck loading devices. However for the short term, until a more
accurate assessment of the importance of head/neck loading is ex-

A perimentally determined, the torque motor driven helmet loader

constructed by NASA Langley appears to be the most cost effective
approach to this simulation and the acquisition of this type of
device is recommended. If experimentation with this type of de-
vice tends tc confirm preliminary findings that head/neck loading
* is indeed important to the pilot training task, additional expen-
diture to develop an approach displaying more acceptable environ-
mental fidelity will be justified. A somewhat surprising devel-
opment related to head/neck loading is the larger than expected G
load induced movement of helmet with respect to skull. In that
both tactile and visual cues may be induced by this movement, a
simple approach, involving the inflation/deflation of pneumatic
bladders located in the helmet liner area, is suggested as a means
to replicate helmet movement within the simulation.
Quite obviously G induced body load should produce many
*
changes in tactile stimulation. However there appears to be unus-
ually small comment concerning tactile perceptions in the experi-
mentation involving high G conditions. Although thv tactile sen-
sory system does not impose a physiological endpoint in high G
exposure, the tactile perceptions are certainly likely candidates
of importance for providing a perception of existing G load. The
 authors advance four concepts for generating or enhancing the
simulation of high G tactile perceptions. Shoulder harness ten-
sion and face mask loader devices employ force production to pro-
duce the desired tactile perceptions. The utilization of small
thin bladders, localized firmness cells, in areas of the torso nor-
mally supported by external structure3, can be employed to vary --

body load distribution and thereby vary tissue pressure with con-
comitant production of tactile stimuli. There appears to be basis
for believing that flesh temperature change can augment and height- T
en the sensation of flesh pressure. A means for altering skin
temperature through the use of solid state devices is presented.

Audition under high G conditions was investigated to deter-.

mine whether either the physiological effects or the composition
of environmental sounds offer cues related to G level. The only
aural effect found is a loss of hearing that occurs so close to G
; load-related unconciousness it's occurrence does not provide a

useful cue. Some indication of increased reaction time to aural

stimuli was found, however, the literature offers no indication as
to whether this was due to loss of aural percýption or a distur-
bance of motor response. A review of aircraft cockpit sound re-
cordings under high G maneuvering produced no identification of G
level peculiar sounds. Thus we believe that aural cuing does not
offer stimuli useful to the subject for G load assessment and
further resources should not be expended in this area.

The study concludes with a set of recommendations covering,

in the authors' opinion, the appropriate path toward the develop-
ment of devices which will be useful as high G augmentation de-
vices.

iI
-166- , I
 7. BlBLOGRAPHY

1. Adler, F.H., "Physiology of the Eye," C.V. Mosby Cor-

pany, (1965).

2. Aeromed Memo #MCREXD4-695-74D, "Venous Pressure in the

Head Under Negative Acceleration," Aero Medical Labora-
H tory, January, (1948).

3. AGARD, "Principles of Biodynamics-Applicable to Manned

Aerospace Flight Prolonged Linear and Radial Accelera-
tion," AGARD-AG-150, (1971).

4. Allan, J.R., Crossley, R.J., "Effect of Controlled Ele-

vation of Body Temperature on Human Tolerance to +Gz Ac-
celeration," Journal of Applied Physiology, Vol. 33, No.
4:418-420, Oct., (1972).

5. Anderson, B., Saltzman, H.A., and Heyman, A., "The Ef-

"fects of Hyperbaric Oxygenation on Retinal Arterial Oc-
-clusion," Archives of Ophthalmology, Vol. 73, March
I•(1965).

6. Anonymous, "Basic Results of the Medical Research Con-

ducted During the Flight of Two Crews on the Salyut-5
Orbital Station," National Aeronautics and Space Admin-
istration, Washington, D.C., Dec. (1977).

7. Ashutosh, K., "Impedance Pneumograph & Magnetometer

Methods for Monitoring Tidal Volume," Journal of Applied
Physiology, Vol. 37,-No. 6, Dec. (1974).

8. Ashworth, B.R., McKissick, B.T., "The Effect of Helmet

Loader G-Cuing on Pilot's Simulator Performance," The

-167-

j-. . . . .-
 American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, AIAA
Paper No. 78-1573.
*
9. Banister, J., Torrence, RW., "The Effects of the
Trached Pressure Upon Flow: Pressure Relations in the
Vascular Bed of Isolated Lungs," Q.Jl. Exp. Physid.
45:352-367, (1960).

10. Barcsay, J., Anatomy for the Artist, Octopus Books,

London Wi, (1973).

11i. Barer, A.S., Golov, G.A., Zubavin, V.B., Murakhovskiy,

K.I., Rodin, S.A., Sokorina, Ye.I., and Tikhomirov,
Ye.P., "Physiological Reactions of the Human Body to
Transverse Acceleration and Some Means of Increasing the
Organism's Resistance to These Effects," Aerospace Med.,
Feb. (1966' .

12. Barer, A.S., Golov, G.A., Zubavin, V.B., Murakhovskiy,

K.I., Rodin, S.A., Sokorina, Ye.I., and Tikhomirov,
Ye.P., "Physiological Reactions of the Human Organism to
Transverse Accelerations and Means of Raising the
Resistance to Such Forces," National Aeronautics and
Space Administration, Sept. (1964).

13. Barnes, G.R., "A Theoretical Model of the Utricular

Otolith and its Response to Angular Motion with Respect
to an Acceleration in Shear," Flying Personnel Research
Committee, London, England, April (1972).

14. Barnes, G.R., Rance, B.H., "Transmission of Angular Ac-

celeration to the Head in the Seated Human Subject,"
Aerospace Medicine, April (1974).

i1
-168-
l4
 *T- '-

1. 15. Bartok, S.J., Carlson, L.D., and Walters, R.F., "Cardio-

vascular Changes During Tilt and Leg Negative Pressure
Tests," Aerospace Medicine, Nov. (1968).

16. Beaumont Van, Greenleaf, J.E., Young, H.L., and Juhos,

L., "Plasma Volume and Blood Constituent Shifts Dur'ing
+Gz Acceleration After Bedrest with Exercise Condi-
tioning," Aerospace Medicine, 45(4):425-430, (1974).

17. Beaupert, J.E., "Subjective Reaction to Dual Frequency

Vibration," The Boeing Company, Wichita Division, Dec.
(1967).

18. Beckh Von, H.J., "Positioning of Aircrews - Ultima Ratio

of G Protection?" Aerospace Medicine, July (1972).

19. Behrendt, T., Sever, R.J., and Duane, T.D., "Ein Pneu-
matisches Ophthalmomodynamometer Fur Den Laborgebrauch",
Keinischi Monatsblatter Fur Augenheilkunde, 149:550-556,
(1966).

20. Benson, A.J., Reason, J.T., and Diaz, E., Flying Per-
I. sonnel Research Committee - "Testing Predictions Derived

from a Model of Progressive Adaptation to Coriolis

Accelerations," Ministry of Defense (Air Force
Department) July (1971).

21. Blake, J., Transactions of the Opthalmological Societies

of the U.K. - "Ocular Effects of High Speed Flight,"
Vol. XCI, Session (1971).

22.
S Borah, J., "Sensory Mechanism Modeling," Air Force Human
Resources Laboratory, AFHRL TR 77-70, October (1977).

-169-

LI
23. Brown, E., Goei, J.S., Greenfield, A.D.M., and Plas-
saras, G.C., "Circulatory Responses to Simulated Gravi-
tational Shifts of Blood in Man Induced by Exposure of
the Body Below the Iliac Crests to Sub-Atmospheric Pres-
sure," Journal of Applied Physiology, 183, pp. 607-627,
(1966).

24. Brown, J.H.V., "Physiology of Man in Space," Academic

Press, New York/London, (1963).

25. Bryan, A.C., Milic-Emili, J., and Penselly, D., "Effect

of Gravity on the Distribution of Pulmonary Ventila-
tion," Journal of Applied Physiology, 21:778-784,
(1966).

26. Buchdahl, H.A., "Optical Aberration Coefficients," An

Introduction to Hamiltonian Optics, London, Oxford
University Press, (1954).

27. Bulpitt, C.J., Dollery, C.T., "Estimation of Retinal

Blood Flow by Measurement of the Mean Circulation Time,"
Cardiovascular Research, 5:406-412, (1971).

28. Burns, J.W., "Re-Evaluation of a Tilt-Back Seat as a

Means of Increasing Acceleration Tolerance," Aviation?
Space, and Environment, 46(l):55-63, (1975).

29. Burstein, A.H., "Human Musculoskeletal Tolerance Limits

%o Ejection and Related High Mechanical Stress Environ-
ments," Air Force Office of Scientific Research, Con-
tract Number AFOSR-75-2820, July (1977).

30. Burton, R.R., "Positive (+Gz) Acceleration Tolerances of

the Minature Swine: Application as a Human Analog,"
Aerospace Medicine, 44(3):294-298, (1973).

-17 0- i
.1
 31. Burton, R.R., lampietro, P.F., and Leverett, S.D.,
"Physiologlc Effects of Seatback Angles 45* (from the
Vertical) Relative to G," Aviation, Space, and Environ-
mental Medicine, 46(7):887-897, (1975).

32. Burton, R.R., Krutz, R.W., "G-Tolerance and Protection

with Anti-G Suit Concepts," Aviation, Space, and En-
vironmental Medicine, 46(2):119-124, (1975).

33. Burton, R.R., Leverett, S.D., and Michaelson, E.D., "Man

at High Sustained +Gz Acceleration: A Review," Aerospace
Medicine, 45(10):1115-1136, (1974).

34. Burton, R.R., Parkhurst, M.J., and Leverett, S.D., "Gz

Protection Afforded by qtandard and Preacceleration In-
flations of the Bladder and Capstan Type G-Suits," Aero-
space Medicine, 44(5):488-494, (1973).
ii
35. Canfield, A.A., "The Influence of Increased Positive g
on Reaching Movements," The Journal of Applied Physi-
ology, Vol. 37, 230-235, (1953).
iA
36. Canfield, A.A., Comrey, A.L., and Wilson, R.C., "A Study
of Reaction Time to Light and Sound as Related to
Increased Positive Radial Acceleration," Aviation Medi-

37. Champion, M.C°, Port, W.G.A., "Head and Neck Mobility of

oii MCeaur eh " l

Aeronautical iesearch
Counil
epors ad Meorada,(1977).

38. Chandler, R.F., Trout, E.M., "Child Restraint Systems

for Civil Aircraft," Civil Aeromedical Institute Federal
Aviation Administration, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma (1978).

ilL-*----,-.. -.-- -171-

 .1
39. Cheek, R.J., et.al., "New Cine Recording Ophthalmoscope
with Television Monitoring Capability for Use in Aero-
space Research," Aerospace Medicine, Dec. (1969).

40. Clark, D.C., et. al., "Exploratory Investigation of the

Man Amplifier Concept," Defense Documentation Center,
Aug. (1962).

41. Clarke, N.P., "The Pathophysiology of High Sustained +Gz

Acceleration Limitation to Air Combat Maneuvering and
the Use of Centrifuges in Performance Training,"
AGARD-CP-189, April (1976).

42. Coburn, K.R., "Physiological Endpoints in Acceleration

Research," Aerospace Medicine, 41(l):5-11, (1970).
43. Coerman, R.R., "The Mechanical Impedance of the Human
Body in Sitting and Standing Position at Low Frequen-

cies," Human Factors, V. 4, pp. 227-253, (1962).

44. Coerman, R.R., "The Passive Dynamic Mechanical Proper-

ties of the Human Thorax-Abdomen System and of the Whole
Body System," Aerospace Medicine, 31(6):443-455, (1960).

45. Cohen, G.H., Brown, W.K., "Changes in ECG Contour During

Prolonged +Gz Acceleration," Aerospace Medicine,
40(8):874-879, (1969).

46. Cohen, L.A., "Analysis of Position Sense in Human

Shoulder," Neurophysiology, v. 21, pp. 550-562, (1958).

47. Cohen, M.M., "Disorienting Effects of Aircraft Catapult

Launchii.gs," Aerospace Medicine, 44(l):37-39, (1973).

-172- i
 48. Cohen, M.M., "Hand-Eye Coordination in Altered Gravita-
tional Fields," Aerospace Medicine, 41(6):647-649,
(1970).

49. Cohen, M.M., "Sensory-Motor Adaptation and After-Effects

of Exposure to Increased Gravitational Forces,"
Aerospace Medicine, 41(3):318-322, (1970).

50.
S Collyer, S.C., "Testing Psychomotor Performance During
i 1Sustained Acceleration," School of Aerospace Medicine,
Dec., (1973).

51. Cooper, K.H., Ord, JOW., "Physical Effects of Seated and

I. Supine Exercise With and Without Subatmospheric Pressure
Applied to the Lower body," Aerospace Medicine, May,
(1968).

[ 52. Crago, P.E., Houke, J.C., and Hasan, Z., "Regulatory Ac-
tions of the Human Stretch Reflex," The John Hopkins

University School of Medicine, Sept. (1976).

53. Cromwell, L., Weibell, F.J., Pfeiffer, E.A., and

Usselman, L.B., "Biomedical Instrumentation and
Measurements", Prentice-Hall Inc., Englewood Cliffs,
N.J., (1973).

54. Crosbie, R.J., "A Cardiovascular Dynamic Response In-

dex," Bureau of Medicine and Surgery Work Unit No.
MFl1.524.005-7001 Report No. 13, June (1970).

55. DDC Bibliography Acceleration Tolerance, Vol. 1 of II i

Volumes DDC-TAS-68-81 February (1969).

56. De Roetth, A., "Lacrimation in Normal Eyes," A.M.A.

L •Archieves of Ophthalmology, pp. 185-189.

-173-
57. Diringshofen Von, H., Kissel, G., and Osypka, P.,
"Thresholds for the Perception of Linearly Increasing
Angular Accelerations," Aerospace Medicine, August
(1964).

58. Dobbins, J.P., "Variable-Transmittance Visor for Helmet-

Mounted Display," Aerospace Medical Research Laboratory,
LII
SOctober, (1973).

59. Dowell, A.R., Schaal S.F., Spielvogel, R., and Pohl,

S.A., "Effect of Lower Body Negative Pressure Upon Pul-
monary Ventilation and Perfusion as Measured Using
Xenon-133," Aerospace Medicine, 40(6):651-654, (1969).
I
60. Dowell, h.R., Schmid, P.G., Nutter, D.O., and Sullivan,
K.N., "Ventilation, Lung Volumes, and Gas Exchange Dur-
ing Lower Body Negative Pressure," Journal of Applied
Physiology, Vol. 26, No. 3, pp. 352-359, March, (1969).

61. Dowell, A.R., Shropshire, S., and McCally, M.D., "Venti-

lation and Pulmonary Gas Exchange During Headward (+Gz)
Gradient Acceleration," Aerospace Medicine, Sept.
(1968).

62. Duane, T.D., "Experimental Blackout and the Visual Sys-

tem," Aerospace Medicine, Sept. (1967).

63. Duane, T.D., "Experimental Blackout and the Visual Sys-

tem," Transactions of the American Ophthalmology
Society, 64:488-342, (1966).

64. Erickson, H.H., Ritzman, J.R., "Instrumentation for the :1- j

Rhesus Monkey as a Cardiovascular Analog for Man During -

Air-Combat Maneuvering Acceleration," Aviation, Space,

and Environmental Medicine, Nov. (1976).

-174-
 65. Erickson, H.H., Sandler, H., and Stone, H.L., "Cardio-
vascular Function During Sustained ÷Gz Stress, Aia
tion, Space, and Environmental Medicine, July (1976).

66, Erlebacher, J., Gilbert, R., and Auchincloss, J.H., "An

Impedance Pneumograph Utilizing an Actively Regulated
Constant-Current Source," Journal of Applied Physiology,
Vol. 37, No. 6:961-963, Dec. (1974).

67. Ewing, C.L., Thomas, D.J., and Beeler, G.W., "Dynamic

Response of the Head and Neck of the Living Human to -Gx
Impact Acceleration," U.S. Army Aeromedical Research
Laboratory Naval Aerospace Medical Institute, March
(1969).

68. Fernandez, H., Robinson, R., "An Automatic Device for

Recording Blood Pressure," Aerospace Medicine, 42(2):
7" 209-210, (1971).

p" 69. • Fessenden, E., "Acceleration Effects on the Ability to

Activate Emergency Devices in F-4 Aircraft," Report No.
NADC-77105-40, July (1977).

70. Forlini, F.J., "Indirect Measurement of Systolic Blood

Pressure during +G2 Acceleration," Journal of Applied
Physiology, Vol. 37 No. 4:584-586, Oct. (1974).

71. Fraser, T.M., "Human Response to Sustained Accelera-

tion," National Aeronautics and Space Administration,
SP-103, (1966).

72. Frazier, J.W., Whitney, R.U., and Ashare, A.B., "Per-

formance of the Anti-G Valve When Subjected to Varying
Lateral Forces," Aerospace Medical Remearch Laboratory,
Feb. (1973).

IZl -17 5-
73. Frazier, J.W., Whitney, R.U., Ashare, A.B., Rogers,
D.B., and Skrowronski, V.D., "G Suit Filling Pressures
Determined by Seat Back Angle," Aerospace Medicine,
45(7):755-757, (1974).

74. Frisch, GOD., D'Aulerio, L., and O'Rourke, J., "Mechan-

ism of Head and Neck Response to -Gx Impact Accelara-
tion: A Math Modeling Approach," Aviation, Space. and
Environmental Medicine, 48(3):223-230, (1977).

75. Gauer, A., "The Physiological Effects of Prolonged Ac-

celeration," German Aviation Medicine, World War II,
Vol. I, U.S. Government Printing Office (1950).

76. Geddes, L.A., "The Direct and Indirect Measurement of

Blood Pressure," Year Book Medical Publishers Inc.,
Chicago, (1970).

77. Geddes, L.A., Baker, L:E., "Principles of Applied

Biomedical Instrumentation," 2nd Edition, John Wiley &
Sons, New York, (1975).

78. General Dynamics, F16 Instrument Lighting Specification

Nos. 16ZF031 16ZF032.

79. Gibson, J.J., The Senses Considered as Perceptual Sys-

tems, Prentice-Hall Inc., New Jersey (1965).

80. Gilbert, R., Auchincloss, J.H., Brodsky, J., and Boden,

W., "Changes in Tidal Volume, Frequency, and Ventilation
Induced by Their Measurement," Journal of Applied
Physiology, 33(2):252-254, (1972). .

81. Gillies, J.A., A Textbook of Aviation Physiology,

Pergamon Press, (1965).

-176-
82. Gillingham, K.K., Authors private d4 wi',- with Dr.
Gillingham, (1979).

83. Gillingham, K.K., "Eye Level Blood Flov Transfer Func-

tion," Correspondence from K.K. Gillingham, June (1978).

84. Gillingham, K.K., Burton, R.R., "Transfer Functions for

Arterial Oxygen Saturation During +Gz Stress," AviationL
Space, and Environmental Medicine, 46(11):1329-1335,
(1975).

85. Gillingham, K.K., Freeman, J.J., and McNee, R.C.,

"Transfer Functions for Eye-Level Blood Pressure During
+Gz Stress," Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medi-
cine, November, (1977).

86. Gillingham, K.K., Krutz, R.W., "Aeromedical Review: Ef-

fects of the Abnormal Acceleratory Environment of
Flight," USAF School of Aerospace Medicine, Dec. (1974).

87. Gillingham, K.K., McNaughton, G.G., "Visual Field Con-

traction During G Stress at 130, 450, and 650 Seat-Back
Angles," Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine,
48(2):91-96, (1977).

88. Glaister, D.H., "Distribution of Pulmonary Blood Flow

and Ventilation During Forward (+Gx) Acceleration",
Journal of Applied Physiology, 29(4):432-439, Oct.
(1970).

89. Glaister, D.H., "Regional Ventilation and Perfusion in

the Lung During Positive Acceleration Measured with
Xe-133," Journal of Applied Physiology, (Lond) 177:
73-74, (1965).

-177-
b:
Li
 90. Glaister, D.H., "The Effects of Gravity and Acceleration
on the Lung," AGARDograph #133, Technovision Services,
Nov. (1970).

91. Goldstein, J.A., Peczon, J.D., and Cogan, D.G., "Intra-

ocular Pressure and Ophthalmodynamometry," Archives of
Ophthalmology, 74:175-176, (1965).

92. Goodhart, G.L., "A Review of Experimental Data on the

Cardiovascular Response to Acceleration," Aerospace

Medical Research Dept., Dec. (1970).

93. Goodwin, G.M., McCloskey, D.I., and Matthews, P.B.C.,

"The Contribution of Muscle Afferents to Kinesthesia
J Shown by Vibration Induced Illusions of Movement and by
the Effects of Paralyzing Joint Afferents," Brain, 95,
705-748, (1972).

94. Graboys, T.B., Michaelson, E.D., "Systolic Time Inter-

vals During +Gz Acceleration," Journal of Applied
Physiology, 41(l):52-56, July (1976).

95. Gray, S., Shaver, J.A., Kroetz, F.W., and Leonard, J.J.,
"Acute and Prolonged Effects of G Suit Inflation on
Cardiovascular Dynamics," Aerospace Medicine, 40(1):
40-43, (1969).

96. Green, J.F., Miller, N.C., "A.Model Describing the Re-

sponse of the Circulatory System to Acceleration
Stress," Annals of Biomedical Engineering, 1,455-467, H
(1973).

97. Greenleaf, J.E., Haines, R.F., Bernauer, E.M., Morse,

J.T., Sandler, H., Armbruster, R., Sagan, L., and Van
Beaument, W., "+Gz Tolerance in Man After 14-Day Bedrest

A -178-,
 7
Periods with Isometric and Isotonic Exercise Con-
ditioning," Aviation, Space, and EnviLonmental Medicine,
46(5):671-678, (1975).

98. Grether, W.F.,

"Acceleration and Human Performance,"
Aerospace Medicine, 42(11):1157-1166, (1971).

99. Grigg, P.,

"Mechanical Factors Influencing Response of
Joint Afferent Neurons from Cat Knee," Journal of
Neurophysiolcgy, April, (1975).

100. Gum, D.R., "Modeling of the Human Force and Motion-

Sensing Mechanisms," AFHRL-TR-72-54, (1973).

101. Gurovsky, N.N., "Medical Investigations During the

Flights of Soyuz-12, Soyuz-13, Soyuz-14, and the
Salyut-3 Orbiting Space Station," A Reproduced copy of
N75-25516, Aug. (1965).

102. Guyton, A.C., Textbook of Medical Physiology, 5th

Edition, W.B. Sanders Co., (1976).

103. Haines, R.P., "A Review of Peripheral Vision Capabili-

ties for Display Layout Designers," Proceedings of the
S.I.D., Vol. 16/4, Fourth Quarter, (1975).

104. Haines, R.F., "Effect of Passive 70* Head-Up Tilt on

Peripheral Visual Response Time," Journal of Applied
Physiology, Vol. 34, No. 3, March, (1973).

105. Haines, R.F., "Effect of Prolonged Bedrest and +Gz

Acceleration on Peripheral Visual Response Time," NASA
TN D-7161, (1973).

-179-
&E- -.--- _ .N -- --
106. Haines, R.F., "Effect of Prolonged Bedrest and +Gz Ac-
celeration Upon Peripheral Visual Response Time," Aero-
space Medicine, 44(4):425-432, (1973).

107. Haines, R.F., Rositano, S.A., and Greenleaf, J.E., "Ef-

fect of Gradual Onset +Gz Acceleration on Rate of Change
of Visual Field Collapse and Intraocular Pressure," Life
Sciences Directorate Ames Research Center, Moffett
Field, CA, (1978).

108. Hanson, R., Cornog, D., and Hertzberg, H.T.E., "Anno-

tated Bioliography of Applied Physical Anthropology in
Enineeing" WADC TR 56-30t May (1958).
Huma

109. Henzel, J.H.,

"The Human Spinal Column and Upward Ejec-
tion Acceleration: An Appraisal of Biodynamic Implica-
tions," Aerospace Medical Research Laboratories, Aero-
space Medical Division, Air Force Systems Command,
Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, Sept. (1967).

110. Hirsch, C., "Biomechanics in Motor Skeletal Structures,,"

Aerospace Medical Research Laboratories, Aerospace
Medical Division Air Force Systems Command,
Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, Dec. (1971).

i11. Hitchcock, L., Chambers, R.M., "Effects of Acceleration

on Pilot Performance," Aviation Medical Acceleration
Laboratory HADC-MA-6219, March (1963).

112. Holden, F.M., et.al, "Evaluation of Arterial Oxygen

Concentration in Humans Exposed to Gz Gx Acceleration
Forces," Aerospace Medical Research Laboratory, Wright-
Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, November (1973).

-180-
 113. HONEYWELL Radiation Center, "Helmet Mounted Oculometer,"
Forbes Road, Lexington, Mass., Oct. (1977).

114. Houk, J.C., "The Phylogeny of Muscular Control Config-

urations", Biocybernetics IV: 125-144, VEB Gustav
Fischer, Verlag, (1972).

115. Houk, J.C., Singer, J.J., and Goldman, M.R., "An Eval-
uation of Length and Force Feedback to Soleus Muscles of
Decerebrate Cats", J. Neurophysiology, 33:784-811,
(1970).

116. Howard, I.P., Templeton, W.B., Human Spatial Orienta-

tion, John Wiley & Sons, (1966).

117. Howard, J.C., "A G-Load Display for Remotely Piloted

Vehicles and Other Aircraft that are Subject to Man-
euvering Constraints," National Aeronautics and Space
Administration, Washington, D.C., Sept. (1975).

I- 118. Howard, J.C., "Feasibility of Using Lower Body Negative

Pressure (LBNP) to Simulate Transient and Sustained Ac-
celeration Forces," NASA-AMES LTI:239--3 Moffett Field,
CA, March (1976).

119. Howard, J.C., "Precautions Taken to Ensure the Safety of

Subjects During LBNP Experimentation," NASA-AMES
memorandum, March (1976).

120. Howard, P., "The Effects of High Speed Flight on the H

Human Body," Triangle, Volume 7 Number 8 (1968).

121. Hutton, G.B., "Vertical Cockpit Accelerations Measured

on an Operational Jet Transport Aircraft," Aeronautical
Research Council Current Papers, Oct., (1969).

L -.
-181-
~I

t,
 • --• .....;•,•= . .....
• _-_ --

122. Hyde, A.S., Raab, H.W., "Summary of Human Tolerance to

Prolonged Acceleration," Biophysics Laboratory, Aero-
space Medical Research Laboratories, Aerospace Medical
Division, Air Force Systems Command, Wright-Patterson
Air Force Base, Ohio, Feb. (1965).

123. Inman, D.R., Peruzzi, P., "The Effects of Temperature on

the Responses of Pacinian Corpuscles," J. Physiol.
(1961), 155, PP. 280-301.

124. Ishiko, N., Loewenstein, W.R., "Effects of Temperature

on the Generator and Action Potentials of a Sense Or-
gan," The Journal of General Physiology, Vol. 45:
105-123, (1961).

125. Jacobs, D.H., "Fundamentals of Optical Engineering," New

York and London McGraw Book Co., Inc., (1943).

126. Jacobson, L.B., Hyatt, K.H., and Sandler, H., "Effects

of Simulated Weightlessness on Response3 of Untrained
Men to +Gz Acceleration," Journal of Applied Physiology,
36(6):745-752, (1974).

127. Jaeger, E.A., Severs, R.J., Weeks, S.D., and Duane,

T.D., "Visual Field Changes During Positive Accelera-
tion," Aerospace Medicine, pp. 969-1072, Oct. (1964).

128. Jaeger, E.A., Weeks, S.D., and Duane, T.D., "Perimetric

and Visual Acuity Changes During Ophthalmodynamometry,"

Archives of Ophthalmology 71: 484-488, (1964).

129 Jasper, H., Cipriani, A., and Lotspeich, E., "Physio-

logical Studies on the Effect of Positive Acceleration
in Cats and Monkeys," DCC Report Bibliography, Search
Control No. 062819 (1942).

-182-
 130. Johnston, R.S., Dietlein, L.F., "Biomedical Results from
Skylab," National Aeronautics & Space Administration,
(1977).

131. Jones, G.M., "Interactions Between Optokinetic and

Vestibulo-Ocular Responses During Head Rotation in
Various Planes," Aerospace Medicine, Feb. (1966).

132. Kazamias, T.M., Gander, M.P., Franklin, D.L., and Ross,

• ' J., "R1ood Pressure Measurement with Doppler Ultrasonic
Flowmeter," Journal of Applied Physiology, 30(4):585588,
(1971).

133. Keatinge, W.R., Howard, P., "Effect of Local Cooling of

the Legs on Tolerance to Positive Acceleration," Journal
of Applied Physiology, 31(61:819-822, (1971).

134. Kennealy, J.A., Kirkland, J.S., and Sneider, R.E.,

"Bradycardia Induced by Negative Acceleration," Avia-
tion, Space, and Environmenta* Medicine 47(5): 483-383,
(1976).

135 Kennedy, K.W., Kroemer, K.H.E., "Excursions of Head,

Helmet and Helmet-Attached Reticle Under +Gz Forces,
AMRL-TR- 72-127, May (1973).

136. Kirkland, V.E., "A Technique for Photographing Human

Retinal Circulation During Blackout on the USAFSAM Human
Centrifuge," USAF School of Aerospace Medicine,
Aerospace Medical Division (AFSC), Brooks Air Force
Base, Texas, March (1968).

137. Klein, K.E., Rruner, H., Jovy, D., Vogt, L. and Wegmann,
H.M., "Influence of Stature and Physical Fitness on

-183-

{!j
 Tilt-Table and Acceleration Tolerance," Aerospace
Medicine, 40(3):293-297, March (1969).

138. Knapp, C.F., "Response of the Cardiovascular System to

Vibration and Combined Streises," Interim Scientific
Report, Sept.-Aug. 1975.

139. Kotovskaya, A.R., "Certain Problems Resulting from

SEffects of Acceleration During Space Flight (Effects of
Cum,.ilaticn and Adaptation)", National Aeronautics and
Space Administration, Washington, November (1966).

140. Kroemer, K.H.E., "Effects of High G on Pilot Muscle

Strength Available for Aircraft Control Operatiin,"
Aerospace Medical Research Laboratory, Aerospace Medical
Division, AFSC, Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio,
AMRL-TR-73-22, July (1976).

141. Kroemer,, K.H.E.r "Human Force Capabilities for Operating

Aircraft Controls at 1, 3, and 5 Gz." Aerospace Medical
Research Laboratory, Aerospace Medical Division, Air
Force Systems Command Wright-Patterson Air Force Base,
Ohio, February (1975).

142. Kroemer, K.H.E., Kennedy, K.W., "Involuntary Head Move-

ments and Helmet Motions During Centrifuge Runs with up
to +6 Gz," Aerospace Medicine, 44(6):639-644, June
i (1973).

143. Kron, G.J., Kleinwaks, J.M., "Development of the Ad-

vanced G Cuing System," Compendium of AIAA Flight Simu-
lation Conference Papers: 1-14, (1978).

-184-
 144. Krutz, R.W., Rositano, S.A., and Mancini, R.E., "Compar-
ison of Techniques for Measuring +Gz Tolerance in Man,"
Journal of Applied Physilogy, 38(6):1143-1145, (1975).

145. Krutz, R.W., Rositano, S.A., and Mancini, R.W., "Corre-

lation of Eye-Level Blood Flow Velocity and Blood Pres-
sure During +Gz Acceleration," USAF School of Aerospace
Medicine, Aerospace Medical Division (AFSC), Brooks Air
Force Base, Texas, November (1973).

146. Kydd, G.H., Ashley, A., "Physiologic Responses to Short

Duration Ga," Department of the Navy, Aerospace Medical
Research Department, NADC-MR-7012, August (1970).

147. Labarthe, D.R., Hawkins, C.M., and Remington, R.D.,

L "Evaluation of Selected Devices for Measuring Blood
Pressure," American Journal of Cardiology,
j 32(9):546-553, (1973).

148. Lackner, J.R., Graybiel, A., "Some Influences of Touch

and Pressure Cues on Human Spatial Orientation," Avia-
Stont Space and Environmental Medicine, 49(6):798-804,
(1978).
BedresnflAeoscacoMed.,Dec. 1965)
149. Lamb, L.E., Stevens, P.M., "Influence of Lower Body
Negative Pressure on the Level of Hydration During
•" Bedrest," Aerospace Med., Dec. (1965).i

150. Lambert# E.H., "Comparison of the Protective Value of an

Antiblackout Suit on Subjects in an Airplane and on the
Mayo Centrifuge," Aviation Medicine, V 21: 28-37,
(1950).

151. Lambert, E.H., "The Physiologic Basis of Blackout as it

Occurs in Aviators", Fed. Proc., 4:43, (1945).

1.
S... ... ........ - 1 8 5. --.. ,, i ./ . -• . $ ••,. ,.•- : . _ •
L52. Largerwerff, J.M., Luce, R.S., "hrtifact Suppression in
Indirect Blood Pressure Measurements," Aerospace Madi-
cine, 41(i0):1157-1161, (1970).

153. Lavnikov, A.A., "Principles of Aviation and Space Medi-

cine," National Aeronautics and Space Administration,
March (1977).

154. Leverett, S.D., Jr., Burton, R.R., "The Use of a Fixed

Base Simulator as a Training Device for High Sustained
or ACM (Air Combat Maneuvering) +Gz Stress," AGARDograph
1894A8-1 to A8-8, April (1976).

155. Leverett, S.D., Jr., Cooper, K.H., "Physical Condition-

ing Versus +Gz Tolerance," Aerospace Medicine, May
(1966).

156. Leverett, S.D. Jr., Gillingham, K.K., Unpublished Notes,

Viewgraphs and Pilot Comments Relative to High G
Training (1978).

157. Levison, W.H., "Biomechanical Response and Manual Track-

ing Performance in Sinusoidal, Sum-of-Sines, and Random
Vibration Environments," Aerospace Medical Research Lab-
oratory, Aerospace Medical Division, Air Force Systems
Command, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, April
(1976).

158. Lipman, R.L., Ulvedal, F., Brown, W.K., Leverett, S.D.,

Lecocq, R., and Schnure, J.J., "Metabolic Response to
Acceleration in Man," Aerospace Medicine, 41(8):905-
908, August (1970).

159. Little, L.J., "The Design and Analysis of a Human Body

Motion Measurement System," National Technical Infor-

-186-
FP-

mation Service, U.S. Department of Commerce, Sept.

(1972).

160. Little, V.Z., Hartman, B.O., Leverett, S.D., "Effects of

Acceleration on Human Performance and Physiology with
Special Reference to Transvec'se G," USAF School of
Aerospace Medicine# Aerospace Medical Division (AFSC),
Brooks Air Force Base, Texas, June (196o).

161. Little, V.Z., Sidney, M.A., Leverett, S.D., and Hartman,

B.O., "Psychomotor and Physiologic Changes During
Accelerations of 5, 7, and 9 +Gx," Aerospace Medicine,
November (1968).

162. Liu, Y.K., Cowin, S.C., Rosenberg, D.U.V., and Adams,

K.A., "A Continuum Model of the Primate Body Response to
Impact," Aerospace Medical Research Laboratory, Jan.
(1972).

163. Loewenstein, W.R., "Mechano-Electric Transduction in the

Pacinian Corpuscle. Initiation of Sensory Impulses in
Mechanoreceptors," Handbook of Sensory Physiology Vol. I
Principles of Receptor Physiology (1971).

164. Lohrbauer, L.A., Wiley, R.L., Shubrooks, S.J., and

M.:Cally, M., "Effect of Sustained Muscular Contraction
on Tolerance to +Gz Acceleration," Journal of Applied
PhysioloX, 32(2):203-209, (1972).

165. London, S.B., London, R.E., "Critique of Indirect

Diastolic Etd Point," Archives of Internal Medicine,
119:39-49, (1967).

166. MacKenzie, W.F., Burton, R.R.,

"Heart Pathology Associa-
ted with Exposure to High Sustained +Gz," Aviationr,

Lit
 Space and Environmental Medicine, 46(10):1251-1253,
(1975).

167. McGuire, T.F., "The Normal Human EKG and its Common
Variations in Experimental Situations," Aero Medical
Labe,:atory, June (1956).

168. Meier, G.E., Sackman, J.G., and Grabmaier, Application

of Liquid Crystals, Springer Verlag, (1975).

169. Mercier, A., "Visual Problems in Aviation Medicine"

170. Mercier, A., Perdriel, G., and Whiteside, T.C.D.,

"Problems of Vision in Low Level Flight," North Atlantic
Treaty Organization, (1967).

171. Middleton, D.B., Hurt, G.J. Jr., Wise, M.A., and Holt,
J.D., "Description and Flight Tests of an Oculometer,"
National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Washing-
ton, D.C., June (1977).

172. Military Specification Lighting, Instrument, Integral,

White and Red; MIL-L-27160C (USAF) and MIL-L-25467D, May
(1964).

173. Miller, N.D., "Evaluation of Non-Invasive Physiologic

Measurement Techniques," Technology, Incorporated, San
Antonio, Texas, Dec. (1976).

174. Miller, P.B., Leverett, S.D., "Tolerance to Transverse

(+Gx) and Headward (+Gz) Acceleration After Prolonged
Bed Rest," Aerospace Medicine, (1):13-15, (1965).

175. Mizen, N.J., "Design and Test of a Full-Scale Wearable

Exoskeletal Structure," Interim Technical Report Con-

-188-
 tract No. NONR-3830(00) CAL Report No. VO-1692-V-3, .1
March (1964).

176. Mohler, S.R.,

"G Effects on the Pilot During Aero-
batics," Federal Aviation Administration, Washington,
D.C., July (1972).

177. Montgomery, L.D., Kirk, P.J., Payne, P.A., Gerber, R.L.,

Newton, S.D., and Williams, B.A., "Cardiovascular
Responses of Men and Women to Lower Body Negative Pres-
•-sure," Aviationp Space Environmental Medicine, 48(2):
i•. 138-145, (1977).

]78. Mueller, G.G., Sensory Psychology, Prentice-Hall Inc.,

New Jersey, (1965).

179. M!acray, R.H., Krog. .7., Carlson, L.D., and Bowers, J.A.,
- Wiumulative Effects of Venesection and Lower body
Negative Pressure," Aerospace Medicine, March (1967).

180. Musgtave, F.S., Zechman, F.W., and Mains, R.C., "Compar-

ison of the Effects of 70* Tilt and Several Levels of
Lower Body Negative Pressure on Heart Rate and Blood
Pressure in Man," Aerospace Medicine, 42(10):1065-1069,
(1971).

181. Mutch, J.R., "The Lacrimation Reflex," The British

Journal of Ophthalmology, July (1944).

182. Muzzy, W.H. III, Lustick, L., "Comparison of Ki-nematic

Parameters Between Hybrid II Head and Neck System with

Human Volunteers for -Gx Acceleration Profiles," Naval
Aerospace Medical Research Laboratory Detachment, June
(1977).

I .

-189-

•. .. . . . . . . . . . . - -- . ''. . ' . . - . .. .T
 183. Nagasaka, T., Mori, S., Takagi, S. and Mitarat, G.,
"Changes in Cerebral Blood Flow and Brain Temperature
di Induced by Lower Body Negative Pressure," The Japanese
Journal of Physiology, v. 19, pp. 260-271, (1969).

184. Nieding Von, G., Krekeler, H., "Effect of Acceleration

on Distribution of Lung Perfusion and on Respiratory Gas
Exchange," Plugers Arch, 342, 159-176 (1973).

185. Niven, J.I., Whiteside, T.C.D., and Graybiel, A., "The

Elevator Illusion: Apparent Motion of a Visual Target
During Vertical Acceleration," Bureau of Medicine and
Surgery, Project MR005. 13-6001, October (1963).

186. Nunneley, S.A., Shindell, D.S., "Cardiopulmonary Effects

of Combined Exercise and +Gz Acceleration," Aviation,
Space, and Environmental Medicine, 46(7):878-882,
(1975).

187. Nutter, D.O., Hurst, V.W., and Murray, R.H., "Ventri-

cular Performance During Graded Hypovolemia Induced by
Lower Body Negative Pressure," Aerospace Medical Re-
search Laboratories, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base,
Ohio, January (1969).

188. O'Briant, C.R., Ohlbaum, K., "Visual Acuity Decrements

Associated with Whole Body +Gz Vibration Stress,"
Aerospace Medicine, 41(1): 79-92 (1970).

189. O'Brien, J.A., Sloan, G.H., and Thorpe, R.W., "Annual

Report in Support of Joint Army Navy Air Crew Impact
Prevention Program," QEI Inc. Bldg., 6 Third Avenue,
Burlington, Mass., Nov. (1972).

-190- i
Si-
 190. Olson, R.M., "Human Carotid Artery Wall Thickness,
Diameter, and Blood Flow by a Noninvasive Technique,"
Applied Physiology Branch, Environmental Sciences Divi-
sion, USAF School of Aerospace Medicine, Brooks Air
Force Base, Texas, Dec. (1974).

191. Ormsby, C.C., "Model of Human Dynamic Orientation," PHD

Thesis MIT, NASA CR-132537 N75-12585 Jan. (1976).

192. O'Rourke, J., "Measurement of Human Head Resultant Ac-

i celeration During Impact," Naval Air Development Center
Warminster, Penn., November (1974).

193. Parin, V.V., "Evaluation of Soviet Reprint: Response of

the Circulation System to the Effects of Accelerations
and Weightlessness," Aerospace Medical Division, Deputy
for Foreign Technology, Feb. (1966).

194. Parker, J.F., "Bioastronautics Data Book," Bio Tech-

nology, Inc. (1973).

195. Parkhurst, M.J., Leverett, S.D., and Shubrooks, S.J.,

"Human Tolerance to High, Sustained +Gz Acceleration,"
Aerospace Medicine, 43(7):708-712, (1972).

196. Permutt, S., Bromberger-Barnea, B., and Bane, H.N.,

"I "Alveoler Pressure Pulmonary Venous Pressure and the
Vascular Waterfall," Med. Thorac. 19: 239-260, (1962).

>•197. eesn ,. Bishop, V.S , and Erickson, H.. AntiG

[ Suit Effect on Cardiovascular Dynamic Changes Due to +Gz
Stress," Department of Pharmacology, The University of
ItS!, Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, and US Air
i I Force School of Aerospace Med. April (1977).

-191-
198. Potanin, C., Morehead, S., Neblett, W.W., and Sinclair-
Smith, B.C., "Respiratory Mechanics with Lower Body
Negative Pressure (LBNP) A Simulation of the Erect Pos-
ture," Aerospace Medicine, 40(10): 1101-1104, (1969).

199. Prasad, P., Mital, N., King, A.I., and Patrick, L.M.,
"Dynamic Response of the Spine During +Gx Acceleration,"
Wayne State University, ONR N00014-75-C-1015.

200. Priestly, E.B., Introduction to Liquid Crystals, Plenum

Press, New York, (1975).

201. Putzulu, D.A., Rota, P.,

"Ricerche Sperimentali Circa
Gli Effetti Della Manovra Di Muller Sulla Resistenza
Alle Accelerazioni-Gz," Riv. Med. Aeron, e Sp., XIX,
(1966).

202. Rance, B.H,, Barnes, G.R., "Head Movement Induced by

Angular Oscillation of the Body in the Pitch and Roll
Axes," Aviationp Space, and Environmental Medicine,
46(8):987-993, (1975).

203. Reading, V.M., "Analysis of Eye Movement Responses and

Dynamic Visual Acuity," Magers Arch, 333: 27-34, (1972).

204. Roberts, L.G., "The Lincoln Wand," Lincoln Laboratory,

Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Lexington, Mass.

205. Rodbard, S., Robbins, A.S., "The Components of the

Korotkoff Sounds," American Heart Journal, 74(2):
278-282, (1967).

1I

-192- -
 I OWN .....

206. Rogers, D., Quam, D., "Myoelectric Feedback Control of

Acceleration Induced Visual Scene Dimming in Aircraft
Training Simulators," Published in the 1978 NTEC Con-
ference, NAVTRAEQUIPCEN IH-306, Orlando, Fla.

207. Rogge, J.D., "Relation of Signal Light Intensity to

Physiologic End Points During +Gz Acceleration," USAF
School of Aerospace Medicine, Aerospace Medical Divi-
sion, (AFSC) Brooks Air Force Base, Texas, May (1968).

208. Rogge, J.D., Meyer, J.F., and Brown, W.K., "Comparison

cf the Incidence of Cardiac Arrhy..+imias During +(, Ac-
celeration, Treadmill Exercise arý* Tilt Table Testing,"
Aerospace Medicine, 40(l):1-5, (1969).

209. Rositano, S.A., Gillingham, K.K., Sandler, H., and

Skrettingland, K.R., "Correlation of Eye Level Blood
Flow Velocity and Peripheral Light Loss During +Gz
Stress," Aerospace Medical Association, (1975).

210. Ross, B.M., Chambers, R.M., "Effects of Transverse

G-Stress on Running Memory," Perceptual and Motor
Skills, 24, 423-435, (1967).
* I-

211. Rothe, W.E., "Research on the Human Physiologic Response

to Prolonged Rotation and Angular Acceleration," USAF
School of Aerospace Medicine Aerospace Medical Division
(AFSC) Brooks Air Force Base, Texas, September (1967).

212. Rothstein, J.D., Hanson, P.G., "Cardiac Rate Changes in

Humans After Abrupt Deceleration," Journal of Applied
Physiology, 22(4) :645-647, (1967).

-193-
Ii "
k%
213. Ruskin, S.L., "Control of Tearing by Blocking the Nasal
Ganglion," Reprinted from Archives of OphthAlmology, V.
4:208-211, (1930).
1
214. Ryan, E.A., Kerr, W.K., and Franks, W.R., "Some P ysio-
logical Findings on Normal Men Subjected to Negat. 'e
G.," Aviation Medicine, June (1950).

215. Sackner, M.A., Wanner, A., "Detection and Prevention of

G-Induced Regional Atelectasis, Edema, and Hypoperfu-
sion," Division of Pulmonary Diseases of Mt. Sinai
Medical Center, Miami Beach, Florida, Oct. (1973).

216. Sackner, M.A., Wanner, A., "Effects of G-Induced Stress

on Pulmonary Circulation," Division of Pulmonary
Diseases of Mt. Sinai Medical Cen1 ter, Miami Beach,
Florida, May (1975).

217. Schneider, L.W., Bowman, B.M., Snyder, R.G., and Peck,

L.S., "A Prediction of Response of the Head and Neck of
the U.S. Adult Military Population to Dynamic Impact Ac-
celeration from Selected Dynamic Test Subjects," Highway
Safety Research Institute/Unive-aity of Michigan, May
(1976).

218. Sears, W.J., Meehan, J.P., "Effects of LBNP on Central

Venous Pressure, Venous Tone and Heart Rate," Reprinted
from Federation of American Societies for Experimental
Biology. Proceedings, V. 25, PP. 393, (1966).

219. Sergeylev, A.A., "Physiological Mechanisms of the Action

of Accelerations," U.S. Department of Commerce
Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and Technical In-
formation, November (1967).

-194-
220. Shaw, D.B., Cinkotai, F., and Thomson, M.L., "Syncope
Induced by Application of Negative Pressure to the Lower
Body and its Effect on Lung CO Diffusing Capacity,"
Aerospace Medicine, pp. 154-157, February (1966).

221. Shubrooks, S.J., "Changes in Cardiac Rhythm During Sus-

tained High Levels of Positive (+Gz) Acceleration,"
Aerospace Medicine, 43(11): 1200-1206, (1972).

222. Shubrooks, S.J., "Positive Pressure Breathing as a

Protective Technique During +Gz Acceleration", Journal
of Applied Physiology, 35(2):2940297p (1973).

223. Shubrooks, S.J., Epstein, M., and Duncan, D.C., "Effects

of an Anti-G Suit on the Hemodynamic and Renal Responses
to Positive (+Gz) Acceleration," Journal of Applied
Physiology, Vol. 36, No. 3 March (1974).

224. Shubrooks, S.J., Leverett, S.D., "Effect of the Valsalva

Maneuver on Tolerance to +Gz Acceleration," Journal of
Applied Physiology, Vol. 34, No. 4, April (1973).
VI
225. Smith, P., "Multiplexing Liquid-Crystal Displays", Elec-
tronics, May (1978). 4
226. Sorokina, Y.I., "Certain Aspects Concerning Oxygen
Metabolism of the Body Exposed to Prolonged Accelera-
tions," National Aeronautics and Space Administration,
Washington, D.C., August (1967).

227. Southall, J.P., "Introduction to Physiological Optics,"

New York, Dover (1937).

228. "Space Biology and Aerospace Medicine," No. 5, (1977).

-195-
229. Stauffer, P.R., "The Effect of High Acceleration Forces
Upon Certain Physiological Factors of Human Subjects
Placed in a Modified Supine Position: SDC Project
9-U-37a: Position 3," U.S. Naval School of Aviation
Medicine and Research, October (1949).

230. Stein, P.D., Blick, E.F.,

"Arterial Tonometry for the
Atraumatic Measurement of Arterial Blood Pressure,"
Journal of Applied Physiology, 30(4):593-596, (1971).

231. Steiner, S.H., Mueller, G.C.E., "Pulmonary Arterial

Shunting in Man During Forward Acceleration," Journal of
Applied Physiology, 16:1081-1086 (1961).

232. Steiner, S.H., Mueller, G.C.E., and Cherniack, N.S.,

"Pulmonary Gas Transport as Influenced by a Hyper-
gravitational Environment," Journal of Applied
Physiology, 16:641, (1961).

233. Stevens, P.M., Lamb, L.E.,

"Effects of Lower Body Nega-
tive Pressure on the Cardiovascular System," The
American Journal of Cardiology," V. 16, pp. 506-515,
October (1965).

234. Stoll, A.M.r "Human Tolerance to Positive G as Deter- j

mined by the Physiological End Points," Aviation Medi-
cine, pp. 356-366, (1956).

235. Stone, H.L., Alexander, W.C., "Abdominal Blood Flow

Changes During Acceleration Stress in Anesthetized
Dogs," Aerospace Medicine, February (1968).

236. Stone, H.L., Erickson, H.H., and Sandler, H., "Changes

in Mesenteric. Renal, and Aortic Flows with +Gx Accel-
eration," Aerospac, Medicine, 45(5):498-504, (1974).

-196- -;

I -~ -~.!*,
~-- I
1'.

237. Swearingen, J.J., "Protection of Shipboard Personnel

Against the Effects of Severe Short-Lived Upward Forces
Resulting from Underwater Explosions," Civil Aeromedical
Institute Oklahoma City, January (1960).

233. Tabusse, L., Pingannaud, P.M., "The Physiopathological

Effects of Acceleration on Astronauts". NASA TT F-15,
384, February (1974).

239. Tennyson, S.A., Mital, N.K., and King, A.I., "Electro-

myographic Signals of the Spinal Musculature During +Gz
Impact Acceleration," Orthopedic Clinics of North Amer-
ica - Vol. 8, No. 1, January (1977).

240. Thorner, M., "The Ophthalmic Artery Pulsensor," Transac-

tions of the American Neurology Association 86:161-164,
(1961).

241. Trumbull, R.*, "Environment Modification for Human

Performance," Office of Naval Research, Sept. (1965).

242. Urschel# C.W., "Pulsus Paradoxus Effect of Gravity and

Acceleration in its Production," The American Journal of
Cardiclogy, Vol. 19, pp. 360-364, March (1967).

243. Urschel, C.W., Hood, W.B., "Cardiovascular Effects of

Rotation in the Z Axis," Aerospace Medicine, pp. 254,
March, (1966).

244. Vasil'yev, P.V., Kotovskaya, A.R., "Prolonged Linear and

Radial Accelerations," Moscow Acadamy of Sciences, USSR,
(1973).

-197-
245. Verghese, C.A., Nair, C.S., "New Criteria in Indirect
Blood Pressure Recording," Aerospace Medicine, 40(12):
1377-1380, (1969).

246. Vogl, E.,

"Differences Between Simulation and Real World
at the IABG Air to Air Combat Simulator with a Wide
Angle Visual System", AGARD-CP-249, (1978).

247. Vogt, L.H., Coermann, R.R., and Fust, H.D., "Mechanical

Impedance of the Sitting Human Under Sustained Acceler-
ation," Aerospace Medicine, July (1968).

248. Vogt, L.H., Krause, H.E., Hohlweck, and Devlr, E.M.,

"MechanicaL Impedance of Supine Humans Under Sustained
SAcceleration," Aerospace Medicine, 44(2):123-128,
(1971).

249. Vykukal, H.C., "Dynamic Response of the Human Body to

Vibration When Combined with Various Magnitudes of
Linear Acceleration," Aerospace Medicine, November
(1968).

250. Walters R.F.,

"Systems Analysis of Physiological Per-
fo-mzncu Ralated to Streeses Such as those Experienced
in High Performance Aircraft," University of California,
AFOSP., Bolling AFB, Washington, D.C., Dec. '1976).

251. .Carrick, M.J., rund, D.W., "Effect of Moderate Positive

Acceleration (G) on Ability to Read Aircraft-Type
Instrument Dials," U.S. Air Force Air Material Command
4right-Patterson Air Force Base, November, (1946).

252. Watson, J.F., Cherniack, N.S., "Effects of Positive

Pressure Breathing on the Respiratory Mechanics and Tol-

-198-
V erance to Forward Acceleration," Aerospace Medicine,
33:583, (1962).

253. Watson, J.F., Cherniack, N.S. and Zechman, F.W., "Res-

piratory Mechanics During Forward Acceleration," J.Clin.
Inves., 39:1737, (1960).

254. Weaver, J., Rubinstein, M., Clark, C.C., Gray, R.F.,

"Encapsulation of Humans in Rigid Polyurethane Foam for
Use as a Restraint System in High Acceleration Environ-
ments," Aviation Medizal Acceleration Laboratory, May
(1962).

255. Weeks, S.D., Jaeger, E.A., and Duane, T.D., "Plethysmo-

graphic Goggles: a New Type of Ophthalmodynamometer,"
Official Journal of The American Academy of Neurology,
Vol. 14 - No. 3, March (1964).

'4256. Weissler, X.M., "Non-Invasive Methods for Assessing Left

Ventricular Performance in Man," American Journal of
Cardiology, 34(7):111-114, (1974).

257. West, J.B., "Regional Differences in Gas Exchanged in

the Lung of Erect Man," Journal of Applied Physiology,
17%893-898, (1962).

258. White, W.J., Riley, M.B., "The Effect of Positive Accel-

eration (G) on the Relation Between Illumination and
Dial Reading," Reprinted from Symposium on Air Force

Human Engineering, Personnel and Training Research

NAC-NRC Publication 455, National Academy of Sciences,
Washington, D.C., (1956).

-199-
 WO".1

259. Wilburn, D.L., Kurzenberger, J.L., "Kinematic Analysis

of a Six Degree of Freedom Vibration Table," Aerospice
Medical Research Laboratory, September (197Q).

260. Wolthuis, R.A., Bergmen, S.A., and Nicogossian, A.E.,

"Physiological Effects of Locally Applied Reduced Pres-
sure in Man," Physiological Reviews, Vol. 54, No. 3,
July (1974).

261. Wolthuis, R.A., Hoffler, G.W., and Baker, J.T., "Im-

proved Waist Seal Design for Use with Lower Body
Negative Pressure (LBNP) Devices," Aerospace Medicine,
42(4):461-462 (1971).

262. Wolthuis, R.A., Hoffler, G.W., and Johnson, R.L., "Lower

Body Negative Pressure as an Assay Technique for
Orthostatic Tolerance: 1. The Individual Response to a
Constant Level (-40 mm. Hg) of LBNP," Aerospace Medi-
cine, 41(l):29-35, (1970).

263. Wolthuis, R.A., Hoffler, G.W., and Johnson, R.L., "'Lower

Body Negative Pressure as an Assay Technique for
Orthostatic Tolerance: Part I1. A Comparison of the
Individual Response to Incremental vs Constant Levels of
LBNP," Aerospace Medicine, 41(4):419-424, (1970).

264. Wolthuis, R.A., Hoffler, G.W., and Johnson, R.L., "Lcwer

Body Negative Pressure as an Assay Technique for
Orthostatic Tolerance: III. A Comparison of the Indi-
vidual Response to Incremental Leg Negative Pressure vs.
Incremental Lower Body Negative Pressure," Aerospace
Medicine, 41(12):1354-1357, (1970). .1

-2 0
I

I{ -200-

1
 265. Wood, E.H., "Some Effects of Gravitational and Inertial
Forces on the Cardiopulmonary System," AerosDace Medi-
inine, Ma:.ch (1967)..

266. Woodcock, A.,

"Bodily Acceptance of Locally Applied
Heat," Quartermaster Climatic Research Laboratory Final
Report Contract DA44-109-qri-1289.

267. Woodson, W.E., Conover, D.•T., Human Engineering Guide

for Equipment Designers, University of California Press,
(1966).

268. Young, L., Unpublished Correspondence, Massachusetts In-

stitute of Technology, February (1978).

269. Young, L., Unpublished Correspondence, National Atro-

nautics and Space Administration, June (197E).

270. Young, L., Unpublished Notes of Meeting with Dana

Rogers, (1978).

271. Younq, L.R., Kupfer, C., "A Systems Analysis View of

Intraocular Pressure Regulation," Digest of the 6th
International Conference on Medical Electronics and
Biological Engineering, (1965).

272. Young, L.R., Sheena, D., "Methods and Designs - Survey

of Eye Movement Recording Methods," Behavior Research
Methods & Instrumentation, Vol. 7(5), 397-429, (1975).

273. Zarrielloo J.J., Norsworthy, M.E., and Bower, H.R., "A

Study of Early Greyout Threshold as an Indicator of
Human Tolerance to Positive Radial Acceleratory Force,"
Bureau of Medicine and Surgery Research Project NM 11 02
11 Subtask 1 Report No. 1, July (1958).

I. -201-
274. Zechman, F.W., Cherniack, N.S., and Hyde, A.S., "Ven-
tilation Response to Forward Acceleration," Journal of
Aeplied Physiology, 150907, (1960). "

275. Zechman, F.W., Mueller, G., "Effect of Forward Acceler-

ation and Negative Pressure Breathing on Pulmonary Funtc-

tion," Journal of Applied Physiology, 17:909, (1962).

276. Zechman, F.W., Musgrave, F.S., Mains, R.C., and Cohne

J.E., "Respiratory Mechanics and Pulmonary Diffusing
Capacity with Lower Body Negative Pressure," Journal of
Applied Psychology, v. 22, pp. 247-250, (1967).

277. Zotterman, Y., Sensory Functions of the Skin in ?ri-

mates, Pergamon Press, New York, (1976).

]I
-2
2

Ii
-202- *1
I
I
I;
I
I
II

APPENDIX A

I HIGH G PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS

I;
z
z
r
u
Li
U SA
--- ,
.. .
ij'.
 A.1 General

A very significant portion of this study has been devoted to

searching the body of literature pertaining to human physiological
response to elevated acceleration levels in order to determine the
nature and method of manifestation of those effects which are like-
ly to be most noticeable, employed in pilot assessment of flight
dynamics, and/or h~ave impact in aircraft control and mission per-
formance. Only by identifying the effects and understanding their
functional relationship to bodily acceleration magnitude will it
¶ be possible to intelligently propose means by which such effects
can be laboratory-simulated and. if found to be important to the
training task, introduced within operational flight simulators.
The sponsor of the study suggested that the following physiolog-
* ical systems be investigated; cardiovascular, visual, aural, and
selected portions of the musculoskeletal and tactile systems. To
this list we added the respiratory system.

This section introduces and examines not only physiological

effects we consider to be significant and very likely of impor-
tance in pilot training but also reports on physiological systems
* which do not appear to be affected by high G~ conditions to an
extent worthy of immediate simulation consideration. Secondly, in
preparing this section, the authors have investigated the normal
operation of the physiological systems in an attempt to determine

respond in a manner similar to that encountered under high G con-

ditions.

One of the more troublesiome problems experienced in this

search can be characterized as a-"too little or too much data" syn-
drome. As will be seen, very little data was found in the area of

A-1
U4
 large field tactile response to high G conditions or, alternately,
the importance of tactile response in flight dynamics assessmentI
and aircraft control. Conversely, *a plethora of information
exists in the cardiovascular area, which is the physiological
v system most dramatically affected by acceleration often encount-
ered in aircraft maneuvering and produces direct effects on other
physiological systems, especiall~y visual. Not unexpectedly, the
wealth of cardiovascular information leads to apparent contra-
dictions requiring close scrutiny to extract that information
which seems most directly applicable to physiological effects
likely to occur in routine tactical aircraft high G maneuvering.
Our general approach to this problem has been, where only marginal
amounts of data have been found, to present the complete findings.
Where an abundance of data exists we have presented a synopsis of
those findings which tend to be common within the literature.

Two axis systems are employed within this study for the pur-
pose of defining the directional characteristics of acceleration.
The first is the conventional aircraft body axis system commonly
employed to describe aircraft translational and rotational flight
dynamics. The second is an anatomical axis constructed within the
pilot and reflects the 'inertial acceleration forces acting on the
pilot's body. These two axis systems are defined in Table A-1
taken from Fraser (71, after Gell). The table reflects that, for
a conventionally seated pilot, a thrusting maneuver is described
as a +ax aircraft acceleration producing a +Gx chest-to-back
inertial acceleration reaction on the pilot's body. Likewise a
flat right turn involving +ay produces a leftward +Gy inertial
acceleration reaction, and an increase in aircraft lift or air-
craft nose up rotation involves -az aircraft acceleration pro-
ducing a +Gz head-to-feet inertial reaction. The orientation of

A- 2
 I. P IIi

Table A-1 Axis systen definition (frorr Fraser (71))

after Gell).

Table A Table9
Direction of acceleration Inertial rwsultant of body aeeelleratius
Dire•.ton of motion Ai r-a't Acceleration physiologieal Physioorlcal
computn"." ddeptive
e o computer Vernacula•
Stan yard standard deseripUve
(System 1) 1ytemi) (systemS) System 4)

L
a.NiC "nativ 4

Is Feraria SupineG . An
jI GOW L. A-P trtnswrs.l 7trans,.rs,,

S .st I System
I System 3 SWMs4

Linear
Transverse A-P G
Forward +a, Forward tccel. Supine G +G, Eyeballs in
Chest-to-back G
" " "Transverse P-A G
"Backward -- as Backward accel. Prone G -G, Eyeballs out
S• Back-to-chest G
Upward -a. j Headward accel. Positive G +G. Eyeballs down
Downward -4-a, Footward accel. Negative G -G, Eyeballs up
To right +a, R. lateral accel. Left lateral G +G, Eyeballs left
To left -- a, L. lateral accel. Right lateral G -G, Eyeballs right
Angular
Roll right +i Roll -- •1E
Roll left -p +_,
Pitch up +i Pith_-- -R,
Pitch down -q +_,
Yaw right ++t Yaw "+.
Yaw left r

'The capital letter G is used as a unit to express inertial resultant to whole-body acce leryttion in multiples of
the magnitude of the acceleration due to gravity. Acceleration due to gravity g. is 980.665 cm/secs or S3.1739
ft/.ec2.
b A-P refers to anterior-posterior.
P-A refers to posterior-anterior.

A- 3

...........
 the anatomical axis system will, be maintained throughout this
study even though the pilot's body may assume a different orienta-
tion in the aircraft. Thus, when considering the reclined atti-
tude the pilot assumes in an F16 aircraft, the study will reflect
that increased aircraft lift, for instance, yields anatomical axis
inertial reaction components of +Gx and +Gz%

A.2 Cardiovascular Effects

The cardiovascular system is the principle part of the body

that is affected by excessive Gz during aircraft maneuvers (3)
Tolerance to acceleration depends largely upon the response oý 'the
cardiovascular system. It was recognized in the early days of ac-
c~eleration research that the circulation is more profoundly affect-
ed by positive Gz than any other system (81). These cardiovascu-
lar effects, while they are not serious in and of themselves
(i.e., they do not in general cause any chronic effects on the
cardiovascular system), are responsible for the progressive deter-
ioration of vision and ultimately loss of consciousness.J

It is important to understand these effects in orde~r to prop-

erly synthesizer evaluate and control the various methods for
either simulating or stimulating these effects.

Since the results of this study are not directed towards the

I.
acceleration physiologist but rather the flight simulation commun-I
ity, it seems appropriate, at the risk of appearing pedant'ic, to
provide some basic background in the cardiovascular physiology.
The reader who is familiar with this information may choose to
skip this section and proceed to the subsequent sections which
deal with the direct effects of acceleration on the cardiovascular
system.

A- 4
 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HEART AND CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

To begin a discussion of the heart and circulation it seems

appropriate to introduce the anatomy of the heart and its function
as a pump. Subsequently the vascular system and the physics of
* blood flow will be reviewed and finally the cardiovascular control
system will be treated briefly. The objective here is not in-
tended to provide an extensive treatment characteristic of a text-
book of medical physiology but rather an overview for the flight
simulation researcher and designer.

The heart is a pulsatile, four chamber pump divided into a

right half which supplies the pulmonary circulation and a left

half which supplies the systemic (peripheral) circulation. Each

half contains an atrium which is an ante-chamber to the ventricle
ti (Figure A.2-1). The ventricles are the main pumps which supply
the force to propel the blood through the pulmonary and peripheral
systems. The atria and ventricles are separated by valves to
prevent reverse flow.

Blood returns to the heart from the systemic circulation(s)

via the superior vena cava (1) (upper circulation) and inferior
vena cava (2) (lower circulation) and fills the right atrium (3)
from where it is pumped into the right ventricle (4). The blood
is then pumped to the pulmonary circulation at a systolic pressure
of approximately 22 mm Hg through the pulmonary artery (5).

Oxygenated blood returning to the heart from the pulmonary

circulation (P) via the pulmonary veins (6), enters the left
atrium (7) and is pumped to fill the left ventricle (8). Con~-
traction of the left ventricle pumps the blood through the aorta

A-5
 SS

16 P ! 22mm Hg

ii LEGEND:
3 1 SUPERIOR VENA CAVA
2 INFERIOR VENA CAVA
4 RIGHT VENTRICLE
5 PULMONARY ARTERY
6 PULMONARY VEINS
S7 LEFT ATRIUM
Omm Hq 8 LEFT
AORTA
VENTRICLE
S9
S S SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION
* ,120mm Hg P PULMONARY CIRCULATION
S

Figure A.2-1 Simplified diagram of circulation through

the heart.

(9) to the systemic circulation (S) at a pressure of approximately

120 mm Hg. This process is repeated each cardiac cycle.

THE SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION

As was mentioned previously the circulation is divided into

two components systemic and pulmonary. The pulmonary circulation
supplies the lungs with blood. The systemic, also often referred
to as the peripheral circulation, serves for the remainder of the
body. The purpose of this section is to discuss the aspects of
the systemic circulation which are important in the understanding
of the "high G" cardiovascular effects.

The systemic circulation comprises arteries which carry blood

from the aorta to smaller distribution vessels called arterioles

A-6
 which in turn distribute blood to the capillaries where the nutri-
ents are passed to the interstitial spaces. Blood is then collect-
ed from these interstitial spaces by venules. These vessels then
aggregate into larger veins. The veins then return the blood to
the right atrium to be re-oxygenated by the lungs and subsequently
redistributed by the peripheral circulation.

Of the total circulation 64% of the blood volume is normally

contained in the systemic veins and 15% in the systemic arteries -
(102). It follows then that the most significant orthostatic
(effects due to blood pooling) effects of acceleration would be on
the peripheral venous circulation since the volume of the veins is
three to four times the volume of the arteries.

The heart, as mentioned previously, pumps blood into the

1-i aorta at a pressure of 120 mm Hg. This pressure being the maximum
of the cardiac cycle or the systole is referred to as the systolic
pr:-ssure. At the low pressure end of the cardiac cycle, diastole,
the pressure in the aorta is nominally 80 mm Hg. This pressure
Itimately reaches zero by the time it courses through the sys-
"imic circulation and reaches the right atrium.

Blood flows with almost no resistance in the larger vessels

of .he circulation. However,, considerable resistance to flow is
manifested in the arterioles and the capillaries (102). Since theI
d-rease in arterial pressure in each part of the systemic circu-
lation is directly proportional to the vascular resistance, a plot
of mean systemic pressure throughout the circulation would appear
as in Figure A.2-2.

The pulsatile nature of blood pressure in the arteries is il-

lustrated also in Figure A*2-2. Note that by the time the flow
has passed through the arterioles, the pulsatile aspects of the
pressure have dissipated.

A; A-7
 120 I
100

.
LU
"U,
C4 >•I >' C
z
M
4C i

80- -

6- I =W - w
=M =

40"

20 - - -

06-

Figure A.2-2 Blood pressure throughout the systemic

circulation (after Guyton (102))

HEMODYNAMICS

The two factors determining the flow of blood through a blood

vessel are pressure drop and vascular resistance. This concept
can be stated mathematically as:

AP
- (Eq.
( A.2-1]
R

where Q is the volume rate of flow (ml/sec), P is the pressure

drop (mm Hg), and R is the vascular resistance (dyne sec/cm5 ).
The normal adult at rest has a volume rate of approximately 83
nml/sec. Because this is the amount of blood that is pumped
through the systemic and pulmonary circulation, this quantity is
also referred to as cardiac output.

A-8
- -t 1 , - a.-,
V"
4.

In the large vessels such as the aorta and the pulmonary

artery, blood flow tends to be turbulent because of the high
Reynolds' number, and the pulsatile nature of the flow.

The reasons for high Reynolds' number are the high velocity
close to the ventricles and the sudden increase in vessel dia-
meter. The effects of these parameters may be more easily under-
stood by examining the following relationship for Reynolds' num-
ber;

vd
Re - ý e
(Eq. A.2-2]

where v is the flow velocity, d vascular diameter, and ('/e) vis-

cosity/density ratio.

Hemodynamics is a complicated area of fluid dynamics. It is

• such because blood is basically a non-homogeneous (mixture of
cells and plasma in varying configurations) non-Newtonian (the re-
lationship between stress and strain tensors is nonlinear) fluid.
It is further complicated by the fact that the vessels are disten- A
sible, the flow is pulsatile and the characteristics of the vari-
ous vessels varies greatly (arteries, arterioles, capillaries,
veins). For these reasons and since a detailed discussion of the
physics of blood flow is not required for this stuly, none will be
entered here. If the reader is interested in exploring this area

deeper, several good textbooks exist on the subject. However,

there are still a few more points wihich shoul'3 be mentioned. One
of these is the critical closing pressure of a blood vessel. This
effect is a result of the distensibility of the vessels. Increas-
ing the transmural pressure (excess of blood pressure in the ves-
sel over pressure in the fluid surrounding the vessel) causes the
blood vessel to dilate and decreasing the pressure causes the ves-
sel to constrict. At a transmural pressure of approximately 20 mm
Hg the arterioles do not permit the passage of any blood. If plas-

A-9
Lf
i. ._ _ .,•._ +.•
'*.,-- •' -•,-.
.. "' :. . ''-d+""' "e••
. ..
-
ma only is flowing through the vessels, the critical closing pres-
sure is 5-10 mm Hg (102). This fact is important in understanding
the blackout/grayout phenomena of the +Gz environment.

The critical closing pressure may be affected considerably by

sympathetic nervous system inhibition and stimulation. Sympathe-
tic inhibition allows far more blood to flow through a tissue for
a given pressure gradient. Sympathetic stimulation vastly de-
creases the blood flow. Sympathetic inhibition, therefore, de-
creases the critical closing pressure to as low as 5 mm Hg., while
sympathetic stimulation can increase the critical closing pressure
to as much as 100 mm Hg (102).

Vascular distensibility has a considerable effect on hemody-

namics. Because of the anatomical differences between arteries
and veins, the veins are 6 to 10 times as distensible as the ar-
teries (102). Therefore a given pressure will permit 6 to 10
times the accumulation of blood as in arteries of a comparable
size. A related factor which contributes to the accumulation of
blood in vessels is compliance or capacitance. The compliance is
equal to the product of volume and distensibility. Therefore, the
compliance of a vein is on the order of 24 times its corresponding
artery, since they differ in distensibility by a factor of 8 and
volume by a factor of 3 (102). Venous compliance accounts for
ve.aous pooling under +Gz conditions.

Figure A.2-3 illustrates the effect of hydrostatic pressure

(pressure due to the column of blood above) on the systemic pres-
sure throughout the body of a standing adult. The hydrostatic
pressure is simply a function of the distance above and below the
heart and the weight of the blood in the vessels. Note that the H
venous pressure in the dural sinus of the head is negative. This
is a consequence of the fact that the veins in the skull are in a
non-collapsable chamber and because of the hydrostatic suction be-
tween the top of the skull and the base of the skull (102). Of

A-10
 MEAN
ARTERIAL

.. ' } 0mmt45
t0mmHg

A 4mm-- OOmm Hi
1.2

-WR 435m M

].. /A
? t• •li~.4mm -IOmH

I1M -1M No

1~

Figure A.2-3 Effect of hydrostatic pressure on the

,- systemic pressure throughout the body
i ~(modified from Guyton (1021))

courser the transmural pressur-e will still be positive to keep

these veins from collapsing.

As is shown in Figure A.2-3 the venous pressure in the feet

is approximately 90 mm Hg. This pressure is somewhat lessened by
virtue of the valves in the veins. The tensing of muscles in the
leg tend to propel the blood in the veins. The valves allow the
passage of blood towards the heart but do not permit retrograde
flow. This function# firred to as the venous pumpr reduces the

venous pressure at the feet in an exercising adult to less than 25

mm Hg.
L---

Lii A-11
 In the case of a perfectly still individual, or one in which
some external force has produced the same hydrostatic effect, the
pressure can rise to the full 90 mm Hg in about 30 seconds (102).
This causes leakage from the circulatory syatem into the tissue
spaces causing leg swelling and a diminution of blood volume. The
ultimate result is a reduction of venoui return to the heart.

CIRCULATORY REGULATION

The previous sections have dealt with discussing the heart as

the pump for the circulatory system and the basic functions of the
circulatory system as a conduit for distribution of blood through-
out the body. This section deals with the regulation of the cardi-
ovascular system.

Control of the iirculatory system can be considered in terms

of local control or systemic control. Local control deals pri-
marily with the microcirculation and is concerned with the demand
by tissues for oxygen, glucose, amino acids and other nutrients.

These demands simply alter the flow of blood to specific tissues.

The systemic control system has a more widespread effect. It

can be divided into the rapidly acting and the lsong term regula-
tory systems. The rapidly acting systemic control system is of
most concern to this study. Figure A.2-4 illustrates the dyiamics
of the various arterial pressure control systems.

The rapidly acting pressure control systems operate throuq,

nervous or hormonal control of the circulation. In the aeurai
control system, receptors In the arterial system detect pressurp
reductions and transmit a signal to the nervour system which in
turn signals the heart to increase its output by altering its
strength and rate of contraction. Also the v.scular system is
signaled to constrict the arterioles and veins. All these effects .

A-12

ab 1:
 lI
!r..

4-*

0 1530 1 1 4 4 1 I3 4 l2"4
16

Sotonds Minutles Mau?5 Days

TIME AFTER SUDOEN CHANGE IN PRESWURE

Figure A.2-4 Dynamics of various arterial pressure control

systems. (4fter Guyton (102)) (courtesy of
Saunders Co.).

are combined with a resulting increase in arterial pressure within

seconds.

The hormonal control system operates through chemoreceptors

which signal hpormonal secretion principally angeotenson to rapid-
ly return pressure to normal.

The best known and most rapidly acting system for arterial
pressure control is the baroreceptor reflex. The reflex, a high
pressure control, is initiated by pressure receptors located in
the walls of the large systemic arteries. These pressure recep-
tors, called either baroreceptors or pressoreceptors, are spray
type nerve endings in the walls of almost every large artery of
the thoracic and neck region. These receptors are extremely abun-
dant in the aortic arch and the carotid sinuses.

A-13

____
____ ____
____ _ ____ - ~.
 The mechanism is such that a rise in pressure in one of these
vessels stretches the walls and stimulates a baroreceptor which in
turn transmits a signal to the central nervous system (CNS) via
one of the paths shown in Figure A.2-5 signaling the circulation
to reduce the pressure. The baroreceptors are more sensitive to
rising pressure than to stationary and are even less sensitive to
falling pressure. They are not stimulated at all for pressures
less than 60 mm Hg and the slope is greatest for pressures between
90 and 110 mm Hg (102). This is illustratee in P1gure A.2-6,
EI

-- BRAIN

- GLOSSOPHARYNGEAL
NEhVE

HERINGS NERVE

- CAROTID BARORECEPTORS
CAROTID SINUS

VAGUS NERVE

AORTIC BARORECEPTORS
AORTIC ARCH

HEART

Figure A.2-5 Baroreceptor system.

.1
A-14
Mif"-
 IWE

916-
IM -
wU Z

50 100 150 200 250 300

ARTERIAL BLOOD PRESSURE

iI
"Figure A.2-6 Baroreceptor response as a function of
arterial pressure (modified from Guyton
(102))

The result of the baroreceptor reflex impulses is to inhibit

the vasoconstrictor center thereby producing vasodilation, de-
creased cardiac rate and stroke volume. There is an analogous
f reflex system which operates to raise the arterial pressure when
it has been somehow lowered. There are similar stretch receptors
to the baroreceptors which provide the analogous furn.tion. These
receptors are called low pressure receptors and are located in the
walls of both the atria and pulmonary artery.

A familiar situation is that of a person lying down who sud-

denly arises causing the arterial pressure in the head to imme-
diately drop. If this pressure is not quickly corrected, snycope
may ensue. However, the baroreceptors elicit an immediate reflex
and the resulting pressure drop in the head and upper body is
reduced.

It should be noted that in general arterial pressures cited

are mean arterial pressures. This pressure is defined as the mean
of the cardiac cycle and not simply the average of the systolic
and diastolic pressures. In fact the mean arterial pressure tends

7 A-15
.- '- -- *
to be closer to the diastolic pressure, since systole is rela-
tively brief.

Another reflex arterial pressure regulating mechanism is the

central nervous system (CNS) ischemic response. With a reduction
in arterial pressure, the blood flow to the brain is insufficient
to maintain normal function of the brain tissue. Under these con-
ditions t.Ae brain is said to be ischemic. In response, the vas,
omotor system signals the vasoconstrictor system cutting flow to
the less vital parts of the body and the systemic arterial pres-
sure rises very rapidly. The buildup of carbon dioxide in the
vasomotor system is thought to be responsible for this response
(102). Figure A.2-4 shows the potential power of the CNS ischemic
responsei

The third major arterial reflex system is the chemoreceptor

reflex system whose sensors are located in the bifurcations of the
carotid arteries and in the aortal arch. These sensors are sentsi-
tive to lack of oxygen. They generate signals which pass along

Hering's nerves and the vagus nerves into the vasomoto: center
(Figure A.2-5), whereupon the reaction is similar to baroreceptor
reflex response.

Up to this point the discussion of circulatory control has

dealt mainly with the arteries. The veins participate in the same
reflex pressure regulating mechanisms as the arteries. The im-
pulses to the vein are carried by sympathetic vasoconstrictor
I
fibers which cause the veins to constrict by an increase in venous
tone in response to even weaker sympathetic stimuli than the
arteries.

The major venous effect is not in vascular resistance but

rather in capacitance and according to the Frank-Starling Law of
the Heart, the major factor in determining cardiac output is the

A-16

. .. ....... ........ ... . . ... . ...... -, •-- ,: '' .• • .. ' f -• II "•; • ' '' "- . . .. . i•
 F- -- -

rate of venous return. This law states in essence, that the heart
works hard enough to pump out all the blood that returns to it.

Skeletal muscles and skeletal nerves also have a role in cir-

culatory control. When the sympathetic vasoconstrictor system is
stimulated, the abdominal compression reflex aids in displacing
blood out of the abdominal veins towards the heart. Exercise con-
tracts skeletal muscles thereby compressing the vessels resulting
in an increase of systemic filling pressure from 7 mm Hg to as
high as 20 to 30 mm Hg (102).

A.2.1 Effects of Acceleration on the Cardiovascular System

High performance aircraft are capable of significant accel-

erations in all of the vehicle's six degrees-of-freedom. These
accelerations impose unique physiological effects on the pilot.
Along some axes the effects are direction dependent. For example,
positive and negative accelerations along the Z axis produce sub-
stantially different physiological effects.

The most often experienced inertial force in high performance

aircraft is in a head-to-foot direction (+Gz). In modern low wing
loading, highly maneuverable aircraft levels of 12 Gz are quite
possible. Negative "G's" (-Gz) are much less often experienced in
the flight envelope and are restricted to about -3 Gz, both be-
cause of aircraft limitations and pilot tolerances. Longitudinal
acceleration +Gx are confined to the range of +2.5 Gx but are
usually in the range of + 1 Gx unless aircraft carrier operations,
of catapult launch and arresting, are considered. In the lateral
direction +1.5 Gy is generally the maximum capability while the
usu'.l environment is on the order of 1/4 Gy.

For good reason the literature abounds in treatment of the +Z

axis accelerations, -Z axis is less thoroughly treated and +X axis
even less. Treatment of the Y axis accelerations is very limited

A-17

-w
 (studies in this area are presently being implemented). This dis-
cussion will essentially follow that pattern.I

POSITIVE Gz

Positive Gz produces the most profound effects on the cardio-

12 vascular system and therefore will be provided the most extensive
discussion. Since the early days of acceleration research, it was
observed that symptoms such as peripheral light loss, to blackout,
'~to loss of consciousness could only be explained by a decrease in
blood flow to the head. Subsequently, some researchers believed

that mechanical factors made a contribution (210), but it became

Tecirculation, supported by elastic blood vessels and de-

peningon well defined pressures and volumes, is grossly dis-
turedby excessive gravitational forces (3).

Asimplistic view of the cardiovascular phenomena associated

witGzshows that as Gz increases, the hydrostatic pressure in
the egsincreases, the vessels passively dilate, and a major por-
tio ofthe blood from the upper part of the body is displaced to
telower vessels. Since the venous return decreases, the cardiac
oututdecreases thereby further causing a decrease in pressure at
teaorta and above the heart. A mor,3 rigorous explanation invol-
ves a discussion of initial inertial effects, hydrostatic effects,
orthostatic effects and the reflex activii~y of the cardiovascular
and central nervous system.

To begin with, consider F'igure A.2.1-1 which illustrates the

hydrostatic effects of the column of blood on systolic blood pres-
sure at the heart, eye level, and at the feet, as a function of
acceleration along the longitudinal (z) axis of the body. These
f data represent a short duration acceleration and do not consider

A- 18
[
700 - .m FOOT LEVEL PRESSURE
"HEART LEVEL PRESSURE
610 uinim EYE LEVEL PRESSURE
600 //

Sao /
/

400 /

300 //

i. >,200 ii
150

oe

-1200

-50
1ACCELERATION - G,

2- -1 0 i 2 3 4 1 6 7 9 10o

Figure A.2.1-1 Seated systolic blood pressure as a function

of Gz.

the compensatory cardiovascular adjustments. It is also assumed

that there is no change in heart level systolic pressure.

Using a model of a seated human with a heart to eye distance

of 30 cm and a heart to foot distance of 75 cm, a 120 mm Hg sys-
tolic arterial pressure at the heart yields a 98 mm Hg eye level
pressure and a 175 mm Hg pressure at the feet (86). The remainder
of the data can be computed using the concepts of fluid statics.
Green and Miller (96) postulate an equation for the computation of

A-19

U€
-7-=--- -- '• - ,. . . •... . ., ";• • ,• - •"il"•.l ''• .;•- •-','! , - •: "• -':-•:':•'•' :,•• -..,=i• .... I!'I
blood pressure as a function of acceleration referenced to any
point in the body.

PS =PH +gh (Eq. A.2.1-1]

where PH is the heart level blood pressure and h is the vertical

distance between the heart and point of interest. Burton (30)
empirically derives a similar linear relationship. The foregoing
assumes that the heart level pressure is maintained at a constant
which in fact is not the case.

A more realistic model considers the distensibility of the

vascular system thereby causing a "ballooning" of the vessels
below the heart, primarily the veins, reducing venous return, and
causing the heart output to decrease, therefore the heart level
blood pressure Is reduced almost instantly (30, 65, 81, 139).
Figure A.2.1-2 illustrates the drop in heart level mean arterial
blood pressure as a function of acceleration. A slight displace-
ment of the heart may affect prediction of hydrostatic effects.

However, cerebral or retinal perfusion, which affect uncon-

sciousness and blackout respectively, cannot be predicted on the
basis of this model because it neglects cardiovascular compensa-
tory adjustments which occur in the six to ten seconds after ac-
celeration onset. Also, because the concurrent drop in venous
pressure within the skull tends to keep the arterial-venous pres-
sure differences constant thus "sucking" blood through the circu-
lation as discussed below. Howard (81) states that the rate of
onset of acceleration has an effect on the predictability of the
simplified model, to the extent that if the onset rate exceeds the
rate at which the lower vascular system distends the simplified
model provides reasonable results.

The compensatory cardiovascular systems discussed in Section

A.2 provides the reflex stimulation of the sympathetic nervous

A- 20
 320

280

1 240

H =200
_, 160

w=
• 120 -NORMAL BLOOD PRESSURE
2
Sso0-
U
'"40 -
T-:
-8 -4 a 4 8 12
ACCELERATION (13)
Figure A.2.1-2 Mean arterial blood ),reasure as a function
S-. of Gz (after Guyton (102))
I "

SI '+ i
system whA.en serves to readjust the systemic blood pressure. As
was stated, this is accomplished by adjusting cardiac output and
by vasoconstriction. These adjustments occur within 6 to 10 sec-
onds of the onset of acceleration (86). This factor provides a
rationale for the effects of rate of onset on blackout as well as
duration (Figure A.2.1-3) (234).

The ý.ardi,' ascular scenario in response to rapid onset accel-

eration is as follows. There is an immediate increase in hydro-
static pressure drop resulting from the acceleration. Momentarily
the heart contint'. ;ith its preacceleration output so the heart
level pressure dc•.• not instantly drop but may actually increase
slightly (154) then begin to drop as venous return to the heart is

C: A-21
 gym,

MAXIMUM G
1J.3 G/sec.
IS ,GVec.
6.0 ,,Groyout
16- Blackout
6" Confusion, Possibly
1437 c Unconsciousness
14 /37 G c. Unconsciousness
12 2.3 G/sec.
10. 1.4 G/sec.

S/005 G/sec. .
6 4I/ 0 G/sec.
03 _,.0.2 G/sec.

*1"

2
00 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Seconds
TOTAL TIME FROM START OF ACCELERATION TO
END POINT
i
Figure A.2.1-3 G-Tolerance curve with various acceleration
rates (after Stoll (234)) (courtesy of
Journal of Aviation Medicine).

reduced by the pooling effects in the lower vasculature. The

reduced venous return causes a reduced -erdiac output. The
b..roreceptors in the aortic arch anA carotid sinus respond causing
I
an increased cardiac output and vasoconstricticn both serving to
increase the systemic blood pressure, thereby increasing the
supply to the head. Figure A.2.1-4 (65) illustrates this cardio-
vascular response to 3.5 Gz on a dog.

A--22
IPRESSURELEFT VENTRICULAm

ARTERIAL PRESSURE
oo
100
10

NEI AT RATE

ACCIELERATION

Figure A.2.1-4 Effects of +3.5 Gz stress on cardiovascular

function (after Erickson 165)) (courtesy of
Aviation Space Environmental Medicine).

I The cerebral circulation is further protected by a fail in

ju'gular venous pressure which helps maintain arteriovenous pres-
sure differential and a decrease in cerebrospinal fluid pressure
which reduces intracranial resistance to blood flow (rigure
A.2.1-5) (86). Venous and cerebral. spinal fluid actually become
subatmospheric, at 4g on the order of -30 mm Hg (3). While at
this point the arterial pressure at brain level may be close to

.50 N"9

MIA

A..1-5
Figue The effect of +Gz upon cerebral arterial
and jugular venous pressure. Note that
11 a high arteriovenous pressure gradient
is maintained because of a marked fall
in jugular venous pressure during accel-
eration (from Gillinghami (86))

A-23
zero, the pressure gradient between the cerebral arteries and
veins is adequate for blood flow. This effect is sometimes re-
ferred to as the "jugular suction efferct." (3).

An analogous hemodynamic situation exists in the retinal cir-

culation. However, retinal perfusion requires an eye level arter-
ial pressure in excess of approximately 20 mm Hg, independent of
reduced venous pressure, to overcome intraocular pressure and keep
the arteries and veins from collapsing. If the eye level blood
pressure falls below this, diminution of vision and eventual black-
out will occur. Loss of vision precedes unconsciousness because
cerebral flow is still adequate.

Visual failure is a continuum from loss of peripheral vision

(grayout) to total loss of vision (blackout). One artery enters
the retina at the optic disc, and arterioles and capillaries ex-
tend to the periphery. The details of the visual phenomena are
presented in Section A.3 but are mentioned here because their gen-
esis is cardiovascular.

The electrocardiogram shows some changes from the normal

heartbeat pattern during +Gz. These consist of decreased amp-
litude and occasional inverted T waves (3) and altered systolic
intervals (94). Cohen and Brown (45) also report an increased P
wave. None of these anomalies are regarded as permanent or dan-
gerous nor do they have much value in this study, other than to
monitor any cardiovascular stimulation which may be attempted such
as LBNP.

Tachycardia (fast heart rate) has been reported as a +Gz

effect. One interesting aspect is that the increased heart rate
seems to start at the onset of acceleration (Figure A.2.1-6)
(154). The increased heart rate precedes any reflex stimulus re-
sponse. The data are for a miniature swine therefore preknowledge _

A-24
 to-
Acclero,,on 5.
(G)

240-

Left hniriculor 160-

Pressure so-
(mm Hg)
4.

Heart
•,Rate 120 -
(bpm)
30-

25 Sac
Figure A.2.1-6 A typical response to +7Gz in an unanes-
thetized miniature swine. Note the heart
rate response to the acceleration profile
(from Leverett and Burton (1541) (courtesy

U of Advisory Group for Aerospace Research

and Development).

of centrifugation cannot be the reason. Perhaps general anxiety

due to unfamiliar surroundings is the explanation.

NEGATIVE Gz

While +Gz accelerations are the most often encountered and

produce the most profound cardiovascular effects, -Gz accelera- !
tions produce some significant cardiovascular effects. Negative
Gz is an acceleration which produces a foot-to-head inertial
force. Blood pressure above the heart rises immediately, includ-
ing venous pressure. However, the intracranial venous pressure is
counterbalanced by a rise in intracranial cerebro ninal fluid
pressure, therefore the chance of intracranial hemorrhage is

I. A-25
4 -
slight. However, small hemorrhages surrounding the eyes cause
significant problems.

After a few seconds of -Gz acceleration the carotid sinus

reflex and the high pressure receptors cause the arterial blood
pressure to drop due to a slowing of the heart and a dilation of
the arterioles. Asystole (missing a contraction) may occur and
heart block may become imminent (3). Guyton (102) states that
negative Gz produces such a strong baroreceptor reflex that severe
vagal slowing of the heart occurs even to the extent of stopping
the heart for 5 or 10 seconds.

"The effects are the opposite of what occurs in +Gz. Blood

from the lower part of the body drains towards the head causing
the soft tissue of the face and neck to become engorged with
blood.

This engorgement may cause petechial hemorrhages over the

conjunctiva. This phenomenon may or may not cause the so called
"redout". This -Gz effect is controversial and is discussed in
the visual section of this study. The blood engorgement produces
a full feeling in the head and pain in the face and eyes.

Kennealy, et at (134) reported that all four subjects in

their centrifuge study reported discomfort, but none lost con-
sciousness or vision. All exhibited sinus bradycardia as well.
These authors also state that -5 Gz was achieved by a national
aerobatics champion, while Gillingham & Krutz (86) state that
-3 Gz is considered the upper limit of human tolerance for
"sudden" acceleration.

It is postulated by Howard (81) that negative Gz can produce

unconsciousness even though the conditions have never been defined
nor have they been produced in the laboratory. He further states -•

that it is possible that unconsciousness may result from exposure

A-26
 to accelerations greater than -4 or -Sg, but the exact level de-
pends on \.he duration, and that a minimum of 5 seconds of expoalire
is required for unconsciousness.
The major ECG chanOe• are asystole, bradycardia (slowing of

the heart), extra-systoles, alterations of the P wave and shifts

of the pacemaker (firing pattern in the cardiac muscle) (81).

Gillingham & Krutz (86) do not consider negative Gz to be

much of a problem in military flying because aircraft are not
stressed for high -Gz loads and hence pilots avoid it in their
maneuvers whenever possible.

A.2.2 Effects of Transverse Acceleration

Transverse accelerations produce virtually no cardiovascular

effects in the range of Gx that is part of a high performance Iet
aircraft operating envelope i.e., +2.5g for very short periods of

time. Unless the accelerations reach 4 to 8g for 10 seconds or 2g

for 20 minutes, the cardiovascular problems are minimal (81).
These performance characteristics are outside of the operational
envelope of today's fighter aircraft even for aircraft carrier
launch and recovery operations.

iA.2.3 Protective Devices

Protective devices are implements and techniques used by

pilots of high performance aircraft to increase their tolerance to
high acceleration. The implements commonly used are anti-G suits
and tilt-back seats. The techniques employed are the M1 maneuver,
the L1 maneuver (modified Valsalva), positive pressure breathing
and various other forms of muscular/skeletal straining. The
Muller maneuver is employed as a protective device for negative
G's and is found to be effective in that environment.

i A- 27

t"L
 The anti-G Suit (currently standard for United States mili-
tary pilots) is a five bladder device, two calf bladders and two
thigh bladders designed to reduce the venous pooling in the legsI
and an abdominal bladder which is designed to keep upward pressure
on the diaphragmT, both to reduce pooling and to limit the downward
travel of the heart under Gz conditions, thereby maintaining the
eye to heart distance.

Tilt-back seats are A/C seats wherein the standard seat back
angle of 130 back from the vertical is increased in order to re-
duce the heart to eye distance along the Z-axis for G. maneuvers.
4

BREATHING/STRAINING MANEUVERS

The Ml maneuver (straining maneuver number 1) is accomplished

by repeated forceful exhalations against a partially closed glot-
tis combined with generalized muscular straining. In addition the
head is pulled down between the shoulders in an attempt to further
red-ice the eye/aorta distance. Tiile Ml maneuver is generally re-~
peated every four to five seconds during long duration exposures.
The exhalation phase of this maneuver results in an intrathoracic

.
pressure of 50 to 100 mm Hg. This raises the arterial pressure a'ý.
head level and thereby increases +Gz tolerance at least 1.5g (86).
The inspiratory phase is generally a fast gasp followed immediate-
ly by the exhalation phase. It is important that the exhalation
phase follows immediately since during inhalation the mean eye
level blood pr~essure falls close to 0 mm Hg and could thereby i
cause loss of vision and possibly unconsciousness. The M1 maneu-
ver is often referred to by pilots as a grunt maneuver. It is
interesting to r.)te that Burton (30) found in his experiments with
miniature swine that this animal instinctively performs straining
maneuvers not unlike the Ml maneuver which produces similar arter-
ial blood pressure response to that reported for man.

A-28
 I. In training for a properly performed Ml maneuver, subject
safety is of considerable concern. Dr. Gillingham (82) reports
that the properly performed Ml maneuver will raise the blood pres-

believes this to be an unacceptable risk in ground training and

recommends against training for the Ml maneuver in a ig environ-

ment. Gillingham (86) reports that the M1 maneuver contributes
significantly to a raising of the heart rate. He asserts that a
person performing a maximum Ml maneuver at ig would have the same
heart rate as those found during exposures to +6g.

>4 Some persons report an irritation in the throat resulting

from the Ml maneuver (33) which has led to a wider acceptance of
the modified Valsalva (Ll) maneuver. The modified Valsalva in-
volves a protocol similar to the Ml maneuver with the exception
that the exhalation is performed against the fully closed glottis.
The difference between the Valsalva and the modified Valsalva or
Ll maneuver is that the former is performed without the use of
muscular contraction or straining. This has been found to not be
an effective device for raising the tolerance to positive G's but
indeed has the opposite effect. Therefore the original Valsalva
maneuver is never used as a protective device in the high G en-
vironment.

Figure A.2.3-1 illustrates the effect of a Valsalva maneuver

for a 3.7g profile. The left illustration is at 3.7g with and
without the performance of the Ll maneuver while the right illus-
tration is with the Li maneuver and the vision remains clear up to
4.5g, whereas peripheral light loss occurred at 3.7g without the
exercise maneuver. Figure A.2.3-2 illustrates the effect of an Ml
maneuver for an 8 Gz profile. Notice that the blood pressure at
eye level is kept elevate~d with this maneuver except for the in-
spiratory phase where it drops close to 0 mm Hg. Figure A.2.3-3
illustrates the effects of both an Ml and Ll maneuver to a 5.7g
exposure. The comparison shows that the eye level blood pressure

A- 29
 " 0E
:0 -7 .I~~
__ HRso

9~~~~7 SO'_.ý-.V
00
00
I

MR 100 MR HR 10
50ms
Lp so-

A. CNTRO 3.7G C. VAALSAVA 4 G

.9

Figue A..3-
Artria Presur (AP an Heat Rte (R)-
r2pnet h asav aevrwt

t~~ voutr mcua stanngwtouFs

of th niGSit(ui ) Alatra
prssures are reere to eye level, n----

ocaioa shar drop inoHRseAnti

Figure
A2.3-1 LAreriat Pressu) (coPtes ofdJeurnaleof R

to esentiallyethe sae vleavelb etmaneuver

is elevated andtI
fais
loe o mvHolsonfory eithelr mtaineuver.outus
~~~oth~
the Ml- andtLibj
maeuer
o have a thi majrtdriawbclh
fact~~~~~pesue
theyre
are exreel faiunge~evels
are and-uigpo
longed
air-to-airlcoibat enaemwent mepaytecom inefectiebe
caushe
of ilot uniningnessb toe continu tooperor Bett them
has~~~~byba
reprte beebyore
Shubook (222 that cniuusipsiienrs-g

sure reating
povid shithe osame lEvGpevnel of trotgetiong aste o

24) cutsyo
A-30t
the
fro
ardotahomter
Ehbroks ounlo

App]e
Phsolg)
.. .
eleva....is....
toesnilytesm
falls...l.s..............als..f...........a..uver,
evlb ihrmnuen
r PPS

-8G

Figure A.2.3-2 Psa response during PPB and during M-1

naneuver at +8-.0 Gz for 60s (subj. P).
Acceieration profile, the same for both
runs, is indicated in the lower tracing.
Eye-level Psa fo~r both maneuvers, per-
formed 1 week apart, is shown along with
breathing pressure (Pppb) for PPR
(upper tracing.)
(from Shubrooks & Leverett (224))

(courtesy of Journal of Applied Phybialogy).

mHq Do,

A. L- I

200ý

ohmq

OLLI
5.7 G
Figure A.2.3-3 Mean-eye-level blood-pressure changes
during +Cz while performing the M-1
and I.-l maneuvers. Mean blood pressure
falls to zero during the inspiratory
phase of either maneuver. (from
Gillinqham A Krutz (86)).

A-31
 Li maneuvers without the penalty of severe fatigue. Continuous
positive pressure breathing has received the same endorsemena from
Gillingham (86). Figure A.2.3-4 compares the relative effective--
ness of the Ml maneuver and positive pressure breathing. The
esophageal pressure is presented for both maneuvers as an indi-
ilcator of the amount of muscular straining required in the prom

ance of Uoth maneuvers. It is clear that much less straining is

required for positive pressure breathing than for the Ml maneuver.

+8Gz
M-1 SUBJECT

•1"Gz - .
--.. --- ---- :k -

105 - -

E.P.-
mmHg 0

ii *
2 4 0 [ ... ........
~B.P.-
mmHg

+8Gz
PPB SUBJECT

0
41
mm~g
- ... .. ..
. .. .... ....

0 _-...
" I-"
. _ -: - -ý -
,_ : ý -1 1

240 ~rI
Figure A.2.3-4 comparison of M-1 maneuver and positive
presur
brathng(from Gillingham

A- 32
 [
.. Another technique which has been shown to have varying de-
grees of effectiveness as a protective device is that of sustained
static (isometric) muscular contraction. Lohrbauer (164) reports
a linear rise in arterial blood pressure as long as the contrac-
tion is maintained. He states that mean arteriole pressure in-
creases of 40 to 50 mm Hg at the point of fatigue are not uncommon
during static exercise with a simple hand grip which utilizes
forearm flexor muscles. Figure A.2.3-5 illustrates the effect of
this maneuver for both rapid onset and slow onset positive Gz
acceleration profiles. Varying degrees of muscular contraction
can be used in the same manner to achieve some level of protection
* for example, increase tension in the leg muscles pressing on the
rudder pedals, forearm upper arm contractions, back muscles and

A SOR ROR

EKG

RESP

EMG
200-
BLOOD
PRESSURE]
0

GRIP _ j'
__ __,_ _ _

"G"10]

TIMF (SEC)

Ficure A.2.3-5 Direct paper chart recording during a

r3pid-onset (ROR) and slow-onset (SOR)
+Gz acceleration profile (from Lohrbauer
et al (164))(courtesy of Journal of
Applied Physiology).

A-33

L
L. . :: -• -. . . . .* .- .... .. . . . . -' -'.. . •. " . . . :; . . ;:i• • • 'i • • • • "- , .r •-. " - :•• { .. L •:-. m.
 neck muscles, contractions. Figure A.2.3-6 offers a comparison
among four conditions, a control which employs no protective mea-
sures, a subject wearing G-suit alone, a subject employing the
grip technique and a subject employing a grip technique and wear-
ing a G-suit. Notice in all cases at rest the arterial blood pres-
sure is approximately at 80 mm Hg. For the cases of both the
G-suit and grip, and the grip case, the mean eye level blood pres-
sure rises to about 100 mm Hg by the time the acceleration has
reached its maximum, while the unprotected eye level blood pres-
sure drops close to 0 mm Hg, the grip and the grip G-suit case
remains at approximately 20 mm Hg or approximatel.y the intraocular
pressure thereby maintaining vision.

2100
so i
• °
~ZOL
00
-:0
60

A 40 -x CONTRL

WC
U W 20
0 -
CCNOO

GRIP
6- ...... SGRIP +G-SUIT
I
G-SUIT
,

.w I
.J

.0 30 60 90 95 100 106
! RESTTIME (SECS)
INITIAL LOW COMP RECOVERY

Figure A.2.3-6 Mean blood pressure for eight subjects

durina rapid onset run 0.2 - 0.3 G
prior to the run in which peripheral
light loss occurred (from Lohrbauer
et al (164))(courtesy of Journal of
Applied Physiology).

A-34

-i
 As was shown above, all of these techniques provide signifi-
cant protection to the pilot and it is therefore important that
pilots of high performance aircraft be instructed properly in the
it may be dangerous to perform these maneuvers in a ig environ-
ment. He offers as a solution training for pilots be accomplished

in one of the Air Force's human centrifuge facilities. Another

alternative will be discussed in the lower body negative pressure
portion of this report,

The anti-G suit is perhaps the most well-known and most

widely used device for providing high G protection. The basic
descrip!-ion of the anti-G suit was provided above. The valve
which controls the pressurization of the anti-G suit is activated
at +2 Gz and thereafter increases suit pressure at the rate of 1,5
psi/g to a maximum of 10.5 psi. The anti-G suit gives about 1.5g
increased tolerance above normal relaxed values (86). Burns (28)
has suggested a relationship between acceleration tolerance
(relaxed) and retinal/aorta vertical distance as;
180.3
GT = 2.1 [Eq. A.2.3-1]
h
where GT is G tolerance based on the end point of 100% PLL (peri-
pheral light loss) with peripheral lights subtending a 500 angle,
and h is the retinal/aorta distance in cm. Burton et al (34) have
postulated the following relationships:

a) With an uninflated G-suit worn

GT = 1.2 Gc - 0.41 [Eq. A.2.3-2]

b) And for an inflated G-suit

GT = 1.2 Gc + 0.78 [Eq. A.2.3-3]

where Gc is G tolerance (PLL) without G-suit. GT here was defined

as 50% CLL (central light loss) or central light dimming (CLD).

A- 35
 Figure A.2.3-7 demonstrates the effect of the anti-G suit on
the delay of peripheral light loss (PLL). The subject in question
suffered peripheral light loss at 3.3g in the absence of a G-suit.
However, with the anti-G suit he was able to withstand 4.6g before
peripheral light loss. Figure A.2.3-8 illustrates in the first
panel the effects of 3 Gz without anti-G suit, panel B the effects
of + 3 Gz with anti-G suit and panel C the effects of +6 Gz with
the protection of an anti-G suit. There remains no question as to
the efficacy of an anti-G suit. Also, in recent years, it has
been demonstrated that the anti G-suit can be well simulated and
provide useful cues in a ground based flight simulator. The
thrust of the research in this study, towards the anti-G suit, is
to determine the magnitude of the cacdiovascular effect such that
any additional stimulation or simulation that occurs in the pre-
sence of this garment can have the zopropriate compensation for
the device's effect.

TILT BACK SEATS

Another device which has been well studied is the effect of a

tilt back seat on a pilot's tolerance to high acceleration. While
extensive investigation has been carried out in this area, it is
only with the introduction of the F-16 aircraft that the implemen-
tation of tilt-back seats has been provided. Spacecraft have used

AP AID
mm Hg '0o•,

S9 3EC -
G
xi
4 PERIPMEPAL LIGHT LOSS

PERIPHERAL LIGHT LOSS ANTI - G SUIT 46 G

CONTROL 3 3 G
Figure A.2.3-7 Increase in +Gz tolerance afforded by a
standard S-bladder Anti-G suit (relaxed
subject) (from (lillingham & Krutz (6)).

A-36
ii
 F.3429DLWM1
op am OISR1 ommo-
ILVID

Figure A.2.3-8 Effects of +Gz acceleration with and without

an Anti-G, suit. Responses to +3Gz without
Anti-G suit are illustrated in Panel A.
Responses with suit inflating at 2.2 G are
illustrated in Panel S '+3Gz) and Panel C
(+6Gz). In each panel, top trace repre-
sents the G profile; LVP - left ventricular
I, "pressure; TLVEDP - left ventricular end-
Hof S~diastolic pressure;
LVP; LVID - left dp/dt - firstinternal
ventricular derivative
diameter. Bottom trace is time in seconds.
(from Peterson et al (197)) (courtesy of Journal
i of Applied Physiology).

body postural attitude as a protective device since the beginning

of the manned space program, As was previously stated, the pur-

pose of a tilt-back seat is to reduce the vertical heart-to-eye
distance. Figure A.2.3-9 illustrates the effect in vertical heart-
to-eye distance at various angles of the seat-back orientation.
Itis interesting to note that the vertical heart-to-eye
distance

Sactually increases before it

begins to decrease proceding
v e from
from the vertical to larger angles and it isn't untie 30a where
S!dthe heart-to-eye distance is the same as it was at 0i (28
cm).
i j' This is due to the fact the
that the eyeThese
is actually
plane through fvertical
heart. geometricforward of the
data explain
the lack of significant
It otethatthevericalheat-t-eyedisanc
i difference
ineretingto in relaxed tolerance
between
the
:- 13d back
actually angle
increases,7 and th
before it bein e
toderes as mentioned
prcdn by Burns
fro 0 L].:i 1 + ..

I A-37
 ONE-=

/
S /
300

, j122 14 / go

28. 29. 550

I• I% i-

Figure A.2.3-9 Decreased vertical heart-to-eye distances

obtained bI tilting backward (from Burns
(28)) (courtesy of Aviation Space and En-
vironmental Medicine). J

(28). According to Gillingham (86) significant tolerance increase

is not achieved until a 450 tilt from the vertical is obtained.
Accurate simulation models must take into account both the effects
of an anti-G suit and the effects of the seat back angle in order
to provide appropriate training. Burns (28) has also postulated a
relationship for heart rate as a functioii .. carotid sinus/aorta
vertical distance in cm.

HR " 3.4 hc + 53 [Eq. A.2.3-41 ii

All the aforementioned devices or implements are used primar-

ily for increasing Gz tolerance in the positive direction. How-
ever, with modern aircraft flying at high angles of attack and

A-38

_...5•2.....:.•. ,•.•:•-
..... ...•'..",.•.....
ill,.•,•._ .•.-•."-,- =.•, • ,:• ...• ---•,•N . • .....;., ,_.,,. .. ._•.i-I
 ll .-..--. ~.--. =-.

with seat back angles such as the F-l6, 300 from vertical tilt,
accelerations in the aircraft X axis can produce substantial com-
ponents along the physiological Z-axis and vice versa. This fac-
tor furthermore, must be taken into account in any simulation
which includes these devices.

NEGATIVE G PROTECTION

F Information on techniques for increasing the tolerance to neg-

ative Gz acceleration is somewhat less plentiful than for positive
Gz. In fact, in the literature search only two papers were uncov-
• I ered dealing with this subject. Both papers refer to the Muller
maneuver. This maneuver is essentially the opposite of the M1 or
j Li maneuver. The glottis is closed and the subject attempts in-
spiration. According to Putzulu (201), this maneuver was first
proposed in 138 by Muller specifically for the purpose of demon-
strating the effects of respiration on blood circulation and
determining the effect of negative intrapulmanory pressure on a
reduction of venous pressure.

A U.S. Air Force Aero Medical Laboratory memorandum of Janu-

ary 1948 (2) discusses the subject of venous pressure in the head
under negative acceleration and the authors point out that the
Muller experiment causes a decrease in intrathoracic pressure and
results in a marked relief of discomfort during exposure to nega-
tive acceleration. However, this maneuver was performed in an
intermittent fashion since it was found to cause alarming symptoms
when sustained under negative G. Since this maneuver is not well
S documen'Ced in the current literature it siems that no further
consideration should be given presently, however, it could be a
subject of future research in this area.

Another technique which has apparently not received extensive

research is the effect of cooling local areas to increase the
tolerances to positive acceleration. It has been shown that local

A-39f

bu
cooling of the legs, particularly (133), has increased the tol-
erance to positiv6 acceleration, by local thermally inducedI
vaso-constriction, on the order of 0.3 g. This device has re-
ceived so little attention and is apparently not used in the ac-
tive services and therefore, it also bears no further attention at

I
this point in time.

PROTECTIVE DEVICES SUMMARY

This section has attempted to set forth a description of the

or stimulation techniques suggested in the mechanization portion

of this study would have the benefit of a proper physiological
basis for these protective devices. The implementation of any
simulation devices should not interfere with the effect of stand-
ard pilot procedures under high G environment. In fact the intent
will be to incorporate those effects into the software drive model
such that any delays of achieving various thresholds due to pro-
tective devices will be taken into account.

A.3 Visual System

Loss of visual acuity is one of the most profound effects

of high acceleration flight maneuvers. The fact that a pilot
"blacks out" under certain high "G" conditions limits his capa-I
bilities in the air-to-air combat arena. The advent of modern
fighter aircraft, with low wing loading and high thrust, has
caused the pilot and not the airplane to be the limiting factor.

The visual effects are perhaps the most heavily researched

area of high acceleration physiological reactions. However, muchV
of the data that have resu Iýed from this research are not easily
correlated due to an absence .t7 standard def 4 .ritions and techni-
ques. The genesis of virtually all visual effects is cardiovas-
cular. In the Z-axist the major problem is either not enough

A- 40 ________-
 blood at the retina (+Gz) or too much blood (-Gz). For accelera-
tions along the aircraft longitudinal axis the visual effects are
minimal and have cardiovascular, mechanical and respiratory ori-
gins. The vast majority of research in the high "G" environment
has been conducted for positive Gz. This is motivated by the fact
that fighter aircraft have the greatest capability in that
direction.

At this point a brief anatomical description of the eye is

appropriate to provide backgroand for the ensuing discussion.
Figure A.3-1 is an illustration of the right eye viewed from the
outer side showing the visual axis passing through the center of
the lens to the point of sharpest vision at the fovea, where cones
are concentrated. The distribution of the central retinal artery
explains the changes in the ability of the eye to function in an
j excessive-G environment. Each of the retinal arteries' branches
is an end artery without anastomotic connections (inter-
connection of arteries and veins). After the main artery enters

I "the eyeball at the optic disc, it divides, then subdivides into

OPTIC: NERVE
. • /.SUPERIOR RECTUS

RET-4A C ILIARY iiOY

L • OPTIC DISC SCLERA

7i:ur A •
I'T L13 ::
ARTERY
veN-"
""
••,~ITREOUS
oue i:
O.I'' PUPIL
:oig-

INFERIOR OWGU|E/OMI 0IMl *

%qgure A.3-1 Right eye, viewed from outer side, showing

visual axis passing through center of lens

LEN
to point of sharpest vision at fovea,
where cones are concentrated (from Taylor
(194)).

A-41

Lg
increasingly fine vessels as they approach the periphery of the
retina, resulting in a blood pressure reduction as the vessels de-
crease in size.

If the blood supply is reduced, it is not unreasonable to

assume that the reduction in vision would proceed inward from the
periphery in a somewhat concentric manner. There is some asym-
metry, however, due to the fact that the retinal artery does not
enter at the center of the retina (Figure A.3-2). The pattern of
the visual field collapse will be discussed later.

VIUA
AldOPI Ai

. ~~ ~
o*.loom||... ~ WL IJ

OlhmPUP'L.

Yr:C -Z
I i I •h lt"|l•C 'ST.l* fksN

ii , ii

/ 111CONT
EYE
SOPTIC DliK AU

NASAL SlOETE ORLSD

lTeolopoe 1,old) (Nosel f*.lo )"

Figure A.3-2 Dimensions of the human eye (from Taylor

(094)).

A-1*2

[• "I
 Since there is no direct blood supply to the fovea it is rea-
sonable to assume a degradation in visual acuity prior to the
blackout. This may explain reports of "veiling", or "dimming" of
vision.

A.,3.1 Visual Effects of Vertical (Gz) Acceleration

As was stated previously this regime of acceleration is the

most well researched area of acceleration visual effects. It is
also the most important (especially positive Gz) vector to be con-
sidered since it is
the most often encountered and it produces the
most significant effects.

VISUAL ENDPOINTS

Grayout and blackout are the most often employed endpoints

used in acceleration research. However, the lack of a clear defi- F
nition of these two terms is a handicap in attempting to apply the
results of various research uniformly. It is generally accepted
that grayout is the loss of peripheral lights (PLL) and that
blackout is the loss of central light ".LL). But, there does not
exist a uniformly employed standard for peripheral lights or
central lights in terms of angular reference from the fixation
point, or some other convenient point. Also, intensities of the
lights employed are not necessarily standardized. Unconsciousness
is an often used endpoint, which is sometimes confused as
"blackout". Parkhurst, et al. (195) echo this sentiment and
support it with data from several sources that state different
thresholds:

Researcher PLL CLL UNC

Howard 4g 5g 5.5-6.Og
Cochran 4.lg 4.7g 5.4g
Gauer 3.0-3.5g 4.5-5.Og

A-43
LU
 Other variables which affect the results are the onset rates

employed, duration, the size of the centrifuge arm and the varia-
tions in the population.

The geometry of visual field collapse has not been widely re-
seav'ched. Gillies et. al (81) (Figure A.3.1-la, b, & c) and
Jaeger (57) (Figure A.3.1-ld, e, & f) have provided some insight

90 0 33240 so 60 70 6 so 1

aI

IA) THE DECREMENT OFTHE VISUAL FIEL.DDU RING POSITIVE (8) THEDECREMENT OFTHEVISUAL F:ELD DURING POSITIVE
ACCEL.ERATION AT 2.60- NOVISUAL SYMPTOMS 90 ACCELERATION AT3 OG- "GREYOUT" ANDLOSSOFPF.RIPI4E RAL VISIO~N

1201
10 I 008?001

(CI THE LOCATION OFTHE LAST REMAINING AREA OFVISION AS

BLACK OUTIS APPROACHED

Fiaure A.3.1-1 a,b, &c Degradation in the field of view at

three levels of acceleration (from Howard,
Gillies et al (81))

A- 44

-T
 • ...... I... a .n-in<• •
-=T-" -•

E into this aspect of the problem. Howard's plots illustrate the

degradation in the field of view at three levels of acceleration:
2.6g (a), 3.Og (b) and the last remaining area of vision as
blackout is approached. The elliptical area to the right of the
fixation point is the "blind spot" at the optic disc. Note that
the last remaining island of vision is between the fixation point
and the blind spot.
i

•/ 1.1

Iniial fitid loss is pronounced in the nasal field (left Nasal field loss (left eye) approaches fixation and
eye). Temporal field lost is minimal and limited to the periphery, temporal peripheral field loss is more pronounced.
Thes illustrations represent a composite field loss of the group
tested.

The subject is approaching blackout. Fixation has dis-

appeared and the last remaining island of vision is :ocated 5.100
peripheral to fixation.

Figure A.3.1-1 d, e, & f Monocular vinual field loss

(from Jaeger et al (127)). "Field" as
used above refers to that ficld as seen
by the left eye.

A-45

1
-- M
J
 Janger's data was taken by use of plethysmographic goggles
and verified by centrifuge runs. The two data sets illustrate
basically the same results with slightly different geometry. How-
ever, the details of Howard's experiments are not known; therefore
correlation is difficult. I
Experiments by Gillingham & McNaughton (87) seem to have pro-
duced some of the best information on visual field collapse.
Figure A.3.1-2 illustrates the remaining upper half of the three
different seat-back angles.

The rate at which the visual field collapses is also not

thoroughly researched. Haines (107) provides the results of his

work with gradual onset rates (GOR) of acceleration which are not
applicable to the fighter aircraft environment. Kydd (146) pre-
sents data on time to PLL for haversine input profiles which prob-
ably fairly closely resemble aircraft acceleration profiles. How-
ever, PLL is only one point, albeit not a uniformly defined one.

(7.0)

6.0 . .. "

5.o. --

4.0 '

3.5 ,~ '
13-01 ,L
13° 45W 650
SEATBACK 4E1
Figure A.3.1-2 Re--ainm ng ,..pper half of three seat-back T
an: es Irc% Giilingham & McNaughton
(s7 l ctýsrtesy of Aviation Space anzd
Env_ mnment, I Medicine).

A- 46
[ Gillingham & McNaughton (87) have provided some useful data in
this area as well. Figure A.3.1l-3 illustrates some of these data;
[ however, the effects of onset rate and duration are not easily

separated.f

[ ~~~~FIELD ~ m ~>

10 A

REMAININ d3rin C tesa Iiuae

650.*" 45,ad1ssobc age. A

.3.-3
Figre es650 e subject
o tol. - pak
oerate
with
visulfedlimita (87) (corticsy
trcackero

little visual loss; at 4S , he blacked

out after a 6-G peak; at 130, he lost
consciousness during a 5-G peak. (from
of Aviation Space and Environmental
medicine).

A-47

or
S- ---- -..- ~-~- A
 MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF VISUAL SYSTEM

The manner in which the physiological effects of vertical

acceleration are discussed is to employ a mathematical model of
the system. Figure A.3.1-4 presents this mathematical model.

GI
GEAe- + Pe P
Gz

SANTI-G SUIT BRIGHTNESS

M1, VALSALVA, ETCETERA

IF

F(E))i

Figure A.3.1-4 Mathematical model of visual effects of

acceleration.

Block A represents the relationship of heart-to-eye distance

as a function of aircraft seatback angle. This reflects the al-
tered hydrostatic pressure requirements due to different seat- j i
back configurations. The normal heart-to-eye vertical distance
measured in an erect seated position is approximately 28 cm. The
manner in which the distance changes is illustrated in Figure
A.3.1-5.

A- 48
[
[ o°
100 30 o

650

,, , • / .

-J 2=

4. 5

Figure A.3.1-5 Decreased vertical heart-to-eye distances

obtained by tiltina backward (from Burns
(28)) (courtesy of Aviation Space and
Environmental Medicine).

AS can be seen there is no significant decrease until a seat

back angle of 450 is attained. Current aircraft seat back angles
do not exceed 30*. Assuming 28 cm distance, a pressure of 25 mm
Hg is required to overcome the force of gravity in order to raise
the blood from heart to eye level. With an acceleration of +4 Gz

(4g turn), the pressure required would be about 100 mm Hg. As-
suming the subject's systolic arterial pressure at the heart level
is 120 mm Hg, the systolic pressure of blood at the head level
during exposure to a force of 4g would be 120 minus 100 mm Hg.
Assuming that the normal intraocular pressure is approximately 20
mm Hg, it is evident that the blood flow to the eye will cease
under these conditions (1).

A4
S..... .............
.......... "•-A-• 49 * • • ' • "••"'°-'' ±I •:i -. '•,.,: . •.-I Lv
 The effects of acceleration on vision can be compared to the
impairment produced by applying pressure to the eyeballs with a
tonometer. As the intraocular pressure is increased above eye
level arterial pressure, the vascular wall collapses, thus reduc-
ing retinal blood flow and causing progressive impairment of vi-
sion. Andina (81) found that complete loss of vision was produced
when effective blood pressure in the central retinal artery was
reduced to 21 mm Hg (82). With the normal intraocular tension
being about 20 mm Hg, he concluded that there existed no blood
flow into the eyes.

SEAT BACK ANGLE EFFECTS

The relationship for Block A can be given as:

Gz DH/E (SA) [Eq. a.3.l-1]

i28

Where Gze is the effective acceleration, DH/E is the approximate

heart to eye dista-ice in centimeters, from Figure A.3.1-6, as a
function of seat back angle. The function given as Figure A.3.1-6

•30
U
22S

- OF

.4
10

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 BID

SA-SEAT-IACK ANGLE-DEGREES

Ficiure A.3.1-6 Heart-to-eye vertical distance as a function

of seat-back angle.

At
A- 50
~1

I.!
 is approximated from the data of Figure A.3.1-5. Since the model
~1 is
largely a series of approximations, a linear approximation here
does not cause a reduction of rigor and is quite adequate.

EYE LEVEL BLOOD PRESSURE

Next a relationship between effective acceleration and a

LI change in eye-level blood pressure must be provided. This is rep-
, tj resented as Block B in Figure A.3.1-4. The change in eye level
blood pressure due to acceleration is not a simple function of
acceleration. Howard (81) feels that the time dependencies are of

blood pressure until the main artery is in total retrograde flow.

Early work in this area suggest that high G visual disturbances

are dependent on onset rate. Stoll (234) experimentally developed
the relationship among rate of onset# symptoms, and elapsed time
from onset to symptoms as shown in Figure A.3.1-7. More recently,
Gillingham et al. (85) developed a G to mean eye level blood pres-
sure transfer function, H(s), of the form:

A(s) + B(s) D(s)

H(s) =[Eq. A.3.1-2]
1 + B(s) C(s)

where A(s) represents the direct effects of the hydrostatic load

on the blood and body, B(s) represents the various neural, hor-I
monal, and mechanical effectors that translate control signals
into blood pressure (primarily via changes in the heart rate,
venous compliance, and arterial resistance), and C(s) represents
the dynamics of the several baroreceptor feedback mechanisms. The
effects of the vestibulo-cerebellar inputs to the cardiovascular
control system are included in D(s) (85). Figure A.3.1-7 presents
the comparison of the empirical results with thG actual response.
The results of Gillingham's (85) work produced the following
transfer, function:

A-51
 1 + 7.66s 0 4 6 4 [q. A.3.1-3]
H(s) -18.1 + 4.46s + 7.63s2 e

MAXIMUM G
7.3 /sec.

S16. 6.0 GAOC. *, Groyout

• Blockout
*• Confusion, Possibly
14.
I/
.7 G/"sc.
Unconsciousness
Unconsciousness
/3
12- 2.3 G/se..

10.4 G/sec,
~01 G/sec.

6. ý G/sec,
03 02G e,

- - ---- -- -- -- --

0.5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Seconds
TOTAL TIME FROM START OF ACCELERATION TO
ENO POINT

Fiaure A.3-1-7 G-tolerance curve with various acceleration

rates (from Stoll (234)). (courtesy of Journal
of Aviation medicine).

EFFECTS OF PROTECTIVE DEVICES

To this point in the discussion, all considerations were with

a relaxed pilot with no protective devices. This is not normally
the case, as high performance fighter pilots wear anti-G suits and
employ straining maneuvers such as the Valsalva, M-l, or positive
pressure breathing.

Table A.3.1-2 illustrates the effects the anti-G suit and

Valsalva maneuver have on the PLL end point.

The data from Shubrooks & Leverett (224) given in Section

A.2.3 of this report indicate an elevation of the eye level blood ]
A-52
T

pressure of 50-80 mm Hg for the Valsalva maneuver. Gillingham and

Krutz (86) show approximately 60 mm Hg increase. Therefore it
seems reasonable to employ a relationship such as;
Pes - 60 mm Hg Eq. A.3.1-41

for any of the straining maneuvers. A detailed explanation of the

maneuvers is given in Section A.2.3 of this report.
Table A.3.1-2 +Gz levels at which end points occurred during
15-s exposures alonq with visual symptoms 7t
each end point and tine at which they occurred.

Valsalva Suit +
Subi Control W/o suit Suit Alone Valsalva

A 3.1 PLL-9s 4.0 PLL-10sa 4.5 PLL-5s 5.2 PLVD-Is e

B 3.9 PLVD-7s 5.2 PLL-7s 6.1 NVS-15sd 6.3 NVS-15sd
C 4.4 PLL-14s 5.1 PLL-14sb 5.4 PLL-15s 7.0 NVS-15sf
D 3.3 PLL-9s 3.9 PLL-6s 4.6 PLL-lls 6.2 PLL-7sg
E 4.3 PLL-6s 5.0 NVSc 5.3 PLL-4s 6.8 NVS-15s
i
F 3.7 PLL-9s 4.9 BO-6s 5.2 PLD-15s 6.7 PLD-6s
"Abbreviations: PLL = peripheral light loss;
PLVD =peripheral light dim; BO - black out;
"",NS* no visual symptoms. aPLL during long
inhalationP Psa 60/27 just before centrifuge
stopped. 6 PLL at end of single valsalva
held for 14s. CPsa did not fall below 86/65
except during the one inhalation when peri-
"pheral lights di~rmed slightly. dWith suit
alone at 6.1 G and with suit + valsalva at
6.3G, peripheral lights were approximately
50% dimmed early in run only, followed by
complete clearinq of vision; Psa was at most
times higher during the valsalva run. Val-
salva maneuver
epLVD was not well
during prolonged performed.
inhalation at lls;
full run was completed and Psa had increased
to 65/j0 just before centrifuge stopped at
15s. Psa never less than 60/45 and was 120/8C
at end of run. No fu ther runs were performed
because of fatigue. PLL during prolonged
inhalation at 7s; Psa had increas-d to 75/25
just before centrifuge stopped. 5Psa at no
point lower than 75/55 and had reached 182/120
during third valsalva just before end of run.
No furtner runs performed because of fatigue.
Peripheral and central lights approximately
50% dimmed during inhalations; Psa was 115/
50 just before the inhalation. All above
arterial pressures are referenced to eye
level. (from Shubrooks & Leverett (224))

A-53
 A relationship for change in eye level blood pressure Mue to
the use of an anti-G suit ( 4Pegs) is derived from the following
considerations. Burton et al. (34) have postulated the following
relationships for an increase in G tolerance due to wearing and
inflating an anti-G suit. These relationships were defined in

fi
Section A.2.3.

If it is assumed that the increass in eye level blood pres-

sure is 25 mm Hg for each G unit of increased tolerance the equa-
tion for A Pegs in mm Hg is given by

APegs - 25 (GT - GC) [Eq. A.3.1-5] j

The algebraic sum of all the pressure changes is taken with

heart level arterial pressure (Pa) which then yields the resulting
eye level blood pressure (Pe).

INTRAOCULAR PRESSURE

The block H represents a transfer function which relates in-

traocular pressure to Gz. Intraocular pressure is normally rela-
tively constant, being maintained by a complex pressure regulation
system. Young & Supfer (271) propose the model

&Pi(t) = AV(t) KPoe-KPoCt [Eq. A.3.1-6]

to relate change in intraocular pressure (A Pi) to change in exter-

nal volume. In the above equations K represents scleral rigidity,
P0 the nominal intraocular pressure, and C the flow conductivity.
This relationship holds for a non-acceleratory environment. A re-
lationship between AVT and acceleratllrn must be determined. To -t
date none has been found.

Another approach might be possible, however, based on th( .•

fact that in a -Gz acceleration environment venous return flow is

A-54
1:-

stopped. An acceleration of -3 Gz results in venous pressures on

the order of '00 mm Hg (86):

"As the pressure in the vessels of the neck increases during

-Gz, the carotid sinus reflex and reflexes initiated by low-pres-
sure system volume receptors cause a slowing of the heart and a
dilation of the arterioles. The reduced heart rate and the de-
creased total peripheral resistance cause the a::terial pressure to
approach the venous pressure. As the pressure gradient across the
capillaries declines, cerebral blood flow decreases. This may
result in cerebral stagnant hypoxia if the acceleration is pro-
longed" (86). Within the ocular circulation system, elevation of
the intraocular pressure results in the dilation of the disten-
V. sible blood vessels, chiefly the choriocapillars. When all the
blood vessels dilate ad maximum, the intraocular pressure prevents
the access of blood to the eye (1). The restricted blood flow
produces ocular hypoxia and the general "grayout" and eventual
loss of vision.

The relationship for intraocular pressure in this case is

"given by

- 33 (-Gz) ® + 20 [Eq. A.3.1-7]

where the symbol • implies that If (-Gz) < 0; Pi - 20

If (-,Gz) > 0; Pi - 33 (-Gz)+20.
However, this only admits to changes in Pi due to negative Gz. No
support for the position that there is any change from + Gz hAs
been found.

RETINAL CIRCULATION FLOW RATE

Block "C" represents the integration of the difference in eye

level blood pressure and the intraocutar pressure. The integra-
tion over the vessel area would yield the flow rate or velocity of

A- 5 5
blood into the retina circulatory system. Of prime interest is
i-.he mass flow rate of oxygen to the retina. As flow rate slows,
the peripheral retina may have insufficient oxygen to perform
properly. Block "C" appears as

S. (Pe - Pi)
dt [Eq. A.3.1-8]
A

This term may be treated as a parametric control system, in which

the resistance (A) is a positive monotonic function of (Pe - Pi),
going to aýwith Pe -Pi, representing vessel collapse. Now com-
bining the flow rate in the retinal circulatory system and the par-
tial pressure of oxygen in the inspired air, the oxygen saturation
at a particular point G from the fovea could be computed if a re-
lationship were available. However, none has been found to date.
Another approach ie to compute oxygen saturation (S-0 2 ) from a
function derived from the data of Figure A.3.1-8, which relates
Pa 0 2 to GZ.

-
95 LEVERETT AT. AL. (1973)

5RFiNG
/ *
•0 MICHAELSON (1972)
Pao2 "97.5, -0-093 G
P20
85 -
0 .996; P<0.01l

55 0

45

1 2 3 4 5 $ 7 8 G

PFigure A.3.1-8 -han-ies in P ausociated with various levels

HSG (from Burtoi, Leverett, and Michaeisc-_

) A5

A-5 6 -.

[ !... ...... . .... ....

 This relationship would appear in Block D. Another approach
would be to relate blood pressure to visual effects with a delay
and neglect 02 tensiou. Further, if this approach were employed
it would be advisable to consider the visual effects as a function
of the product of acceleration and time in a "leaky" integral.

If a suitable relationship were available, the model would

continue as Block E relates the level of oxygen saturation (S-0 2 )
at some angle 0. The output of Block E is then the dynamic re-
sponse of that portion of the retina based on predicted S-0 2
levels. Block F represents the spatial relation of acuity of 60
to the full acuity. The output is D(G) and would follow a rela-
tionship of the form illustrated in Figure A.3.1-9.

*- DISTANICE
FROM FOVEA

Figure \.3.1-9 Visual acuity relative to the fovea at a

function of eye-level blood pressilre.

The intersection of DO, Go, and predicted eye level blood

pressure yield the minimum discrimination angle visible at any par-
ticular point in the pilot's field of view.

A-57
 Blocks D, E & F are not defined in current literature. There-
fore a modified model appears in Figure A.3.1-10. Here Block C is
a simplified model of C, D, and E. The representation maincains
the model in blood pressure. The block contains a gain as a func-
tion of G to represent the change in Pa 0 2, hence a change in S-0 2
of arterial blood and a first order lag that simulates the time de-
pendency of depletion of oxygen in the retinal peripheral vessels.

II
Fioure A.3.l-10 Blood diagram of modification to visual
effects model eliminating requirement of
functional relationships among blood
pressure, flow rate and 0 saturation.
2i

Block C' would contain the relationship,

Pe - Pi = K(G) [Eq. A.3.1-9]

P' Ts+l

where P' is the predicted blood pressure.

D' (B) is
then the relation of minimum discrimination angle
as a function of predicted blood pressure in the eye and angular
measure from the fovea. A relationship for D' (P', 0) is not
available in the literature other than to be derived from rela-
tionships of acuity as a function of Gz and blood pressure (P')
also as a function of Gz.

It
is known that as positive acceleration lkers the central -

I arterial pressure, blood flow stops in the small peripheral yes-

sels. Haines (105) suggests there is a critical closing pressure

A- 58
- . A
 (pressure within a blood vessel) which is reached in the extreme
peripheral area of the retina. The onset _f the closing was evi-
dent in vision for greater than 70* from the line of sight (104).
Krutz et al. (145) correlated the blood flow in the superficial
temporal artery and direct eye level blood pressure to subjective
visual symptoms during +Gz accelerations. When blackout was
approached (2.7 to 4.6 g's), eye level arterial blood pressure
began to fall concomitant with the occurrence of retrograde flow
in the temporal artery (Figure A.3.1-11 and Figure A.3.1-12).
Zero forward temporal flow (OTA) was determined with both graphic
and audio recordings 6 seconds (4 to 9 range) prior to blackout.
Eye level mean arterial pressure (Pa) decreased to 20 +1 mm Hg
when zero forward QTA was initially recorded (144). Based on ar-
terial distribution, increasing acceleration should, by progres-
sively cutting off the blood supply to the peripheral parts of the

i olo
250[r

125 ,.IW ,m muaaaui.aIma..u J

(Mm Hg)

Fo H 125-
(rMM gq0?"K
-•-•-"

ECG MIN

1 see

Fiaure A.3.1-11 Eye-level arterial pressure and blood flow

responses durigig rapid onset run (ROR,
1 G/S). Qta = nondirectional temporal
artery blood flow velocity; Pa - eye-level
arterial blood pressure; Pa - mean eye-
level blood pressure. (from Krutz et al (1"))
(courtesy of Journal of Applied Physiology).

A-59

l
 +G~

+z 10

to' LEFT

Qto' RIGHT

0RIGHT0 ~

Hg) S•mm
- 250

Pa
(mam H9)

-b-...........- ....

Figure A.3.1-12 Occurrence of retrograde flow in the temporal

artery prior to peripheral light loss (PLL)
and subsequent blackout. A nondirectional
signal processor was used with ths trans-
ducer on the left temporal artery; a dir-
ectional signal processor was used with
the transducer on the right temporai
artery. (from Krutz et al (144)) (courtesy
of Journal of Applied Physiology).

retina, produce an almost concentric narrowing of the field of

vision. Since there is no direct arterial supply to the fovea,
visual acuity degenerates well before 9erception of light is lost
(81) (Figure A.3.1-1).

The derivation of this model has neglected any changes in

color perception as a function of +Gz. There is no fir 1
A-60
!
indicate that color changes occur during high sustained +Gz0
Brightness has also been neglected. Only at very low light levels
(less than 0.2 ft-L) is visual perception a function of luminance
and +Gz (98).

A simplified model relating Gz to visual field remaining ap-

pears in Section 4.3.3. This model can currently be used in any
mechanizations while the more sophisticated model must await fur-
ther research.

NEGATIVE G EFFECTS

Some further notes on negative Gz are appropriate at this

point. In general a small percentage of aircraft maneuvering is
accomplished in the negative G environment. This is a result of
two factors: 1) aircraft are not stressed to accommodate this
"environment and 2) pilots are uncomfortable in this environment
and therefore avoid it. The most controversial area of negative
-Gz is that associated with the "redout" phenomenon. This phen-
omenon has had a great mystique associated with it. Some report
that it has never been reproduced experimentally (86), some report
it has occurred in flight (81 & 176), and one author has reported
its occurrence in the centrifuge (Ryan (214)).

The mechanism which causes redout is also controversial.

Some postulate petechical hemorrhages proliferated by lacrimal
fluid; others conjecture that the engorged conjunctiva are pulled
over in the eyes. Even the reports of it in flight are sporadic,
causing the phenomenon to remain somewhat enigmatic. Also re-
ported by Howard (81) is an occurrence of halos surrounding bright
objects. While grayout dimming has not been reported (134), Ryan
(214) reports "Visual symptoms during the negative G tests were
frequent and diverse in character. Blurring of the vision was the
most common complaint. A few subjects noted some graying of
vision, while others, particularly during the -2.5 and - 3 Gz runs,

A-6-1
experienced a reddening of vision, involving either the whole
visual field or only its periphery".

Another interesting visual phenomenon, the "elevator effect",

(43) is described in Section A.4.1 of this report.

A.3.1 Visual Effects of Transverse Acceleration

The visual effects of transverse G are minimal. According to

Gillingham & Krutz (86), subjects have withstood up to 15 Gx
without blackout. Some visual disturbances have been noted above
12 Gx. the form of blurring and
These disturbances have been in
excess lacrimation. The authors conjecture that the visual aber-
ration may be caused by distortion of the eyeball due to the large
force acting on the eye.

Duane (62) reports similar findings. Graying, he states, may

be due to retinal .schemia, but he further states that no way to
measure this is available. Duane noted thit in myopic subjects,
posterior shortening of the globe may occur.

Very little research has been accomplished in regard to later-

al acceleration. Some petechiae have been reported in the right
orbit at -5 Gy; also a scleral hemorrhage occurred at +4 Gy.
Blurred vision was reported by one subject at +4 Gy. These ef-
fects are reported in Fraser (71); however, the likelihood of
exposure to accelerations of this magnitude along the Y-axis of
the body is virtually nonexistent.

A.3.2.1 Lacrimation

Blurring of vision at relatively high levels of prone and

supine G acceleration effects (Gx) is not uncommon and has been
attributed to lacrimation, the process of tears forming in the
eyes, disrupting the path of incoming light rays. In most cases,

A-62 iI
Li the symptom does not occur until G levels exceed the 6g range and
is still evidenced in the 12 to 14g region (50, 86). Although the

lacrimal event does not appear to be sensitive to the direction of

Gx the authors note the usc of adjectives "abundant" and "exces-
sive" used to describe tearing under -Gx (50, 244), whereas those
accounts describing similar experiences under larger magnitude
plus Gx conditions simply note the occurrence of lacrimation (86,
160). It is possible that more than one mechanism is at work in
acceleration induced lacrimation.

The literature offers little insight into the causes of ac- J

celeration induced lacrimation. Secretions to lubricate and pro-
tect the eyes fall into three categories (1). Normal lacrimation
lubricates and protects the conjunctiva/cornea interface and is
issued in small quantities by accessory lacrimal glands of
Wolfring and Krause located in the superior and inferior fornix, a
sac beneath upper and lower eyelids (Figure A.3.2.1-1). Secondly,
- an oily secretion is exuded to the edge of the upper and lower
eyelids to the cheek. The third category of secretion is the pro-

I4
It

ORBICULARIS MUSCLE -

6LANDS OF KRAUSE

GLANDS flF WOIFRING-- SUPERIOR FORNIX

CONJUCTIVAINFERIOR FORNIX
GLANDS OF KRAUSE

Fiqure A.3.2.1-1 Saoittal section through eyelid and eyeball

(after Whitnall (1)).

A-.63
duct of the lacrimal gland located in the upper temporal quadrant
of the orbital area of the eye (Figure A.3.2.1-2). Whereas the
accessory lacrimal glands produce only enough lacrimal fluid to
keep the cornea/conjunctiva moist and much of this is lost to
evaporation (181), the lacrimal gland can produce sufficient
quantities of fluid to produce significant tearing and flush the
eye of irritants.

LEVATOR PALPEBRAE SUPERIORIS

LACRIMAL GLAND - INFERIOR CANALICULUS

ORBITAL PORTION
- LACRIMAL LAKE
LACRIMAL GLAND -
PALPEBRAL PINFERIOR PUNCTUM
LACRIMAL FASCIA (PUMP)

j I -

r'iaure A.3.2.1-2 Frontal diagram of selected elements of the

right eye (modified after Adler (1)).

Lacrimal fluid generally enters temporally and is moved in a

nasal direction under the "squeeze" action of orbicularis muscle
to collect the lacrimal lake at the inner canthus. Upper and low-
er punctum form dra'ns permitting fluid collecting in the l-crimal
lake to enter the lacrimal sac through the tube-like canaliculi.
Dissections of the lacrimal sac reveal a pumplike diaphragm which
moves in a direction parallel to the horizontal plane. Tears form
when lacrimal fluid flow from the lacrimal gland and the accessory

A-64

-•, , , - .•,• .. .. • .. • v•;.<a • •;r:.• ,,.,,, ;• ,,-•. , -i

k
 SIl
lacrimal glands exceed the capabi'4 ies of the lacrimal sac pump,
canaliculi, and punctum to drain the lacrimal lake.

The literature suggests three types of lacrimation, but the

innervation of each is not precisely and definitely known. Normal
lacrimation from the accessory glands is governed in part by the
cervical sympathetics (1), and it is also noted that parasympathe--
tic and sympathetic fibers join the efferent nerve path leading
toward the lacrimal gland (see Figure A.3.2.1-3), suggesting that
normal secretion from the accessory lacrimal glands might be aug-
mented at times by the lacrimal gland. The second type of lacrima-
tion is psychic, the product of emotion, and its stimulus arises
centrally and appears on the 7th cranial nerve path serving as the
efferent nerve path leading to the lacrimal gland, which suggests
lacrimal fluid issued during psychic weeping is primarily the pro-
duct of the lacrimal gland. The third type of lacrimation is also
a product of the lacrimal gland, wherein large quantities of fluid
are required to flush the eye, and is known as reflex lacrimation.

•T •CORNEA/

•CNUCIAOLFACTORY
ILSTIMULUS
TRIGEMINAL
CIAT GANGLION SPCNERVA LACRIMINAL
CRANIAL
NERVE NERVR

NTNJPATTIV REFLEX AFFREN PAT

SEVI FACIALC
.'RANIAL' -,-
ERVE NERAT

NERVESUPERFICIAL
PARASYMPATHETIC PEROALNEV
SECRETORY FIBERS / DYPTEI
EEP
SYMPAHETIC PETROSAL
FIBERS NERVE

P N. ZY O AI - - .".-..,,•••
!'i-:ure A.3.2.1-3 Primary afferent and efferent pathways
affiliated with the lacrimal gland (after
Adler and %lutch0I)),

IL A-65
Afferent reflex stimuli issued when the conjunctiva or the
olfactory sensors become irritated, travel inward along the
lacrimal nerve, a branch of th* ophthalmic division of the 5th
cranial nerve. The reflex arc is co.ipleted by the appearance of
reflex induced stimuli appearing at the 7th cranial nerve and
traveling the efferent path to the lacrimal gland.

It does not seem reasonable to attribute acceleration induced

lacrimation to psychic weeping because the emotional stress of +Gz
seems likely to be of the same or larger magnitude as that accom-
panying Gx yet lacrimation is not documented as a +Gz rymptom. A
similar but less convincing argument might be made foi reflex
lacrimation. Superficially, it would seem that both Gx and Gz
might cause conjunctiva/olfactory stimulation; however, without a
detailed examination of the dynamics of these sensors as affected
by the inertial effects of both x and z acceleration, the argument
must be held in abeyance. It would be most interesting to subject
individuals known to be capable of psychic weeping but possessing
a dysfunction of the reflex afferent path to a Gx centrifuge ex-
perience in order to determine if lacrimation occurs. The absence
of the symptom would build a case for acceleration induced reflex
lacrimation. The presence of lacrimation in Gx but not Gz would
tend to indicate that a mechanical rather than neurological condi-
tion is responsible for acceleration induced lacrimation.

A clue, possibly implicating mechanical rather than neuro-

logical lacrimal cause, is provided by Duane (62), who recounts a
NASA experiment in -Gx centrifuge runs wherein a graying of the
visual field was observed at the 6 to 8g region. Cinephotography
of the eyes captured tha appearance of a tear film forming in the
upper temporal quadrant of the eye and spreading across the cor-
nea. The film issued from the region of the lacrimal gland and
not the accessory lacrimal glands, suggesting that possibly this
gland, caught between the forward inertial force of the eyeball
and the unyielding boney structure forming the temporal portion of

A-66
 the eyeball socket, may have been mechanically squeezed, inducing
issuance of lacrimal fluid. The fact that the tear film spread
across the cornea can obviously be attributed, in part, to iner-
tial effects operating on the fluid as well as surface tension.
It would also indicate the lacrimal issuance was in sufficient
quantity to justifiably be considered the product of the lacrimal
gland.

As earlier stated, the authors found lacrimation documented

as occurring in both plus and minus Gx with less definitive state-
ments associated with + Gx occurrence. Likewise, lacrimal gland
compression in +Gx does not seem so plausible. If we are to ac-
cept lacrimation, and unless there exists a major disruption in
the accessory lacrimal glands significantly increasing their pro-
duction capability, it would seem that the lacrimal gland must
also somehow be involved in +Gx lacrimation. A possible exception
to this might exist if the lacrimal sac were found, under inertial
compression, to permit already drained lacrimal fluid to reverse
flow through the canaliculi into the lacrimal lake.

"G CUING POTENTIAL

In the absence of considering the possible effects of drug

usage, the only path to reliably induce lacrimation in the unac-
celerated state appears to be through reflex arc stimulation.
Initially, the authors felt that exposing the eye to a gaseous
irritant would likely produce lacrimation on command. It does,
but common irritants also produce detectable pain in the conjunc-
tiva, which is not acceptable. Fumes of ammonia, onions, smoke

and phenylbrormo-aceto-nitrate (tear gas) administered without

exposure to the olfactory apparatus all produce tears in varying
quantities, but also the undesirable side effect of pain. Very
significant reflex stimulation is possible by employing the olfac-
tory sensors; however, the ingested irritant must be perceptibly
odorless and, to be acceptable as a cuing mechanism, indisputably

L A-67
harmless. Finding such a substance may be more difficult than it
is worth when it is noted that the end products of lacrimati.on,
visual blurring and fogging, are also associated with +Gz effects
and induced by other physiological phenomena. As such, the visual
effects of Gx could most economically be generated by the Gz
production. This approach is further warranted based on the in-
frequent occurrences in which a lacrimal acceleration environment
exists in the high performance atmospheric aircraft flight envel-
ope.

A.3.3 Summary

The visual effects resulting from high G flight have been

presented in this section. A structure of a mathematical model of

these physiological effects was postulated. Some functional rela-
tionships await further research to complete the model. However,
a simplified model is presented in Section (4.3.3).

A.4 Musculoskeletal

A.4.1 Extremities

Extremity loading would seem to be an important part of the

high G environment when considered as either proprioceptive cuing
of environmental acceleration magnitude or as the introduction of
constraints upon manual task performance. Under conditions of
+2 Gz it is reported that a subject can barely rise from his seat,
under +3 Gz it is nearly impossible to raise the leq, under
+6 Gz the arms cannot be raised above the head, and under +8 Gz
the forearm cannot be raised from a horizontal rest (120, 256).
Surely with effects as noticeable as these one would expect con-
siderable research to have been conducted in the area of extremity
perfotmance and proprioception under high G conditions. Such is
not the case.

A-68 *1
 MEMO
The authors share Kroemer' s (140) surprise to find little
systematic research regarding extremity muscular force capability
under high G conditions. Grether (98) encountered the same ab-
sence of research concerning manual control capability under ac-
celeration and drily observed that "perhaps the effects appeared
so obvious to research workers that they felt research was unnec-
essary'. Our search has revealed very little additional data,
certainly none which directly assesses the importance of limb
proprioception and control in the context of aircraft piloting and
misqsion performance. Nevertheless, sufficient data does exist to
provide a reasonable departure point for discussing a portion of
the mechanization of limb proprioception under high G and some
physiological performance findings will suggest means to recreate
these conditions in the lg environment. our investigation herein
will be limited to the arms.

Consider the human arm to be composed of two segments: thet

forearm and hand, hinged with respect to the upper arm at the
elbow joint, and the upper arm hinged with respect to the upper
eacho of thesehtoule
segmnts Ian
btake as6ivpounds (108)ewegh.o
torso at thes shouldergjont. can bake
160iv pounds
mae1hew8gh.o
Joint freedom and muscular support permits both of these segments
to be positioned such that, under inertial acceleration effects,
momntsabout the supporting joint arise. These inertial accel-
eration moments are either:

a) Totally resisted by change in muscular tone such thatI

segment position remains unchanged.

b) Partially resisted by muscle tonal change permitting

some alteration in segment position.

c) Not resisted at all by muscle tonal change with conse-

quent movement of the segments constrained only by the

A-69
 dynamics of the acceleration event, the degr-.; of
freedom permitted by the joints, and space., .e.

Inertially induced segment movement and/or muscle ,o•n+1

change can occur in the arm held static as well s the arm direct-
ed to movement.

PROPRIOCEPTION

The obvious sensory mechanisms for proprioceptive detection

of inertially induced arm loading are those sensors which register
muscular tension, muscle outflow, segment position, and tactile
pressure. Under the predominant acceleration vector of concern,
+Gz, and based on the positions the arm may normally assume within
a tactical aircraft cockpit, the main muscular systems employed by
the seated subject in resisting or compensating for +Gz are the
biceps/triceps governing the forearm/hand segment and the deltoid/
lattissimus dorsi governing the upper arm segment. The shoulder
joint and elbow joint play roles in perceiving segment position.

MUSCULAR TENSION REGISTRATION

Although controversy surrounds the method by which segment

relative placement or skeletal spatial position and attitude is
perceived, there seems relatively firm and consistent agreement
that the Golgi tendon organ, Figure A.4.1-2,.is the principal
mechanism for measuring muscular tension. The rate of discharge
of the tendon receptor tends to follow muscular strain such that
as the contraction and tension of a set of muscular fibers becomes
more severe, a greater number of tendon receptors contribute to

the total discharge (116,178). Borah et al. (22) advocate a Golgi

tendon organ response such as that shown in Figure A.4.1-1, which
depicts a discharge output profile of very rapid rise time border-
ing on the characteristics of a discrete step with subsequent
adaptation decay. +|

A-70
 60

40 7rUL FORC

20

Figure A. 4.1-1 d
Model for Golgi Tendon organ function aus
experimental result of increasing muscle

tension (from Houk and Hennean, Borah).

The above points, taken individually, do not specifically

define how variable muscular tension is monitored in continuous
form. Taken together they seem to suggest that if a uniform ten-
sion threshold applies for all tendon receptors in the set of
muscular fibers, as an additional muscular support is desired, a
greater number of muscular fibers and their tendon organs are
"brought on-line" discretely. Alternately variable thresholds
might be uniquely assigned the tendon receptors auch that as
tension increases, a greater number of tendon receptors enter
their accelerated discharge state. The behavior of the discharge
suggests the Golgi tendon organ to be positioned in series with
the muscle fiber and this is supported by anatomical evidence
(116). The afferent path from the Golgi tendon organ is stimu-
lated by -muscle fiber contraction. However, artificially placing
the receptor under tension by invasive means does not produce a
perception of increased load (93). There has been some stuccess in
artificially, in non-invasive form, stimulating the afferent paths
of the overall set of receptors employed within the muscle fiber
through the use of externally applied vibration (93, 99).

A-71
 Although tendon organ afferents were somewhat stimulated by
vibration, Goodwin et al. (93) believe the primary effect was ex-
perienced by the primary spindle receptors as opposed to the secon-
dary spindle and tendon receptors. This conclusion was based on
the fact that the vibratory stimulus primarily introduced an illu-
sion of segment movement, or velocity, which materialized as an
error in assessment of segment spatial position and was similarily
experienced regardless of muscle tension levels. Therefore a
vibratory stimulus of this nature does not seem to hold promise
for usefully stimulating the Golgi tendon organ receptors for the
purpose of forming an impression of muscle tension in the absence
of actual muscle tension. Further the vibratory stimulus would
introduce a set of related tactile perceptions which would detract
from the desired perception.

SKELETAL SPATIAL POSITION PERCEPTION

Additional information concerning the magrnitude of external

load can be derived by assessing, in conjunction with the measure
of muscular tension, the positional change of a skeletal segment
subjected to the load. The acknowledgment of zero positional
change is informative in itself. Perception of spatial position
and attitude of upper and lower arm segments in this case is
derived from joint receptors located in the shoulder and elbow
joints as well as the estimate of the length, or stretch, of
muscles controlling upper and lower arm.

As recently as 1966 the idea that muscle length registration

is used in the perception of skeletal joint angles was met with
skepticism (79, 178). Rather, the burden of this perception was
ascribed, in the main, to joint receptor afferents. Only in the
last few years have the muscle stretch receptors, muscle spindles,
been assigned a more significant role In Joint angle perception "
(93). The shift in emphasis is not so much a result of dramatic -.

A-72
 findings concerning the stretch receptors as it is in a greater
acceptance of a fundamental ambiguity of the joint receptor, whose
afferent. impulses are altered by tension in the muscular system
driving the joint (99). This is not a new finding; in 1956
Skoglund observed this phenomenon within the knee joint of a cat
(116). Muscle length registcation would form a basis of compen-
sation for joint receptor ambiguity.

The muscle spindle, Figure A.4.1-2, is interspersed through-

out the fibers of the muscle. The spindle is innervated by V (ef-
ferent) fibers in cross network form such that a single Y fiber

NUCLEAR CHAIN FIBERS

NUCLEAR BAG FIBER '

MOTOR PLATE ENDING

"VEFFERENT /
FLOWER SPRAY ENDINGS
SECONDARY AFFERENTS /M '
E"XTRAFU1SAL
MUSCLE FIBERS

ANNULOSPIRAL ENDINGS /
PRIMARY AFFERENTS

SECONDARY AFFERENTS,
MOTOR TRAIL ENDINGS "
"YEFFERENT
y EFFERENT

SPINDLE CAPSULE

TENDON

GOLGI TENDON
ORGAN CAPSULE
GOLGI TENDON
ORGAN AFFERENT

Fioure A.4.1-2 Muscle sensors (modified from Borah (22))

£ Howard (116)).'

A-73

"L - ...........- ,••,v•, -. .. ..•e " z e" t•a-•t "••÷••'' -'

 services many spindles. The spindle contains a contractile ele-
ment, intrafusal fibers, which is innervated by efferents leading
to the motor plate and trail endings (22). Intrafusal fiber con-
traction maintains an appropriate amount of tension on the 3pindle
so as to maintain its sensory endings at threshold levels in the
presence of main muscle, extrafusal fiber, contraction and stretch-
ing. The spindle sensory endings are of two types: primary and
secondary. The primary ending is characterized as an annulospiral
r structure located in the equatorial section of the spindle bounded
at each polar region by the flower spray structure secondary end-
ings. The discharge pattern of the afferents leading from the
primary and secondary endin-s show marked differences in dynamic
response as depicted in Figure A.4.1-3.

STIMULUS

STRETCH GM U RELEASE

PRIMARY ENDINGS

SECONDAPY ENDINGS

Figure A.4.1-3 Qualitative discharge patterns of spindle

primary and secondary afferents (modified

SA-74
 The primary ending output is fast conducting and of low thres-
hole Although the discharge frequency increases with muscle
str( ch (tonic response) it is particularly sensitive to the rate
of stretch (phasic response). This suggests a "differentiation"
capability located in the nuclear-bag containing the primary end-
ings. Velocity information such as this might be employed as rate
feedback damping in the overall reflex arc governing muscular acti-
vity. An additional peculiarity of the primary ending discharge
pattern is its "quiet periods." During extrafusal fiber contrac-
tion, the primary ending output falls silent as it is unloaded to
less than the threshold stretch. Primary afferent signals do not
reappear until, under ý efferent stimulation, the intrafusal
fibers pick up the slack in the spindle and reestablish threshold
.*. conditions.

The secondary ending discharge intensity follows the amount

of stretch with little or no rate sensitivity or silent periods.
The primary endings, therefore, form a measure of both muscle
length (or stretch) and rate of change of length, whereas the sec-
j • ondary endings provide simply a measure of position or muscle
"length (116). The spindle could be likened to the error detection
* • circuit of a servo wherein it dutifully monitors stretch mismatch
with the extrafusal fibers, responds with afferent signals which,
* through the reflex arc, results in 'ý efferents causing the extra-
fusal fibers to contract or expand toward elimination of misalign-
ment. I
This treats the spindle too simply and overlooks the import-
ance of V efferent effects on the spindle. Under voluntary muscu-
I
lar tonal change, when one wills a muscle to lengthen or contract,
it is thought that the initiating stimulus arrives at the muscle
via efference to both the intrafusal and extrafusal fibers and is
termed o.(- Y co-activation. The principle feed forward control is
by direct descending pathway command to the oaemotor neurons. In
parallel, the system "sets" the spindle desired response and al-

A-75

L_ ýgbj& ..
lows the fine control of the spindle feedback to compensate for
muscle and load variations. The delay associated with the spindle
reflex arc is considered to be in the range of 60-140 ms. As mea-
sured between the onset of an impact or step inertial load applied
to a muscle system, and the time of maximum c. efferent activity
resisting the impact is registered (239).

The spindle reflex normally acts to resist limb disturbance

when the muscles being regulated are active. Only the voluntary
decision to relax tha musculature can inhibit the reflex. Conse-
quently it is not possible to impress steady state information on
the spindle afferents for the purposes of proprioceptive cuing
without eliciting a reflex arc efferent causing muscle tonal
change. In the absence of external loading, the skeletal segment
controlled by the muscle would involuntarily enter unwanted mo-
tion. Within the literature reviewed by the authors, only the
unacceptable approach of sectioning is mentioned as a means to
inhibit the cC-efferent. However, as mentioned earlier, the exter-
nal application of a vibratory stimulus does seem to bias the
spindle afferents in a manner causing a perceived change of skel-
etal spatial attitude and position. The precise relationship be-
tween the vibration stimulus and the perceived limb movement is
still under investigation (99).

Historically the joint receptors have been described as the

main source of the information concerning skeletal spatial posi-
tion and attitude. The joint receptor ambiguity mentioned earlier
gives rise to the distinct possibility that the joint. receptor is
but one of several sensory mechanisms contributing to kinesthesis.
The resulting accuracy of perception is really quite remarkable;
Cohen (46) found that in arm outstretched pointing exercises,
without the aid of visual fixation, subjects were able to point to
a target, allow the arm to drop to the normal hanging position and
return to within a mean value of 3.3 cm of the target point. He "
reasons that since two understandings or assessments are involved

A-75

S......"+"+'+
+"+•
...•=........ +++•+ '++i•+ .,i•++ ++I*+{• ++++'i
+ i.'+ 4+•,++- •+.+5"+,
..,++•+Z
 herein the ac-curacy of the shoulder joint positional sense must be
within 1.5 degrees. CoY'en also notes that Goldscheider determined
the positional movement threshold of the shoulder to be 0.04 de-
grees. Both of tIese findings suggest that arm movement induced
by inertial loading ccin be precisely measured.

Joint receptor sensory ends are composed of Ruffini flower

spray and Golgi type structures interspersed throughout the Joint
coesue. Some joint receptors seem active at all joint
angles and others ac'ive through fairly large angular ranges
Still others form the functionally expected case wherein their dis-
charge is confi-ýed to a unique joint angle such that as this joint
angle is approached, discharge level becomes intense reducing
again as the joint angle is passed. The discharge pattern demon-
strates adaptation; should the joint angle pause, the discharge
from the receptors attuned to this particular joint angle is at
first intense with subsequent decay.

The joint receptors are considered to provide rate as well as

* positional information. Joint receptor discharge displays a pro-
•- file containing overshoot the magnitude of which some references
indicate is a function of joint rate (102, 178). Our review of
the literature has not revealed means to noninvasively selectively
stimulate the joint receptors in the absence of joint rotation,
although overall activity can be increased by co-contraction of
muscles.

MOTOR OUTFLOW

Within the spindle discussion, the concept ofa..- Vco-activa-

tion was introduced as a theory of motor control wherein the spin-
dle afferents are employed in corrective feedback form. Howard
speculates that a direct aýroute is used for rapid ballistic move-
ment, without dependence upon the spindle afferent system. -
direct or ballistic movements are exempli.fiz! by the pianist's

L A-77

-* -. - ." .. , -.. • - - _ • . •
 .... . . . .,. .

extremities/hands and fingers. Chernikoff and Taylor note that

this type of activity is so rapid as to preclude the use of
kinesthetic feedback and tends to substantiate an e-idirect type
concept (116). Ie would add as examples of rapid, well-practiced
movements that of typing, moving the foot between an automobile's
accelerator and brake pedals, and many arm/hand movements employed
in operating the controls of an aircraft and its subsystems.

If rapid ballistic type movements do not depend on kines-

thetic feedback why include them within a discussion pertaining to
extremity proprioception under inertial acceleration effects?
First, as will be seen, there are very striking similarities be-
tween the effects of arm movement within a centrifuge arnd that
which occurs under o&direct type movements in the presence of
I varying external load. This leads us to believe ballistic move-
ments may be selected often in the tasks which are to be performed
within the cockpit. We suspect the initial phase of arm movement
to be ballistic with visual fixation or tactile monitoring applied
in the final phase to provide any necessary correction. Secondly,
there appears to be a type of proprioception affiliated with ,
direct style movements and is characterized as a sense of "motor
outflow". Should motor outflow be tha primary means of monitoring
muscular activity in the unaccelerated environment, only to become
notably undependable in the accelerated environment, then it must
be discussed within the context of high G physiological effects.

Motor outflow refers to a copy of how much omefferent is re-

quired to contract a muscle and hence move the skeletal element
the muscle controls. The storage is called efference copy and
forms a pattern against which o-efference is compared. In some
tasks such as learning where a control is located or how much a
control must be moved to produce a desired result, efference copy
is probably initially generated by movements heavily dependent -
upono_.- 'co-activation. After practice, however, we speculate
thato,- direct movements are selected with motor outflow providing

A-78

[, --- gia
 control. On the other hand other tasks, such as developing compe-
tency in dart throwing, may always employa-direct movement in a
* trial and error form so as to modify efference copy to chat pat-
tern producing acceptable dart accuracy.

Poward (116) points out that motor outflow is quite reliable

in the absence of varying external load3 and recounts an t"oeri-
ment performed by Lashley in 1917 which is of intbreet to us.
Lashley discovered and worked with a subject suffering a bullet
wound to the spinal cord which anaesthetized most of the leg af-
but left intact Sferents
leg efferents. The subject was able Lo
duplicate a given leg amplitude of movement as well as a normal

subject so long as the leg was not loaded. Lashley attached

spring loads to the subject's leg and noted the subject could not
compensate for the various loads although the subject was under
the impression he had indeed so compensated. (Recent experimen-
tation with trained monkeys shows that afferent removal by dorsal
root section does not interfere with the accuracy of ballistic
movements.)

Compare Lashley's observation to that of Cohen's (49) cen-

trifuge subjects who, when directed to point to a target in the
presence of inertial acceleration effects, initially demonstrated
a condition of underreach (see Figure A.4.1-4). They would appear
to have been using ballistic -&directmotor outflow controlled
movements without a prior assessment of inertial load proprio-
ceptive feedback and planned compensation, The conditions of
inertial acceleraticn loading were available to the centrifuge
subjects but they either were unaware of the stimuli or, if aware
of them, either chose to neglect them or could not make use of the
stimuli since an 0direct movement ensued. Granted Lashley's sub-
ject never successfully compensated while the centrifuge subjects
commenced compensation immediately after the first trial. This
suggests the centrifuge subjects, on subsequent trials, fell back
to greater dependence uponw- co-activation movements with close

LT7 A-79
 CENTRIFUGE TRIALS
S UNDERREACH AND
SUISEQUENT OVERREACH
4 - IN "IGOENVIRONMENT

S Is 20 TRIALS

-4
-S -3

POST CENTRIFUGE TRIALS

S OVERREACH WITH
SUBSEQUENT REACCLIMATION
S4 TO *1G1 ENVIRONMENT

, 3i

S-I Is 2'0 TRIALS

o -4

Cl -4

Figure A.4.1-4 Reaching error in +Gz environment without

hand/eye fixation (from Cohen (49)).

proprioceptive control until apparent underreach disappeared and

it was felt successful compensation was established. Evidently
the experience of active motion in the altered environment is
needed for adaptation. It is also likely that during this period
of adaptation new measures of "desired" motor outflow were being
stored away and utilized on subsequent trials with an immediate
desire to move, as quicklý as success would permit, away from
close proprioceptive control back too.-direct movements.

A-80 1
- - . - -'
1. Proof of this seems to lie in the fact that at the conclusion
of tho centrifuge run, the subjects overreached in the Ig environ-
ment indicating that proprioceptive compensation occurred quickly
and the subjects were again practicing cwdirect movements with a
motor outflow control pattern incorrect for the current load en-
vironment. Further proof of the use of proprioceptive feedback
simply for the purposea of establishing a repatterning of the
primary control, motor outflow, is found by noting that although
the trials under acceleration involved unilateral reaching, a
central compensation occurred with subsequent bilateral over-
reaching when the subjects were returned to the lg environment
(Figure A.4.1-4).

The primary control of an aircraft, the stick, is not subject

to movement which can be characterized as a reaching movement as
previously discussed. A predominant form of stick movement prac-
ticed by experienced tactical aircraft pilots is a sharp, crisp
1!- input to stick position producing a desired aircraft response.
These inputs often appear as steps, pulses, and pulse doublets
with frequency increasing and amplitude decreasing as the tracking
task becomes more demanding. No doubt force as well as length
feedback is in effect at a given stick position since stick
loading is an important feedback parameter. However, the movement
to the desired position appears to have the abrupt characteristic
of anad direct movement.

The authors believe the Lashley and Cohen observations to be

* significant to the issue of high G physiological effects and their
impact on piloting performance because of the apparent importance
S of motor outflow control, the dependence on -cdirect type move-
ment, and the somewhat secondary role kinesthesis seems to play in
this activity except during compensation. We are lead to the sus-
picion that even if the proprioceptive sensors of the arm were
somehow responding with multi-G loading informatiun, if the phy-
sics of the event did not produce a requirement for motor outflow

A-81
L
change, the appreciation of the hiqh G envircnment may be signifi-
cantly eroded and -the compensatory task, which is sought to be
taught within high G simulation, missing. We are not suggesting
that the proprioception of increased load is unimportant; only
that, if ano, direct ballistic type movement is going to be the
likely maneuver and will be cont:olled by a stored pattern estab-
lished in the lg environment, it may be absolutely necessary to
actually place the upper arm and forearm under external load in
order to provide cause for motor outflow alteration.

To summarize our findings in the proprioceptive area as they

pertain to simulation, it appears improbable that the Golgi tendon
receptors can be appropriately stimulated in the absence of actual
muscle tonal change. Unless the external load were varied, such
muscle tonal change would produce segment movement exactly oppo-
site to that which might be associated with the aircraft acceler-
ation. Steady state stimulation of the spindle afferents will
produce an-Cefferent with similar unwanted segment motion unless
an external load were present. We have found no precedent sug-
gesting the joint receptor afferents can be artificially stimu-
lated in a useful manner. Admittedly, spindle receptors can be
non-invasively stimulated by vibratory means to give a false im-
pression of skeletal segment position; however, the relationship
between stimulus and pseudo-motion impression is not clear and a
vibratory stimulus would produce unwanted tactile perception.
Motor outflow is likely thc prevalent means of control but this
appears to require actual changes in skeletal segment loading in
order to force alteration. Based on this examinacn of each of
the receptor mechanisms we conclude that actual skeletal segment
external loading will be required to ellicit the desired proprio-
ceptive effects imposed by inertial accelQration loading. -•

A-82
 [I EXTREMITY PERFORMANCE UNDER HIGH G

Inertial acceleration loading is experienced as a proprio-

ceptive input; it also introduces constraints within the control
of a tactical aircraft. Little, et, al. (161) found that a 10-15%
degradation in tracking tasks occurs as acceleration levels
approac-h the 5-9 G, range. They noted that the degradation was
not prcrjressive as a function of duration under acceleration and
hypothesized that degradation occurred as a consequence of an
adaptation process which is independent of duration under
acceleration. Hence, once having executed adaptation, no further
degradation was experienced. It is interesting to note that the
adaptation did not appear to permit the elimination of the basic

r degradation in tracking. Only infrequently would we expect to

find tactical aircraft acceleration levels in the 5-9 G.~ region.I
Our primary concern is + Gz and its effect on active arm movements
and force capability.

'We have already introduced some of Cohen's work (48, 49) in

the discussion pertaining to motor outflow. It is one of two
studies referenced herein regarding the effects of arm reaching
under + Gz% In the absence of visual fixation of the moving arm,
Cohen' s subjects initially reach low as expected but, on subse-
quent trials, ultimately end up overreaching their target. Cohen
attributes this to a phenomenon termed "elevator effect" which
manifests itself as the illusion that targets in the field of view
* appear to rise under increased + Gz and consequently appear to be
higjher than their true position.

The illusion of elevator effect was investigated at length by

Niven, et. al., (185) who, interestingly enough did a portion of
their experimentation within the elevator cars of the Empire State
Building in New York City and the Waterman Building in Mobile,
Alabama. Elevator cars were selected to provide translatory
acceleration free of radial effects. Both subjects possessing

A- 83

- A J-
normal vestibular apparatus and those suffering vestibular
dysfunction (labyrinthine defective) were exposed to + Gz ac-
celeration. Normal subjects experienced upward movement of viewed
targets under + G2 and downward movement ef same under - Gz. The
apparent motion of retinal afterimages, reflecting the eye move-
ment, was reversed. The labyrinthine defective subjects saw no
illusion of movement of targets in their field of view and al-
though they reported some afterimage movement, there was no clear-
cut direction associated with a afterimage movement. The normal
subject's eyes tended to rotate in a compensatory manner, down
briefly under + Gz and up in - Gz. This did not occur in the
labyrinthine defective subjects. The authors concluded that ele-
vator effect is a transient portion of the oculogravic illusion
and otolithic in origin.

Because the utricular otolith is oriented in a pitched up at-

titude relative to the normal anatomical axis of a human, an in-
crease in +Gz produces the same otolithic stimulus as an increase
inbody pitch attitude. The illusion of pitch up is the predom-
inan esto soitdwt h clgai luinadi
wudappear that its onset phase, that of inrain pitch,re

flexly induces the eyes to lower giving rise to the illusion that
targets in a settling field of view are moving upwards. Although
the sensations of increased pitch may be long lasting, Niven (185)
believes that rapid adaptation to the effect is due to reestablish-I
ment of eye fixation and would occur within approximately 200 ins.
Cohen's subjects demonstrate an ongoing condition of overreach
which might be due to the fact that visual fixation on the moving
hand was not permitted. Cohen did include some trials wherein
visual fixation was permitted but does not comment whether the
same type of overreach under inertial load occurred therein. Re-
sults of other work available to us do not allude to this type of
overreach; however once at a given acceleration level, repetitive
trials were not employed. Therefore we cannot be certain of the
overall arm disturbance profile sought within the simulation. We

A- 84
 I. must keep in mind the possibility that eventual overreach purpose-
ly introduced at steady state acceleration levels may be desirable
to mimic the results of elevator effect.

The results of a study by Canfield, et. al., (35) are quite

helpful in understanding the constraints imposed upon arm reaching
F activity under inertial acceleration load and demonstrates that
fore/aft as well as vertical arm forces are disturbed by Gz ac-
celeration. Forty-eight centrifuge subjects were exposed to ac-
celeration levels of +3 and +5 Gz and were requested to point to
each of four targets located in front of the subjects and arranged
in quadrant form approximately 300 above and below shoulder height
and to the right and left of the midsaggital plane. The subjects
were instructed to make rapid ballistic reaches to the targets
under 1, 3, and 5 Gz conditions and attempt to be as precise as
possible without dependence upon visual fi,:ation for minor final
corrections. Event timers monitored various phases of each reach.

Accuracy degrades as accleration level increases, which Can-

field attributes to an inadequacy of normal kinesthetic cues under
increased acceleration. Reaction time, that time necessary to
start the reach upon command, increased and was attributed to an
increased "cogitation period" required by subjects to consider
changes necessary to preserve accuracy. Movement time, time to
reach, increased and was attributed to a failure of the subjects
to throw the arm with sufficient force to compensate for its4
"increased" weight. We would not fault the latter two explan-'-
ations but would add that both could also be explained if pre-
sumably the subjects experienced the need for some type of re-
quired compensation and shit~ted to greater dependence on slower
proprioceptive controlled movements rather than c,/direct exe-
cution.

Perhaps the most interesting findings are those pertaining to

magnitude and direction of error which we have illustrated in Fig-

A-85
ure A.4.1-5. The four targets are shown each containing four quad-
rants. The radial distance from the center of each target is the
mean error at the tested acceleration levels. The denoted posi-
tion within each quadrant of a target is not necessarily a point
struck by the subjects; rather it reflects a propensity to hit a
given quadrant. The method selected to graphically illustrate
this propensity is described in the caption accompanying tne fig-
ure. The figure illustrates that two effects are operating simul-
taneously. First, there exists the expected downward shift,
termed "error of downward tendency" by Canfield. Secondly, the
strikes show a trend of moving inwards toward the center of the
four targets taken collectively. Canfield attributes this shift
to "negative inertia error" as termed by Brown et. al. (23) how-
ever we prefer to call it "cross loading error".

F--,
INal i7G -F3G

3G

S~~SHOULDER• HEIGHT ,

C
)I 3G 5

S• MEASURIlNG
NOTE: POSiTiON WITHIN A DUADRANT IS F.ETAELISHED
OUTA DISTANCE EOUIVALENTTO THEERROR ALONG A1 SPECIFICVECTOR.
THE ORIENTATION OF THE VECTOR
IS GIVENAS TAN- INET P'JMIER OR.
DINANT STRIKES/NET NUMNER STRIKES).
AUSCISSA .

Figure A.4.1-5 Direction and error of reaching moments in

+Gz environments (from Canfield et al (35)). I

A-86
 whnthe hand falls short of its intended target because insuffi-
cient force was applied. Because the arm segments rotate about
elbow and shoulder joint, an increase in inertial weight of the
segmcnts requires a complementary increase in force to extend the
arm. Shortages in force will result in shorter hand travel.
Canfield notes that both the error of downward tendency and cross
loading error reinforce one another in the top target, act normal
to one another in the side targets and oppose one another, with
cross loading error predominant, in the bottom target. This find-
ing suggests that a +G2 inertial acceleration load is manifested
in a significant force disruption not only along the Z axis but
also the fore-aft X axis and is supported by recent force capabil-
ity profiles developed by Kroemer, et. al., (140, 141). The logic
of the X axis force disruption is apparent if one considers the
arm, as we earlier suggested, as two serial mass segmen~ts. In tChe
partially or completely outstretched positico:i +Gz loads acting on
* both masses will cause a moment to be experienced at the shoulder
joint with potential downward droop of the cantilevered arm. The
downward rotation of the upper mass tends to foreshorten the reach
and reduce forward force capability. The likely ensuing upward
rotation of the forearm segment, executed in attempt to keep the
hand elevated, decreases the angle subtended by upper and lower
segments and further aggravates the situation.

In a 1975 study (141), Kroemer shows the effects of maximum

manual force capability under inertial acceleration load as a I

function of hand position with respect to the body. The perturb-

ing acceleration was + Gz and effects on lateral force capability
were minimal. The more relevant X and Z axis force capability ef-
fects have been replotted in Figure A.4.1-6.

The dotted line incorporated within the profiles is provided

* only for clarity and definition of the asymmetry associated with

A-8 7
 I _

- . .... _ _ _ - _
...... ._

. -~--- , ---- ---- - - _

I I 11 _As

& 71-
. ........

AAtd

gan/ar
taxoma Fiur orce Oof
A.4l- foeou~VG

environments, (from~ IKroemer (141)).

~
................. A-88
 directional force capabilities in the lg environment. Note that
+ Gz produces definite effects on forward force capability but
markedly less significant effects on aft force capability.

This same symptom is borne out in the Z axis force capability

associated with an overhead control wherein the same inertially
induced force, which works to the disadvantage of upwards force,
does not seem to be converted uniformly to an advantage in down-
wards force capability under like acceleration conditions. We
would advance the tentative explanation that in changing applied
force directions the subjects tend to alter the position of the
upper arm mass segment with respect to the shoulder joint such
that when pressing forward or pushing up, the upper mass segment
is located further forward of the shoulder joint than when pulling
down or backwards. Consequently its inertial load would more
adversely affect hand .orce capability. The slopes established
between maximum and minimum Z axis forces for the panel control,
center stick, and overhead control locations compare favorably
with that which would be predicted for two articulated mass seg-
"ments, each weighing fi'e pounds, and each of equal length. Unfor-
tunately, the aft force cepability as applied to an aft stick
* location does not seem predictable and therefore caution must be
.. exercised in attempting to apply a simplified analogy to various
arm positions. j
The earlier discussion pertaining to extremity proprioception
concluded with a strong suspicion that externally applied arm
loads would be required to appropriately simulate inertial load-
ing. The studies of Canfield and Kroemer concerning the con-
I " straints resulting from inertial loading tend to support a load
application which would be deduced frci kinematic analysis. The

I .
studies also emphasize the importance of ensuring that the scope
of load imposition includes loading the upper arm as well as the
forearm. Error of downward tendency can indeed be established by
torque application at tho elbc.4 joint; cross loading error, reduc-

A- 89

- -. - - 4 - ~ ~ .$,.
...... . .
tion in throw rate, and X axis force disruption must be aided by
loading the upper arm. Cohen's overreaching findings, if found
prevalent, suggests the possibility of employing some type of
transient loading profile but since this effect is introduced due
to a phenomenon external to extremity loading, and secondly, based
on the rapidity of load adaptation, we are unsure that significant
ongoing overreaching could be induced through transient arm loai-
ing. The point: may warrant further experimentation. Although the
literature concentrates primarily on Gz effects, the fact that
kinematic analysis tends to be supported by experimental findings
in the case of + Gz suggests that, in the absence of Gx and Gy
data, prediction via kinematic analysis is a reasonable first ap-
proximation.

A.4.2 Head/Neck

The literature indicates significant head and neck motion a3

a result of acceleration (74, 135, 142, 182). There are two as-
pects of head motion which are important to this study; the per-
ception of motion of the head and resistance of. head motion. The
inertial reaction of the head is resisted by the head/neck muscu-
lature. These muscles not only resist motion caused by external
forces but they also possess the sensors which detect external (is-
placement forces. The manner in which these muscle sensors func-
tion was described in Section A.4.1 of thj.s report.

MUSCULAR CONSIDERATIONS

The muscles of primary interest here are illustrated in Fig-

ure A.4.2-1. The sternocleidomastoideus (1) is
attached to the
skull in the mastoid area, runs down the neck and divides with the
larger portion attaching to the clavical and the smaller portion
to the sternum. This muscular structure exists as a right and
left hand pair which operate antagonistically to cause the head to
rotate about the longitudinal, i.e., the posterioranterior axis of

A-90
[.

L!

I!

/ •4
Fi•.ure A.4.2-I Neck muscles used to control head
notion (modified from Barcsay (10)).

the head. In addition, they act in conjunction to cause the head

to rotate forward.
t.
The splenius capitis (2) And the trapezius (3) are located at
thA rear of the neck with the trapezius superior anr attaching to
the shoulder. Thrse two muscles are employed to pull the head
To backward.

Both Gum (100) atid 3orah.et al (22) have modeled the head as
an invwrted pendulum. They, have both modeled only the rotation
about the longitLdinal axist however, the rotation about the
lateral axis may be modeled in the same way with differenit physi-
cal parameters. ThE geometry of the system used in Gum's analysis
is shown in Figure A.4.2-2.

A-91
 !r

C.G.

RIGHT MUSCLE LEFT MUSCLE

Figure A.4.?..2 Head/mumcle system (from Gum (100)).

Gum's work was modified by Borah et al and resulted in the

following model (Figure A.4.2-3).

Where:

Ih is the moment of inertia of the head about the neck pivot

- 0.034 kgm2

Mh is the mass of the head -4.6 kg

r is the distance from the pivot to the center mass - 0.0498

g is the acceleration due to gravity ii

A-92p
 0 is the displacemen.t angle

the damping ratio a 0.64 S

d is the muscle lever arm = 0.075 m

wn 7.81 rad/sec

Sfzhd is the specific force parallel to body axis

.fyhd is the lateral specific force

,FR is the muscle spindle afferent firing rate

MUSCLE
HEAD/NECK SPINDLE

1.h F + ..4
I.h

TORQUE

MUSCLE

h 12.

Figure A.4.2-3 Lateral head/neck proprioceptor model

(from Borah et al (22)).

A-93
Llib"
 VESTIBULAR CONSIDERATIONS

In addition to the muscular sensors, information about head

attitude is provided by the vestibular apparatus. Detailed dis-
cussions of the vestibular system are presented in other refer-
ences (86, 100, 102, 116, 191), therefore only a summary will be
included here. The human labyrinth (inner ear) comprises the non-
auditory labyrinth or vestibular system and the cochlea. There is
one labyrinth located in the temporal bone within each ear. The
cochlea, is a part of the auditory system and will not be dis-
cussed further, herein. A non-auditory labyrinth is located in
the vestibule of each inner ear and hence the name vestibular sys-
tem. Within the vestibule there are two sets of motion sensors,
one linear (the otoliths), and one angular (the semi-circular
canals). Figure A.4.2-4 is an illustration of the inner ear
labyrinth.

SEMICIRCULAR CANALS
SUPERIOR
SI• • LATERAL
Q• ! [ AMPULLAE
SCARPA'S VIII CRANIAL
GANGý/LNERVE,

r NERVE

IINACULAE NERVE•

CLCOCHLEA

Figure A. 4.2-4 Inner ear labyrinth (from Gillies f81)).

.1-9
j
A-94

i - ~ L~ ]
a- _________W_____

The semicircular canals occur as e-nroximately orthogonal

triads su.:h that each canal senses rotb'-.on about each of the
three axes of the head. These axes are essentially parallel to
the vehicle body axis system when a crewman is seated erect and
facing forward. The sensing mechanism within the semicircular
canals is the cupula (Figtire A.4.2-5), a valve-like protrusion in
the ampulla of each canal. The fluid of the semicircular canal,
endolymph, flows through the canal in response to movement of the
head, and deflects the cupula. The deflection of the cupula is
proportional to the velocity of the fluid flowing past it. There-
fore, the semicircular canals sense rotational velocity.

Otolithic membranes exist in both the utricle and the saccule

(Figure A.4.2-4). These maculae are somewhat orthogonal which
give rise to the hypothesis that they work together to provide
linear motion cues in the same manner as the semicircular canals.
Another hypothesis is that the saccule has a dcal function, the
otclith bearing part responding to linear accelerations in the
•••.__AMPULLA
~~upuLA

Y SENSORY CELLS
S-UPPORTING
iLLS

ENDOLYMPH

AMPULLARY BRANCH OF
VESTIBULAR NERVE

FiQure A.4.2-5 Semicircular canal cupula (from Gillies

iIii
1A-95
L
same manner as the utricular otolith, while that part which is iot
invested with stratoconia (Fig,ýrp A.4.2-G) is thought to be stimu-
lated by vibrations in a frequency of less than 10 Hz to 120 Hz.
The function of the saccule is assumed to not contribute to the
perception of linear motion and in fact the organ is considered
vestigial by some. Therefore linear motion is thought by some to
be sensed solely by the otolith of the utricle (100) which is
stimulated by linear acceleration. The acceleration deforms the
stratoconia thereby stimulating the sensory cells. Several
authors (22, 102, 191) take different views however and subscribe
to the theory that the otoliths of both the utricle and saccule
contribute to resolving the orientation ambiguity. Ormsby (191),
in his doctoral thesis, presents a model of the vestibular system
which is shown in Figure A.4.2-7. This model reflects some of the
latest thinking in this area and was employed by Borah, Young and
Curry (22) in their work.

STRATOCON IA

GELATINOUS
MEMBRANE ENDOLYMPH

SUPPORTING
CELLS

MYELINATED NERVE
FIBRES

UTRICULAR BRANCH OF- -T

VESTIBULAR NERVE

ii
Figure A.4.2-6 Sensing stratoconia of the utricle (from
Gillies (81)).i

A-96 A
 SENSOR
MODEL KALMAN FILTER

COORINAT WV CCOORDINATE
S- T NS -L OPTIEMAL TRANS SSTAMATORT

TRANh zh CANAL

SENSOR •I " ~ ~ESTIMATEI

TLT S

, T NOTOLIT 'IEOPTIMALIESTIMATORR

FS
'igure A.4.2-7 Ormsby model of the vestibular system (from
Sarah et al (22)).

I.- JOINT RECEPTORS

1. Joint receptors are another set of sensors which may add to

Fthe
S
ability to perceive head/neck motion. (The possible contri-
bution of the joint receptors to the perception of motion was dis-

TLTPIA SIAO
FOMTO
cussed in Section A.4.1.)
OMTO
S~~~i~~-h-
HEAD/NECK MOTIONT
PIAETMT - -TLT

r r A.42- Ormsb moe of th vestbula syste (f.rom

Data have been found for head/neck motion in response to Gz

acceleration (135, 142) and Gx (74). Kroemer and Kennedy (135,
142) report on head aotion in three degrees-of-freedom (pitch,
roll, and yaw). Pitch seems to be the most significant in terms
of excursion.
pitch among the The data show
various a considerable
subjects. There is variability in head
a trend illustrated

A- 97
for head pitch to overshoot the ig position upon return. Head
movement seems to be independent of helmet weight. The data show
that there is no significant rolling or yawing of the head due to
Gz but an average 2@ pitch down of the head at 6 Gz. This motion
is shown to be linear from 1.0 to 6.0 Gz. It was found by Kroemer
and Kennedy that the eye point was depressed 50 mm under 6 G2 ; 1/6
o~f this was due to head pitch, the remainder neck/torso compres-
sion. This motion was also found to be linear from 1.0 to 6.0 GZ.

leis interesting to note 'Chat these data support the posi-

tion proportional to aý_celeration concept employed in some G-seats
as well as the excursion range of these devices. The 40 oz vari-
ation in helmet weight has no effect on neck/torso compression.
Figure A.4.2-8 presents the head rotations for all helmet loadings
averaged and Figure A.4.2-9 shows the linear depression of the
left pupil.

Work done by Frisch et. al (74) for -G. impact accelerations

up to approximately 20 Gx show substantial head rotation. The
value of these data is somewhat doubtful in this application since
the range of accelerations is far beyond what can be expected in a
maneuvering aircraft and secondly, because the data is a result of
impact. These data show virtually no head movement up to 10 Gx.

SUMMARY

It has been shown that head motion is resisted by, and ef-
fected by the neck musculature. In addition, head orientation is
v
sensed by .the muscle receptors, the vestibular system, and pos-
sibly the joint receptors. Data has been presented to illustrate
the amount of head motion associated with accelerations up to 6
GZ.

A-98
 [
II

mM
E

'3

I4T tiiW
I
AVt.RC.C 0F ALL. LOH1 INGS

÷.t~t - HL.
E h" Pt .
Ift

i 3 01 is•
LEVEL

Figure A.4.2-8 Head rotations, all helmet loadings averaged

(from Kroe',er & Kennedy (142))

i{- I
I

A.4.2.1 Helmet vs. Head Motion

Kroemer and Kennedy (135, 142) present data which illustrates

a significant amount of relative motion between the helmet and
head can be expected under +Gz conditions. Figure A.4.2.1-1
presents the relative pitch between head and helmet as a function
of Gz and Figure A.4.2.1-2 presents the linear displacement verti-
cally of the helmet relative to the left pupil.

KU9

"___________ ___ i
 0: 1 t

-J
rc
-Ia

,Jr-00
61.

.45

U, ,
÷ GzLEVE
8 IT
Hiur
A,.-IEnLMdpesino telftppr fo
.WMrEOFeALL LOAKenneyG42S
6~0
~ DERESSON
H TOTL EC
4 DLTAS
DE EY
OSUN
DPRESIN
a:_91oo J4
-

*•.... .......... " 8' - U- , r ' 1 •e ' ' , •

 0 3.

720 t., o ,
45 tO it)
•1 15r J

M EI tO LP

CL

HIELMET PITCH HEAD PITCte IN GFC.REES (PI-RLPHAI

GI& LEVEL
Figure A.4.2.1-1 Helmet pitch relative to head pitch (from
Kroemer &Kennedy (1420)

A-101
 l*

i-

A 0 2 o

In FLO O
f

CITU,,0

, It In
0t n ALVD
&V
x tott L • .
X Ot U;O'Ot
Lii~l ll

"N N

j "~

- 21
, X
0 + 'r"01
•01 tO 0
1102 ALL
A 02 ['..
A.5 Auditory Effects

A.5.1 Auditory Perception Under High G

The literature is rather limited in its treatment of auditory

perception under high G. There seem to be two auditory character-

istics of high G flight which have been addressed. Coburn (42)
states that there is some evidence of diminution of auditory
acuity at high +Gz levels. However, the level at which this oc-
curs is so close to the level at which consciousness is lost that
the two points are nearly identical and are treated as such.
Gillingham and Krutz (86), while not commenting on Coburn's obser-
vation of diminished acuity, concur in that hearing is the last
available sensory modality, but since it occurs so close to loss
of ,nsciousness they do not recommend it as an end point.
The second auditory characteristic discussed in the litera-

ture stems from the work of Canfield et. al. (36) in 1949. Can-
field reports that reaction times to both sound and light were in-
creased under conditions of increased positive acceleration. He
further concludes that "the difference in reaction to light and
soun., rye to substantiate the well established conclusion that
reacti. to sound are more rapid than those to light in the mid
to high range of intensity." Table A.5.1-1 illustrates their
findings.

le A.5.1-1 Light and sound reaction timos as a function

of G.

G Light Sound

1 0.2458 sec 0.2012 sec

3 0.2578 sec 0.2122 sec

5 0.2654 sec 0.2262 sec

A-103

-. 4.- - - -----
---- ---- --
 According 'ro Canfield, these increases in time may be due to
either reduced sensory efficiency or a decreased c.entral nervous
system ef~ficiency or both. Little et al (160) have produced the
same results, as Canfield# in reaction time. However, they state
that there exists no change in auditory function per se and that
the increased reaction time may be due, at least in part, to re-
duced motor performance. Fraser (71) in reviewing this topic
points out that Franks et al in 1945 deny the findings of Canfield
Ii relative to increase in reaction time to auditory stimuli. Duane
(62) also comments on the auditory phenomena. He states that a
subject who has blacked out can't see ambient light but can cere-
brate and respond to auditory, tactile and other sensory stimuli.

A,.5.2 Auditory Stimulus Composition Change

It was considered that perhaps high performance aircraft

might exhibit acoustic signatures characteristic of the accelera-
tory forces on the airframe. Pilots were questioned on this point
*and there did not appear to be agreement. During the UPT/IPS pro-
gram, audio recordings were made on-board a T38 aircraft during
high G maneuvers. During the course of this study these tapes
were analyzed and3 no evidence was found to support the aforemen-
tioned hypothesis. Further, no data was found in the literature
which even alluded to this phenomenon. Since there is no quanti-
tative evidence of maneuver specific auditory cues to support the
structural noise hypothesis, it is the conclusion of this studyi
that no useful training value can be derived in this area and
therefore, further investigation of this type is not warranted.

A-104
 SA.6 Tactile

A.6.1 Tactile Sensation in Ischial Tuberosity, Shoulder Harness

and Face Mask Regions

The sense of touch and pressure is extremely sensitive and is

accorded high priority in the perceptual process. In discussing
tactile effects under the inertial load of a multi-G acceleration
environment we are concerned with assessing the importance of
S• three effects which can be generated by the six types of uniquely
identified touch/pressure receptors:

a) Perception and magnitude discrimination of large field

flesh pressure, such as that which would occur in the
buttock region under +Gz or the lap belt/shoulder har-
ness region under -Gz.

b) Perception of light contact of the skin with fo..eign

objects providing an appreciation of the magnitude of
inertial load by estimation of body tissue deformation
in those areas restrained by the foreign objects. This
proximity type perception yields an estimation of the
area of flesh/foreign body contact and varies as a func-
tion of flesh deformation. An example of this would be
a perception of "sinking" into a seat.

c) Whereas the above two effects ar-i generated by forces

normal to the flesh, the third is a perception of the
magnitude of skin tension and/or outright scrubbing in-
duced in those areas restrained by, or supporting, a
foreign body and is generated by force components lying
in the plane of the flesh at the point of foreign body
contact. An example of this would be a sensation of
tension and scrubbing in the spinal area caused by "sink-
ing" in the- seat as experienced under high G maneuvers.

A-105
 Guyton (102) offers an informative concise description of the
receptors employed in these somatic sensations and Borah et. al.
(22) has compiled data anatomically describing the receptors, in-
troducing sensitivity levels, and continuing the modeling work
pertaining to a) above started by Gum (100). Very little infor-
mation is available concerning the mechanization of the skin ten-
sion or scrubbing sensation. A recently published symposium pro-
ceedings (277) summarizes a good deal of the quantitative data
concerning the neurophysiological and perceptual thresholds, sen-
sitivity, and dynamic response for each of the types :)f velocity/
displacement/pressure sense organs in the skin.

13xcept for the temperature/pressure relationship investigated

in Section A.6.2 we have directed our investigation toward informa-
tion pertaining to the inertial acceleration induced composite per-
ceptions represented by a, b and c above rather than at the recep-
tor level. G-seat simulation systems already approach artificial
variation of the above perceptions in the primary areas of pilot/
It seat inertial coupling. Therefore we planned to confine our pri-
mary interest to regions of the body not specifically actively ad-
Ii dressed by the G-seat such as tactile stimuli arising in the areas
of the face mask, undersurface of the forearms, shoulder harness
and so.Les of the feet.

Such restrictiveness proved to be unnecessary for the liter-

ature search produced very little data pertaining to inertial
acceleration induced tactile stimulation in any region of the
body. Within the articles reporting on acceleration induced
physiological effects reviewed by the authors, none involved
studies or centrifuge experiments aimed specifically at wide field
tactile perception, although some of the basic research did trace
out the spatial receptive fields of the senses over a few centi-
meters (277). Nor did we find many informative comments, in simi- "r
lar studies investigating other physiological systems, that could .
be related to the tactile system. One exception is shown in the

A-106
.jI
, |~
 * Ii

photographs of Figures A.6.1-1 and A.6.1-2 picturing the effects

of high Ga on a pilots face, helmet and face mask. The signi-
ficant amount of face mask slippage evident at 7.5 Ga would sug-
gest strong tactile stimuli at those points where the face mask
contacts the facial skin.

vl•e suspect the paulcity of data in the area probably stems4

from a feeling of obviousness: tactile sensations become more in-

•ense and encompassing as acceleration levels increase but, in
U
themselves, do not form a physiological endpoint of resistance to
acceleration effects and are therefore not of major interest to
researchers of acceleration stress. Unfortunately this adversly
impacts the availability of data pertaining to the importance of
tactile stimuli in the piloting task. Consequently it would seem
that if tactile stimulation is to be provided in areas not direct-
1. ly addressed by the G-seat, it must be -justified on the assumption
that such stimuli are important until proved otherwise.
'I "

2 1

Figure A.6.1-1 Pilot's face at +4.5 Gz. Very slight facial

distortion (from Leverttt & Burton (14)1
(courtesy of Advisory Group for Aerospace
Research and Development).

L A-107
 Figure A.6.1-2 Pilot's face at +7.5 Gz. Severe facial
distortion and oxygen mask slippage
(from Leverett & Burton (154)) (courtesy
of Advisory Group for Aerospace Research
and Development).

A.6.2 Temperature/Pressure Relationships

Personal experience indicates that a sensory relationship may "

exist between pressure and temperature perceptions. Obviously,
that is not to say one is entirely mistaken for the other. Rather
it seems to suggest a type of allied perception that, when a per- .,

ception of deep tissue pressure is clearly present, a vague sensa-

tion of elevated temperature is not unexpected. Because serious
constraints and limitations exist in generating credible pressure
stimuli in the unaccelerated lg environment, sensory system char- 9
acteristics which might be exploited to reinforce and enhance the
pressure sensation should be pursued.

Before proceedingp, the obvious should be noted. The mere 1

physical act of applying a large surface area stimulus to '-he
flesh is likely t9 alter the skin temperature. The temperature of
the pressure source and the adjacent skin will tend toward equi-

A-108

i.- - .-- *-- --- ~~- - t I

 librium and eventually, the pressure source may act as an insu-
lator. Ordinarily, the largest magnitude bodily heat lors is by
conduction/convection to the clothes and then by radiation to tha
environment. The proximity of the insulator would then reflect
this radiation back to the body thereby depriving the area of heat
loss with resultant temperature build-up toward internal body temp-
erature levels. Thus, initial concurrent perception of pressure
and temperature sensations could be explained by the thermodynam-
ics of the physical configuration. However, we suspect an ongoing
pressure/temperature relationship active beyond this initial trans-
ient period such that further changes in pressure are accompanied
by either variations in the intensity of perceived temperature or
variations in perceived temperature level.

Our approach has been to assume that if a temperature/pres-

sure sensory relationship exists, an investigation of the skin
thermoreceptors and their innervation might reveal parallel or
L causal interdependancies when compared to the pressure receptors
and their innervation. We have examined two possibilities.

RECEPTOR CONFUSION

Like the pressure receptors, thermoreceptors are distributed

throvighout the skin in puntate form intermixed with the pressure
1.. receptors. Thermoreceptors are innervated by small size fibers as
are the pressure receptors serving the coarser sensations of out-
right, non-specifically localized pressure. Loewenstein (163) in-
dicates that the Pacinian corpuscle employed in deep tissue pres-
sure perception is indeed sensitive to temperature as well as
pressure changes which is supported by the data in Figure A.6.2-1
from Inman and Peruzzi (123). Mueller (178) states "there are
fibers of small diameter that are known to respond to either touch
o: t1-n,.e:ature". These fibers are of the A (6) class and extend
to ditfe&snt locations of the central nervous system. Woodson,
et. al. (267) indicatc that any strong stimulus applied to a speci-

A-!109
 t

0-J

0
TEMPERATUVIý ( 0~

Fiziure A.6.2-1 Chances in nerve impulseamltd

as a function of temperature (from
Inman & Peruzzi (123)).

.. 1
fic receptor will excite that receptor and if the area stimulation
is large enough may arouse sensations other than that character-
I ized by the nature of the stimulus.,1••21
At this point we could con-
clude that, although it may not be a prime ordee effect, there is
basis to believe that temperature change could be perceived as
augmenting an existing pressure change, an important consideration
in high G simulation. The reverse condition of pressure influenc-

ing temperature sensation does not readily follow; it depends on ~

the destination of the A (a) fiber activity. Although the data of
Inman and Peruzzi tend to suggest a direct correspondence between

I pressure sensation and temperature, Zotterman (277) presents some

evidence suggesting the inverse relationship that cold stimulation
may heighten pressure sensation. The.polarity of the relationship
~~1 obviously warrants further experimentation.
The neurological paths of both the small fiber pressure re-
ceptors and the thermoreceptors follow similar routes in entering
the dorsal column. Here they split and rise on separate paths of

A-l1
 the spinothalamic track and terminate at different points within
the thalamus (102). This type of separation would suggest that
neurological internmixing of afferents in the path to the brain is
unlikely. If both pressure and thermoreceptor fibers are active
under common stimulus, it would seem to occur at the receptor
rather than in transport.

Excision demonstrates that thermoreceptor and pressure recep-

tor afferents project to different locations in a common portion
of the cerebral cortex. Specific and unique modality of sensa-
tions are associated with these locations and appear to be inde-
pendent of the nature of the stimulus exciting activity within the
fiber servicing the location. Therefore an electrical stimulus
exciting a fiber leading to a location responsible for touch sen-
sation produces the perception of touch. Likewise it is assumed
that should a fiber leading to a temperature sensation area be
excited by pressure as Mueller and Woodson suggest is possible,
then a temperature perception would ensue.

•- VASOCONSTRICTION AND DILATION

Proceeding on the premise that stimuli producing like bodily

reactions might be interpreted as associative or affiliated, the

process of vascular constriction and dilation was examined in the
context of response to pressure and temperature stimuli. The
"body's internal temperature regulatory mechanism makes use of the
blood circulatory system as a heat transport and radiator system.
Vasoconstriction in the circulatory system occurs to conserve in-
ternal body heat and vasodilation to dissipate this heat. Con-
striction and dilation can occur on a local level based on the
thermoreceptor cordal reflex arc wherein thermoreceptor afferents
travel to the spinal cord and then immediately back to the initi-
ating area with blood flow alteration commands (102). At a higher
central nervous system level, similar thermoreceptor afferents
travel to the hypothalamus to be compared with the "hypothalamic

"A-111
set point" governing internal body temperature. The arc is com-
pleted by hypothalamus/vasomotor communication and peripheral
sympathetic fibers which innervate the arteries and arterioles.
Efferents initiated by the vasomotor pathways alter the vasoc n-
strictor tone and arterioles throughout the body and magnify he
signals in the region of cordal reflex activity.

Pressure applied to the flesh can also cause localized vaso-

dilation should the pressure tend to constrict or temporarily col-
lapse the capillary beds preventing adequate blood flow through
the area. However, on a localizEd level, there appears to be no
afferent path for signals requestiag dilation. The capillary beds
are sensitive to the oxygen level present. The tone of precapil-
lary sphincters controlling blood flow through the beds is also
sensitive to oxygen levels (102:, and should locally applied pres-
sure restrict oxygenation, the sphincters will automatically di-
late.

It is
unlikely that the pressure application will cause a
systematic blood pressure change of sufficient magnitude to affect
the reflex arc through the baroreceptors and peripheral sympathe-
tic nerves controlling arteriole vasoconstrictor tone. Thus it
would appear that although temperature induced constriction or
dilation employs a neurological reflex arc, such is not the case
in locally applied skin pressure induced dilation. Further it
seems two separate classes of elements are employed in the con-
striction/dilation process. Pressure induced dilation is appar-
ently dependent upon the precapillary sphincter whereas temper-
ature induced constriction/dilation affects the arterioles. j
In summary, although a form of vasoconstriction/dilation oc--
curs due to both locally applied temperature and pressure stimuli, !
parallelism sufficient to support a premise of allied sensation
does not appear to exist. There seems to be basis at the receptor
level for pressure/temperature sensory affiliation. Perhaps more

A-112
 important for they formulation of high G cuing devices is the ap-
parent justification for considering temperature as a means to
enhance or strengthen pressure sensation.

A.7 Res2iration

When considering the effects of acceleration on human physio-

logical systems, the respiratory influences are normally ranked
as second in importance only to the cardiovascular responses and
their associated visual phenomena. In fact, the division of the
cardiopulmonary effects into two groups, though traditional, is
1.somewhat arbitrary, since the failure to supply a continuous flow
of fully oxygenated blood to the brain, if not to the retina, de-
pends upon both systems. There have been- several excellent exten-
sive reviews of the effects of acceleration upon respiration.
Gillies (81) and Fraser (71) both deal extensively with accel-
eration influence upon breathing and gas exchange in the broader
context of acceleration physiology. Glaister's 1970 AGARDograph
on the effects of acceleration on the lung is perhaps the most
complete recent review of the entire field and includes contri-
I. butions by several other experts (90). The reader is referred to
these reviews for a more comprehensive treatment of the subject
than can be accomplished in these pages.

The principle effects of acceleration on respiration are

quickly summarized, although an appreciation for their basis re-
qui~res some understanding of lung mechanics. For +Gz the results
are much less dramatic than the cardiovascular ones, and entail
an increase in the work of breathing and decreased oxygen trans-
port as a result of pulmonary shunting associated with pocling of
blood in the lower regions of the pulmonary circulation and fill-
ing of the upper parts of the lung with air. The respiratory re-
actions are most noticeable for forward acceleration (+Gx) where
breathing difficulties come into play long before any cardiovascu-
lar problems become evident. The difficulty of expanding the

A-113
 chest against the inertial load is reflected in shallow breathing
and combines .ith a significant increase in the effective dead
space of breathing and a major mismatch between ventilation and
perfusion in the lung regions to make gas exchange inefficient
and to produce hypoxia even with inspired pure 02. With the
trend toward use of cockpit seats with significant tilt back
angles and airplanes capable of high G maneuvers, consideration
of the respiratory effects of +Gx stress is timely and investi-
gation of cuing techniques for the simulator is appropriate.

t.7.1 _Resiration__n__heUna___leratedEnvironment
Respiration in the Unaccelerated Environment

Respiration in the unaccelerated environment entails the ex-

change of gas between air in the lungs and blood in the pulmonary
circulation. Before proceeding to a discussion of the effects of
acceleration on respiration, we will review some of the basic as-
pects of the mechanics of breathing and lung perfusion in a Ig
field. Each of 4.hese has an influence on the oxygenation of
blood and the elimination of carbon dioxide.

A.7.1.1 Ventilation

The basic mechanisms of inspiration and expiration of air

are, of course, the result of muscular effort to lower the dia-
phragm and expand the thorax forward, thereby creating negative
pressures in the intrapleural space between chest and the lungs.
This causes air at ambient pressure to be sucked down the airways
and inflate the lungs. The pleural pressure is not constant, but
increases with depth, following a similar hydrostatic pressure
drop to that discussed in the cardiovascular section. For a
seated man in a ig field, for example, there is a pressure grad-
ient from the apex toward the basalar end of 7.5 centimeters of
water related to the weight of the lung. This pressure differ-
ence is of the order of 7.5 centimeters H2 0 as illustrated in
Figure A.7-1 where the average pleural pressure at the beginning

A-114
r.
PLEURAL R
)r'! '""PRESSURE R "
4.CMN2O 30cm

+ 3 5crnM20

VOLUME(VQ
100

-00
.60

(Q•I) &0

20
-10 0 10 20 30 40
TRANSPULMONARY PRESSURE (cmr 20)
L. | ~PRESSURE
PLEURAL ....
(FRC) PLEURAL (TLC)t
icm"'•- PRESSURE" "

: -,OcmH20 c-4cmH /, 2O 30cm

-2 Scn*420
VOLUME V14 $ VOLUMi (04.1

100o
so 0
ii0p 60
O0 / 0
20
202

-10 0 102030 40 -10 0 1020 3040

"TRANSPULMONARY PRESSURE (cmH20) TRANSPULMONARY PRESSURE (cmH20)
Figure A.7-1 Effect of pleural pressure gradient on the
volume distribution )f gas within the lung.
The pressure is assumed to increase at a
"constant rate of 0.25 cm water/cm vertical
distance. The elastic properties, as shown
by the S-shaped static volume-pressure
curves in the lower part of each panel, are
assumed to be uniform throughout the lung.
I; Values of pleural pressure at the apex and
base existing at three lung volumes (RV,
FRC, and TLC) are shown in the upper part
of each panel. In C, at full inspiration
(TLC), all Lung regions are expanded vir-
tually uniformly, in spite of the pleural
pressure differences dawn the lung. On
the contrary at RV and FRC (A and B,
respectively), the pleural pressure grad-
ient causes the upper lung regions to have
a greater volume than the lower zones.
from Glaister (90)) (courtesy of Afvisory
Group for Aerospace Research and Development).

A-115
of inspiration is approximately that of the ambient air. Because
of the gradient in pleural pressure, as well as the elastic prop-
erties of the lung, as the cheat is expanded and the diaphragm
lowered during inspiration the lungs fill unequally, with the
apex tending to fill toward its maximum volume before the base,
rising along the lower line of the pressure-volume loop.

At full inspiration, with transpulmonary pressure on the

order of 40 centimeters of water, all of the lung is nearly uni-J
formly expanded reflecting the relatively flat pressure-volume
curve near full inspiration to assure equal filling and reduce
regional differences. For less than full inspiration, as will be
discussed further under gravitational effects, it is seen that
the eapendent (lower) areas of the lung are significantly less
filled on inspiration. Figure A.7-1 also illustrates schemati-
cally the major elastic and resistance elements affecting ven-
tilation impedance. The S-shaped curves representing lung elas-
ticity are assumed to be representative of all regions of the
lung. The difference between the pressure at constant volume for
inspiration and expiration represents primarily airway resis-
tance.,

At the end of each maximum inspiration, of course, not all

of the inspired air comes into contact with the blood in the
alveoli for gas exchange, nor is all air expired from the lung
during exchalation. The essential definitions of respiratory
i
mechanics which are important in the consideration of gravita-
tional effects on respiration are illustrated in Figure A.7-2
along with the regional subdivisions of lung volumes for seated
men in a lg field. Total lung capacity (TLC) refers to the total
amount of air contained in the lung following a maximal inhala-
tion. For the later discussion of acceleration effects, it will
be important to refer to the various subdivisions or regions of
the lung. The data of the figure shows the various subvolumes
within each lung region as a percentage of the total lung capac-

A-116
 VC

|RV ERV L T IR [TLC

FRC IC

VOLUME
PER ALVEOLUS
('1% TLC alv)
0 20 40 60 80 100

VERTICAL DISTANCE
LUNG TOP (cm)r

0 20 40 60 80 ~Z0
REGIONAL VOLUME(%TLCr )
Figure A.7-2 Regional subdivisions of lung volume in
seated men. Filled and open circles re-
present average results obtained on eight
healthy young subjects at RV and FRC, re-
spectively. Bars indicate 2 SE. RV =
regional residual volume; IC - regional
inspiratory capacity;ERV - regional expir-
atory reserve volume; VCr = regional vital
capacity (from Glaister (90)) (courtesy of
Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and
Development).

ity in that region (TLC). Beginning the definitions with a fully

deflated lung region (never found normally), the first volume is I
tha residual volume of that region (RVr) and represents the air
remaining in the lung region following a maximal forced exhala-
tion. This represp-ts condition wherein pleural pressure is
above airway pLi..-ure, o that the local airways collapse, trap-
ping this amount of air behind. Notice that, for the seated man,
RVr is nearly constant for the lower half of the lung, indicating
that the lower lung is at 'aimal volume at the end of exhala-
tion. For the upper hal- of
Athe lung, however, where pleural
presaures are less because of hydrostatic effects discussed ear-

A-117

L
 F1

lier, -he airways are not closed and the lung region is not
driven all the way to its minimum at the end of a normal, maximum
exhalation. The next subdivision is the expiratory resorve vol-
ume (ERV), which is the volume between RVr and the lung volume at
the end of a normal, relaxed exhalation. As the name implies,
ERV is the reserve volume that can be forced out by a forced exha-
lation beyond the normal expiratory end point. The sum of ERV
and RVr is the volume of air remaining in the lung at the end of
normal exhalation, and is referred to as the functional reserve
capacity, (FRC). Notice that FRC is much less for the dependent
(lower) regions than for the upper parts.

The next volume defined is the tidal volume (T), which is

the volume of air normally inhaled and exhaled during each
breath. When the lungs are maximally expanded by a deep breath,
reaching TLC, the additional air inhaled beyond the tidal volume
is the inspiratory reserve (IR). The sum of T and IR, repre-
senting the total volume of air that can be inspired beginning at
the end of a normal exhalation, ERV, is referred as the inspira-
tory capacity (IC), and also increased with distance from the
apex. Finally, the sum of IC and ERV is known as the vital capa-
cLty (VC) and is the volume of air that can be drawn in during a
maximum inhalation following a maximum forced exhalation. Not
all of the air that is inhaled on each breath takes part in gas
exchange, however, since some never reaches the alveoli. This
volume is the anatomical dead-space, and is also acceleration
dependent. It is interesting to note that in a normal lg field,
ventilation of the lung is greater in the dependent (lower)
zones, independent of breathing depth or rate. Thus the normal
regional distribution of ventilation is matched to the regional
perfusion of blood in the pulmonary circulation which, as will be
discussed below, also is greatest in the dependent part of tbe
lung. Consequently, in a lg field the air and blood distribu-

LI
tions are arranged to make gas exchange more efficient than it
would be if the lung were uniformly ventilated. This matching,
would8

| .. .. . . . . . .. . .
 reflected in the ventilation/perfusion ratio, will be shown to be
significantly disturbed by linear acceleration. The minute vol-
ume is the amount of air inspired per minute, and is the product
of respiraticn rate and average tidal volume. Finally, we will
be concerned wLth the mechanical parameters of respirations, es-
pecially lung compliance and airway resistance.

A.7.1.2 Perfusion

A simple picture of pulamonary circulation is that it carries

venous blood from the right ventricle to the capillaries in the
1o lung, where it exchanges gas with air in the alveolar sacs and
returns in the pulmonary veins to the left atrium, carrying oxy-
gen in the form of oxyhemoglobin and having been purged of most
CO2 . In fact, even in the normal upright lung at lg, the local
distribution of blood throughout the lung (regional perfusion) is
nothing like aniform but increases markedly from top to botto'm.
This distribution of perfusion has led to lung perfusion models
entailing originally 3 separate zones (Permutt et. al. (196),
j -" Banister and Torrance (9) and more recently 4 zones (West (257))
divided functionally according to the pressure relationships
among pulmonary arterial, alveolar air, and pulmonary venous
pressures. The three zone model is illustrated in Figure A.7-3.
At the upper position of the lung for the upright man, where the
air pressure in the alveolus (PA) exceeds the pulmonary arterial
pressure (%Ja), the collapsible blood vessels are squeezed closed,
with no blood and only a few trapped blood cells. Further down
the lung the arterial and venous blood pressures drop relative to
the air pressure in the alveoli because of the hydrostatic pres-

sure head on the blood column, and the top of zone 2 is deter-
mined where Pa exce.eds PA" In this region the resistance to
blood flow is controlled indirectly by alveolar pressure on the

limp vessel, but the dominant factor is the Pa-Pv pressure drop
along the vessel which accelerates blood through into the veins
in what is known as the "vascular waterfall". As the perfusing

A-119
 ZONE I
_, ..... PA ' Pa ' Pv

!iPk -ALVEOLAR Z•NE2 PA >PV, \

P6P
ARTERIAL VENOUS DISTANCE-

L-BLOO. FLOW
ZONE 3
PC,> Pv> PA

Figure A.7-3

Diagram to show the elfects of pulmonary ar- and flow is proportional to the difference
terial, alveolar and venous pressures on the between arterial pressure (which is in-
topographical distribution of blood flow in creasing down the lung) and alveolar pressure
the lung. The lung is divided into three (which is constant). In zone 3, venous
zones by the relative magnitudes of the pressure exceeds alveolar pressure and
three pressures. In zone 1, arterial flow is determined by the arteriovenous
pressure is less than alveolas pressure and difference. Flow increases down this zone
ther-e is no flow, presumably because coll- because the transmural pressure of the
apsible vessels are directly exposed to vessels increases so that the vessels have
alveolar prissure. In zone 2, arterial a larger calibre. (from Glaister (go))
pressure exceeds alveolar, but alveolar (courtesy of Advisory Sroup for Aerospace
pressure exceeds venous pressure. Here Research and Development).
the vessels behave like Starling resistors

pressure (Pa) is increased in zone 2, the vascular resistance is

decreased, both by dilating the vessels already open, and by open-
ing up of additional parallel channels.

Proceeding further down the lung to region 3, where both the

arterial and venous pressure exceeds the alveolar pressure, the
vessels remain fully expanded, with a large cross-section, and

A-120
I
the flow is determined only by the arterial-venous pressure Irop.
This is the major highly perfused dependent region of the lung,
and matches the increase in ventilation toward the base referred
to earlier. Finally, toward the very bottom of the lung there
has been identified yet a fourth region termed the zone of inter-
stitial pressure by West (257), in which blood flow and vessel
size are once again reduced. The explanation for this reduction
in flow, despite the increase in hydrostatic pressure, is that
the failure of the lung to fully expand in the furthest dependent
zones leaves the elastic forces in the extra-alveolar vessels,
and the muscle around these vessels. 1free to partially constrict
S1.the vessels except at maximum lung filling. This fourth zone and
the distribution of blood flow from apex to base for the erect lg
case is shown in Figure A.7-4.
|
Tistance
ICOLLAPSE

!- ,- .Part:
PAPv
2WATERFALL

3 D0ISTENSION

4 INTERSTITIAL
PRESSURE

-_ _. _ _ __ __ _ _ _ _ _ B l o o d F l ow -
Ficure A.7-4 How the three zone diagram of figure 3.7-3 I
can be modified to take account of the
reduction of blood flow of the most de-
pendent zone of the lung as a result of a
raised interstitial pressure. The first
three zones correspond to those featured
in Figure 3.7-3, and to these has been
added a fourth zone where the vascular
resistance of the extra-alveolar vessels
becomes significant because of a rise in
interstitial pressure. This occurs in the
normal lung at volumes below total lung
capacity because of the relatively poor
expansion of lung parenchyma in dependent
zones. (from Glaister(90)) (courtesy of
Advisory Group for Aerospace R~esearch
and Development).

A-121
L.
A.7.1.3 Ventilation-Perfusion Ratio and Gas Exchange in the
Lung at 1G

The preceding sections indicated that both the regional dis-

tributxin of ventilation and that of blood perfusion to the lung
were gravity dependent. In a ig field they are reasonably match-
ed, so that a greater blood flow appears in the dependent portion
of the lung where the ventilation is greatest and the opportuni-
ties for gas exchange are maximized. The parameter used to des-
cribe the role of gas and blood flow in a region is the "ventila-
tion-perfusion ratio". For a total lung in a lg field, this
might have an absolute ratio of approximately 0.85, corresponding
to alveolar ventilation of 5.1 liters per minute and pulmonary
blood flow of 6 liters per minute (Glaister 90). The regional
ventilation-perfusion ratios are given in terms of their value
relative to the total lung ratio (VA/Q). For an ideal lung with
optimal gas exchange, the regional ventilation-perfusion ratio
should be approximately 1 throughout the lung so that the air in
every alveolus has the opportunity to participate in gas exchange
with blood flowing around it. Even in the Ig field this situa-
tion is not meant precisely, since at the apex of the lung there
is insufficient blood supply to participate in gas exchange.

The distribution of regional relative ventilation-perfusion

ratios with distance down the lung for a subject erect in a Ig
field and at 2 and 3 Gz is shown in Figure A.7-5 where it is seen
that ratios of approximately 1 exist only in the lower 15 centi-
meters of the lung even at 1g. The result of wide variations in
this ratio is a disruption of the gas exchange process by either
of two mechanisms as illustrated in Figure A.7-6. As seen on the
left, when the ventilation-perfusion ratio goes to infinity,
there is no gas exchange despite ample ventilation of the alve-
olus by air or even 100% oxygen. This situation is likely to oc-

cur principally because of acceleration effects on the pulmonary

circulation, pooling blood in the lower portions of the lung. j
A-122

# . . .... .
[ RELALIVE REOIONAL
vEN T1ATION-PERFUSi.jN RATIO

-2 2g 3g

[' - - ' -- 20 as •

; UN AEX DISTANCE DOWN LUNG (©m)j O 09I Y 32

2 . LUNG eAiE
Pigure A.7-S The effect of positive acceleration on the
variation in ventilation - perfusion ratio
Sv/0) down the lung, The +1 to +3 G
ovaueS were obtained by radioisotope
SinJlction
scannie g after and theand%ero
inhalation
of 13-3X intravenous
G values
ii i by extrapolation te this data. Values
•given are rela~tive, tthe VA/Q Of the whole

ii is-Research
Slung being taken "s 1.0 (from Glaister (90))
(courtesy of Advisory rroup for Aerospace
and Development).

VA VA

0aP
a l
C02,lip

1.
Ib) C0 03
VAt 0 ago -* -FUNCTIONING -D VA/0 z0
ALVEOLUS

Figure A.7-6 Extremes of ventilation-perfusion ratio

(VA/Q) inequality as exhibited by a ventil-
ated but unperfused alveolus (a) and
by A perfused but unventilated alveolus (c),
compared with an alveolus having normal
ventilation and perfusion (b). Directions
in which gas exchange takes place, and
the alveolar gas contents which result,
are indicated for each situation. (from
Glaister (90)) (courtesy of Advisory (roup
for Aerospace Research and Development).

A-123

L_ ., •..
 The other extreme, seen at the right side of Figure A.7-6,
is where the ventilation-perfusion ratio is reduced to zero
either because of trapped air in the airways which cannot be ex-
changed on each breath due to insufficient pressure to open the
airways, or to actual collapse of the alveolar sacs, a condition
known as atelectasis. For the former condition, of trapped gas,
the breathing of 100 percent oxygen slows the decrease in arter-
ial blood saturation and gas exchange continues to take place
from the trapped oxygen in the alveoli. Carbon dioxide level
continues to rise. For the latter condition, of atelectasis,
surface tension tends to keep the sacs closed once they have been
relaxed, until they are forced open by maximum inspiration or
cough. It is easily seen tiat the functioning lung requires an
adequate total blood supply which is properly distributed to
match the regional ventilation. As might be expected, important
effects of interference with respiration because of acceleration
are seen in ability of the lungs to oxygenate blood.

The regions of the lung with very high ventilation-perfusion

ratios effectively detract from the total useful lung area. How-
ever, because of the characteristics of the oxyhemoglobin disso-
ciation curve, close to 100% oxygen saturation of blood can be
maintained even though the partial pressure of oxygen in the
blood drops considerably. This effect is largely compensated for'
unless the interference is massive or the inspired air has insuf-
ficient oxygen. At the other extreme, of zero ventilation-per-
fusion ratio, the effect is much more serious, since blood now
passes directly from the arterial to the venous side of the pul-
monary circulation without changing its gas content, and there-
fore drops the overall oxygen saturation of art'trial blood with
resulting hypoxia. There are of course other well known ways if
producing hypoxia by manipulating the total air pressure or par- .I
tial pressure of oxygen in the inspired air and these will be
discussed under simulation mechanisms below.

A-124
 T A.7.1.4 Control of Respiration and Work of Breathing

The two obvious parameters under control of respiration', for

delivery of the required minute volume of air, are tidal volume
and respiration rate. Since the muscular activity involved in
breathing itself entails additional oxygen need, it is obvious
then for any total minute volume required, there is an optimum
combination of respiration rate and depth. For example, whereas
the resting human might have a breathing frequency of 15 to 20
per minute and an alveolar ventilation of 10 liters per minute,
when subject exercises sufficient to raisc the ventilation rate
to 25 liters per minute, the optimum breathing rate increases by
a factor of 2 and with it the total work of breathing goes up byj
I. approximately 40%. Most of this work of breathing is involved in
expanding the chest during inspiration, with the assumption that
exhalation is a passive relaxation process. As will be discussed
below, the additional work of breathing entailed by the need to
counter opposing forces on~ the chest at higher accelerations
plays a considerable role in additional oxygen costs which fur-
ther increase the required minute volunre.

The neural signals involved in control of respiration rate

and depth comes from several sources. The primary chemoreceptor
sensors detect the carbon dioxide levels in the blood (rather :
than oxygen levels) and call for increased respiration depth arnd
frequency when the C02 levels increase above their setpoints for
arterial blood. However, arterial hypoxemia does have an effect
in increasing minute volume as does any drop in arterial pressure
i
as detected bv baroreceptors. Respiration is inhibited by stimu-
lation of the vagal nerve from any of a number of sources includ-
ing overstretching of the lung, and acts against the maintenance
of deep breathing. The role of each of these factors on accel-
eration effects on respiration rates will be discussed below.

The influence of partial pressure of oxygen in the ambient

A-125
 air on the ability of the lungs to oxygenate blood in a normal ig
field is well known from altitude studies. Because of the effi-
cient transport of oxygen by oxyhemoglobin, the partial pressure
of oxygen in the inspired air can be dropped from its normal one
atmosphere level of approximately 150 mm of mercury to much lower
values before any significant reduction in arterial oxygen satu-
- I ration appears. However, with inspired air partial pressures
H down to approximately 70 mm of mercury (corresponding to an alti-
tude of 18000 ft), the oxygen saturation has fallen to 75% and
definite signs of hypoxia appear (81). It must be remembered
that the critic~al element is the partial pressure of oxygen.
Total pressure of the inspired gas is of importance in this con-
text only as it affects the "work of breathing" with positive
pressure breathing assisting ventilation but requiring forced ex-
halation, and negative pressure breathing entailing considerably
more work to expand the lungs.

A.7.2 Respiration in the Accelerated Environment

the effects on the respiratory system are chiefly seen in +Gx ac-

celeration. Nonetheless for +Gz acceleration he also finds that

inspiration becomes difficult and there is a reported tendency
for the breath to be held during inspiration. Oxygen saturation
drops and the work of breathing increases, but these effects are
all minor compared to the cardiovascular and resulting visual tun-
neling effects during +Gz. However, for forward acceleration, I
1A,
+Gxp the respiratory effc:...Its are of major concern. Chest tight-
ness and pain along with difficulty of breathing are reported in
the +5 to +6 Gx region and increased with further G levels until,
by +12 Gx breathing difficulty and chest pain are severe. Vari-
ous G protective devices, including the use of an antl&-G suit and
positive pressure breathing influence respiratory mechanics. The
former unfortunately further reduces lung volume, making breath-
ing and gas exchange more difficult. The principal mechanisms

A-126
r

I. underlying the observed effects of acceleration on respiration

are considered below in terms of the models for respiration in
the lg environment developed in the preceding section.

A.7.2.1 Lung Mechanics Under Acceleration

The effects of acceleration are seen not so much directly on

lung as on its ventilation and perfusion and on the work required
to move its supporting structure. Under +Gz acceleration, the
weight of the abdominal viscera actually pulls the diaphragm
down, thereby increasing vital capacity by up to 500 cc. Despite
this, however, for reasons to be discussed below, the net effect
of +Gz acceleration exceeding 3g's is to reduce the oxygen
transfer to the blood. Acceleration in the +Gz direction, as
well as in the +Gx direction does little to change the residual
volume of the lung, which seems to be an inherent characteristic
of lung rather than of supporting structure. Vital capacity
changes, but modestly under increasing +Gz loads, reducing from
approximately 5.5 liters to about 4.5 liters over the range from
+3 Gz to +6 Gz. There is some increased oxygen uptake under +Gz
S asiociated with the increased work of breathing, and breathing
rate may increase although the results are highly variable. The
variability may be understood when one realizes the two opposite
influences on breathing are at play. Vagal inhibition from
stretch receptors in the lung would tend to reduce breathing rate
whereas the effects of hypotension from the cardiovascular ef-
fects of +Gz and the arterial hypoxemia, to be discussed below,
both would tend to increase breathing rate.

The matter of acceleration effects on lung mechanics in the

supine position is quite another story, however. Inspiration
then becomes a matter of raising the chest wall directly against
the increased inertial force, and breathing becomes severely dis-
rupted. Although the effective weight of the chest wall plays a
small factor in +Gz acceleration, it is a major factor in affect-

A-127

L'' %....••i i • ' ' '' . ...•• L -I,

ing lung mechanics under +Gx acceleration. Furthermore,
since
the abdomen is forced up against the diaphragm under forward ac-
celeration, descent of the diaphragm is also made more difficult.
This pressing up on the diaphragm under +Gx acceleration reduces
the expiratory reserve volume. Vital capacity and inspiratory
capacity as well as total volume are severely reduced under +Gx
acceleration as seen in Figure A.7-7. Vital capacity decreases
until it is nearly that of the tidal volume at +12 Gx, with no
reserve for greater ventilation. As breathing capacity goes
down, tolerance times approach those of breath holding. Respira-
tory rate, meanwhile, climbs rapidly and almost linearly with for-
ward acceleration up to triple the resting level at + 12 Gx.
Since tidal volume is falling, or at most peaks slightly at low
acceleration levels, the minute volume does not continue to grow
as indicated in Figure A.7-8. The marked increase in respiratory
rate is probably primarily attributable to the hypoxia associated
with inadequate ventilation/perfusion ratios, but also to some
extent, responses to the chest compression.

',OLUME- I

4-

-•3-

- 'ERV t•1
tOw

Figure A.7-? The effect of forward acceleration on vital

capacity (VC), inspiratory capacity (IC),
A
and expiratory reserve volume (ERV). Plus
and minus one standard deviation of the
+1 and +6 G: values are indicated by
barred vertical lines (from Glaister (90))
(courtesy of Advisory Group for Aerospace
1
Research and Development).

Fiur A.7- The efec

I-2
of fowr cclrtono ia
 2.8 Respiratot, • Tidal volume Minute ventilation

2.6

2.2
2.0

I C
I -,

.4
.21

0 2 4 6 S 10 120 2 4 6 8 10 120 2 4 6 8 10 12
Acceleration. G

Figure A.7-8 Effect of back angle on respiration in

room air. Curves labeled A represent
measurements made on net seat with a
120 back angle, at 5, 8, and 12 G.
The B curves represent measurements made
on a rigid support with a 00 back angle,
at 3 and 5 G. (from Fraser (71)).

- A.7.2.2 Similarity of Negative Pressure Breathing to +Gx

Effects

The increased work of breathing and difficulty of expanding

the chest wall under +Gx has been previously noted as bearing
some similarity to the similar forces associated with negative
pressure breathing, when the inspired air pressure is below am-
bient. This is of course just the case found when breathing
through a snorkel underwater, and sets the effective limit on
depth to which one can descend using snorkel breathing. Watson
and his colleagues (253) investigated in detail the relative ef-
fect of negative pressure breathing and forward acceleration on
lung mechanics, and pointed out the very great quantitative simi-
larity. For both increasing negative pressure and increasing
+Gx, the lung volumes decrease and interpulmonic pressure at a
given lung volume increases, shifting the pressure volume curves
for the lung towards higher interpulmonary pressures by about 4

A-129
L
:-'
-...... * *l-"1. - ---- *..
. . *.. . • " ''-• - '"• . .. .* r*
mm Hg/g. Lung compliance becomes smaller and the total work of
breathing increases, approximately doubling from 1 to 4g's or for
the equivalent negative pressure increase. For both cases, this
additional work results in increased oxygen consumption. Fre-
quency of breathing increases for negative pressure breathing in
a manner similar to that for +Gx. Although the details of
regional perfusion and ventilation of course would izot be ex-
pected to be mimicked by negative pressure breathing, in all
other respects negative pressure breathing appears to have nearly
identical effects on lung mechanics as does forward acceleration,
and consequently will be considered in more detail as a high G
augmentation concept. The equivalence of negative pressure
breathing of 5 mm Hg/g on lung volume is shown in Figure A.7-9.

90 -2G 3G 4G
80
470
600

5 -0

10~ 40

30

10 i -

10
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Intrapulmonic pressure, mm H

Figure A.7-9 Static relaxation pressure-volume curves

during control (1G) and 2, 3, and 4 G
forward acceleration. All lung volumes
were obtained at IG (from Fraser (71)).

A-130
 II
Zechman and Mueller (275), in a similar study comparing effects
of forward acceleration and negative pres-are at a single compari-
son point (+ 4 Gx and -15 mm Hg) showed ,enerally similar results
but with some detailed differences in terms of lung mechanics and
gas exchange. They reported that the ventilation response under
negative pressure breathing was more by an increase in tidal vol-
ume than by the increase in breathing rate seen under accelera-
tion. They fail to show the increase in oxygen uptake under ac-
celeration reported by many others, and seen with negative pres-
sure breathing. As a corollary, positive pressure breathing has
been used to counter the effects of forward acceleration by mak-
ing inspiration easier and overcoming the downward forces on the
chest wall. Although the theoretical values of 5 nud Hg/lg incre-
ment would call for applied pressures up to 35 mm Hg at 8 g's,
this was found to be excessive by nearly a factor of 2. Positive
pressure breathing with oxygen did indeed increase tolerable ex-
posure durations significantly at levels up to 10 Gx (253).

Zechman and Mueller (275) found one other interesting differ-

ence between negative pressure breathing and forward accelera-
tion. Using a carbon monoxide diffusion technique they measured
changes in lung diffusion capacity under both negative pressure
breathing and under acceleration and found a change only for the
latter, dropping from 21 to 12 ml/min/mm Hg. Whether this re-
flects detailed changes in alveolar capacity, pulmonary edema or
some other factor is yet undetermined according to Fraser (71).
* The significance of this difference in terms of the major simi-
larities between negative pressure breathing and forward accel-
eration effects on respiration is not clear.

The increased muscular activity associated with expanding

the chest wall against a forward acceleration force is reflected
in an additional metabolic load of approximately 141 ml/min at 6
g's according to Steiner et al (232). The additional oxygen load
makes even worse the problems of oxygen delivery resulting from

A-131

L
mismatch of regional ventilation/perfusion ratios discussed
Sb~elow.

A.7.2.3 Effects of Acceleration on Ventilation/Perfusion Ratio,

Gas Exchanae and Arterial Saturation

EFFECTS OF + Gz ACCELERATION

In additiJn to the dominant cardiovascular effects, even mod-

er-;ce levels of prolonged headward acceleration can cause notic-
able symptoms because of reduced oxygen transport. Von Nieding
et al (184) show a case of respiratory gas exchange alteration
after six minutes of acceleration at only +2 Gz, leading to
blackout at 10 minutes.

The increased work of breathing at +Gz acceleration is one

factor, but clearly not the dominant one in the respiratory ef-
fects. Changes in the regional perfusion and ventilation of the
lung with increasing acceleration has been clearly demonstrated
to be the overriding factors of importance. As linear acceler-
ation increases, the blood in the pulmonary circulation pools
more and more toward the base of the lung, leaving the apical
portion largely unnerfused. Consequently, the upper portion of
the lung does not contribute to gas exchange, which takes place
only in the mid-portion. At the bottom of the lung, where much
of the pulmonary circulation then takes place, ventilation is
excluded as discussed earlier, with air trapped or atelectasis
taking place. Pulmonary shunting takes place, with pure venous
blood being mixed in with the oxygenated blood going back to the
left heart, and thereby reducing total blood oxygen saturation.
This hypothesis, discussed many years ago by Gauer (75) has since
been confirmed both by x-ray studies of the lung (Bryan et al
(25)) and by lung scanning using a number of techniques
(Glaister, 89; Von Nieding et al, 184). The drop in arterial
oxygen saturation is approximately linear with acceleration,

A-i132

-- - - - - --
 [1
L having a sensitivity of approximately 10 mm Hg per G. Simultan-
eous measurements of arterial oxygen (PaO2)' and carbon dioxide
(PAP 2 ) partial pressures, arterial pH (pHa), alveolar (end

expiratory) gas partial pressures (PAo 2 , PAc0 2 ), breathing

frequency (f) and the arterial-alveolar oxygen and partial pres-
sure gradients were measured by Von Nieding et al (184) on centri-
fuge runs. Their average values, shown in Figure A.7-10, show
clearly this linear decrease in P, which is reflected in
increases in both the alveolar oxygen level with increasing G and
a consequent increase in the arterial-alveolar pressure gradient
(A-a P0 2 ). Although arterial carbon dioxide level remains
relatively unaffected, probably because of the hyperventilation
shown in the increase in breathing rate, the alveolar carbon
dioxide level drops significantly with increasing acceleration
levels. Breathing rate increases by about 15% per G. The drop

Ratio-
60 .cceleration
control valuesvalues/ / AaD-O2

50
I.0
4.0

Pa0

3.0[ ýD-PC02

2-
I I I I
Rest ÷ Gz + 2Gz +3Gz +4Gz

Figure A.7-10 Mean values from all respiratory quantities

-I investigated at +Gz acceleration, relative
to the value at rest (from Von Nieding (184))
tcourtesy of Springer Verlag).

A-133

L - .. -
in end expiratory P0 2 begins immediately with the onset of
acceleration and ceaches its plateau level in about one minute.

The relationship between the change in gas exchange effici-

ency and the capillary perfusion of the different regions of the
lung is shown clearly in Figure A.7-11. Note that even at +2 Gz
the upper section of the lung is completely unperfused, and at +4
Gz fully 93% of the perfusion is in the lowest portion of the
lung. The drop in arterial oxygen saturation is, of course, de-
layed some second after the decrease in gas exchange both because
of some storage of 02 and because of the hemoglobin saturation
characteristics which permit Pao to drop before a noticeable
change in oxygen saturation is developed. The time course of
arterial oxygen saturation for +Gz maneuvers of durations and

torr

20
Pcod,

40
131 j 131 J 131j glinTC 19"T,

56% 44% 54% 46% 54% 46% b% % 44% 55% 4

100

P0 2
125

150 fl sec
rest +IGz * 2Gz +3Gz +4Gz

Figure A.7-11 Changes of the 0 and C02 alveolar plateaus -I

for increasing vilues of +Gz acceleration.
In the middle section percent distribution
of the marked microspheres representing
capillary perfusion (scintiscans during
gravity, +2 and +4 Gz and all partial
pressure curves originate from subject
are from subject KK) (from Von Nieding et
al (184)) (courtesy of Springer Verlag).

A-134
I. magnitudes resembling those associated with ACM are indicated in
Pigure A.7-12. Note that the time course of the arterial oxygen
saturation drop outlasts the acceleration. Measurements of 02
saturation have also been taken during +Gz accelerations intended
to simulate an ACM G stress by Gillingham and Burton (84) and are
used for modeling the relationship between G level and arterial
saturation as will be discussed below. The steady state arterial
oxygen saturation begins to drop significantly from its control
levels at accelerations above +4 Gz, as indicated in the summary
diagram of Figure A.7-13. Oxygen uptake and oxygen consumption
similarly increase with increased acceleration, making the de-
creased gas exchange problem even more serious. A summary of the
oxygen exchange parameters of interest for +3 Gz and +8 Gx, as
I well as the control values is given in Table A.7-1 from Glaister
(90).

There have been numerous attempts to develop mathematical

U descriptions of the relationship between gravitational stress and

T 90
+ G4

--- 1min
Figure A.-12 Time course cf changns in arterial oxygen
saturation induced by consecutive exposures
to positive acceleration (4.5, 4.0 and 4.0
G) in subject 20 years old, height 179 cm,
weight 68 Kg, breathing air and wearing
automatically inflated Anti-G suit. Note
increasing rate and degree of unsaturation
in consecutive runs; also impairment of
resaturation in the postrur periods (from
Fraser (71)).

IL A-135
 "ARTF..,AL OXfGEN SAtLURAIION-%

£ 6 0

£ 0 "

IC 60 a.

75 G
GX

70 0k I I

1 2 3 4. 5 6 7 a tO
ACCELERATION -0
Figure A.7-13 Arterial oxygen saturations reported in man
during exposure to varying levels and axes
of acceleration. Each point represents the
average of at least three, and up to 31
.determinations made during exposures lasting
from 50 seconds to six minutes with subjects
breathing air (from Glaister (90)) (courtesy
of Advisory Group for Aerospace Research
and Development).

arterial saturation, since this is of such. extreme practical im-

portance in predicting the tolerance to various maneuvers. Gil-
lingham and Burton hAve pursued this question the furthest in
recent work, emphasizing the dynamic response to ACM type man-
euvers as well as standard test pulses of acceleration. Burton,
in earlier work, modeled the arterial oxygen tension and satura-
tion as an exponential function of G as follows:

-97.5 e-0 .09 3 G, and

Sao 2 - 99 - 1.59G. [Eq. A.7-11

I2

A-136
¶ _ _ __ ___ i
 Table A.7-1 Oxygen exchange under various conditions of
acceleration (from Glaister (90)) (courtesy
of Advisory Group of Aerospace Research
and Development).

÷IG. ,rd (78) +3G, ,BG,

Arterial blood

uxygen cunr.nt (vol. '21 20.3 19.9 16. 1

oxygen saturation (,'L) 97.1 95.1 (228, 27.3) 77.0

oxygen tension (mm Hg) 95 so 42

•Mixed venous bhd

oxygi.n content (vol. '.) 15.5 12.9 10.0

oxygen saturation (Ai) 75.0 61.8 47.8 (12)

* oxygen tension (mm Hg) 40 32 26

lMean tissue vapillary blood

oxygen tension (mm Hg) 58 48 31

Oxygen aptake (mVl/,dn) 175 265 (95) 205 (249)

Oxygen consumption (nil/mt) 275 320 420

Oxygen stores (ml) 905 60) 545 595

"Oxygen debt (ml) 0 495 745

CardiaLc output (/min) 5.7 4.6 (228,273) 6.8 (273)

Note: xvigien tuptake uid oM,.ci consumption values are averaged over 3 nilnute
acceleration exposures: all other values apply to the end of such exposures.
~"Where values ive taken fr'om the literature, appropriate references are
Thgieen in brackets.

eattempted to match measured oxygen saturation during an ACM

type maneuver and a 6 Gz 60 second pulse with several models, in-

cluding a synthetic transfer function given below.

Sao 2 • 0, t < 1.17

1100, 1.17 < t < 1.95

- 0, 1.95 < t < 4.69

-19.5e-t-4.69 t > 4.69 (Eq. A.7-21

37.5

A-137
 The results of that simulated response to both the ACM G
stress and the pulse are given in Figure A.7-14. Gillingham (82)
has recently indicated i) a personal communication, that he feels
that a better approximation would be given by the following lin-
ear transfer function, relating Sa 0 2 as the output to +Gz as the
input:

1 + 7.20s -
H(s) =-3.87 e 8.46 s [Eq. A.7-3]
1 + 48.2s

The initial peak that comes from such a lead lag transfer func-
tion is p,.esumed to be related in some way to anticipatory breath-
ing prior to the onset of G level, a phenomenon that has been
noted by several authors. The implied delay of 3 seconds in-
cludes several seconds delay until the circulating blood reaches
the ear where the oximetry measurement was taken.

AFFECTS OF 100% OXYGEN

Breathing of 100% oxygen does have a slight effect on reduc-

ing the drop in oxygen saturation with positive acceleration.
However, if oxygen is prebreathed by 15 minutes or so prior to
tne onset of the G stress, there is an increasing occurrence of
atelectasis, independent of the composition of the inspired gas
at the time of the G stress. Consequently, alveolar collapse
takes place, further interfering with gas exchange at +Gz.
Following the cessation of acceleration, when 100% oxygen has
been breathed, the return of oxygen saturation is slowed, further
indicating the likelihood that atelectasis was responsible for
the drop in gas exchange.

Although no direct data has been found which relates the ef-
fects of breathing of gas mixtures with lower than atmospheric
oxygen content to G levels, it is quite clear that similar reduc-
tions in arterial saturation levels, both of magnitude and time, -

A-138

JI'
 90
-

: 90

2O
SATURATION 85

95
90 .

85

6 64954-
2
0
0 40 80 120 160
TIME (SEC)
Figure A.7-14 a Actual mean response (above) and mean response
predicted by initial synthetic transfer function
(middle) to ACI G stress. (from Gillingham
& Burton (84)) (courtesy of Aviation Space
and Enviro-nmental Medicine).

90
685
.•. 95
02 SATURATION
100- .,

i . 90 -

85[
so

TIME (SEC)
Figure A.7-14 b Predicted response to 6-G pulse based on
four-subject, 12 run, average transfer
function (above) and predicted response
based on revised synthetic transfer function
(middle) (from Gillingham & Burton (84))
(courtesy of Aviation Space and Environmental
medicine).

A-139
L
..........................
can be approached by reducing oxygen content of the inspired air
on a breath by breath basis. The relationship including inspired
air oxyqen tension and arterial Sao 2 is well documented.

The question of inspired air content as well as that of posi-

tive or negative pressure breathing will be discussed further
below under + Gx, Forward Acceleration.

ANTI-G SUIT

When the anti-G suit is inflated in response to accelera-

tion, it presses up on the abdomen and diaphragm reducing end-
tidal lung volume and vital capacity. As a result of both the
reduction in lung volume and the fact that the increased pressure
in the basilar part of the lung will close off even more alveoli,
inflation of the anti-G suit increases the arterial desaturation
which develops during +Gz exposure.

EFFECTS OF FORWARD ACCELERATION (+Gx) ON GAS EXCHPNGE

Although the mechanisms involved in the acceleration effects

on respiration are similar for +Gx to those already discussed for
+Gz, the magnitude of the effect is much more severe. Combined
with the observation that tilt back seats are used to increase ac-
celeration tolerance associated with hydrostatic pressure drops
to the cardiovascular system, the expected longer duration +Gx ii
stresses are of particular importance in considpration of their I]
respiratory effects.

The increased work of breathing associated with elevating

the chest wall during forward acceleration calls for an increased
oxygen uptake with increasing Gx. The additional oxygen corres-
ponds to an increment of about 15% at 5 g's and over 100% at 10 -•

Gx (Zechman et al 274). If the oxygen cannot be supplied by res-

piration, an oxygen debt is accumulated which is repaid following

A-140

4. ,, . -- a.,,.a- -. 'a"•.
J., l 4• • V.-L•
",, -t ," .. -
 J" acceleration. In discussing somewhat conflicting results, Fraser
concludes that there is generally a decrease in actual oxygen up-
take during acceleration followed by an increase to make up for
the accumulated debt after the acceleratory period (71).
[I

Nearly all investigators are agreed that the major influence

of forward acceleration on gas exchange is in a severe alteration
of the regional ventilation perfusion ratios, whereby the ventral
or forward part of the lung receives no perfusion and maximum ven-
tilation with very large alveolar sacs, whereas the dorsal or
back portion is maximally perfused but, because of the high pres-
sure, has the airways blocked off or collapsed. This is shown
clearly in Figure A.7-15, where the increase in pulmonary pres-
sure the
from change
30 mm Hg
in arterial at igpressure
intrapleural to 70 mm Hg -2
from at mm Hg to
5g's, +18 mm
combined
i with

Hg collapses the alveoli. This same information Is shown quan-

titatively in Figure A.7-16 where the relative ventilation per-
fusion ratios at Ig and Gx are shown. For the 5 Gx case, it is
only the limited region of the lung with the relative ventilation
perfusion catio close to 1 that is affected in gas exchange. As

* -1 /
4 •~I nt rapleural
I ntapleralVentral chest wall
0 . pressure,
-0

.Alveolar sur-
i pressure-pr"e.
-0 Ii'//
Pulmeonary0
50
pres s u r es : r ery e0

'OG IG / ,.5G PV

Figure A.7-15 Diagram of effects of forward (+Gx) accel-

eration on intrathoracic pressures (dorsal-
ventral dimension of lung is 20 cm). Numerals
indicate pressures as cm H 0, and zero ref-
erence level is atmospherig pressure at
midthoracic coror.nl plane (from Fraser (71)0

L A-141
 "30

'1 10
0
S\
1.0. .I

Me
-e . / e,

0.3 v

0.1 ... 4
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

Ant Detector position, cm Post

Figure A.7-l6 Relative distance

against ventilation-perfusion ratios plottedb
along anteroposterior axis
of the values
lung atobtained
+1 and +5
fronGx. 3 subjects.
cover Shaded areas
Ex-
posure to acceleration increases range of
values and creates a considerable region of
zero ventilation-perfusion ratio at the back
of the lung (fron Glaiste? (88)) (court'esy
of Journal of Applied Physiolpiy).

discussed previously, the development of artecial venous pul-

monary shunts at the back portion of the lunc reduces the oxygen
saturation significantly. Even breathing 100% oxygen only delays
its development and reduces its magnitude somewhat because, of
course, where no gas is coming in contact with the blood, no ex-
change can take place. The data of Steiner and Mueller (231)
shows an effective shunt of 40% at 6g's and 63% at 8g's in air,
with the latter reduced to 40% at 8e's for breathing pure oxygen.

SA-142

S... ... ... • * :"+"- ;.-•"• - ,., *;, ,•-,•'"V"+r'' • ':, ++/• • •2-
:i =:...All .•,
 The time course of changing arterial oxygen saturation dur-
ing forward acceleration is similar to that for headward accel-
eration, although of course the magnitudes of the desaturation
are much greater. Figure A.7-17 and A.7-18 show the "step re-
sponse" to rapid onset and rapid offset of forward accelerations
I
at three different levels, and indicate the dominant t 4 me con-
stant to be of the order of 30 to 60 seconds. Breathing 100%
oxygen would appear to reduce the arterial oxygen satura&ion I

decrement on the order of 3 to 5%.

Several quantitative models came to our attention which were

worked out specifically for the dynamics of arterial saturation
in response to Gx acceleration. Holden (112), however, makes the
case that it is in fact principally the magnitude of the imposed
acceleration and not its direction which is of importance in
determining arterial saturation, and, dealing with a wide variety
of data for both Gx and Gz, he proposes a simple model based on
this function and on physical principles. He argues that steady
state arterial oxygen concentrations can be approximated as poly-
nomials in the magnitude of each G vector, and that the rate of
change to a step change in acceleration is an exponential decay.
By curve fitting he comes up with the step response as follows:
Pao (t) - (0.5 g- 0.4 g 2 ) (le-0.05(t-8)) + 98 [Eq. A.7-4]

The 8 second time delay associated with the delay between

onset of a step of acceleration and beginning of a change in
arterial concentration is similar to that obtained for Gz as
discussed in the model of Gillingham and Burton. In the steady
state, of course, the exponential term dies out and the steady
arterial saturation level in response to any G stress are given
by

*Pao
98 + 0.5g 0.4g 2 . [Eq. A.7-5]

A-143

° "i
 ART 02 SAT %

VENOUS PRESSURE

MM HG

80 .

70 -

Fiaure A.7-17 Effect of exposing an anaesthetised

dog to an azceleration of -7G 4
for two minutes, on arterial oxygen
saturation and venous pressure.
Note the fall in saturation durina
the period of acceleration (from,
Glaister).

II " " I Ii I I ' ' "'

100 t BREATHING 02

-BREATHING AIR

%02 90 9 -
SATURATION
-80

-4 CUVETTE OXIMETER, RADIAL ARTERY

70- EAR OXIMETER

50 0 100 200 300 400 Soo Soo

SECONDS
Figure A.7-18 Changes in arterial oxygen satluration
during acceleration when breathing
oxyaer (30 seconds exposure to +5Gw)
or air (4.5 minute exposure to +5G
The lack of response when the subject
breathed 99.61 oxygen was pr',.ýimably
due to the run beina termir',a-! after
only 30 seconds, at which t x',gen
trapped in unventilated al't ,-,s
still available for diffusiu 'm
Glaister).

A-144
 As a simple starting point for software to drive a model this
if would seem to be reasonable, alth'ough further experimental yeri-
I fication is obviously necessary.

ri PRESSURE BREATHING

[Positive pressure breathing can reduce the work of breathing

under forward acceleration, since the higher pressure in the in-
spired air tends to make it easier to expand the chest wall. InJ
addition, of course, the positive pressure inspired gas tends to
j keep the dorsal portion of the lung ventilated and reduce the pul-
monary shunting. Watson and Cherniak (252) found considerable
increase in tolerance to positive accelerations of +6g and +8g
with positive pressure breathing of 12 and 20 mm Hg respectively.,
[ Positive pressure breathing with pure oxygen increases the danger
Pof atelectasis however. F'or the purposes of this study, it is
reasonable to consider once again the effects of negative pres-
jsure breathing, not only on making the work of breathing and
breathing mechanics resemble that of forward acceleration for the
I simnulator case, but also in terms of creating an altered ventila-
tion perfusion ratio which would result in reduced arterial satu-
ration in the fixed base simulator.

A- 145
 !

I.
1.

I
[

iii
I."Reference Number To HG Reference And Appendix Page
Index"

Appendix
Appendix Reference HG
Feference HG Number Page Number
Number Page Number Number
Number
63 252 B-181
1 62 B-60
64 40 B-36
2 195 B-157
65 8]. B-82
3 14 B-13
68 242 B-172
5 250 B-180
69 156 B-123
11 18 B-17
71 229 B-167
14 15 B-14
74 41 B-37
15 183 B-.148
78 175 B-141
19 247 B-177
82 88 B-85&86
20 9 B-10
84 42 B-38
21 6 B-6
85 4 B-2
27 170 B-134
86 5 B-4
28 55 B-48
87 65 B-61
29 157 B-125
90 246 B-176
30 83 B-84
91 249 B-179
31 44 B-39
B-21 94 80 B-81
S32 20
96 59 B-54
33 7 B-16
98 22 B-25
34 82 B-83
104 7 B-7
35 190 B-152
106 21 B-23
36 189 B-150
107 124 B-114
37 174 B-139
11 211 B-161
40 158 B-126
B-47 114 256 B-182
* 42 52
115 257 B-183
45 36 B-34
118 109 B-109
46 122 B-113
B-28 119 110 B-110
48 23
120 16 B-15
49 121 B-112
127 69 B-67
50 133 B-116
130 97 B-93,9 4 , 9 5
51 182 B-147
132 160 B-130
52 258 B-184
B-92 134 49 B-45
r 56 94
107 B-107
j 58 98 B-96 136
128 B-115
62 67 B-65 140

J.
I- B-i

- .. -

.*J.
 Appendix Reference HG Appendix
Reference HG Page Number
Number Number Page Number Number Number
211 2 B-i
141 91 B-90
B-11&12 212 29 B-29
142 13
B-19 213 104 B-101
144 19
B-91 218 184 B-149
145 92
220 219 B-164
147 243 B-174
B-135 221 46 B-42
150 171
B-171 222 33 B-30
152 241
B-98 223 34 B-33
154 102
B-89 224 78 B-77
160 90
B-55 229 202 B-158
161 60
B-75 230 159 B-128
164 77
B-169 236 61 B-57
165 239
B-53 239 226 B-166
166 58
B-108 240 248 B-178
167 108
B-68 241 144 B-119
168 73
B-100 242 76 B-74
171 103
B-137 244 172 B-136
S172 173
B-35 245 240 B-170
174 37
B-103 247 75 B-72
175 106
B-155 248 45 B-41
176 191
B-156 250 137 B-118
177 194
176 B-14?. 251 164 B-132
180
181 105 B-102 256 244 B-175
B-165 258 152 B-121
185 223
B-133 261 177 B-143
190 166
B-87&88 262 178 B-144
194 89
B-43 263 179 B-145
195 47
i202 57 B-51 264 180 B-146

I 205 238 B-168 268 1B-il

8 B-9
207 150 B-120 273
208 51 B-46
209 205 B-159

B-ii
 ^u~o.._•Gillilngham, K. K. ,o 5

-501- * l2 s

0-- 1 2
7*7s .4%s
*1+.. 4.5,. 7 .9

-50 L
A- .I50 ~
WJ EMPIRICAL H~s)
I
-50-
ACTUAL RESPCNSE

3L

i 50 1M
0 156 200

,ye-leveI and mean actual

Fig. 11. Predicted blood-pressure re-
sponses to S SACM G stress. Scquecnce as in Fig. 3. To avoid
contaminating prediction with actual re.,;onse data, data from
'
each subject's 4;8 SACM run were suotracted irom empirical
transfer function prior to makin; prediction.

IET
L21

IA

I B-3
 -TZa Aeromedical keview; Effects of the Abnormal Acceleraý-ory . 86
Environment of Flight ,..0- 5
DATE:•

' EA UT[~t lingham, K. K. ANIAALS

LU•BSGil -i
PIIL'SIOLOCICAL
CATEGORY
Not available at this time x AUDITORY
)' aIOMECHINL

" CARDIOVSCL
FORCE

X QENER&L
""An excellent brief review of the acceleration mechanics and LABYRINTH

major physiological effects, especially of Gz. Particularly .A.C.ITR

overview of spatial disorientation in flight. Summary X PROTECTIVE
S
of countermeasure affectiveness. ; REVIEW
; X~R.ESPIR.AT'N

(1) Blackout tolerance curves - duration vs Gz level as a X 31MULATION

function of rate at onset Fig. 9, p.31 X VIUAL
OTHER

(2) Ps 41- "..., M-1 contributes significantly to the high

heart rate; eg., the heart rates for persons performing AUGEAON-
a maximum M-1 @ +lGz are the same as those found during
exposures to +6 Gz."11 HET-N

(3) Positive Pressure Breathing (PPB) "PPB was found to STRAPS

be as effective as the M-1 maneuver regarding tolerable X AURAL
EXTREMITY
time at +6 and +8 Gz. The majority of the subjects x E MT
preferred PPB to the M-l because of less fatigue
B

associated with PPB." Fig. 23 shows esophageal X VRISAT

pressures which indicate changes in intrathoracic X LXCRIMATION
pressure and straining effort expended. TEMPERATURE
MASK
regulators
(4) Note: "... that current pressure demand oxygen
can only deliver 100% in the pressure settings, and the
probability of an increased incidence of atelectasis
associated w/ 1000 oxygen presently prevents the use
of PPB as. an operational Anti-G method."

(5) Note rapid response to blood pressure change vs. G

(p. 26 & 27). Note rapid change in F4 G level (p.7).
Wonder if LBNP concepts can cause blood pressure changes
rapid enough.

(6) Bottom p.28 - peripheral vision lost first because

retina supplied as end artery item with vessels of
decreasing size extending from retinal center toward
periphery. Blood pressure drops .'. first effects
periphery.

SIIEET 1 !
-, __or 2

' "i1-
,• ~B-4
- .

S ........ .. ....... .... •• .. . ... .•..• - • .•, .-..-:• j . L.. ••. .. •.••..•., •.,_.• . •._•
. . ••_-
.. . -- , •
 r . 'i .... __ ll , r
SGillingham, K. K. Li, 86
(7) Bottom p.32 - audition - last to go before unconsciousness -

not a good end point.

(8) Again note rapid response of blood pressure to G & Ml maneuver
on p37.
(9) Tidal Respiration - p.39 - would a decrease in CO2 in breathing I
air dilate the peripheral blood vessels with resultant drop in
blood pressure .*. helping LBNP? See also p42 & 43.
(10) Performance degradeS inversely with G to 6 Gz and rapidly
thereafter (p50).I
(11) Red out not experimentally encountered (p53) I
(12) Lacrimation noted above +12 Gx - outside our regime of
consideration (PS4T--
(13) Elevator Effect p64 & p76.

I. I

L B-
__ _ _ __-5_ _ _ __ _----- . -- t-.--
-I-* .-- ----- -- ~---- Ji. .~.a- * - -
 _ _ _ _21 _

Ocular Effects of High Speed Flight ,r 21

DATE:
LEADAýTRR; iumA~1s - X
• Blake, J. ANIMALS

PHYSIOLOGICAL
CA ,EI.;UR'
Not available at this time AUDITORY
3IOMEC.HNL
'ARD IOVSCL
FORCE
GENER.AL ,
i ~ ~LABYRIN;TH ,
.MAN .CNTRL

C4
4
PROTECTIVE
REVIEW
RESPIRAT' :4
SM.LATION
VISUAL,
I
OTH•ER

AUGMENTAT ION .

DEVICES
HEL.MET
ST.'lAPS
u ~AURAL
( ~EXTR•EMITY
u .• "INP
S~VISUAL
RESPIRATORY
LACRIMATION
TEMPERATU-E
MA•SK

or
SHEET I
L
B-
SHET_.ii

•'•• ..- '..,-, ____'___________" ____.__________'...._____....___'_'___'.____-_'___-_.--_____'_.___..__,_,_________-_..____, ov., ... .. /,.. .IT.•< ....... j I'
 104

Effect of Passive 700 Head-up Tilt on Peripheral Visual

Response Time
DE:
S • '• . HUMANS - X'
Haines, R. ,•,mAxS
.PHYSIOLOGICAL
CATEGORY
Peripheral visual response time was measured continuoutly in AUDITORY
0
seven young men during a 30-min, 70 head-up tilt before and •1CM ,-
after 14 days of bed rest. Small test lights were flashed on XCARDIOVSCL
at unexpected times and locations along the subjects' horizon- FORCE
tal retinal meridian to determine what effect tilt would have XGE N E .
on peripheral visual sensitivity and to better unders-.and the LABYRINTH

: physiological mechanisms that underlie peripheral v4 .ual MAN.CNTRL

Ssensitivity. Blood pressure was also measured every other PROTECTIVE

minute throughout this period. The results indicated that REVIEW

response time lengthens significantly to stimuli imaged beyond R '.

* about 700 from the line of sight for both the pre-and post- S.MU LA•.ýON.
bed-rest periods during tilt. VOsHER

AtGMENTATION

Cardiovascular
- ,
effects on vision DEVICES
IRELMET

STRAPS
(1) With a small (<4mm HG) of mean systolic blood pressure,
* •the author suggests that the critical closing pressure
(Pc) (pressure within a blood vessel) - is reached L8..P
in the extreme peripheral area of retinal - causing an VISUAL
increase in reaction time for a stimulus at 70 or RESPIRATORY
greater from the line of sight. LACRIMATION
•EMPERATURZE
M4ASK

t4

SHEET I
oP 2

B-7

. - • .. . .. • V
 ~2i~ Haines, R. lice 4 104.

c0n

0 A
C 01. 1

.2
0

t 0
Id0 CO)

-0
-~ N C4

x C4

00 >

-j 0

o 33

C 0J

2c

oo

U~i * ,..I
 2 73
TT__E: A Study of Early Greyout as an Indicator of Human REr.
Tolerance to Positive Radial Accelerating Force ,i-8
LEAD AUILOR: UMAUNSX
LEDAUI(•: Zarriello, J. J, ANIM.•ALS- '

PHIYS IOLOGICAL
CATEGORY
Not available at this time AUDITCRY
BIOM-CHNL
CARDIOVSCL
FORCE

GENERAL

Data useful for peripheral dimming display drive LABYRINTH

MAN. CNTRL
0 PROTECTIVE
(I) Loss of vision of lights at 80 in the periphery REVIEW
4.5g's SIUT
occurs at for
(a = .8)
g's (Gz)at (o-
4.2 lights 0.7),
230 =and g's (a = to.8)
5.3 compared for REUPIRATON

had an average of XvSsuLTO

center light loss. A clear run
3.8 g's. OTHER
l0
(2) The time between 800 light loss and blackout had a.
mode of only 0.5 sec - but a mean of 2.7 sec. AUGMETATIO_
DEVICES
i0
(3) Normative data were obtained regardigg the 800 LL and HEVMES
its relationship to 23 LL, blackout, and unconsciousness. STRAPS
AURAL
(4) Subjects were relaxed. EXTAEMITY
• • LBNP
X VISUAL
RESPIRATORY
LACRIZIATION
TEMPERATURE
MASK

Ii

I-

SHEET .

S~B-9 _................
. ... - , _
__ ,_ .. ..... ,,o..._
.+....3.,'+
.. .......
S ... ..............
___,
 T•:Testing Predictions Derived from a M~odel of I

Progressive Adaptation to Coriolis Acceleration

LEADAUT1OR% LU4ANS -x

Benson, A. J. NIMLS -
PHIYSIOLOGICAL
A theoretical for progress-ive adaptation to
model CATEGORY
Coriolis accelerations is described. Thirteet, AUDITORY

subjects were tested under procedures identical szoMEC.M

to those using fixed velocity increments described CAftOOVSCL
in previous studies, but in this instance diminish- rORCE
ing velocity increments, with an initial step of 3 GENERAL
Srev/min were used. The findings provide positive LAYRINTH

but as yet, limited support for the theoretical Q.C.R

4 model described. PROTECTIVE

iREVIEW
-- -------------------------- -------------------- RESPIRAT'N4
SIMULATION

Adaption of Labyrinth System to Coriolis accelera- VISUAL

tion in a centrifuge - not directly applicable. OTHER

AUGENT'ATION~
OEVICiS

S~STRAPS
S~EXTREMITY
S~LBNP
VISUAL
RESP I RATORY
LACRIM.ATION
TEMPERA•U'RE
XASK

I.

SHEET 1.

B-10
B-IO ,,
- T:T_.P Involuntary Head Movements & Helmet Motions During 1 142
Centrifuge Runs With Up to +6Gz n.-13
DATI::

L Kroemer, K. H. ,I.AAs-
PHYSIOLOGICAL

Open-loop centrifuge runs reaching +6G were performed with CATZGORY

13 subjects wearing the foam-padded stindard HGU-2A/P_ helmet. AUDITORY
Weights up to 20 oz were attached at top and sides. During X SIO!ECHNL

the centrifuge runs, each subject attempted to maintain his CAfDIOVSCL

gaze at a target directly in front of him. Hence, no FORCE

voluntary motion of the head should have occurred. Position GENERAL

of the head, of the helmet, and of a helmet-attached reticle LABYRZNTH

S
recorded photographically at each G-level. From the MAN.CNTRL

photographs, data on actual displacements of head, helmet, POTEVCTIW

and reticle were extracted and subjected to a computer-aided
analysis. RESPIRATN
SIMUMATION

Involuntary angular head movements, as well as rotational OsuE

• ". displacements
this paper in of the ofhelmet
terms pitch,on roll
the head, are discussed
and yaw. in
Also described oTHE

are linear changes in the vertical height of the subjects'

eyes and of the reticle. Yaw and roll were found to be
small and unstructured. Fore-and-down head and helmet DVCES

pitch, and depression of eye and reticle were about

STRXPS
proportional to the amount of +Gz stress. AURAL
•" • EXTREMITY
LBNP
VISUAL
Paper presents data on head, helmet, eye and reticle RSP OY
displacements as a function of +Gz accelerations LACRIM.TION
up to 6 Gz. These are measured (head & helmet) in three TEMP••TURZ
rotational degrees of freedom (pitch, roll & yaw). HAsY

(1) Pitch seems to be the most significant degree of

freedom in terms of excursion. There is a considerable
variability in head pitch among the various subjects (13).
t2) The most significant motion is helmet pitch. There
is a trend for head pitch to overshoot the IG position
upon return. Eye depression is relatively linear
from 0 @ lg to= 45 mm at + 6Gz.

tSMEET I~

L Bi
-,_ ....... , - F0.-
TITLE. 142
Involuntary Head Movements & Helmet Motions During . 14.
Centrifuge Runs Up to +6Gz itc- 13

L1U:4ANS -X
Kroemer, K. H, ,,NXALS -

-UIIYSIOLOC'CAL
Open-loop centrifuge runs reaching +6Gz were performed with CAT•CP.•
13 subjects wearing the foam-padded standard HGU-2A/P helmet. AUOITORY
Weights up to 20 oz were attached at top and sides. During the x axomEc1n
centrifuge runs, each subject attempted to maintain his gaze cADzovsc.
at a target directly in front oi him. Hence, no voluntary FORCE
motion of the head should have occurred. Position of the GENERAL
head, of the helmet, and of a helmet-attached reticle were !AN.NTR
recorded photographically at each G-level. From the photo-
graphs, data on actual displacements of head, helmet, and PROTECTIVE
reticle were extracted and subjected to a computer-aided RrVZEl,
analysis. ESPIR'.

Involuntary angular head movements, as well as rotational x VISUAL

displacements of the helmet on the head, are discussed in OTHER
this paper in terms of pitch, roll and yaw. Also described
are linear changes in the vertical height of the subjects' eyes
and of the reticle. Yaw and roll were found t6 be small and AU•MENTATION
unstructured. Fore-and-down head and helmet pitch, and DEVZCES
depression of eye and reticle were about proportional to the X HELNT
amount of +Gz stress. X STRAPS

I................. AURAL
EXTREMITY
Pertinant information for helmet movement on head (firmness VISUAL
bladder) & head/helmet movement (fluid cavity) & shoulder RESPIRATO•Y
harness tightening (torso movement) & G seat utilization. LACRIMAT1ON
TEMPERATURE
(1) Helmet, head, & helmet vs head movement appears to be M
independnet of helmet weight.
(2) Z induces no significant helmet/heac rolling or yawing.

(3) Z'induces head pitch down &Ave 40 @ 6G) and helmet

pitch down WRT head (Ave 4 @ 6G) the former linear
between l- 6g; the: latter showing little movement
between l 2g then linear 2->6g.
4) Z axis compression of torso neck under 6G mounts to
50 mmi~in eye point (1/6 of which is due fo head pitch)
is very linear l---6g substantiates position - action
G seat concept and general excursion range of G seat
40 0z variation in helmet weight has "no" effect on
said compression. U

SHEET I

B-12
_--
TITL ---

RFL,*,3
"Principles of Biodynamics HG- 14

LEDAHMANS x
ANIMALS -

rIYs :t, OcIcAL

Principles of Biodynamics is a manual prepared at the CATEGORY
request of the AGARD Aerospace Medical Panel in order AUDITORY
to give an updating of present knowledge about the IOMECINL
medical implications of linear and radial acceleratio CARDIQVSCL
for man in air and space vehicles. The aim of this FORCE
book i-s to give the bas-ic principles which have been XGENERAL
accumulated in this field over many years of aero- LAYRINH

medical research. It may also help research workers.

S~PROTECTIVE .. CNL

- -X RZVIEW
RESPIRAT'N
Summary, in outline form of the principle G-acceler- SIMULATION
ation effects and effectiveness of protective VISUAL

measures. Data summary on G-tolerance levels with oT.ER

various protection. A good first look at effects, no
physiolog~cal background needed. References good-
annotated bibliography. AUGMECTATION
included. DEVICES

I. Table of axes and terminology (pp 5, 6) STRAPS

1T
2. Summary of effects (pp 14-19) A•RALMTY

L.INP
3. S' annotated bibliography.
Good VISUAL
RESPIRATORY
4. Compilation of data on acceleration LACRIMATION
devices in US and Europe. I'4UPERATURE
M4ASK

I
oi

B-13
fTLz, Transmission of Angular Acceleration to the Head •.1 4

in the Seated Human Subject. 11G15

DA'I' :
Barnes, G. R. ANIMALS-

PHYSIOLOGICAL
sinusoidal angular
ul na u oioscillatior
Si o ds l i la ln a i o r in
i n
yaw of seated
a w o s e t edAUDITORY
CATEGORY
human subjects, both restrained and unrestrained, x3IOMECNL.
has demonstrated that responses of significant CARDIOVSCL
amplitude may be elicited in all three head axes.
In the unrestrained condition, the torso appeared to GENERA
absorb the input accelerator, the response of the LAYRINTH
head in the yaw axis exhibiting very rapid atten- MN.CNTR
uation (5 log units/decade) and large phase lags PROTECTIVE
at frequencies above 4 Hz. In the restrained con- R,,:Tw
dition, the transmission to the yaw axis of the head
was much less severely alternated (I log unit/ XSIMULATION
I
degrade) with similar phase lags above 4 Hz. The VISUAL
yaw responses in the unrestrained condition ex- OTHER
hibited a resonant peak at 2 Hz, probably
attributable to the large mass of the shoulders and
torso. In both experimentai conditions'there was ?E-t.U-.XE oATON
a significant response in both the roll and pitch ODVICES
axes of the head. The response in pitch exhibited X HELET
significant second harmonic components which were X STRAPS
manifested as a frequejncy doubling effect between AURAL
1 and 6 Hz. EXTREMITY
- LBNP
VEVSUAL
Helmet drive system onlygenerally relevant. Shoulde RSPIRATORY
straps - accept some of the torsional movement. LACRIMTION
TE4PERATURE

1. Stimulus was pure yaw about GG of Torso (un-

restrained) and 4 Hz (restrained) of head due
to mass of torso (unrestrained) and head
(restrained). Rapid roll off. Authors
conclude spring mass damper analogy does not
represent this system & point to utilization
of wave theory in bodies.

2. Important side noWe: Under vibratory regime

vestibular conpensation occurs to help
subject visually fixate but this must be
suppressed when object of fixation is vi-
brating too (cockpit inst.). Seat shakers 1
won't teach such suppression.

1
_?

SHEET I-

B-14
 The Effects of High Speed Fligh'. on the Human 2
Body. tin- 16
LEAD, AUTHOQR HUMNS

Howard, I. P. AN'IM.ALS -

PHYSIOLOCICAL
No abstract is available at this time. cANTEGORY
AUDITORY
310OIECML
CARD IOVSCL

Largely irrelevant to our task. An elementary and FORCE

unreferred review of the high G problem for laymen. GEERAL

m PROTECTIVE
1I. Fig 6, p 298 shows eye level arterial pressure x P-VIEw

dropping before a 4g acceleration

S IMULATION
2. Fig 5 gives tolerance levels in 3 directions VISUL

Motor Capability

2 g - "Just possible to rise from Seat" AUGMENTAT•O

3 g - "legs almost too heavy to lift" DEvzcEs
6 g - "arms cannot be raised above the head", KEW=
"fine movements of the fingers & hands STRAPS

can be made, but only if the rest of the AURAL

arm is well supported" XLXTRMITY

L,3NP

Visual Effects VISUAL

SRSI. rATORY

3 g - "Brightness & contrast diminish" also ,

LACRI AICN

veilin g" TEZ4PERATUR.,.

5-6g - "blackout"; 6-7g "Endangered MsX

cerebral circulation & loss of conscious-

ness."

!I
i..

0C

~1 _______________________________________ _
SHEET I

I L B-
' Men at High Sustained +Gz Acceleration, A Review. ,A,,
LFAD ATHOR.IU•MANS X
Burton, R. R. ANIM'ALS•

S~CATEGORY PHIYSIOLOGICALI

No abstract is available at this time ,AUDTORY

3IOMECHNL
CARDIOVSCL
FORCE

Through review of high sustained +Gz research at XGZEXEAL

"breaks emphasizing cardiovascular and respiratory LABYRINTH
responses, and manual performance to a lesser ex- %WN.CWRL
tent. Consideration of the physiological basis of PROTECT17Z
the various countermeasures. Good background. REVIEW
RZSPIRAT'N
SIMULATION
VISUAL

1. Many relevant tables concerning arterial C02 and OTHER

P0 2 as well as heart rate and blood pressure
measures under +Gz with various countermeasures. i
DEVICES
HtELM,•ET i

STRAPS
AURAL
EXTREZ•ITY
•: LBNP
L344
VISUAL
RES"I.LATORY
LACRIMATrION
TEMPERATURE
M4ASK

In I
dc1

rSHEETT 1.
_______________________________________ OF 3."

iY7B-16I. B-16
 II TITLE
.-_Z, Physiological Reactions of the Human Body to R•.. A

Transverse Accelerations and some Means of

to these
Increasing the Organism's Resistance
1iWA AUT L
r ~ - DATE:
iHUMANS - X
Barer, A. S. ANIMALS -
PH4YSI OLOGICAL
Flight in a space vehicle is accompanied by the CATEGORY
effects of exposure of the subject to di ferent AUDITORY
accelerations. Prolonged acceleration appears 31oMECHNL
during ,.hp start and at the re-entry of the space XCARDIOVSCL
vehicle into the earth's atmosphere. It also can FORCE
occur during maneuvers while in flight. Three XGENERAL
general groups of experiments are described here- LABYRINTH
iin. The first group considers the limits of human .A,-.CNTRL
2 tolerance to prolonged forward acceleration at an POTECTIw
angle of 650 to the longitudinal axis of the body. REVIEW
The second group of experiments include tests of XRsP.A,
different methods whereby human tolerance to trans- SIMULATION

verse acceleration miqht be increased. The third xvIsUAL

group of experiments contain investigations in OTHER

which the tolerance to acceleration was determined

in time under selected optimal condition.s. Detailed
records and data were obtained during each experiment AUO'ETA'IO•
Lo en certain physiological functions of the human DEVICEs

body. Complete analysis of these data are dis- STRAPS

cussed. Although estimates were made in this study sARAs
L ! of methods for increasing resistance of the human AXU=R.•MT
being to prolonged acceleration stress and limits ExTIT
of tolerance.2 to th'is stress were established, un- X LINF
X I
answered questions still remain regarding the reactio ""L
of the o~ganism to stress. Detailed analyses of RINATON
,RTAZ
the questions raised are considered in the paper.
L

S Physiological responses of the human being to these

stresses are considered in light of the experimental
MASK

data contained in the manuscript.

1. Centrifuge data from USSR up to 22 g at angles

of 650 & 800 to the longitudinal axis of the
body. Data is mostly cardiovascular & pul-
monary but also visual and CMS. Good data on
respiratory rate and volume.

.Reviewed Soviet centrifuge work on G . Em-

phasis on CV changes, but with good Gata on
respiratory effects 'frequency, volume, etc.)
at 2-22 g exposures. Also some EEG changes
and visual limits. Discussion of emotional
factors in level of meat of "reciprocal
reactions" of organisms.S

iOr 2 ...

B-17
 SBarer, A. S.. . . • l

1. The paper presents X-Ray data on changes in intra-

thoracic volume due to increase in acceleration stress.
Much data (qualitat've) presented on ECG & EMG, Blood
pressure increases of systolic 220 mm Hg & diastolic
170 mm Hg at 8 g and angle of 650 were reported.
2. Depth of respiratory increased only to 6g. Respiratory,
rate increased linearly in the range 4-12 g @ 650 and
, at greater (angle a 800) remained constant 9t 25-27
breaths/min. At 650 blackout occurred at 10-12 g at 800
not until 16g.
3. Also there is acuity data presented (pg. 132).
4. Greater stress noted generally during momentum phase
Question: is this due to experiment anxiety or centrifuge
dynamics?
5. The index of breathing was measured with a pneumotachygraph
Should find out more about it.

owlo
At"

AV*!
14\

Fi.-1. .\vir.114.e va tt.:I of Ill -a* ilajt

0-114I h al~aI .1a
a.,a if t',to
'i !i.iii the
algI ill"•'
is of
"%aiwj
€Ilavvvlurnt a'.:
l %u I a y f 1
1
ins"; 2-. a1. \-eili of rtsiratiiiii;
"ic 3- lia
",L 'i 'I ol

tia.11 4i 2.124 :it a111,aiaik 'If 6W OW~,~t~ai'i

, ~//

SHUET
or 2

B-B-18

.... II..
 , (omparison of Techniques for Measuring +G Rr 4. 144
Tolerance in Man.
LLADAUTOR, IF1Ui1\NS-X

R. B. ANIMALS-
Krutz.
PHYS ICLOGICAL

Two objective methods and one subjective method for CATEGORY

measuring +Gz tolerance (inertial vector in a head- AUDITORY
to-foot direction) were compared on the human centri- 3zo0Mzcmr.

fuge. Direct eye-level blood pressure (PA), blood CARDIOVSCL

flow velocity in the superficial temporal artery FORCE

(Qta), and subjective visual symptoms were used to GzENRA

determine tolerance to rapid onset acceleration LABYRINTH

(0 G/s) on the USAFSAM human centrifuge. Seven MA.CNTRL

relaxed subjects with extensive centrifuge ex- PROTCTzVE

j
perience were exposed to gradually increasing +Gz _vRzw
plateaus until the subjects reported 100% loss of RESPIAT-?,

peripheral centrifuge ondola lights (PLL) and 500 SIMULATION

I.D); viz, blackout. Zero X VISUAL
loss of central light
forward Qta occurred 6 s (range 4-9 s) before sub-
OTE

jective blackout and when. mean eye-level hlood press-

ure had reached 20 +1 mm Hg (SE). The results of AUGETIO
this study indicate-that flow changes in the super-
ficial temporal artery reflect flow changes in the DEVICES
retinal circulation d.Aring +Gz stress.
Z
sE4s
STRAPS
AURAL
EXTR.MITY
LBNP

The correlation of blood flow in the superficial x

temporal artery and direct eye level blood pressure RsRORY
"(intra-ocular) to subjective visual
symptoms during CESPIRAT•YO

+G accelerations . LACRINAT ION1

z MASK

1. "When blarkout was approached (2.7 to 4.1 Gs)

eye level arterial blood pressure began to fall
concomitant with the occurrence of retrograde
flow in the temporal artery (F163)"

2. Retrograde flow (Fig 4). " Zero forward temporal

flow (Qta) was determined both graphic and audio
recordings 6s (4 to 9 range) prior to blackout
Eye level mean arterial pressure (Pa) decreased
9 to 20 +1 mm Hg when zero forward Qta was
Sir, iitiaTly recorded".

SHZKT 2I
r" 2

_iB-1V

! .
 AUHR Krutz, R. B. .4144

PLL

250

V.10

250r''.-
*

.)-tGm llf- il ort a tip i

.. ______ A,

2 ~or
_______B-2
TITLZ, R. '32

G Tolerance and Protection with Anti G Suit ,i,- 20

Concants. Ar
LEAD AUTHOR.II..
R, A;SMALS X S
PIIYS IOLOCICAL

The ýffects of pressurizing various functional units CATE'OR'L

of an experimental pneumatic-lever anti-G suit (PLS; AUDITORY
frtquently called a capstan suit) on a G tolerance 3oMLCHN=L
and •rotectlon were determined at relaxe5 + Gz levels XCAP.ZIOVSCL
d-u-ling7 4--G" for 60-s--- terme- high sustained G (HSG) FORCE
Measured were +G tolerance and protection on nine C-,EA
male subjects using light loss criteria, increases LABYRINTH
in heart rate during HSG and subjective analysis. KM.CNTRL
These data from the PLS were compared with similar XPROTECTIVE
findings obtained from the same persons wearing REVIEW
the USAF standard anti-G suits (CSU-12/p) with and RESPIRATI
without suit pressurization. Abdominal bladder SIMULATION
inflation offered the highest increase in relaxed
4
VISUAL

!"Gz tolerance (0.7 G) whereas leg pressurization ME.

offered the greatest anti-G protection (heart
rate criterion and subjective analysis).atHSG.
Specifically regarding the PLS, it was found
DEVICESA
superior to the CSU-12/p at HSG regarding both +Gz
protection
S and
. subject
. comfort. .STRAPS A
AURAL
EXTREMITY
X LBNP
G Stress & cardiovascular effect of G Suit usage. VISUAL
RESPIRATORY
LACRIMATION

"TEMPERATURE
1.
1 Abdominal pressurization has most effect on in- Msx
creasing G level endpoint but hardly any effect
on heart rate.

2. Leg pressurization has most effect on heart

rate reduction but only small effect on in-
creasing G level endpoint.

3. Leg pressurization contributed to absense of

pain and feeling of support. (GK - heart rate
psychological effect cýimed by feeling of
support?)
4. Breakdown of G level Increase:
a) wearing unpressurized suit 0.3g
0
lb leg pressurization = 0.2g
c abdominal pressurization 0 7
Totalg

SHEET 1.

B-.21
 ^To._ Burton, R. R. 32

5. Authors postulate following equation for leg pressur-

ization effect on heart rate:
Heart rate = 163 - (6)(leg pressureqsi)
'i (BPM)

6. Uses 100% loss of peripheral light & 60% of central light

loss as an indicator of limit.

7. "The ROR (rapid Onset Rate) toleranced (Group mean)

found for either anti-g suit w/o. Pressurization was the
same 4.0 g's. This is similar to the 4.1 G's relaxed
tolerance level reported by Parkhurst et al (11) in
their HSG study where subjects were the SBS w/o press-
urization. Both Parkhurst & Burton reported a .3 to .4G
increase in ROR tolerance as a result of wearing
either SBS or PLS anti-g suit w/o application of pressure.
The effect of pressurizing both suits & specific portions
of PLS upon the +Gz tolerance is seen in Table I.

Table I. RELAXED ROR AND GOR +Gz TOLERANCE (MEAN + S.E.)

FOR NINE MALES WEARING FITHER THE CSU-12/p(SBS) O0
PNEUMATIC LEVER (PLS) ANTI-G SUITS WITH AND WITHOUT SUIT
PRESSURIZATION. THE ANTI-G EFFECT FROM INFLATING ONLY THE
LEG OR ABDOMINAL PORTION OF THE PLS IS ALSO COMPARED.

Control
No Pressure (NP) Abdominal Leg
(Both Suit Types) Pressure Pressure
SBS* PLS*
ROR 4.0 5.0** 4.9** 4.7** 4.2

Mean
+ S.E. 0.29 0.30 0.31 0.30 0.36

GOR 5.0 5.9** 5.6** 5,4** 5.2

Mean •(
+ S.E. 0.27 0.28 0.26 0.31 0.39
• Suits were pressurized (Note Text):
•** Significantly different from NP control +Gz tolerance .
p < 0.01 using paired t-Testing
+ PLS was used (note Text).
FSHZT 2•
?r
OSU 2

B-22
 Effect of Prolonged Bedrest & +Gz Acceleration Rcr.#106
Upon Peripheral Visual Response Time. 11- ?J
DATEI -
LEA ACT= iiUMANS X
Haines, R. F. ANIMALS -

Cardiovascular deconditioning, dehydration', and other

physiological changes which occur as a result of pro- N'DTORY
longed exposure to the zero -g space environment
raise some questions about the applicability of much 3IOMECLI

previous research which has shown that spacecraft

I
FORCE
reentry accelerations pose no appreciable physiologi- OEMER

cal or performance problems for the astronauts. The LABYRZNTH

present paper deals with whether or not peripheral .cT
= visual response time changes during +Gz acceleration PROTECTIVE
after 14 days of bedrest. Eighteen test lights, RVIEW
placed 100 are apart along the horizontal meridian RESPIRAT'N
of the subject's field of view, were presented in a SIMULATION
random sequence. The subject was instructed to press ,visu&
a button as soon as a light appeared. This testing OTHER
V occurred periodically during bedrest and continuousl)
during centrifugation testing. The results indicated
that: (1) mean response time was significantly AUGMENTATION
i longer (P 0.01) to stimuli imaged in the far peri- DFvIcEs
phery than to stimuli imaged closer to the line of HiELME
V sight during +Gz acceleration, (2) mean response tim( sTs
at each stimulus position tends to be longer at AURAL
plateau g than during the pre-acceleration baseline EXTRW41TY
period far that run by an amount which ranged from LNP
about 20 to 120 mscc, (3) mean response time tends XVISUA
to lengthen as g level is increased, and (4) under RESPIRATORY
these testing conditions peripheral visual LAC.IMhTION
"response time during +Gz acceleration within approx- TEMPERATURE
imately 40 seconds of blackout does not provide a MASK

reliable indicater that blackout is going to occur.

The bedrest response time data showed that the dis-
tribution of RTs across the horizontal retinal meri-
dian remained remarkably constant within subjects
from day to day during the bedrest and recovery
periods. These findings are discussed in relation t
previous studies and to the design and placement of
aerospace vehicle cockpit instruments.

Detailed data on time delays to visual stimuli at

various retinal locations as a function of S-level
(We cou'd simulate the lonq reaction time by re-
ducing contrast or intensity appropriately.) Good
review of earlier reaction time illustrative for
+Gz.

SHEET 1

L..or 2
B-23
 W~n c F - 106....

Response time lags is not a good indicator to loss of

peripheral vision.

or2

B-24

"-2,2

. ... ..
OFH E .. . ., i..•
1'
 TZTL91

Acceleration & Human Performance

I)Ir

SGrether ý W. F . 4 ML

PHY$$OLOGICAL

Research on acceleration (G), such as experienced in CA'.tGRY

aircraft and space vehicles is reviewed in terms of XAUDITORY

effects on human performance capabilities. Almost x3aocH

all such research has been conducted on human centri- xXFORCE
cARDoOvsC
fuges with the inertial force vectors in the +Gx and -Gx
i direction for seated subjects, and the +Gz and -Gz XaZ•R•
directions for supine and prone subjects. Visual LABYRINTH
"blackout has become the standard indicator of human
PROTECTIVE
tolerance to +Gz acceleration. Other functions, REZVEW
namely absolute thresholds, brightness, discrimin- RESPIRAT'V
ation, visual acuity, and instrument reading all SMULTON
have been found to be impaired at G levels well VISUA
V below physiological tolerance limits, for +Gz, OTHER
+Gx, and -Gx vectors. Motor capabilities, namely
tracking, reaction time, reading, and manipulation
also show impairment at relatively low G levels. AUGMENTATION
Limited data on intellectual or central progress DZVcIs
suggest that these are more resistant, but not tMX=X
immune, to effects of exposure to acceleration. In- STRAPS
cluded in the review is discussion of probable xAu&R.
mechanisms causing performance impairment. x=•UNI•
-- --- ------------------------------ -----------------------------------------XVISUAL
I. RESP IRATORY

Good ref., pertains primarily to the visual sense, LCRIMTION

tracking performance, reaction time, manual control. n"ERAT.u'
MASK

$ 1. p 1159 - Brightness thresholds not affected by

"Gz when source brightness is in 0.2 Ft-L to
100 Ft-L radge; is affected in the 0.03 Ft-L
range & due to retinal hypoxia visual acuity
affected up to 4 Gz & severe when brightness
down at 0.01 Ft. L - acuity decrement mechanism
not known.
2. p 1160 - "Hearing relatively immune to acceler-
ation up to the point of unconsciousness" but
reaction time increased (See Below).
3. P1161 - "very little research on manual cap-
abilities during acceleration ... perhaps
the effects seemed obvious" See Table IV.

lorJ 3

L
..- 25
 SGrether, W. F. F 98

4. P1164 - Primary mechanism for impairment of tracing seems

to be direct mechanical disturbance of motor performance
however blood supply loss also affects tracking.
5. P1163 States acceleration feedback improves tracking.
6. P1160 - Decremation in instrument reading under low
light levels particularly.
7. Reports "Scuba Mask'; negative pressures to attempt to
maintain intraocular blood pressure-may be able to use
in reverse - Relghley, Clark, and Drury.
8. Rogge showed blackout theshold constant for .2 to 100
foot lamberts (Ft.L)(fairly high) "The study by White
showed further that the effect of acceleration on
absolute visual thresholds for the periphery can be
reduced by providing the subject w/ anti-G protection."
(Fig 1) "As long ago as 1946 Warrick.& Lund tested the
ability of pilots to read instrument dials during +Gz
acc. using 1½ G as a control condition, they showed a
significant decrement in dial reading ability at 3 G."
9. Further studies of dial reading as a funtion of +Gz by
White & Riley & White, showed decrements dependent on
luminance levels (fig. 4).
10. Hearing is relatively immune to increased acceleration but
semicircular canals & otoliths cause visual illusions
& erronedus judgements of motion.

.I

ST 2
0o* 3
B-26
 Alo!.
-V

1c

a , ' .. .. ~. *..~ * .... ...... : ' '

2oi
.- a e !-wtal

* ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ,a.a.. I'*'I:,
% Ii'I.

as. ' at f.. v.

itttitai 1
;it I. "" .
C'a, LI !.-t;a ata
vrvir

...... Mo,el

* . a'. ... 1 I ~ a'a Ia 14 rl, S-I-lt aawaa ... ;a IJ a. at crr.', aatl

A %.a I :.a C' . a0G. ijlt~ga,.1w! GIf C. Ci,. Mai0

a, ~ t~~a ~ ,, With.a

, ala.-C
vvj-
%-' C. 'l.'a w*a. 1:.1 Uh'

t a a I,w. a-
I'
A . ill%.at'-t.a illt, tt a,I wi~tr 'ta,-

L - -
S---------.
. .
-27 t
____ ____
_

___littie-.
Jill_... , ... fly10
 'z.i48
Hand Eye Coordinatior in Altered Gravitational
Fi .1 diUATC:
"Cohen, M. M. -
PHYSIOLOCGCAL

Conflicting reports have appeared in the literature CATCGoRY

concerning the effects of' exposure to increased G, AUDITORY
upon human visual-motor coordination. In the current xa3OMzCL
study, samples of hand-eye coordination were obtained CARZOVSC..
?ORCT
while each of 8 subjects was exposed to accelerative
Sforces of 1.0, 1.5, and 2.3 Gz in the Naval Air
Development changes
Center Human Centrifuge.were observed as
in coordination .CTR,
Systematic ANoT.-
SysteaticPROTECTIVE
a function of the Gz conditions employed. In the REVIEW
2.OGz environment, subjects initially reached below, EspI•TN
and then above, a mirror viewed target. In the SZMU•TIO
1.5 Gz environment, subjects tended to reach above XVZSUAL
the target throughout the exposure session. In the OTHE
1.0 Gz environment (natur~al terrestrial conditions)
there were no significant changes in coordination.
The data suggest that the relationship between in- AUGCNXTATION
tended motor outputs and thier proprioceptive DEZCEu
kinesthetic consequences provides adequate infor- HZLT
mation for rapid behavioral compensation to altered STRS
A accelerative forces. Further, vestibular and/or Au.RA
sensorytonic factors are implicated in bringing X EXTR
about changes in the apparent elevation of targets IBNP
viewed under increased accelerative forces. ,vz1uAL
RESPIRATORY
LACRZMATION
TEMPERATURE
Extremity drive MSK
Visual effects.

1. Data consists primarily of measuremenL of arm

extended pointing error under various G levels
and repeated trials.
2. Subject first points low due to arm loading,
; then high due to "elevator effect". Author
introduces this effect as a visual effect
wherein objects appear (or are thought) to
rise u::der increased G load.

SHzt'T I |
or, 1

B-28
1.
UtLU' Cardiac Rate Changet in Humans After Abrupt Deceleration Rrp.. 212

S. ... LUA'TE t

Rothstein, J. 0. .XZMALS
.

Transient ilowing of the cardiac rate has been observed after C.•,asolY
experimental abrupt deceleration (impact) when the decelera- AUDITORY
tion inertial vector is directed craniad (-Gz). We have
attempted to clarify the incidence and conditions of this XCAMIZOVSCL
response. Eighteen healthy male subjects (21-41 year.) were FORCE
exposed to -Gz and -4z impact profiles to 10 G peak decelera-
I tion in paired experiments, Cardiac rate was monitored
prior to and after impact by vectorcardiography. The data
Sshow that -Gz deceleration produces a statistically siqnifi-
tAYRINT"
4.cNTRL
PROTECTIVE
cant decrease in cardiac rate immediately after impact. An
insignificant increase in cardiac rate occurred after Gz
impact. It is suggested that the observed changes in cardiac SzMuL•:o.

rate are mediated through the pressoreceptors of the VOSTHE

carotid sinus and aortic asch. oTER

. . .AUNTATZON

CARDIOVASCULAR - Research applies mainly to impacts where ozvzcz:

the level is IOG with a rate of 650G/sec. These para- STsAP
meters are beyond the area of interest for this study. AURL

EXTRZ*4VTY

VISUAL
RESPIRATORY
LACRI.4ATZON
.TEPERATURE
!4ASK

IJ

.1i

SHflT I

B-29
I• Positive-Pressure Breathing As A Protective !rr..222
Technique During +Gz Acceleration. 11C. Il
DATE:

Shubrooks, S. J.. AN14MALS -

Use of continuous positive-pressure breathing (PPB)

PYSZOLO:CAL

as a means of increasing tolerance to positive (+Gz) NA'C!=ORY

acceleration was investigated in healthy subjects BUDNTY
experienced in riding a human centrifuge. an were
Five cAzosc.
,OlCL
during M-1
studied during PPB (25-35 mm Hg.) and
maneuver, both performed throughout 15-s rapid-onset GENRA
+Gz exposures without mfuscultr tensing; tolerance UAYRTN
increased 0.3-1.5 G with PPB, equal to the M-l
In two subjects and greater than the M-1 by 0.3 PROTECTZVE
to more than 0.5 G in three. Ten other subjects =V1Xw
were studied during 30-s exposur's witt! PPB in- EsPIR..I
creased to 40 mm Hg and generalized muscular strain- SZMULATZO
ing added to PPB and the M-l;.PPB increased tolerance vzsuA
by 0.7-2.2 G (mean 1.2 G), not significantly diff- OTHER
erent from the M-l. Three highly trained subjects
were studied during both maneuvers combined with
anti-G suit inflation and muscular straining at AUGN•TAT•OS
+8.0 Gz for 45-60 s without limitation by visual Dvzczs

symptoms. Measurement of eye-level systemic HXE

arterial pressure (Psa) demonstrated the effective- STRAS
ness of PPB in maintaining an elevation of Psa during AuRAL

+Gz. PPB afforded reliable +Gz protection equivalent EXT•EMZTY

to that of the M-1 but with less fatigue and' less LRP

inspiratory fall in Psa. Training, muscular tensing, v!suAL

and use of the suit were important in increasing USPZRATORY
effectiveness of PPB. LACRMAT•ZON
TZ14ZRALIRE~t•J

Visual, cardiovascular, protective devices.

------------------------------------------------
1. Author states that Ml maneuver aids in a higher
threshold to +Gz by increasing the systemic
arterial pressure primarily by a direct trans-
mission of increased intra-thoracic pressure
to the heart and great vessels.
2. Study demonstrates PPB to be approximately
equivalent either with or without use of an .1
anti G suit. Study shows PPB to be approximatel.
equivalent to the Ml maneuver in increasing
+Gz tolerance.
for PP8.
However, less work is 'required !

1.
rSHEET

B-30
 -Sh-uhrnnkq S A 22

3. Data is presented comrniarlng PPB/Mt eye level systemic

arterial pressure.

"30

iu rA.'.,,%,
c o4 -.

NVS

r 30*

X30 3-. - 7.

______ t-. - -

FOACCIGROUND DILI P130

RPS~Zm~f~g
*47GPIPI 4,92
its mn M11q

IF'E

'a .. ., .

PLSO

9 . ~PPU (35 inHg) 5,10 PS -

wic. 1. Typicaleye-level Psa re-

sosto--G, duting 3.63-G cc-titn
11111
an run at romrssively if%e
-G, levels using PPB. In each pane;i.-
uppvr tracin~g shows eve'.kvel ri.,
wi~d lower tracirw ind, aws z.cc-lerv
tion profile. Nlidtile tracintr for
PPS rwis is breathing pressure rk'ue.
;fCt A4).
J SHUET2

B-31
 T"If
AU Shubrooks, S. J. ~IFi s 222

AWU

AF' A..

L:. :~

7=i.

.5.

HET
.- ~3
B-3
T TL Effects of an Anti-G Suit on the Hemodynamic & •.. 223
Renal Responses to Positive (+Gz) Acceleration •- 3

L. Shubrooks, S. J. A'NIMALs -

PHYSIOLOGICAL

The effects of the currently used US Air Force (CSU- CATEGORY

12/P) anti-G suit on renal function during positive
radial acceleration (+Gz) were assessed in seven X CAROIOVSCL
normal male subjects in balance on a 200 meq sodium FORCE
diet. Following suit inflation in the seated posit- CER
Sion, +2.0 Gz for 30 min resulted in a decrease in LABYRINTH
the rate of sodium excretion (UNaV) from 125 ± 19 U.CNR
to 60 ± 14 meq/min (P< 0.01) which persisted X PROTECTIVE
during a 25 min recovery period. Fractional excre- REW
tion of sodium also decreased significantly during a.ESPAT'N
+Gz (P< 0.01). The magnitude of the antinatriuresis SIMULTION
was indistinguishable from that observed during +Gz VISUAL
without suit inflation. In contrast to the antina- 'HER
triuresis observed during centrifugation without
suit, however, the antinatriuresis with suit was
mediated primarily by an enhanced tabular re- AUGMENTATION
absorbtion of sodium. Addition studies of suit DEvIcEs
inflation without Gz demonstrated an elevation of 3EL.A-T
arterial pressure which was sustained during 5-10 STS
Smin of observation. In contrast, an initial eleva-
i- tion incentral venous pressure was followed by a
Srapid return toward base-line levels. The enhanced
AURAL
EXTREMITY
LBNP
"renal tubular reabsorption of sodium in the present XVISUAL
study suggests that the anti-G suit probably is ESIRATORY
ineffective in redistributing blood volume. LACRI4ATION
TEMPERATURE

--ASK

Visual, protective devices, cardiovascular.

1
1. Paper concentrates on the renal effects and
therefore has limited applicability other than
for static effects of G Suit on systemic pressure
" 2. Data *is presented illustrating the effects of the
anti-G suit on CVP & mean systemic arterial
pressure.

SHEET I

L. B-33

Z--
 --
TITLE: nr.# 45
Changes in ECG Contour During Prolonged +Gz --
Acceleration. ,tc- 36

LEAD AUTH!-: HUMA:S x

Cohen, G. H. ANIMALS -

PIUYS IOLOGICAL
One hundred and sixteen centrifuge runs were per- CATEGORY
formed on the USAFSAM Human Centrifuge using a AUDITORY
highly experienced subject panel of eighteen subjects ,1o0EC..NL
ranging in ages from 21-40 (mean 26). The subjects XcARDXovscL
were exposed to rapid onset profiles of 2.8, 3.1 FORCE
+Gz (0.75 G/sec) with a 15 second plateau and GENERAL
gradual onset run (1 G/10 second) to a firm peripheral LAMYRINTH
light loss. The subjects were monitored throughout MAN.CNTRL
with a simultaneously recording ECG system permitting PROTECTIVM
the recording of leads I, II, III, AVR, AVL, and REVIEW
AVF or leads V-V 6 . RESPIRAT'N
SIMULATION
Analysis of the tracings for heart rate, P, QRS and T VISUAL
wave contour revealed a pattern of P-wave peaking in OTHER
II, III and AVF associated with T wave flattening
or inversion in I1, I11, AVF and the precordial leads
with changes iVi V5-V6 being seen most consistently. AUGIoNTATZON

Although the P wave changes returned to control con- DEvzcEs

figuration with return of the subject to 1 , the STsRAS
T changes were most persistent and are felt to be
similar to those seen during orthostasis in humans. EXTREMIT

The time relation of the T wave changes to the G

S~VISUAL
XLB4
profiles used supports the contention that the ECG VISUAL
changes seen during +Gz acceleration are related
to increased sympathetic tone ;'ather than myocardial
LACRMAT ION
TEMPERATt!PZ
ischemi a. .MASX

It appears that the ECG changes noted can be a useful

parameter of the cardiovascular sympathetic
response to +Gz acceleration.

Cardiovascular, LBNP

Authors report alterations of the normal ECG as a

result of +Gz stress. They report magnitude in-
crease of the P wave, T wave flattening or inversion,
no change in cardiac rhythm other than sinus tachy-
c ardia and no di-sturbance of intraventricular or ar- [
trioventricular conduction. These results have value
to this study in they would indicate conditions
which would be expected in monitoring a subject -|
during LBNP exposure. SHEET 1
1 ., _ __or 071
B-34

L •. .. ... ... . .... . .. . . . .. • + , . . . • ,+• • • =!F

 Tolerance to Transverse (+Gx) & Headward C+GzY iv.e 174
1. Acceleration After Prolonged Bed Rest. ,o 7

L HUMANS
UW. - X
SMiller,.P. B. ANIMALS -

PIIYS IOLOCICAL
Tolerance to the transverse (+Gx) acceleration simu- I.ATEGOR
lated Gemini re-entry profile was determined before AUDZTORY
and after weeks of absolute bed rest. Tolerance to
headward (+Gz) acceleration was studied before and CARDZOVSCL
after 4 weeks of obsolute bed rest and 2 weeks of FORCE
modfifed-bed rest. G !
LABYRINTH
As judged by the degree of physical discomfort, the MAN.€CTRL
ability to respord to a central light, or the- pre.sence PROTECT-VE
of electrocardiographic abnormalities, tolerance to REVIEW
+Gx was unaffected by 4 weeks of absolute bed rest. UEsPIRA-,W
V In each subject studied, heart rates during peak acc- SXMULATION
eleration were higher after bed rest than before. As V.ISUAL ,
judged by the level of acceleration at which central OHER
vision was lost, no significant change in tolerance
to headward (+Gz) acceleration of rapid onset was
observed after 2 weeks of modified bed rest or after AuG.ENTA.ICN
4 weeks of absolute bed rest. After each type of bed DEVcCs
rest, the majority of the subjects had decreased HELME

tolerance in headware (+Gz) acceleration of gradual STRAPS

"• onset, but the mean decrease was not statistically AURAL

-significant. EXTREMITY

SMean heart rates at equivalent levels of +Gz were vZSIUA

significantly higher after both periods of bed rests. RsIAoRY
The only arrhythmia of clinical importance notes LACRIMATION
the appearance of bursts of premature atrial con- TRUA
tractions during G.O.R. -Gz in 1 subject after 2
weeks of bed rest.
--- ------------------------------------------ M---------
Cardiovascular, LBNP
Work was sodirected
program it has toward manual application
only limited orbiting Lob(MOL)
to this
i
study.
SMain value of this work is that it provides some
t hresnold data and heart rata data for ROR (lg/sec)
and that it confirms some other work by different
researchers on the effects of the reflex arteriolar
I constriction and reflex venotonstriction.

ShE ET I.

LB-35

- V.*
ITinZ, Instrumentation for the Rhesus M1onkey as a C~aralo-
Maneuvering Acceleration. cM- 40t.
,,, , ,DATI.:

oEricksonv l H. H.s NhAZ LS

PHIYS IOLOGICAL
The develop-.4nt of high-performance, fighter-attack CA-TEGORY
aircraft has created a need for 'new techniques and AUDITORY
methods to study the effects of acceleration stress BIOMEcIM
on the cardiovascular system. Instrumentation methods Xc.%PzXov,.'C
were developed in the rhesus monkey (Macaca Mulatta) FORCS
in order to evaluate cardiovascular performance in a GzE"R4
highG, air-combat maneuvering environment. The re- LAhIzIn
sults indicate that the rhesus monkey is a useful M.CN
model in studying the effects of gravitoinertial force, XPRoTzc,:vz
encountered by man during repetitive and maneuvering RVIE
acceleration. The model permits investigation of risk NZSPZUATN
limits, damage mechanisms, fatigue of the cardiovascu- SMULATIO
lar system, and pathophysiologic responses to accel- VISU"
eration. Increasing the seat angle during acceleratio OTI3M
provides protection to the cardiovascular system and
results in improved eye-level b-lood pressure. Re-
peated exposure to sustained and maneuveing accel- AuTATIoN
eration indicates that fatigue occurs and that cardio- DEVICES
vascular compensation becomes inadequate. 9W
STRAPS
ZXT1V1ITY

Cardiovascular, Protective Devices, LBNP xUNP

VI1SUAL
IESPIRATORY
LACRIMATION
The Rhesus monkey is a suitable human analog, compar- TEERATURE
able acc tolerance. 0 0 0 0 mug A
rhe seat back angles used were 13 , 30 , 45 , and 65
Simulated ACM profiles were used. The exposure was
terminated when mean eye level BP reached 0 mm Hg. .,
The point was approximately 4g.
There was little or no change in left ventricular j
pressure.
Decrease in left ventricular dp/dt, eye level arterial
pressure, central venous pressure anid cardiac output.
Exposure to the maneuvering profile resulted in signi-
ficantly greater stress to the cardiovascular system
than exposure to sustained "G" particularly at the
smaller seat angles.

J
SHEUT I 1

B-36 1
 Mechanism of Head & Neck Response to -Gx Impact rtrr.474
Acceleration: A Math Modeling Approach. HG- 41

lH
! kL.fAUMANiS - X
Frisch, G. D. ANIMALS -

Mathematical modeling has attained wider acceptance CATEGORY

in recent years. In particular, the use of computer AUDITORY
H programs to simulate the dynamic response of a human Xo crTz.m
in a crash situation has become an attractive alter- CAR.IOVSCL
native to full-scale experimental testing. This rORCZ

Slivingpaper analyzes data on the dynamic response of the

humarn head and neck to -Gx impact acceleration,
where the subject's head and neck in the midsagittal
GENERAL
LAYR•Z•TH
A.C.,T
, plane was monitored with inertial instrumentation and ,
high-speed photography for confirmation. The Calspan REVZEW
"3D Computer Simulator of Motor Vehicle Crash Victims" RZSPIP.AT'N
was used to predict expected responses for the SZMLATIO..
deceleration pulses employed. These estimates were VISUAL
compared to the fully instrumented. human test runs. OTHER
The standard 15-segment arnd 14-Joint representation
of the occupant was modified to include two sterno-
clavicular joints, increasing the articulation in A -A- N
the upper torso. Analysis of the data indicated that OEVc~ s
muscular activity in the head and neck seemed to be
evident and does influence motion of the head, even at SRAS
relatively high (10-G peak, 530 G/s onset) acceler- AURAL
ation levels. Simulation of muscular contraction, X!XTP--'ITY
using a spring-damper arrangement, improved the re- L"5
sults significantly. Additionally, possible limita- VISUAL
tions to head-to-neck motion such as ligament re- RESPIRATORY
strictions, were also modeled. L CRIMAT.O%
TEMPERAU.~RE,

Paper presents results of math model of head & neck

response to impact loading in the negative X directon.
The model does not have much application to this

1. Maximum head and neck excursion angles.

i 1199T I
or

B-37

~~~~~~
• .. "• . __.
•• U
,
 Transfer Functionrs For Arterial Oxygen 84
Saturation During +Gz Stress H0, 42
LEAD AU In UMANS - X
Gillingham, K. K. ANIMALS-

PlIYSIOLOCICL
None available at this time. CATEORY
AUDITORY
BZOM•cIW•L

XCARDIOVSCL
Visual, Respiratory roRc:

LABYRIZITH

IPRM3CTlvt.
Authors present a transfer function which they claim Uzvuw
correlates well with ACM profiles as well as steps. XUSPZRAT.-
The transfer function is synthesized as an impulse SIMULTON
response: SaoZis in %. xvzsUz.A
+ OTHER

Sa0 2 ' O2t < 1.17 sec

a 100,1.17 < t < 1.95 sec vUGN~tO

- 0, 1,95 < t < 4.69 STRPpS

AURAL
- -19.5e -(t-4.69 ) , ta.4.69 sec ZXUM•

SThis was based on a 6g impulse response. xvsuUAL

X RESPIRATORY
LACK IMAT ZO4
TEMPERATURE

-- S ii

B-38
[ I
Phsilo i Effects of Seatback Anle 450 rr.P. s .31

(From The Vertical) Relative to G. ,r.- 44

flAv.:

Burton. R. R. A.%ZALS -

P11YS1OLOC:CAL
Eight experimental subjects from the USAF School of CATEGORY
Aerospace Medicine (SAM) and four YF-16/17 test pilots AUOZTORY

were exposed to a simulated aerial combat maneuver azoaZcH`u.

(SACM) which included a maximum G exposure of 6 s at XCAMZOVSCL
8 G. The following physiologic parameters were ex- roRcZ
amined relative to seatback angles of 230, 280, and OXNtA

400: heart rate and rhythm; arterial oxygen sat- Z.YN

urat-ion; performance; intrathoracic (isophageal) MAN..j

i pressure; arterial pressure; and subject comfort, X PT?&QZVZ

effort, and fati gue. Relaxed and straining high uRvIEW

sustained G (HSG) tolerances (6 G for 60 s were X KZSPIKA-.,
also determined us•ng only SAM subjects. The ad- SIULATzON
vantages of the 40 seatback angle during the SACM x VISUAL

included increased subject comfort, less fatigue and OTHER

eFfort, greater pilot acceptance and a statistically

significant reduction in the increased mean he.art
rate associated with G exposure. On the other hand, AUGM.E-TATL.4'

-" a statistically significant reduction in arterial DEVICES

oxygen saturation was obtained during the SACM at 40 h"U'- i

compared with the 230 back angle. An increase in RPS

relaxed G tolerance was found with the 400 seatback AURAL

angle statistically significant only compared with MAMITY

the 280 seatback angle. X VISL
S._. ~~XVIRSPUAL '{R
6.----------- ------ ------ ---- ------ ---- ------ ---- ------ ------ ---- ------------- x RZSPIRATORY
LACRZiMAT ION

visual & LBNP, respiration TEP .RATURZ

MASK

1. Presents data for 230, 280, & 400 seat back angle:
thresholds (ROR & GOR), mean heart rates,
cardiac arrhythmia, 02 saturation, performance
systolic arterial pressure (after exposure).

2. Simulated ACM maneuver developed by pilots & used

herein for centrifuge profile. Represents F4E
"maneuvering as uprated to be applicable to F16
B type A/C.

.22

B-39

S ~ -- ~'-~ --
SBurton, R. R. 3

COMIAT MANEUVER
PNYSIQtOGIC RISPONSES TO A SIMUATED AERIAL

717i7Ii
WIR lea w go

411
%I is

El~T 2

B-40
 Mechanical Impedance of Supine Humans Under .
Sustained Acceleration
i . ... i .. .I .n
"a
nA'• f-:
45

. _ Vo t ..L. H. ANN.,ALS

Measurements of the mechanical impedance of the supine CATEGORY

human body were conducted to investigate the non- AUDITORY
linearitles of the body system. A hydraulically xzotcSC.NL
driven shake table was installed on a centrifuge. cADI.Oovsc-
Transmitted force and the acceleration of the plat- FCRCZ
form, on which the subjects were lying, were recorded ,ENX•
in the frequency range ef 2Hz-2OHz. Sinusoidal acc- Sz-.umNT
eleration amplitude was held constant at 0.5g. The M.€NxL
impedance and phase resultn show that sustained accel- PRoT.ZCT IV
eration up to +5Gx stiffens the human body with RIVIEw
increasing Gx and shifts the resonance frequency from ZSPIRA'.N
6Hz under normal .ravity to 8Hz under +2Gx and further SIMULATIO:
up to l1Hz, 13Hz and 15 Hz under +3Gx,+4Gx and +5Gx VISUAL
respectively. oTRR

: ~AUG.,EN:TAT:0.ON
Head/helmet, extremeties DIEVCES

STRAI'S
AURAT,
Overall, data herein is not directly useful to us.
X EXTREMITY

Authors state that their exrerimental data could be Lamp

, approximated by (simple sysLem) a fixed class with VISU
3 spring mass damper systems attached there to (two RZSPIRATORY

""of thi mass/spring/dampers directly coudled to each L€A~cI•TC

other). Authors state that masses located distant MPEnAURE

from the forcing function may be characterized NJ

(modelled) as
decreasing derreasing "apparant mass" and
damiping ,under fairly constant
rate) overall Gx acceleration increases. spring

B lSHELT
I

4B-41
 ITM, Changes in Cardiac Rhythm During Sustained High nr..1221
Levels of Positive (+Gz) Acceleration. no- 46
fl.Tr a..

1WLA9=t 11.-veS -X
Shubrooks,,S. J. (Jr.) AN^AALS -

PitYS IOLOG ZeAL

Electrocardiograms were recorded during 45-sec. ex- CATECOMY
posures to +6.5 to +9.0 Gz of 14 human subjects on AUOZTOKY
the USAF School of Aerospace Medicine human centri- MoMM
fuge. Maximum heart rate (HR) reached by each XcanzovscL
subject ranged* from 155 to 205 beats/min. Four rojcs
subjects developed a slowing of HR at 16 to 38 4SEA
,econds into the run due to slowing of the sinus LAX,,.N,.
pacemaker, sometimes the escape of an A-V junctional NA..:R
or ventricular pacemaker. Similar escape rhythms XIP.TVz
also occurred during the sinus slowing the decelera- mXzIw
tion. Ventricular premature beats (VPB's) occurred RZSP.iRAT',
frequently in 7 subjects, occasionally in 6, and not SZNMLM\ON:C
at all in one. When frequent, the number increased VZSUA.
markedly in the latter part of the 45-sec. runs. OTHE
These VPB's were frequently multiform and occasion-
ally occurred in runs of 2 or 3 with a few runs
of 4 to 7. In no case did any serious arrhythmias AUr-•.N-A•:ON
persist after deceleration, nor did G tolerance DEVICES
appear to be affected. The etiology and significance HELMET
of these arrhythm-as remain unclear. STPU
AURAL

d X •"P1

Cardiovascular & LBNP, limited relevance to our study. vzs't.z

The primary p,,rpose of the work was to determine if RESPIRATORY
at these high sustained levels of Gz, cardiac failure .cRz.mAT.?O
might be the limiting physiological factor rather TE0ZRATU E
than cerebral circulation. M

Data on heart rate for 14 subjects and ECG traces from ""
selected subjects are presented. The discussion -.

presented adds to the understanding of the

cardiovascular effects of High G flight.

The author indicates that an observed increase in

artena pressure during acceleration with repeated .
MI maneuvers through baroreceptor reflexes can
result in an increase in vagal activity sufficient
Sto cause bradycardia and at times long periods of
4 sinus arrest.
14

or 1

-V------ i-.--
.- -
B-42
- - --

LA
 ,Human
".D Tolerance to High, Sustained +Gz ,.lg

Levelsef65t .0Gfradration. of 47 seod CTGR

were sustained by a goup of centrifuge subjects AUDITORY

wearing standard personal protective clothing and 5T0MzC~zz.
using maximujm voluntary M-1 maneuver. Of 14 subjects xcAR~zovsc:-
exposed at weekly intervals to progressively higher ORCSe
VG levels above 6.5 G/45 sec, 9 tolerated 9 G/45 sec. GUER&EL
without loss of victim. The amount of protection .3RT
afforded the subjects at high-G levels was found to be w- NR
in the performance of the M-1 straining maneuver'
"(b) amount of -nperience and confidence in per-
forming t4heandN-1muscular
endurance
and (c) overall
maneuvercoordination
A marked increase in heart
physical
of the subject.
ectivwas observed during
XVISUAL
aNZR
xSSPIRATN
I
all runs with pre-acceleraltlon heart rates ranging
from 10½1 bpm to 110 bpm. At peak G, the average
heart rates ranged from 153 to 167 bpm.p Changesin rN.Jz
ECG patterns and cardiac arrhythmias were observed. LSvz•cEs
This series of experiments indicates that man's mYL=
ability to tolerate high, sustained G forces is Ab -,T
griater than previously anticipated when usming AUR&
presently available protective techniques. The 2sTZM.,
anti-G sunt/M-u combination during sustained exposuret
to 7.5 G to 9.0 G in a 45-sec. time frame is R
VZSAL
effective and essential far combat survival.
o vSPZR,.s
L&CRZ!4ATZON
T MIRRATUP.E

Relevant to LBNP, visual.

1. Study presentsxdata 6.5ic.Gzs.9.0 for 30 to 45

sec..
2. States human tolerance with anti-G Suit and
Ml maneuver above 7.5 G/45 Sec. VAried from
de 7.5 ; 9.0 (avg. 8.8 g)
"3. Restates previously reported data: unprotected
t 7tolerance 3.5 - 4.0 G at 18/sec. (avg. 3.7g)
4. Heart rate data for 3.0cS Gz s9.0 pre/peak
accelveration,
5. Some subjects had PLL and/or blackout at 7.Og
for s 0,20 sec.

B- 43
L

7.5 g7 g 8 .8 g) -
6. States lack o19 std procedures products varying results
for thresholds.,

Howard Cochran (la/sec) Gauer

PLL 4 g 4.1 g 3.0-3.5g

CLL 5 g 4.7 g
UNC 5.5-6.0 g 5.4 g 4.5-5 g
7. Statement attributed to Lambert concerning applicability
of centrifuge to A/C is questionable based on the fact
that the MAYO centrifuge is an old machine.

S.'

2(

B-4'4
:1

S... -'-'"•,- .. . . "-.." -' -- '- ?'.--•. .. .. . . -• - . _

 Bradycardla Induced by Negative Acceleration 1.•,o34
tc. 49
J,&tILJ• •, lUU;,S - X
Kennealy, J. A. AN^,'ALS -

PHIYSTOLOCICAt,

Four volunteers were subjected to negative accelera- C-TMOORY

AUMO'AR¥
tion in a human centrifuge for the purpose of testing SZOMCMM
a standard lap belt. Three subjects developed a XAZOVSC-
sinus bradycardia. The fourth developed a sinus toRCI
arrest with a junctional rhythm at -2G. With return
to +1 G, the sinus mechanism recovered with a pro- LhARYUNT
longed P-R interval. Within 2 h, the P-R interval
returned to normal. Negative acceleration maneuvers
well within the capabilities of high-performance air-
craft, can effect marked changes in the cardiac
I
rhythm. This phenomenon appears to be vagally induced ,zLzoN
and is remarkably well tolerated. VinUuc

ILI~~aaaaaaaa-------------------------------------------------------------
. *OthR

Cardiovascular, LBNP/LBPP, visual Au-zML'TATON

None of the four centrifuge subjects lost conscious- IuRM.

ness or vision but all reported discomfort. Total EX-rMI•
exposure at negative Gz was 30-40 seconds. The onset x•,mp
rate was slow. XvIsu"
RMSPIUATORY
Data are presented illustrating some of the ECG ZACRZMAT•ZO
results. ,ZQ, 3AUU

No other symptoms were reported by the authors.

II

*B 4

377

L B-4 5
;r J.T1r

.,,..-.. -i -- i

S20 .
Comparison of the Incidence of Cardiac
Arrhythmias during +Gx Acceleration, Treadmill ,- 51
Exercise and Tilt Table Testing. _A__,_-

LED. UT10.. HlUMAN,,S - X

Rogge, J. D. AzNI.s -
PHtYS IOLOGCALc.r
The occurrence and significance of cardiac arrhythmias CATEGORY
during acceleration have been discussed by several AUOZTORY
authors. Recently, a large group of men was referred 3ZOMECIUL
to the USAF School of Aerospace Medicine for medical cARxovsc:.
evaluation which included exposure to +Gz acceleration, roRcz
treadmill
Sthe exercise
different hemodynamics table these
and tilt during testing. Because of
procedures GENERAL.
LABYRINTH

ja comparison of the incidence of cardiac arrhythmias MAN.CNTRL

Jduring these tests was felt to be of interest. PoTECTZVE

The electrocardiographic records of a total of 61 XsRZSPZ.AT'N

normal male subjects taken during evaluation on the sIMULoATIO
human centrifuge, treadmill and tilt table were ex- vzsuXi
amined for arrhythmias. OTHER

There was significantly increased incidence of arrhyth-I

mias during +Gz acceleration compared with that duringA•uG•-T-ENATIo,
treadmill and tilt table test as well as a difference DEVIcEs
in predominant type of arrhythmias. ELM.'ET
STRAPS

The contributions of cardiac chamber distention, sym- AUR

i pathetic nervous system activity, circulating EXTRE.ITY
. norepinephrine levels and respiratory pattern to the S•

production of the arrhythmias are discussed. VISIAL

XRES. 1RATORY
- --- LACRIMAT ION
TEMPERATURE
Cardiovascular, respiratory A

Authors reported that during +Gx acceleration

breathing becomes difficult because of the increased
weight of the chest and partial occlusion of the
posterior pharynx. The conscious efforts by the
atory changes caused by added
subjects to breath when to the normal
+Gx accelerdtion may respir-
well have
contribute'd to the arrhythm-ias during acceleration
since deep breathing & hyperv.entilation as well as
Bother respiratory maneuvers have been shown to prere-
pitate arrhythmias. Three centrifuge runs weri made
at 5.5, 7.4, & 8.Gx.

B-46
 r~~R 42
4VLn'.
Physiological Endpoints in Accelerat-ion Research. 552

Coburn, K. R. ANIMALS
PIIYSIOLOCIC.\L
The problem of duplicating acceleration environments CATEGcORY
in different laboratories is a difficult one. No X AUDITORY
two human centrifuges have quite the same performance azoIMXctN4r
characteristics and the geometrics vary widely. Since XC.~ARoovEC.
the physiological response of man is in part de- FORCE
pendent upon these characteristics several suggestions xGzbzuAx.
are put forth which could aid in establishing criteria Z.AaYRINT4
which would enable closer duplication-of a given accel- M...NR
eratiorn environment. The location of anatomical PROTECTIVE
structures with regard to geometric references is RVE
discussed. Within this context the commonly used XRESPIRA?'N
[..physiological endpoints are briefly dealt with and SZIMULATIO,:
relative advantages and disadvantages of ea~ch are XVISUAL
mentioned. Certain aspects of the responsibilityOTE
of the investigator are mentioned as are some aspects
of experimentation in which the investigator may also
be acting as one of his own subjects. AUMENATION

STRAPS

Visual, auditory, respiration, general physiologyX.R&

EXTREMITY
Good general info on acceleration research protocol. LN
XV VSUAL.

1.Author cautions reader on the interpretation of

V
.centrifuge data. Particularly interesting is the
effect of radius of centrifuge.
4
2. The theory of, endpoints is discussed. Visual,
auditory, EEG & cardiorespiratory endpoints or
lack thereof are discussed.
3. The classical endpoint is described as greyout and
blackc'ut. However variations of definitions
among subjects are noted.
4. Author mentions use of a bulb thermistor for
respiratory rate measurement.

L ~B-4 7
 TITLE i
Re-Evaluation of a Tilt-Back Seat as a Means of I~*

Increasing Acceleration Tolerance. it-55

LEAD ATHOR: UMANS -X

Burns, J. W. ANVM~ALS -
P11YS ZOLOCICAL
Relaxed tolerance was determined on. seven subjects ex- CATEGORY
posed to rapid onset kRO; 1 G/s) and gradual onset AUDITORY
(GO: I G/10 s) acceleration at seat back angles of SIOMEC M.
130, 300, 450, 550, 650, and 750 from the vertical . xCARDIOVSCL
There was no significant difference between relaxed FORCE
tolerance at the control angle of 130 and tolerance GENER.AL
tat 300. However, at 450 there was a significant 0.5 G LABYRINTH
Sincrease in tolerance compared to control. There- ACTL
In after, tolerance continued to increase in an exponentia xpROTzcTxvz
manner to 8 G at 750, an increase over control of 100%0. uvEVIw
As relaxed tolerance increased with increasing back RESPIRAT'N'
angle, peak heart rate during acceleration significantv SIMULATION
decreased. In addition, four subjects were instru-. VISUAL.
mented with an esophageal balloon for the measurement OTHERa
of intrathoracic pressure, which was equated as work
during the M-1 straining maneuver. The amount of
thoracic pressure necessary to maintain a preselected AUG.ETATION
visual fleld declined as the back angle was increased DEVICES
from 130 to 450 to 650 at the same acceleration level. EnzaT
Thi increase in relaxed tolerance along with the STRAPS
derease in heart rate- and the decrease in eso- AUJRAL
phageal pressure at the greater back angles all dem- EXTRENIIT

Itilt-back
d~ onstrate the acceleration protection provided by the

I
seat.
--
-- -
-- --
- --- -- -
-- - -- -- - - -- -- - - -- -- - -
xLN
XVISUAL
RESPIRATORY
I AC IOIO -
TEMPERATURE
Singularly relevant because it identifies a G stress MS
resistivity sensitivity starting at 300 tilt back.
(tolerance at the
F16 300 tilt back co~
seat ~~~~Ntow
nl means
usage f1°adtlrneG~m
large variations
in AOA (Also a characteristic of this type A/C) .
become meaningful and should be accounted far within
siinulation.
Data applicable to cardiovascular area.

S1. 7 subj-ects wearing G suit and practicing Ml at

0.- various seat angles under constant G magnitudes.
k2. See attached data sheet for plots.

3. Authors postulate following expression from data

Acceleration tolerance = 180.3(X) - 2.1
nra)
where x = 1/n and n - retinal/aorta vertical
Rlx distance in cm
b) Heart rate - 3:4(X) + 53 where X - vertical xZovsI
carotid sinus/aorta distance in cm.rax.1

B-. 48 -> .
 4. Note also heart rate response to acceleration on
attached data sheet.
5. 300 tilt back affords little protection in itself-author
suggest the reason is that retinal/aorta d'stance does
not change much over first 17 (29.7 cm@13 and 29.6
cm @ 300).
i~S
I
]-%' 3 %IVtC3 ~IWV160CAN ;I

t4 N Ni P,

il- / '
m U

.3 ! - -=

;i• / -- m J ,•"

33 A q N 0

Igig . ii ,-.

p-j
.~ I-

i. - - 49 !
V L (0) 3OV30 SuEZ? 230ý

too

• . .. p - -••, I -= , -. *,- U. ' . . c

 II
IWTIIOR

u'n .1 W * 28

2T
.---.. 4.

* '
.... #. 4.1

C A. I**** ***

It.........-

3
4,.-
I
I.
* 4. -,- - I.

r .-.- -.

S
i
* .. ,. --4
---- V..
4- .. . i....***.. ., "'*4 %*=.... .

L
I-

-
-.

Lrffi.zz
-'.4 j
.. f'.. Yt% I A
..41 . -- C
4 .4 . -

4
4..... .-.
* ¶
-
.
i
4 .4 '14

£ - .-r -

'.. .** * . t ..- . 4

---- ..

(44 -

taJ * "a = ..g

- 4*-

tAU 4P'*4ACa 4
441

.1
4) U4... -
4.1
Li .

-3

suzi 3
. ..1
B- 50
- -----
 T.;3•, Induced by Angular Oscillation of
Head Movement n•.202;

the Body in the Pitch and Roll Axis. 57

Barnes, G. R. ANNALS -

PUYS OLOCZC.*L
The transmission of angular acceleration to the head CATEGORY
[ of the human subject has been investigated during NUORY
sinusoidal angular oscilation of the body in either x szotcz.
pitch or roll about an axis through the upper lumbar CARDIOVSCL
I; vertebrae. The results indicated that angular acceler. FORCK
ation of the skull was induced in all three axes of oZ,,,z•
the head by both pitch and by roll motion. At fre- LAYRUZNT
quencies below 1-2 Hz the head moved with the body, .C..c•
but in the frequency range 2-s Hz the amplitude of PROTSCTMv
head acceleration was augmented indicating that REVEW
"oscilationabout a center of rotation low in the USPIRAT't,
body may induce large angular movements in this xSZMULATION
frequency rarnge because of the linear component of XvzsUA
acceleration delivered at the cervical vertebrae. OTHER
j At higher frequencies, the acceleration at the
head was attenuated with an associated increase in
phase lag, probably due to the absorptioA of input AUGET::4
acceleration by the upper torso. DEVCEZS

AURAL

Helmet/head ZRKT
isual LB"IP
Seat shaker systems XVISUAL
RZSP IRATORY
LWCRZIATZON

1. "One of the more important problems associated MASKTUA

4
with head and body motion is the ability to s
maintain visual fixation. During head move-
ment, the vestibular system is stimulated and
reflex compensatory eye movements are generated
which enable the subject to fixate objects
fixed in space; this reflex provides effective
eye stabilization at frequencies up to 6-8 Hz (3)
The present experiment suggests that motion of
the head at higher frequencies may be present
if the body is firmly harnessed, which would
result in impairment of visual acuity. Con-
versely, in situations where the object to
be fixated is also moving with the subject,
the reflex eye movements are inappropriate
and must besuppressed in order to maintain
visual acuity. The results of a recent ex-
periment (1) have indicated that suppression
was grossly impaired at frequencies greater
than about 1-2 Hz. The results of the present
experiment indicate that the angular acceleration $HK

B-51

-------------------------- I
 AUHRBarnes, G. R. I~ 202

transmission consequent upon either linear or

angular acceleration of the body in the pitch and
roll axes is maximal between 2 and 8 Hz. It is,
therefore, to be expected that vision will be greatly
impaired in this frequency range. The practical
situation which corresponds to this experimental
condition is that where the pilot of an aircraft
attempts to fixate objects within the cockpit when
both man and aircraft are being vibrated at the
same frequency. In conditions of severe turbulence
the predominant frequency band of aircraft vibration
is likely to include the specific range of action of
the vestibulo-ocular reflex. In such conditions, it
has often been reported by pilots that the instru-
ments appear to move and vision is impaired. The
other area in which this point of particular inter-
est is in the use of helmet mounted displays and target
acquisition systems. For the effective use of such
systems, it is necessary to eliminate eye movement
relative to the skull. This is not possible if move-
ment of the head induces the reflex eye movements which.
cannot be suppressed."
2. Frequency response data is presented for head motion in
the three rotational degrees of freedom for stimulation
of the body in pitch & roll. The stimulation was
oscillatory foram 0.5 Hz - 20 Hz.
3. Paper points out that the body/head response is that
of a second order system (W!.9 Hz)
4. Frequency and Laplace domain models are presented.

Of 2
B-52
 =,T:._!, ,rw. 1166
Heart Pathology Associated with Exposure to High Ilc- 58
Sustained +Gz. r,:,
LEADAUT1O~tILUMANS-
Burton R. R. ^,14.s -

The pathology of +Gz acceleration was examined using PIuYSIOLOC:CAZ.

unanesthetized adult miniature and immature "farm- CTSCoR
type" swine, with and without anti-g suit inflation.90
AUDITORY

Following single exposures of +8 or 9 Gz for 45 to XZOCECM

s - acceleration exposures that have been shown rafcz

"tolerable" to man-swine were sacrificed and a detaile
Considering only the adult
necropsy performed.
miniature swine, the endocardial area of the left LAB.YITH

ventricles showed evidence grossly of recent hemorrhag, ,RoeKcZVI

of varying severity involving both the wall and
PEVE

papilary muscles. The degree of location of the

subendocardial hemorrhage were quantitated by grading SZIULATION
the area of ventricle involved-I (sight) to 4 (ex- VISUA
tensive). Of the 23 adult miniature pigs autopsied, OTHER
t'-e scores for papilary muscle hemorrhage, after one
exposure to +9 Gz (45 to 90 s) ranged from a mean of
2.3 to 3.3 and the extent of ventricular-wall in-
volement was 2.5 to 3.3. Histologically, heart
hemorrhage was limited to the subendocardial area, 8ZuE
primarily involving the space between heart muscle STRS
and the endocardium and was particularly evident AURAL
surrou nding Parkiaje's fibers. Similar studies ZXTREMIT
using immature farm-type swine (not miniature pigs) LUMP
found these younger swine (4 to 5 months of age) to VSUAL
be - ss susceptible to such endocardial hemorrhage. RSPIRTORY
H tissue recovery in these pigs following one LCRIMTIO,
exp. ire to +9 Gz for 45 s required approximately TEMPERTURE
14 k It appears that this lesson is similar, MAS
although less severe, than heart muscle lesions assoc-
iated with low blood volume (hemorrhagic shock)
studie and may have similar physiologic bases. It
was coicluded that particular attention should be
made -ý'the erdocardium of victims of high-performance
aircrait accidents.

-------------------------------------------------------
Not relevant to the Hi-G simulation problem.

Paper is mainly concerned with pathological effects

of the high G environment on the heart.

SH9ZT I

SL B-53
 xI.•%• r.iv.e 96 !
Circulatory R,,,-g
_

A Model Describing the Response of the

System tc Acceleration
S. . . . Stress.
. . ... I AT ;.,

J.IA• , IIUAr!:$
Green, J. F. ANMALS -

A mathematical model of the circulatory system based PUYSIOLOC,'AL

on the principles of venous return is described and CATEGORY

applied to the condition of acceleration stress. The AuDZToRY

model consists of two single compartments representing IZOMoCH.j

the pulmonary and systemic portions of the circula- 1RZVC

tory system. During periods of acceleration stress, rc,
the pressure in the systemic compartment, which is the GEEA

upstream driving pressure for venous return, is de- LSYRZNK

creased relative to the pressure at the right atrium PROT.ECTIV

due solely to hydrostatic effects. This decreased o

driving pr-essure causes a diminished venous return MRz-W
which is reflected in reduced cardiac output and
arterial pressure without any changes in arterial re-. SIMULATION

sistance. Pressures at other points in the arterial VZSA.L

tree, e.g. at eye-level, are related to the arterial

pressure at the aortic root by hydrostatic effects.
These concepts are incorporated into equatiorns which DEVICAE
are used in an analog.computer simulation, the re- OZCEs

sults of which are shown both for a passive system --

W.T

and an active controlled system. The latter responds STRAs

to changes in arterial pressure by altering the AURWA
driving pressure for venous return by mcans of a LBNP

change in systemic complip.nce. The results of this VISUA

study are compared to experimental tracings obtained RESWO
from dogs undergoing acceleration stress and dis- LsCR...-ION
cussed in relation to their implications for blood TEMPEPATo,.
sMEA
volume shifts and human responses.

Cardiovascular, LBNP, visual

Short duration accelerations produce initial drop in

cardiac output with a concomitant drop in B.P. followe
by recovery toward or 4bove normal. Model assumes
0) rigid blood vessels 2) treats vascular system as
1pulmonary and systemic "compartments" with com-
pliance parameters associated with each 3) arterial
resistqnce, venous resistance and total compliance
are represented by a single parameter the eye level
blood pressure is modeled as
Paa - Pa - 0.736e ghe where Pa is the mean
aortic root pressure. Model was verified using
measured parameters in a dog as reported by Guyton(1963) SHET I

B-54

!Mac
 r Psychomotor & Physiologic changes during 161
tIe- 60
Acceleration.
AU¶IiMR:S
-Li ttl e, V,. Z.!'P&
Z. ^:,,L - X
Pt YSTOLOCZC.L
Nine men were studied for physiologic and psychomotor CATEGZORY
changes during +5 Gz, +7 Gz, and +9 Gz. Each subJect AUDZTORY
participated in three runs at one G level during a ;azozciM1
single session and underwent 3 such sessions, each x cIovsC,
at a different G level. FORCE
Acceleration stress resulted in a decrement of per- r&M !
I formance, with the degree of decrement dependent on LMYRN,
the level of acceleration. M.cTI
SHeart rate also increased significantly as a function PROTXCTZVX
of the level of acceleration. •?Ew
l+ An
onlyincrease in systolic
on acceleration blood without
stress, pressureregard
was dependent
for the v"SINUATO,
sPIRA,,
level of acceleration. From psychometer and physlo- VZSUAL

logic data considered simultaneously, it appears that: OTHER

(1) performance decrement resulted from specific
factors rather than physiologic insult; (2) there
was a heightened level of physiologic response to AUGMXNTAT ON
higher levels of acceleration; and (3) the physio- ODVZC!S

logic responses were within tolerable limits, and H

clearly short of any objective medical or operational sTvs
J end-point. AURAL
X EXTREIrTY
X LDN4?
J SX VISUAL
S1. Data presented from tests. run on the SAM centri- x RSIRATOY
fuge at Gz 5,7, & 9. Data on heart rote, systol c- RM :4
ic BP and heart arrhythmias. Also presented are
mean scores for a psychomotor task at all three .UX
acceleration levels. The psychomotor data does
not appear to be relevant to our study.
2. Relevant to underlying argument for Hiigh G aug-
mentation devices (As mitagrated by Gx data
rather than Gz data).

3. Relevant to cardiovascular effects, extremities,

tidal respiration.
----------------------------------------------------

1. The heart rate data means are:

5g 7g 9g
pre 80.4 86.1 89.0 B/mi
onset 88.4 93.2 97.6
Peak 91.0 9G.4 105.6
Brake 96.0 101.5 110.8 SL '

L B-55
 ^•, L•i.t tle,• V. Z. E ,161

Post 87.1 90.2 96.6

Max 96.0 101.5 110.8
Peak Max 94.4 100.9 109.6

2. The period of peak acceleration was 90 sec "Respiration,

which directly affects BP is one of the first physiolo-
gical factors influenced by transverse acceleration".
Performance was degraded by limb loading & stress.

3. Heart rate habituation occurred by runs 2 and 3, (?)

+. Authors relate a 10-15% degradation in tracking per-
formance as a function of Gx ranging in 5-9 g region.
Although this is along x axis and A/C g might not be
* this high the data forms some substantiation for
attempting to recreate symptoms in simulation.

5. Authors report little degradation (further) as a function

in time under acceleration and hypothesize limb loading
fatigue is compensated by adaptation to g stress.
6. Heartbcat f of g level data given
7. "Respiration...is one of the first physiological factors
influenced by transverse acceleration".

MfEAN SYS'TCLIC E1LC(

UNDE.1 5,7, SC: AS A
IU il*, C,F TIT,.;E
FU .NC.

; '30
l-eI. j

cl -

Y' 14 i"
Q%

12
S
Cj 16

F it- / t- %Nl; 1o i 11 - I1 . II-

L', ~~6ý
rr. •
-r',L 0T
,A• , r-os T

,U•,hr h ilt,,,
l,.t
.v, I' 14 t .
SHUTE 2
OF 2

B-5!
 Ji Changes in Mesenteric Ranal and Aortic Flows withthee236
rio,
+GX Acceleratinon E t gsw61e' K

• 'Stone, H. L. X MALZts -

PHYSIZOLOGICAL
Previous studies in mnand dghaeindicated that the CAT&Go~R

splanchnie bed might contribute to the maintenance of arterial AUDITORY

pressure during +Gx acceleration. Eight mongrel dogs were AM=•zrM.
chronically instrumented with Doppler flow probes around the xcAZOVS==L
I
superior mesenteric (SMA) and renal arteries (RA) as well as
the terminal aorta (TA). A sol

placed in the aorta distal to the flow probe. Using alpha-

id-state

chloralose anesthesia following a 2-4 week recovery period, the

pressure transducer was
Met
QZX

M.CL
4
animals were subjected to 120 s at levels of 5, 10 and 15 + Gx PROTZCT:V

acceleration on a 7.6 m radius centrifuge. Roentgenograms and REVIEW

XRXSPZIMT'N
angiograms were taken in instrumented control animals during s8zMLATZON
the study. Significant decreases in flow were found in the ISUAL
SMA of 69% and 37% at 10 and 15 + Gx, RA of 34% at 15 + Gx, OTHER
while the TA only declined significantly at 15 + Gx.
Angiograms indicate that there is a mechanical component to the
reduction in flow in the abdomen in both instrumented and ,
uninstrumentad animals. The results indicate that both an
1. active component and the mechanical component contribute DEVICES
to the mainterance of arterial pressure during +Gx, accelera-
tion. A scheme is presented to explain the results from AURAL
I these and other studies.
LINP
. . .. ..... ......................... . . . . ...................... V.St.L
R9sPIRAoRY
-" •X
Cardiovascular, Respiration X REMATOR
T EARATURO

Heart rate decreased at 10 and 15Gx, at 5 Gx it remained

constant. F increased (aortic) at all three levels. There
is an increa'!e in peripheral vascular resistance. Authors
state increases due to displacement of vessels have been
observed. Also they postulate vasoconstriction due to thei
reflex increase in the nervous system.

Note the attached figure for schematic representation.

Also attached are sample data plots.

I
o' I

1 3

B-57
CR Stone, H. L. a236

INý 7

~ILI
SWIM
4-0. GStM

1Lmi
C.m
rAm

Amt6-4-

6-0-

MWA~b~~~m
CCIM
-a avo

-.
Culm wdm

. Schfm~aft mprseaati
2'g of the knowna nd p*Wabl*
effects of +t0,e&sWentioa.

2
MIEET
 I
Stone, H. L. 236
I
. ..

,, . . . , .. . .. . :.:.: :.:.:
.: : .:.:.
...:

"1. .. ......

WWI. m .u."
. :' ' :.. :
. .
. •
*:.. :....:. : ; : . : I:: : : " : : : :
.... .. ...

Is *~u~wI~ ~ 77 7
y- .. ,... .: h '. ... .-- . ,- -
o -.-. ,r
3'' -- "': " '

• .. bll d • .. .... .... . .

Fig. I. Record at nean mesenteric, ren'l, and terminal eortic

flows before and %biring .mpnsure to is + 0, for 2 rnin. Puibatipc
mesenteric artery flow is show,, at the botm of the fire. Tim
Slevel
of +G, a¢ulerann is also given in the record.

I"

LERA VI

ATa TIME

Fig. 2. in Iiart Mmiliwil a-li, rl,,%',

enhan.c- iio
1wrcent of"vont'i~ol Valhuc, a•t 30l, 64), 94(1, '11W I.211 %.a:lt•' I.,.16.ht1-,
lten pe:4k aۥcehaaionm hNvel. IiAvd. 11mh Ibarlx thlllhIhtmo flc ,hoil'j
rcpres-nt I SFM
I JS.ET 3
I..59
TITLEs up.*
Physiology of the Eye, Chapter 9-The Ocular HC-62

Circulation. ______

LEAD AUTIR: HUIMANS - X

Adler, F. H. ANIXALS, -
P11YS IOLOC:CAL

No abstract is available at this time. CATEGORY

AUDITORY

X •.ARO ZOVSCL
Good discussion of ocular circulation and intraocular FOCwx

pressure, lacrimation.
andS~L&BYRIN GENERAL
7H

1. Diagram-fig 93 (pg 307) & 98(pg 315) retinal & IWIFz•

uveal circulation fig 99 (pg 316) fall in blood INESPZRT'N

pressure. S~
XSzMULATIO:.
VISUAL

2. "Under normal circumstances a pressure of 25mm Hg OTHER

is required to overcome the force of gravity in
order to raise blood from the heart to the head
level, ie., a distance of 0.3M with i specific AUG.M1ETATZO
gravity of 4 (4g turn) the pressure required would OFVICES
be about 100 mm Hg. Assuming that the normal HELMET
intraocular pressure is approximately 20 mm. Hg, STRAS
it is evident that the blood flow will cease AUR.
under these conditions. Blackout generally XZXTREMITY

occurs with a force of 4G's after arn exposure

of 3 sec." VSUAL
X RESPIRATORY

3. "Lacrimal fluid is a combination of the fluid LACRINATIoN

secreted by the lacrimal gland and that secreted TEMPERATURE

by mucus cells and an oily substance secreted MASX

4.
by the meibomian glands."

The lacrimal .gland is innervated by the lacrimal,

the facial, and the cervical sympathetic nerves.
The best evidence now indicates that th. lacrimal -,
I
nerve is not concerned in any way with secretory -• ]
function but is purely the afferent pathway for
the reflex arc. -

5. Reflex lacrimation is easily produced by stimula-

tion of the fifth and olfactory nerves. Any irri-
tation of the endings of the fifth nerve, part-
icularly those which supply the eye, result
in tearing from strong odor, particularly that
from onions.

rSHEET I

or60
B-60 ]i
 AI

Visual 0
Field Contraction during G Stress at 130; 8:77 .....
tfl- ,6 5
45 ° 00and .t0 Seatback Angles. DATt::

Gillingham, K. K. NIMALS-

In support of the High Acceleration Cockpit program, PIIYSIOLOGICAL

two groups of six experienced subjects, operating a CA•E•oRY

high-resolution vi:.ual field limit tracker, were ex- AUDITORY

posed to gradual-onset (0.067 G/s) G stress to a 7-G SZOM3E1C

T maximum on the USAFSAM human centrifuge. Data obtained CARDovSCL

from one group described the G-induced vertical visual -oRCE
field contraction, and that from the other described GENERAL
'I horizontal visual field contraction-as they occurred in ,
relaxed subjects in seats 130, 450, and 650 seatback
angles. Curves of peripheral vision remaining vs. G PRorECTIVEI

A level indicated a statistically significant difference RVIEW

0 ~RESPIRAT'N
in tolerance provided by the 65 seat over that pro- sICLTO
vided by the 130 and 45 seats in the 5- to 7-G range, s
and a significant difference in tolerance provided by oTH!E
the 45 and 65 seats over that provided by the 13 seat
in the 4- to 5-G range. Two-dimensional reconstruction
of the superior half of mean binncular vision remain- AUGMETATON
r ing at the various levels of G stress showed complete ArvICZS
visual loss near 5_G in the 13 0 seat, complete loss
near 6 G in the 45 seat, and substantial peripheral STRAPS
i vision remaining at 7 G in the 65 seat. AURAL
4 EXTRF-41TY

XVZSUAL
Pertinant to complete visual area. Contains data RESPIRATOR
showing time and Gz dependancy of visual field (peri- LAcRIMATIoN
pheal) collapse for GOR runs-some strip chart record- TMERA
ings covering peripheral field collapse under ACM man- msx
euvers containing ROR.

1. Field determined by observation of white lights

with brightness approximately 4-5 mili 'lamberts.

2. Flashing lights have lower threshold than steady

lights. Under complete peripheral vision loss,
indistinct flashing lights can sometimes be seen
in peripheral area.
0!
S3. Visual field collapse appears to be more rapid
. alonq vertical FOV axis than along horizontal FOV

j 4.
axis.

65 seat back angle obviously superior in

tarding FOV collapse.
I
re-

~SHEET I.

ov 4

B-61

iid
 ingh am , K. K. .. 87 S

5. Althoug.h data is given in terms of "peripheral vision" it

seems to-include the "central FOV" as well.
6. The data acts much like a 2 4r order lag applied to a flip
flop whose threshold is a specific G level: ,.,

Horizontal FOV Vertical FOV Rise -

Threshold Rise Time Threshold Time

130 seat- 3 g 30 sec 130 seat - 2.5G - 20 sec j

0 0
45 seat 3.5 g 25 sec 45 seat 2.5G - 30 sec

650 seat 5 g N/A 650 seat 3 G - 45 sec

This data based on GOR runs- .067 G/sec and although the
thresholds seem to stay constant in moving to a ROR run the
rise times reduce significantly under ROR - the same flip
nature seems to exist in ROR,

7. The paper reports the relationship of peripheral vision

remaining (field of view) vs G force for different seat.
back angles. See Fig 3, 4, and 7.

8. The study used no anti-G devices & the test subjects

were relaxed (no M-l1
Also small dg/dt a .167 G/S
9. T-test were also computed to insure statictical significarnt
of the information of each angle (fig 5 & 6).

o - .. . .

, N
IRE .30""

72 - .. . . ......... ..

75L. ....
IIIZ Fig. -
to•,
Typical response of subje.t o-rtin$ viul field
limit tracker (upper vertical- meridian-, 45" seat)..

S..... . . . . . B-6
.- -
SSHICE 2
0orr 4
AUThtOR
Gillin-ihpm. K. K. *8

1.Z7

,v~I
-I

co z

B-63
 411
AIIR Gillingham, K. K.
#-.87

3i i duig imuM-1n
.4
I

:3.0•• ," ./s'" .. • Fig. 8.

erating visual
Responses
field limit
of subject G.M.
traLcker op.
in ver.
.... I tical mode during Simulated kcm o
45' 650 stress at 65%, 45', and 13" seatback
angles. At 65', subject tolerated 7-G
SEATBACK ANGLE peaks with little visual loss: at 45', he
Fig. 1. Reconstructed upper haLves of m:an visual fields of blacked out afer a 6-0 peak; at l3 , he
relaxed subjects exposed to indicated G levels at 13% 45%', and lost osciousness during a 5-0 peak.
<!' :atback am'les.

VISUAL is ...- . ..... .

:, - ::.,'
• ...................... .... :.'.......... .. :.
7 .

i~~ to
os f ~
AL

t 4; .. .. .
-. .I-B . 64 .. .. . .

- ...- . . . . .--. ,:•,.- '••,. r.,,.• . .

 6I.

( l,,e- 6 7

Experimental Blackout and the Visual System -

LEAD AUT1103: ILUo.M:S -

Duane, T. D., Dr. AN..,ALS -

PtYS' OLOC:CA:.
No abstract is available at this tim-' CATEGORY
X AUDITORY
X.
UIOMECKN•L
X CARD IOVSCL
1. A very complete collection of experimentation and FORCE

2.interpretation into the blackout effect.

•;
G
LABYRhINTH

2. Visual System physiological section. M

PROT•ECT. Ila'

3. Visor( "system REVIEW

IESPIRAT'N
S4. Visual display dimming SIMULATON
X VISUAL

5. Instrument dimming OTHER

5. Audition.
AUGMENTATION

1 7. Lacrimation. DEVICES
HELME!T
STRA•PS
AURALL

1. In blackout subject "sees blackness" (pg. 948). EXTJITY

LBtIP

2. Blackout refers to the total loss of vision to am-x VzIuAL

:bent light including that of an ophthalmoscope. REspIRAToRY
bintx LACRIMATION
(pg 950). TEMPhRATURE

3. Unconciousness in 1.28 sec at 8-15 Gz. Uncon-

ciousness defined as failure to respond to audi-
tory and visual stimulus. (pg 951)

4. In blackout subject still responds to auditory

and tactile stimuli (pg 948)
5. Dimming, then complete loss of peripheral-lights -
retinal arteriolar blood became slightly darker
and entire arteriolar tree began rhythmically
opening and collapsing..but not serpentine type
seen in aortic regurgitation..venous system un-
changed. Then complete light loss (CLL)-arteri-
oles noted to cease their pulsations and became
completely exsanguinated.. veins remain un-
changed. Then, within 1 second of removal of pea
G-arterial tree began above type rhythmical
pulsations with tremendous surge of blood into
venous system and subsequent ball'ooning of venule
lasting 2-3 beats. The arterioles stopped pulsing ,SHT
and were normal. Vison returns within 3 sec of G or 2

L. B-'55
AUTRo_ M Duane,. T. D., Dr. r .62

removal.
6. Transverse acceleration +Gz (of 6-8 G) tear film appeared in
upper temporal area and spread across cornea...ascribe to a
pooling of the normal tears. (pg 953)
7. Developed successful plethysmographic goggle (pg 954)-no
comment of X axis distortion in using the goggle.
8. Blackout occurs not due dysfunction of higner visual path-
ways (pg 956) (then solely in the retina?)
9. Retinal field asymetric about central disk with more area
located temporally & no arterial compensation for this
increased area nasal field of view (temporal retina)
first to suffer vision loss. ( pg 959) - 500 more area
temporally.
10. Ophthalmodynamometry & +Gi acceleration produce exact same
things. (pg 960)
11. Central acuity remains even with major constriction of
peripheral FOV (pg 959)

Ii

p~ - - = fl -

SUEZ? 2 .
B--66
 7 -u.0l2
Visual Field Changes During Positive Acceleration
tic-, 69
_ _ _ _ _ _ __.__InAri: ,

Jaeger, E. A. AN.IMALS-

P1IYSIOLOG:C.\AL
The monocular pattern of visual field closure is the CATEGORY
. same whtther due to ophthalmodynamometry, positive AUDITORY
acceleration or a combination of both. It consists of azo11c.,IC
an initial selective nasal field defect, which approach- CARaO-SCL
es a hemianopic character before marked -temporal field roRct
loss begins. The last remaining visual field is not GZENEAL
at fixation but is confined to an island located LBYRINTH
temporally between fixation and the blind spot. It is %N.C%TR
felt that this pattern is best explained by the an- PROTECTIVE
atomic arrangement of the retinal arteriolar system. RZIZW
plethysmographic goggle type ophthalmodynamometer is ,.IP'Z•TIN
described which has been adapted to assist in visual SIMULATIO
field studies on the centrifuge. VISUA

O~THER

i .
AGETTO
rvisual

STRAPS
1. A comparison of the monocular pattern of visual AURAL
field closure due to acceleration ophthalmodyn-
amometry or a combination of both was made. The L.NP
ophthalmodynamometry was effected with pleth- XVISUAL
smographic goggles. Plots are presented which ill- R'SP7•ATO.y
ustrate
.
the geometry of the closure. LCRI.M.T'ON
TEMPE•RAT,;"E

. 2. It is int Bsting to note that the last remaining MASX

island u,• vision is not the fixation point but a
point between the fixation point and the blind
spot. Left eye plots are presented.
3. Lights were not used for this experiment but rathe
a large poster with the alphabet printed (letters
1.5 cm high & 1.5 cm apart).

II

ii

SHEET L-

B-67

-A-
 l mmrir.,,66
Applications of Liquid Crystals
io- 73

LED UI-0 sauMAks X-

Meier, G. ANZM¶ALS -

PHIYSIOLOGICAL
CATEGORY
Not available at this time AUDITORY

CARDIOVSCL
Li
.... . . . ... .. ... . .. .. .. ..
. .. . .. .. . ..
. . .. . .. . .,o
.FORCE Ao

u Varible Transmittance Visor MA.CNTaL

PROTECTIVE
I Textbook on Liquid Crystal Applications ?V!Ew

(1) AC excitation preferred to DC for purposes of extending MMSZAT'N

life time by preventing electrolytic action which SUAL
reduces contrast. Nematic esters of seniff bases display OTHER
5000 hrs. life under A.C. and only 500 hours under D.C.
r| (pg. 115, 123)
AUMMENTAT:CN
(2) Colorizers (pg. 125-132) seem to require polarizers 0ZVTC-S
and assurance of white light source. Both conditions OS .ZCEI
might present constraints when used with simulator sTRAPs
visual systems. AURAL

cEXTREMIS TY
(3) Matrixing (pg. be133) can produce crosstalk, however the
crosstalk can suppressed (pg. 136) by a technique XVISUA
called "two frequency addressing" wherein one of the RSPIRATORY
two frequencies employed has an amplitude greater than LACRfZ'•:
the drive 'oltage and frequency higher than that TEMMATUE
required for domain formation and this signal acts as •SX
a suppressor.

or

,1.ET 1,

B-68
 Meier, G. _ .. ,1

2.8.2.1. Matrix Array Using Two-frequency Addressing

It was fob.nd [(1021 that the formation of Williams domains [10' and the dynamic
scattering caused by d.c. or low frequency a.c. voltages can be suppressed by a
a.c. voltaige with an amplitude greater tha,, that of the d.c. voltag.e
•_-=- ,superim-,osed
and a f equency above the cutoff frequency fe for domain formation (Fig. 42).
Thus if a voltage U, + U2 is applied to a matrix row, where U, is a d.c. or low
frequency a.C. voltage greater tflan chi threshold vohtagc Uth and U2 is an a.c.
voltage of' suitable amplitude and frequency, and a voltage -1:1 + L12 is applied to a
._ column, scattering is only observed in the fully selected cell, which does not see the
!-1
ii

U"'"

20-

10 20w0 V 50a

Figure 42. Dependence of the threshold voltage Uth for domain formation on the superimposed
a.c. voltage (1.5 kilz), for d.c. (broken curve, and a.c. tS0 Hz). (Quadratic scale for abscissa
and ordinate). (After reference I&021).

II

iH

SHEET 2
o 47
B-69
 Mtei er, G. l,'r,168

suppressing signal and there fore scatters with an intensity corresponding to ZU,. A
result obtained with a 3 X 7 matrix without crosstalking is shown in Fig. 43. In
addition to the enhanced ccntrast, a turnmon time was observed at least three times
faster than that under normal driving conditions. This means that in matrix.addreswe
lquid crystal light valve arrays, the number of rows can be increased by superimpus.
Ing an a.c. electric field of sufficiently high frequency.

I ~Fieure 43 3
x7liquid crystal matrix array without crosstalking using two frequency.addro'ini
(after reference 1102 1)

The matrix addressing scheme is shown in Fig. 44. The voltage across tile
selected -ells, X1Y.2, X3Y, and X4Y2 is 21J 1. No voltage is applied to tile Unselcw1dL
cells X2Y and X2Y3. The remaining cells shown in Fig. 44 are partially saie-.tcd an~d
subjected to a combined signal of U, and 2U2. The amplitude and frequecny of
ame so chosen that the electrooptic effect caused by U1 alone can be suppressed.
The matrix is addressed column by column. After each scan the controller rever'ses
the polarity of the applied d.c. voltages U, to avoid undesirable electrudclienlical
reactioI4.,ri the liquid crystal layer.

.. ---.-. _--.-..
I . .. .-. , --

SHUET 3
or 4

B-7 0
 SAUT1o0 Mel er, G,- 1.1 68

[-- i-in

tY =X2
I --.

ii
_ X 1.

• X4

Filgure 44. Matrix addressing scheme usini two frequency addressing (az-er reference [1021),
X,, and Y,.- Conductor path .
I Scan Controller
2 Phaum -hitter, AY 0 1804
3 ttarin for voltage Uk
4 scilator for voltage U,

' 102. WDd, P. J., Nehtring, J.; Appi. Phys. Lett. 19, 33S (1971).

1.

B- 1

L B-7 1

+j•.-~~~~
... .... . ... .. ... . --. _+; • .. . .•;;• • + .; ,• *q'
 Mechanical Impedance of thu Sitting Human Under Sustained I•:._ 247
Accel eration C-75
_ _ _ _ _ __ ___ 'ttr:tt
.LIAO ab-ZI12J' IIUMAtIS x
Vogt, H. L. ANIMALS -

Ptt•S tOLOG !AL

Measurements of the mechanical impedance of the sitting CATECORY
t human body under sustained acceleration were conducted to AUDITORY
investigate the nonlinearity of the body system. A hydraulical x 3zoEciml
ly driven shake table was installed on a centrifuge and the CARDIOVSCL
transmitted force and the acceleration of the platform, wheren, FORC
the subjects were sitting, were recorded. The fundamental
resonance of the body changes from 5 Hz to 7 Hz and 8 Hz under
normal gravity (+I Gz abs.), +ZGz and +3Gz respectively. The
relative displaeement of the effective body mass per iRO'TE, •!v
oscillatory acceleration was reduced at resonance from 1.73 to "vzzw
0.88 and 0.675 mm/g by these + Gz- loads. The static deflec-
tion of the human body follows the equation >- F/(34 +0.SF). x szuTiot
The stiffnes-s of the human body increases from 69 x 106 vIsuAL
dyne/cm under normal gravity t9 164 x 10 dyne/cm under +3 Gz, oTHEu
or generally: Ka(34 + 0.SF) 100dyne/cm. Therefore a natural
frequency of the human body of 3.5 Hz is resulting for zero
gravity. This is in good agreement with previobs measure- AulTATZO,
ments in supine position. DEVCE
XNELMET

..
...
.... .... ...... ...... ........ ...... ...... .....
... XSTRA.PS
XSTAS

XZXTRZMTY
Only very remotely relevant to head extremities LaZmp

VISUAL
RSPIRATORY
I. A sustained acceleration stiffens the sitting human LA•Z.*TION
body -inspinal direction and increases his fundamental TEMPERATURE
natural frequency from 5 Hz to 7 Hz under +2 Gz and Xsx
to 8 Hz under +3 Gz..

2. The second resonance at 10 Hz does not change significantly

under sustained-accel eration.

3. Though the changes of the third resonance at 15 Hz did i

not come out clearly it seems to go up to a higher -•
frequency under +3 Gz.
4. In the very low frequency range the human body responds _•
more and more as a pure mass, practically up to 5 Hz,
under +3 Gz.
5. The effective mass of the basic subsystems does not change
with increasing Gz-load.
.1
SHEET I

B-72 I
 7(T J7 - -, - -

eVogt H L. 247
,
6. The transmission factor decreases
for theunder Gz-load in but
5 Hz +resonance, the low
frequency range, especially
increases considerably in the !requency range above 6 Hz.
+ Gz. sitting human remains
7. The
unchanged about 0.575 ofduring
dampingat coefficient the erect

i • less th in
. Change ! hz L.freq between sitting erect & sitting relaxed
tn natural

9. With increasing acceleration (sustained), vibration is felt

less. Mass displacement is less (data & expression given).

i.
B-

i-Awe,

ow
2L B,,,,3
 I -

Y'TLz Pulsus Paradoxus: Effect of Gravity & Acceleration in its rnw.i 242

Production .- 76

, Urschel, C. W. x .TI --

PHYSTOLOCICM.

Not available at this time CAUEIORY

BIOMECIML
X CADzovsCL
FORCE
GENERAL
LABIYRINTH
MAN.CNTRL
PROTECTIVE

Largely irrelevant to this study

X RESPIRAT 'N
SI.MULATION
VISUAL
Pulsus Paradoxus (the alternate strengthening & weakening of OTHER
each pulse beat) is caused by alternate increase and decrease in
cardiac output with each respiration. Pulsus Paradoxus seems
predominately due to phasic right ventricular output delayed A .ToN
by resistive and capacitive impedance of the lung. DEVZCZS
HELM~ET
STRAPS
AURAL
EXTMKIlT!
.• LBNqP
VISUAL
X RESPIRATORY
LACRIMATION.4
- TEMPERATURE

i .1

B-

[SHEET 1

- l
 IEffect of Sustained Muscular Contraction on Tolerance to .164 Ad
+ G Acceleration ti-77

j
LEAD &UATH Lohrbauer, L. A. ,I.As
ANZAIAbLS-
X

PIIYS :OLOC:CAL
CATF.CORY
The increase in +G, acceleration (the inertial force vector AUDITORY
acting in a head-to-foot ýirection) tolerance afforded by 1IOMECiNL
static forearm muscular contraction (hardgrip) was evaluated x ,.AR0IOVSCL
I, and compared with that of the standard G suit. Acceleration FORCE
tolerance was assessed in eight subjects in each of four GEXERAL
conditions for both rapid onset (1.0 G/s and slow onset LABYR:.•N
S(0.1 G/s) acceleration profiles. The conditions were: .AN.CNTRL
dc 1) unprotected, 2) handgrip, 3) G suit, and 4) handgrip and x PROTECTIVE
G suiC. The mean tolerance levels achieved for those four REVIEW
conditions for the rapid onset runs as defined by
peripheral light loss were 3.6, 4.5, 4.8, and 5.4G,
Zs•..A 1
SIMULATION
respectively. For the slow onset runs, the tolerance levels x VISUAL
were 4.6, 5.6, 5.8 and 6.3G. Thus the handgrip and G-suit OHER
procedures each provided approximately 1 G of protection.
Significantly, the effect of the two procedures combined
proved to be additive. In the rapid on-set ru6s, the static AUME-TATION
contraction was begun 60-90s before the onset of DLVICES
acceleration and in the slow onset runs, the contraction was HEL-MET
begun with the onset of acceleration. The protection ST.APS
provided by the static contraction is at least in part due AURAL
to the increase in mean systemic blood pressure which EXTRE.'.Y
u accompanies any such contraction. This increase prolongs X Latp
the time necessary for acceleration to result in a blood x VISUAL -
pressure below intraocular pressure, this latter being the •sPZRo.
time at which peripheral light loss occurs. Unlike during LACRIMATION
respiratory straining maneuvers, no increase in intrathoracic TMERT,

or intra-abdominal pressure occurred during handgrip exercise MASK

at 1G.

Visual, LBNP, Protective Devices, Cardiovascular

(1) Tolerance data is presented for both ROR (lg/sec)

and GOR (0.2g/sec).
(2) Several protective devices were employed singly and in
o0 combination; Anti-G Suit, Ml, Valsalva and straining
(muscular). Effects of these devices were reported
and compared.
(3) It should be noted that most of the data is presented as
j a continuum but are in reality a series of discrete
measurements connected by straight line segments.
SHEET 1

L ~B-754
AUHR Lonrbauer, L. A. r16

4) The eye-level BP was recorded via a pressure transducer and a

canulated radial artery held at eye level. (.I submit that this
may not accurately reflect eye level BP because the vascular
dynamics differences are not considered).

T 1

| 2j
vi

*1

S~I B
 S
TIT•LEnx
TZL: Effect of the Valsalva Maneuver on Tolerance to + Gz 224
2
Acceleration i'c-78

iLIAL.ALLLI2. Shubrooks, S. J.. ArAs -x

PIIYSIGLOL :C.C

ytoerance arterial
Systemic pressure (Psa) response to the Valsalva
weresfundrepos CATEGORY

maneuver and its effects on acceleration tolerance were AUD.ORY

studied in 10 healthy men during exposure to positive (+G ) ZOMIECNL

i I. radial acceleration. For rapid onset (I G/s) exposures x';,DIOVScL

of both 15s and 45s duration, large increases in +G oERAC
tolerance were found to occur during performance of a j
Valsalva maneuver accompanied by vigorous voluntary muscular LABYR•Z•T

tensing, either with or without use of an anti-G suit. This .-.. C,,RL
effect was seen with single prolonged (up to 15s) maneuvers xP.,TECr.V.
as well as with repeated maneuvers. Systolic, diastolic, REVIE

and pulse pressures were in all cases maintained at levels REsPX•.,

far greater than those which would have occurred during SIMULTON
acceleration without the Valsalva; with repeated maneuvers VZSUAL

Psa rose progressively, often to levels greater than control.

These responses were shown to be equivalent to thcse
"accompanying the M-1 maneuver, the generally accepted means
of increasing +G, tolerance. The increased intrathoracic AUG
pressure, whether produced by the Valsalva or the M-l, DEVICES

if combined with muscular tensing or use of an anti-G suit, "

resulted in an elevation of Psa and an increased tolerance STRAPS

even during sustained high +Gz exposures. EUXRE

X L3?4P
.. .. .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . X VISUAL
RESPIRATiRY
LP.CRZNATION
Cardiovascular response to Gz (eye level blood pressure TEcP.A:o,.E
and heart rate) with and without G Suits and using M-1 MASK

or Valsalva maneuver. Authors argue the case for

acceptability of Valsalva maneuver.
(1) Definitions:
a) Ml Maneuver; repeated forceful exhalations against
the partially closed glottis accompanied by
vigorous tensing of the voluntary muculature, the H!
exhalation being repeated every 4 or 5 seconds
following rapid inhialations.

b) Valsalva Maneuver: maximally forceful exhalations

against the completely closed glottis and is
accompanied by tensing of the lower extremnity
and abdominal musculature as is done during
the Ml maneuver.

SllgE? 1
1 • 4
 AP to: '.too

I-bpSO ~ .

NRHR too ~-
LIGHT LOSS
PERIPHECRAL VISIOW CLEAR
A. CONTROL 3.7 G C. VALSALVA 4.5 G

o AIRs
H

41.tt igrs
weiniatd y h 'd.pr~re(A) n

HRO
toos A.Lt~yb Hr8iIIS.W
ccnis ertrt i(R )te ~Ia~
reortd
ras hcEC in Rw ~ ~ .. ,in.,vanuuJM

to c all Ldh. trifethe

figures.arehindicotedbby
Erevpreren(AP) the sue anti
t ipc.aa1. VAmisal' p~rsemu-cw inP
thi delludrop
t cardi
int F. tahon eaetee1,d hatraeý k ~pstet h a
to ~ ~ !he Vasv h C sn rsh 1141lvr w~ outly IicJ Iod
~ Inhlaton
ferred~ ~ ~bewel
to~r. iesif
~~~mlevel.
fth C reetd rl 11 j1ie

I .~. TIMI

..- I SAC

s1. . .. I'*S

C.OSI.VEALSLHAZ VALSALVA 2 G
8.2 OSUIT* 6.7

3-778
I:
I

APIa , , . . . . ,, ,&,

Y~a~~A
. .. /PtINIPH AL LIGHTLOSS

'1 66C.
Ao'll 1, ...
hurVALSALVA . .. ~' G1III
r S
. ANTI -G SUIT 4.6G"'
o '

II• • r. "4*
S.
A CONSROL 3. 5 G

wIIi ...... .
S.. SUIT+. VALSALVA 56
0G

VALSALVA 3 5 GL ". O.

is Ste mm N

F. SUIT..-VALSALVA 2•.6G

Isa
t . ili ".................................•,l...........................-....--
00
o ....... .. .. . . . . . . . UI e L A VA S S ..

0. V SL Wt.5
... no. 3.
+ .rterial pres re (.\P) re- '
sponse to the Valsal.i I1auneutver with
-- '"I911-
'P .. ""+'A,
.. ,.+wlU-I VPAON ¢',[&l
viii-itarv tituctdlir str~aizinq without
and withý we~ 44 the anti-G suit (subj

200 ..... ....... ., D). ry.\II tr,l vial

l,... presures are refefredI

1 f
m m' -44.ý Iio 1; ;! Al

uml wf ith i.; •tht nt-

suit(j
i ) (-Vvj

S.L4. AnArLal presure OP) vt

spomie to repeated ValsaWva a wl tM-
rnanorvers, at +4.9 s. foe 4i•%withwNt

P""uers a are to agjl

referred SHEET 3

B-7 9
It
UTIMR IM 0A 224

200

100@

C5.Anteri~al pr~mnure Al"Itir

rIo.
slms to ri'pe.utd Valta .'u ~
i131uiseu~rs at +7.o Ga for 4,- s wuh w
of-41 .agstjG sit uitbj 1). .AriterN ~jtu
sure3 4re reffirrrd to ey evelk~.j

* B-80
-~- ~- ~ - - -- , B7 --
Fl-•- -..... . . ........ .... -I •-

L LE.•
avr 94
YTLE: Systolic Time Intervals Ouring +6G Acceleration R,-'80
ItIe- ~z 80
I ~ ~r•'
vr 1::.

I Graboys, T.B.
PIIYSTOLOCICAL

1'.
Systolic time intervals (STI) were recorded in 8 healthy
male volunteers before, during, and after 30-s exposures to +3
cTE•R
AUDITORY
SG, +5G, and +7G, acceleration. Heart rate (HR) increased at x CARDZOVSCL
all +G, levels, as did the HR corrected QS interval, left FORCE
ventricular ejection time (LVET), pre-ejection period (POP) Rcz
GEN
and PEP/LVET. These changes in STI were also proportional
r to the +Glevel. At the higher +G levels, PEP and PEP/ LABYRzNTH

LVET continued to increase early in the recovery period but

M CNTRL

HR and all STI returned to control after 60 s of recovery.

Although physiological variables other than myocardial con-
may influence STI
tractility, such as preload and afterload Smay
during +G, the effects of +G, on stroke volume (SV) and szMDo•
cardiac output (CO) were estimated using previously described
relationships between STI and invasively determined indices
I{. of cardiovascular function. In general, CO increased as SV
decreased. During reccvery, HR and CO fell and CO. remained
"slightlybelow control levels, primarily because estimated SV
remained low. This study demonstrates the feasibility of using DEvzczs
STI to estimate noninvasively the transient changes in cardio-
.
,I vascular function during +G acceleration. AURL
s
EXTREMI•RTY

S~VISUAL
RESPIRATORY
Cardiovascular, LBNP ARMTO
TE-•PERATUR-

1. Basic relevance is in the use of systolic time interval IIsx

(STI) to estimate noninvasively the.transient changes in
cardiovascular function during LBNP.
The authors state that +Gz acceleration induces acute
changes in the cardiovascular system primarily through venous
pooling, resulting in.decreased ventricular filling, end
diastolic volume, stroke volume and cardiac output..
Bororeceptor mediated reflexes then cause an increase in
total peripheral resistance, heart rate and mean arterial
, pressure, all of which are heightened by muscle tensing
and the use of a modified Valsalva maneuver. They state
correlation in changes in stroke volume and cardiac
S output estimated from STI during LBNP with invasive
mesurements of cardiac function. Supporting data are
presented.

LET I8

B-81
 TXT.IIft.,
.v • .65
Cardiovascular Function During Sustained +Gz Stress .- 81
, ,. .. ... .. rAT I:
, ,, i

Erickson, H. H. xXiUNIMAI.S
AMA•S- -

PIIY$ IOI.OGIMý•
The development of aerospace systems capable of very high CATEGORY
levels of positive (+Gz) stress, has created a need for a better AUDITORY
understanding of the cardiovascular responses to acceleration. uzo~cr.
Using a canine model, the heart and cardiovascular system were xcARDIovscL
instrumented to continuously measure coronary blood flow, roRcX
cardiac output, left ventricular and aortic root pressure, and GEzNERA
oxygen saturation in the aorta, coronary sinus, and rlght LAuBzYrNT
ventricle The animals were exposed to acceleration profiles NAN.cN
up to +6 Gz, 120 s at peak G; a seatback angle of 45 was POTECT WE
simulated in some experiments. Radiopaque contrast medium REvzIw
was injected to visualize the left ventricular chamber, X sPIRj
coronary vasculature, aorta, and branches of the aorta. The sIzLTIzoN
results suggest mechanisms responsible for arrhythmias which vIsUA.
may occur, and subendocardial hemorrhage which has been OTHER
reported in other animals.

tDEVCES
AUGMF, 3TAT7ZO

KELMET
Respiratory SRA.S
AURAL
Cardiovascular, LBNP, Visual, •
EXTREMITY

One of the few-sources which illustrate heart level blood

LampZT

pressure during +G exposure. xVSAL

Z X RESPIRATORY
DATA: Blood flow, Blood Pressure, 0 Saturation and heart rate. LACRIZMTI• N

Data shows an immediate decreise in irterial and left - T• Z

RAT¶R

ventricular blood pressure, which subsequently increases ASX

towards the control level. For + Gz < 2.Og the BP returns

to control. For greater accelerations it does not reach
control. Coronary blood flow and heart rate increased .;
in response t8 the drop in BP. Also data is presented on the
effects of 45 seat back angle. -!

-! IJ
!
4

-B
.1

B- 82,
 ja +Gz Protection Afforded by Standard and Preacceleration R., 34
Inflations of the Bladder and Capstan Type G Suits ,i.- 82
"___,___DATF.
Burton, R. R. ANIMALS-
PHIYS IOLOG:CAL

Positive (+G,) rapid onset acceleration tolerances were deter- CAT-.GORY

G-
mined on eight male subjects: (a) Without a G-suit, (b)
AUDITORY
Three xOZ1 V¢I.
- suit on, not inflated, and (c) G-suit on, inflated.
types of suits were used on each subject: (a) standard XoCZ
bladder CSU-12/P; and (b) two types if capstan suits GECRA
- with (1) standard and (2) modified abcominal bladder. Two LAZyRI,•,
. G-suit inflation procedures also were used in developing %W . CNTRL
+Gz tolerances: (a) standard inflation, which began at X PROTECTVE
2.2G and continued at the rate of 1.5 psi/G (abdominal REVIEW
bladder) and 3 psi/G (capstan): and (b) preacceleration RESPIAT'IN
inflation (0, 5, or 10 sec) prior to acceleration onset, which SIMULATION
involved suit pressures of 1 psi (abdominal bladder) and vzsu,AL
12 psi (capstan), with suit inflation continuing immediately OTHER
upon acceleration onset. Acceleration mean tolerances
for the three suits tested using standard inflation,
ranged from 4.5 to 4.7 (+Gz) - not satistically signifi- AGETION
cantly different between suits using paired t-tests. DEVICES
Preacceleration inflations of 0.5, or 10 sec increased H
mean +Gz tolerances 0.4 to 0.6G above standard inflation STS
methods - statistically significant (paired t-test) for AUR
-all three suits tested. Procedural differences in pre- -XTRZ,•
acceleration suit inflation were considered major reasons xz.awP
for finding an increase in +G tolerance in this investi- vIsuAL
* - gation as opposed to a decreaie in acceleration tolerances RP I
previously reported in other preinflation studies. LACR1,TION
TZ'4PERATURE
NASX

Gz Stress Resistance Increase as a Function of G Suit Usage

(1) Authors Postulate the following relationships:

a) Gs - (1.2) (Gc) -0.41 - non inflated G suit

b) Gt v 0.78 + 1.19 Gc - inflated G suit

where Gc is subjects end point without a suit on.
These expressions pertain to standard inflation.
Additional expressions are given for preinflation.

SHEET I

B-83
 Positive (+Gz) Acceleration Tolerances of the Miniature
Swine: Application as a human Analog- h-83
11ATx::

SBurton, R. R. XANALS -

Positive (+Gz) rapid onset (I G/sec.) Acceleration

P,,YSZOLOZCAL

tolerances were determined using conscious adult minature AUDITORY

swine with chronically implanted intravascular polyethylene AuOZToRY
catheters. Peripheral light loss (PLL) and central light xCADZOVSCL
loss (CLL) tolerance criteria were estimated from direct
arterial eye-level blood pressures of 50 torr and 20 torr,
respectively. Acceleration PLL tolerances were 4.1 G and 5.7 G LADYRZNTSI
without and with an inflated G suit, respectively; CLL occurred
LABNT

at 4.9G and 6.6G and were similar to human +Gz tolerance

data. The pig naturally exhibits a straining "M-l" maneuver XREVIcEWZ
that, like man, increases acceleration tolerances. Also like
man, the pig exhibits a baroceptor-like response, 5 to 10 SZU 'Z
sec. post-acceleration onset, increasing +Gz tolerances VZSUAL.
approximately 1 G. Miniature swine appear to be generally on OTHER
acceptable as an analog for positive acceleration research
pathophysiologic limits for man.
• •AUIG TAT.O

DEV'IC13S

STRAPS

AURAL
Cardiovascular, LBNP, Visual EXTUNITY

Main relevance is in the potential use of miniature swine in XVU

place of human subjects for LBNP research. x'fSL
RESPIRATORY
IJ.CRhATTIONI
The author states that the anatomy and the physiology of the T•"RATIUME
miniature swine, in many respects, are remarkably similar to MASK
* man. He postulates that these similarities include Gz
Tolerance.
- Eye/heart seat dimensions are presented and compare
favorably. -

- Minature swine performs tensing maneuvers during

acceleration which produce arterial BP. Response not
unlike that reported for man.
- Barorecptor reflexes are similar.

Comparison of tolerances is presented

Linear model for systolic pressure as a function of G presen-

ted.

SHEET I,

B-8 4
 i - •• o • ' + • . . -. • •. .. •, : • • . . •- - =-• -+ .•...- • " . - , -.. • -. +=- .........
- .. . ... .

TIL ur.'. 82
The Physiology of Negative Acceleration

I Gillies, J. A. ANIMLS-
PIIYS:c5oc:CAL
CAECORY
Not Available at this time XUOZTORY
310MECIM
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CARDIOVSCL
FORCE

GINERAL
' General - Discussion of the Effects of -G RIN
MAN. ChTRL
S- PROTECTIVE
(1) Discussion of possible causes of red-out REVIEW

Sa n: : a hSPIRAT"V ;
"I
Sto "Red-out" or the red mist is a symptom analogous
blackout, but it is as inconsistent as all the SZMULATICN
x VISUAL
other visual disturbance which have been recorded OTHER
during negative acceleration. From the descriptions
Sgiven by various subjects, the time-course of
impairment of vision is similar to that seen during AUGMNZTATZCN
positive
i G. Indistinctness or blurring is followed DEVICES
Sby grey-out, in which there is a uniform loss of HE,-M
fine detail and contrast. At a later stage vision STRS
disapp e ars entirely and it is in this phase that AuL
"red-out" sometimes appears in many subjects, however, ZXT•,MTY
the impairment of vision at the higher accelerations, LBP
and a few have remarked that bright objects seem to VISUA
develop a halo, or surrounding ring of light. RESPI•TORV
LACRIMATON
TL'4PERATURE
MASK

II
I

1r
1.111,P..
SSIMIT I.

S~B-85
 zTZIZ , nt..P.,82
The Physiology of Positive Acceleration ve- Rpt
n}A'!,.

Gillies, J. A. ^h4IM.LS-
PtIYSIOLOGICAL.
General Discussion of acceleration effects PAUZGORY
AUDIT•ORY

CAR01OVSCL
Origine mechanism of black-out - "Andina...compared RCS
the effects of acceleration on vision with the im- GENhRAL
pairment produced by appling pressure to the eyeballs L.SYRz,,H
w/ a tonometer " Andina found that complete loss of MN.C4TRL
vision was proved when effective blood pressure in PROTECTZVE
the central retinal artery was reduced to 21mm Hg - REvzzW
The normal intra-ocular tension being also about 21mm ESPIRAT',
Hg. - then no blood flow into the eyes SZNULATIM
X VISUAL
Based on arterial distribution - increasing accelera- OTHER
tion should by progressively cutting off the blood
supply to the peripheral parts Df the retina produce
an almost concentric narrowing of the field of vision AUCZH3?ATZON
& because of no direct arterial supply to the fovea, OEVZICS
visual acuity should degenerate well before percep- U
tion of light is lost. (See Fig. 259, 260). STRAS

, There appears to be a time lag between G onset and IXTMI •

lose of acuity or blackout of a vascular origin - Lt4
capillary vessels within the eye may hold blood XVISUAL
pressure until main artery pressure fails providing , -s -TO•

about a 6 sec lag. LAIzMATION

TEMPERATURE
Note: threshold vs G Fig. 204 4.sx

"The rate of application of acceleration (dg/dt) can

have a profound effect on the determination of thres-
hold."

I
.i

1A-.

B-86 :
 194
#....
It- 89
Sustained Linear Acceleration .
. ' Fraser,T. M. ANxV,•LS -

I PIYS3OLO%;CA•L
CATEGORY
CATEGORY
Not available at this time.

AUDRCTR

tLuSYRINTH?

" IRetinal & Visual Response MAN.C.TRL

PsruECTIVt
(1) There would appear to be a change in absolute M,,W
threshold
showed thatof vision under acceleration. "Whi te
for a given stimulus intensity to be RSPIPA.,
szINU.T:ON
perceived as of equal intensity w/k probability x vSTZu
of 50% under increased acceleration..." See ratio
of increase Table 4-5. Foveal & peripheral
K
,thresholds as a function of acceleration are
illustrated in Fig. 4-5 & 4-6.
(2) Visual Fields at about 4.5 Gz, the field of
- R,=
view is narrowed to less than 460 Fig. 4.9 shows STPAPs
the effect of retinal position of a signal on AURA
I perception of light signals under acceleration. XXTRL41TY
LAHP
N * XV .SUXL
I RESPIRATORY
LACRZ4ATZON4
L'T.4PERAURE

, 1

B8
T-T... nF.r..1194A
Vi sion. . 89 -•
V- io I)A'Prl :

LEAD AUT1ICR z |U'MAN:S X

Taylor ANZIAALS-
PIUYSTOLOGC•CtL
CATEGORY
AUDITORY
SIOMECMI1L
Not available at this time. CARDIO'SCL
FORCE
GENERAL
LABYRINTH
MAN .C:ZTRL

Gi.iIeral Review of the Mechanics of the eye PROTECTIVE

RESPIRAT' N
-SMULATION
X VISUALi
OTHERj
1. Threshold - Some value of stimuli or interstimulus -.

difference to which an o'bserver responds with some

selected probability (usually 50%). "'Useful AUGENTATION
approximations can be made, for example, in the DEVICES
data for contrast discrimination & visual acuity, HELMET
where doubling the value of threshold at P - STRAPS
0.5 yields magnitudes where P is close to 1.0. AURAL

2. Good discription of cblor discrimination & contrast E-,RMITY

discrimination - particularly stgnificant for the Xvs'AL
reduction of contrast in visual & instrument RESPIRATORY
lighting during simulated Hi G's. TMLRIoATUO
MsTE.'%PERATURE

HASK

!- p

I.
~OFS11EET

-B-88
 -TITLE 160

Effects of Acceleration on Human Performance and Physiology

With Special Reference to Transverse G fic-90
___ ___
___ _________ ___
___ ___
___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ _ tATE: 6-68
LEAQ AuWIIQp: HiUMANS - X
Little, V. Z. • ANI:¶AL
;\~NI.MALS --
XIIYS IOLOC ICAL
I, CATE•GORY

X AUDITORY
BIOMECHIIL
CARDIOVSCL
FORCE
GFNERAL
LABYRINTH
g..M2=4. .CNTRL
PROTECTIVE
X REVIEW
RESPIRATR'EVE
N

SIMULATION
X VISUAL
OTHER

AUGMENTATI:ON

Review of physiologica" effect, tolerance and performance DEVls..S

IX
UELZMET
decrement to Gz and especially Gx
vAURAL STRAS

EXTREMITY
LBNP
X VISUAL
RESPIRATCRY
I. Nice photographs of facial droop at Gz levels from x ACRI.ATIO,
1 to 7 g's. TEMPERATURE

2. Reduction in auditory reaction time but no evidence

of change in audition itself (Pg. 7). Page 14 indicates
response time and error increase in addition for 4.6
G.Gz.

z
3. Target seen at 1 g must be twice as large to be seen
•.
4 at 7 g. (Pg. 7)
4. Upper limit of performance +13 G for 1 minute or+5
x
+5 G for 5 minutes

6. Page 13 - interesting chart of +G effects

7. Respiration (p. 5)- "chest pressure limits thoracic

breathing"

SHEET I

B-89
TITLE, r.. 141
Human Force Capabilities for Operating Aircraft 1
Controls at 1,3 and 5 GZ hG-
.,,.: 2/175
HUMANS - X

. Kroemer, K. H. Eberhard ANIMA-S

PHYSIOLOGICAL
CATrEGORY

The maximum isometric forces adult male subjects could exert at AUDITORY
eight locations of hand-operated aircraft controls were measurejX BIOMECK.L
in two vertical and CARDIOVSCL
at 1, +3 and +5g . Forces were measured anthropometric X FORCE
four to eight horizontal directions. Selected
and compared with
dimensions were obtained on the subjects survey
GENERAL

those from the 1967 USAF anthropometric of flying LABYRINTH

standard X MAN..CNTRL
personnel. Summary statistics including the mean,
deviation, coefficient of variation, symmetry, kurtosis, and pROTECTZVE
selected percentiles, are presented for each of the 60 force REVIEW
RESPIRATON
exertion measures.. S IMULATIONh
VISUAL
OTHER

AUGM•ENTAT:ON
DEV AICs
Extremity Loading
HELMET
t STRAPS

I!, AURAL
KEXTREMITY

1. No real apparant effects outside of the Z axis (as VSPISATOrY

for push forward (force REDCTN
expected). Except
under Gz). LACRIMATION
TE!IPERATUR.E
2. Within the Z axis, data given shows reduction in force MASK
capability up as a function of G and a compatible
increase in force down as a funciion of Gz.

3. Data presented may give general G load force regime

but specific values are highi dependent upon ha.,7 ,
locations - seems as though the extremity f'erý.e profile
might better be generated based on two serial masses
on an articulated arm.

4. Y force capability nearly unaffected.

4?

or

B-90

.77..
 I
Correlation of Eye Level Blood Flow Velocity and . 145
Blood Pressure during +Gz Acceleration
__ ___ __ __ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ DAL!':~ 11/73
A Au11O Krutz, R. W. UMANS -X
ANIMALS -

PH YSIOLOGICAL
CATZGORY
AUDITCRY
Eye-level blood flow and blood pressure changes were correlated 310oEC•.•L

on the USADSAM human centrifuge during both rapid onset (ROR, X CARDIOVSCL
1 G/sec) and gardual onset runs (GOR, 0.1 G/sec).
S~ A trans- FORCE
GENERAL 4

cutaneous Doppler ultrasonic flowmeter was used to monitor

temporal artery blood flow (0 ) direct blood pressure CAS~ZNT.L
was obtained by cannulation o-a radial artery and measured A.CNTRL
" at eye level with a Statham P-37 miniature transducer. Eye- PROTECTIVE

level mean blgod pressure (P ) decreased to 20 mm Hg and

zero forward Q occurred 6 lec (range 4-9 sec) prior to RESP.RAT'N

blackout in ex#grienced centrifuge subjects

- during RORs. SIMULATION
VISUAL
The same degree of correlation was not seen during GORs. OTHER

AUGMENTATIlON
S . DEV ICES
HELXZT
Shows correlation between physiological measures during +G

:1''
- STRAPS
S(blood flow and pressure at eye level) and sufficient Z AURAL
blackout. ZXTRzmrTY
L•NP

-
XVISUAL.
RESP*ZRATORY
LARfRIMAT lOW
TEMPERATURE
11. Visual effects can probably be totally explained by MASK
retinal hypoxia. Anything that drops arterial flow to ýJ
r 2. eye level will simulate the visual +Gz effect.
2. The use of a transcutlaneous Doppler ultrasonic flow-
meter apoears viable for predicting the inception of
i
- blackout.

3. Data presented on eye level blood pressure during

ROR & GOR to blackout C - 3Gz)

ifc
!LB9
! .!

U B-
92. ;
 QAZ
TITLEa wt. IKI
56
Lacrimation in Normal Eyes

RetA, (Sr.) ANML

PHLYSI~OLOGICAL.
CATrEGOR'
AUL5DITORYI
3 ZOMEC M,4
CJ'jDIOVSCL
FORCE
G94ERAL
t LABYRINTH
MP"4N.C1TRL
PROTETIVE

RESPIR.AT'N

VISUAL

establishing high G lacrimation

Norma yes device.

i
------------------------------------------------ SRP ii

1. Three methods of- inducing tears

a. Stimulate the conjunctiva -

b. Irritate the nasal mucosa

c. Look at the sunA
2. Data pertains almost exclusively to amoun*. of tears
produced as a function of age group. Young produt;e

upwards of 6 times the amount of old subziects (6 yrs. I

3. "Lacrimal Gland, except during weeping, does not
secrete without external stimuli."

B- 9

- YAS O -
 Body Temperature Measuring System Pr.o130

,,DAT: 1977
Lein, J.D., Johnston, R.S., Dietlein, L.F. (ed.) ,NIMAS-
IPHYSIOLOGICAL

AUDITORY

31OMECMNL
• ~CARD IOVSCL
FORCE
XGENERAL
LARYRINT.H

%UN.CNTRL
PROTECTI•VE
REVIEW
RESPIRAT1N
SIMULATION

VISUAL
of OTHER
Describes devices used to measure body temperature
Skylab astronauts. Seems to be irrelevant because
device employs oral probe which would be inconvenient AUGMENTATION
in a simulator. DEVICES d
L•IELMET
STRAPS
AURAL
EXTREMITY
LBNP
1. Performance Requirements VISUA
RESPIRATORY

a. Range 308.15 to 313.71 K LACRIMATION

b. Accuracy + 0.11 K TP-RATURE

c. Power + 1Vdc@4ma MASK

d. Response within 1.500 of final value within 40 sec.

I: •

SHEET L

I B-93
TITL.= RM. 130
Automatic Blood Pressure Measuring System 7

LjEADULTHO,3 Nol te, R. HUMANS -

PIIYSIOLCCICAL
CATEGORY
AUDITORY.
3rOKECRNL
X CARDIOVSCL

FORCE
GENERAL
LABYRINTH
•ANM.CNTRL
PROTECTIVE
REV IEW
RESPIRATT N
SIMULATIC•
measuring SUA
Article describes the automatic blood pressure
background for VHEA
device used on skylab. This provides some
possible use in some mechanization requiring BP measuring
device described as non-invasive.
AUGMENTATION
DEVICES
HELMET
STRAPS
AURAL

1. The device uses the familiar clinical approach using EXTR.MITY

a cuff. However the stethescope is replaced by a micro- x L.NP
phone, a gas pressure and valving replaces tha squeeze x VISUAL
bulb and a quantitative electronics circuit replaces the RESPIRATORY
clinician for the sound amplitude and frequency comparison. LAC.MAT:ON
This device could possibly be used in a simulator with TEMPERATURE
minimal environmental fidelity impact. s4ASK

2. Glen Talcott of the Martin Marietta Corp., Denver,

were the project engineers for this device.

bJJ

SHEETI

B-94 i
 TITLE, •... 130

Vectorcardi ograph , 3-O97

Lintott, J., Johnston, RS ietlein, L.F. (ed.)

D, ANIAl 9-S
PILYS rOLOCICAL
CATZOORY
AUDITORY
bIOMECMH1L
X CARDIOVSCL
1. FORCE
GENERAL

MAN .CNTRL
PROTECTIVE

REVIEW
j RESPIRAT',
SIMULATION
VISUAL
OTHER

Report describes a device for obtaining vectorcardiograms AUGTATIO

S" astronauts.
of Skylab DEVICES
HEL.MET
STRAPS
AURAL
EXTREMITY
XrNp
, 1 Devices includes signal conditioning equipment or
1. VISUAL
interface box which provides electrostatic discharge XREsPIRATORY
protection, electroshock protection and a preamplifier; LACRIMATION
a system to determine subject's heart rate from the TEMPERATURE
vectorcardiograph output with a range of 40 to 200 heart MASX

-beats/minute.
Bibliography: Lintott, J & Costello, M.J. Skylab
Vectocardiograph: System Description & Inflight
K Operation. NASA TN 0-7997. June 1975
0

SHEET I

or9
 TITLE~.~ i.5
Variable Transmittance Visor for Helmet Mounted Display
_. . ... _ _,_,,__._, % 0/ '73
LEAQ AU=IIR- HUMA:.NS -
Dobbins, J. P. Dr. ANrMALs -

PI IYSIOLOGICAL
CATEGORY
Efficient operation of HMD's (helmet-mounted displays) A\UDITORY
requires the use of VTV's (variable-transmittance visors) 0ro~cL
to maintain constant visual contrast between projected CARovsc,
images and their backgrounds. No VTV's responding FRCE
controllably or reversibly with rapidity had been developed GENERAL
t prior to this program. A high-priority military objective LAYRINTH
was to encourage the design and development of such VTV's. MAN.C:NTRL
An u,,solic 4ted proposal to the USAF, based on a new PROTECTIVZ
concept, suggested the use of a liquid optronic medium in REVIEW
a sandwich-cell visor configuration with automatic control RESPIR.*
of variable transmittance. This was rewarded by Contract sIMU•=o0,
No. F33615-71-c-1938 from the Aerospace Med. Res. Lab. In XvISUM.
a two-year program, VTV's were designed, fabricated, and oTHER
tested, which in most major respects met the AF requirements.
Three such units were installed in flight helmets and
delivered to the customer as airborne feasibility demonstrators 7uGmEATION
These accommodated variations in external brightness over a DEVICES

range greater than 80:1. Automatic regulation was provided H

from light sensors, behind the visors, connected to closed- STRPS
loop, electronic controllers using 28-vdc aircraft power. Au•RA
Controllers were packaged as pocket-size units with self- EXTREMITY
contained batteries for emergency operation. Most effort L,•
was directed toward solving critical problems involved in XVISUAL
the selection, processing, and fabrication of materials RESPIRATORY
suitable for this application. Among the many mathematical .ACRIMAT.ON
relationships, both optical and optronic, put to practical TEMPERATURE
use in the VTV design were several derived by the writer and MSK
made available here for the first time in English.

Helmet visor high G effects. This document is final report

covering the construction of 3 visors using liquid crystals
to obtain variable transmittance.

SHEET1

B-96
i.. , . . .. z,.• •-• •,.•••.,w ,• ••--,:... ,,.I 5 • ,2 - -. . . .,•.,--...,, ... ••
I
&Uol Dobbins_ Dr. J P .58

1. Used methacrylate sheeting, bubble blown and omniguard

coating to protect against the solvent characteristics
of the liquid crystal - final findings suggest allyldigycol
carbonate, casted, with no need for protective layer
would have been better.
j
2. Useo indium & tin oxide due to good reflectance (low)
and uniform thickness characteristics. Sputter applied
under slow rotation of visor shells and careful control of
sputter chamber gas pressure & oxygen backfill (This
controls amount of free metal deposited and consequently
controls unwanted absorption)
3. End result contained variations in transmittance
from one segment of visor to another. This unwanted
condition arose due to inability to precisely control
the geometry of visor shells and consequently the
thickness of the liquid crystal layer.

SE

1.

zor

Iii
TITLE& "1
The Use of a Fixed Base Simulator as a Training
Device for High Sustained or ACM (Air Combat Maneuvering) tIo-102
+ G-. Stress DA.rT. 4/176
L' Leverett, S. D. (Jr.) ANIMALS_-

PHYSIOLO•ICAL
CATEGORY
AUUDITORY
X SIOMECRNL
02 Mask,
2
Helmet CARODIOVSCL
FORCE

Report discusses an experiment wherein pilots were taught G,-EP.

high G techniques to forestall physiological effects. LABYRINTH

Centrifuge was used as simulator. Not too much information MAIN..CNTRL

for us here except this reference documents 0 mask slippage PROTECT:VE
and helmet compression (see pictures) Also FRE ACM profile REVIEW
presented (Recorded by Accelerometer). RESPIRATN
SIMULATION

:X
VISUAL

OTHER

-
2
4
A i -1 STRAPS
,BN
I {IV~iiEXTREMITY
T AURAL

VISUAL

0 10 20 34 40 50 go 70 to s0 100 RESPIRATORY
TIMjl•CLACRIMATION
TEMPERATUaRE
Figure 2. A reconstructed F4E, G versus time air combat maneuvering proii. X.ASK

F4-E ACM '"

ACCELERATIONL
1,Gz V
20 40 60 80 100 120 140

Figure 3. An accelerometer recorded C versus time air combat maneuvearng profijd

taken from an engagemaenti bet•een two F4E's. A modifica:ion of ACM :races i
such as this was used in the traioing. The abscissa is time in seconds, 6

SIIEET I.

B-98
 [AUTHOR Leveet(o. o5
0 I Ac --

ITL

[ "' +r-I ,

/ ,..,,.-•. •!++ "-" + " .. -•

Figure 5a. ,
Pilot's face at +4.5 .. Very slight fcial. distort••
•.

12y .. ...I
I;
Fi ur 5 . 5.
P •ilot- Ps.' f ac e+7at
.5 Gz S . r--e
vefa i ldis•toartio dmisk+•.
an

, .,. %LB -.9

.

4 +.
+, . ",' ,,I+. , .,.

+~ ~ ~ -- ~ •-, s a.+l

1
+ , .o.t,
Figure. 5b.,Pi.,l +fa . + ,, ,. +. +.,, , ,,o,:: i.,,, ,o , ..++.. • + .
... +,..+

SH•T 2

SB- 99
 TITLEt
Description & Flight Tests of an Oculometer i..10 3
,,____,DAP 6/'77
' Middleton, D. B. xNTALS
PHYSIOLOCGICAL

A remote-sensing oculometer has been successfully operated CA.ECORY

AUDITORY
during flight tests with an NASA experimental Twin Otter air- BZOMC)L
cA3OovCsNL
craft at the Langley Research Center. Although the it was C
oculometer was designed primarily for the laboratory,
CoRD

able to tract the pilot's eye-point-of-regard (lookpoint) OE.E A

Sconsistently and unobtrusively in the flight environment.
instan.taneous positionoof the lookpoint was determined to
The
an
LAYRINT,!
.CNTRL
Swithin approximately I. Data were recorded on both analog and PROTECTIV
video tape. The video data consisted of continuous scenes of RVIEWf

the aircraft's instrument display and a superimposed white dot

(simulating the lookpoint) dwelling on an instrument or moving sZMuLxTon
from instrument to instrument as the pilot monitored the x VISUAL
display information during l.'nding approaches. OTHER

AUGMEN4TATION
Report describes a remote oculometer and a flight test DEVICES

recording the instrument scan pattern of a Twin Otter pilot HEt.4ET

during an ILS approach. Relevant to the extent that it sTRAPs

Sdescribes hardware function and application to determining AURAL
a pilot's LOS. EXTREMITY
LSNP
X VISUAL
RESPIRATORY

The test verified the device's capability to track the LcRI4ATON

human eye during landing. It further verified the device will TE.TURE

operate in a vibratory environment. The instantaneous MASK

position of the LOS was determined to within l1. ""

Device was developed for Langley Research Center by the

Honeywell Radiation Center of L~xington, Mass. Device
contains eye movement to a I in volume. A later version
permits a l ft3 volume for eye movement. Near IR is used "i
for illumination and is reputed to be non-distracting. Head -
tracking not a problem because of fixed mirror ref.

I.-I

B-0

SiHEET I. j

B-IO00

k -" .. .. . ...- . . . .. ... : - • _ -.. . . . = .. . . " • • • • l ' ' J

 I':
Control of Tearing by Blocking the Nasal Ganglion 1.- 104
___ __ __ __ __ ____ 1930.
%_....Lt

I= Ruskin, Suron L. (M.D.) K HUMANS

PiIYS IOLOCICAU

AUDITORY
31OMcCMNL
CARDIOVSCL

Lacrimati on roRcz
GENERAL
I

-
I..... .... --

1. Anatomical development of nervous system controlling

-
LABYRINTH
MAN

RVIEW
.CNTRL

tearing •sPIRA..•
SIMULATION
."tear 2. The only
glandglands supplied
(lacrimal) and bythethemucus
nasalg1.ards
ganglion are the
of the x vISUx
OTHER•

J. nasopharynx.
3. tacrimal gland innervation is double - cranial automatic AUGw4INTATION
and sympathetic nerves. Ovicts
&ZL.MET
STRAPS
AURAL
EXTREMITY
LIMP
VISUAL
RESPIRATORY
X LACR•mATIOb,
T!Z4PERATURE

MAS,
S•I

B-10

I'.3 1' 111I ,• •,€,i •

 The Lacrimation Reflex , n;
_ _ t.,A',•": 7/ '4.4
LEAD .AUT.,o, Mu
Mutch, J. R
ch d R. x ANIMALS
.u.,m~s -
-

PHIYS OLOGICAL

CA-'.GORY

Lacrimation AUDITORY
rDIONECHNL,

CARD IOVSCL
FORCE

Primarily an anotomical development of the nervous sys"..m relatEd GENERAL

, to lacrimation with case history clinical evidence suoporting LA8YRINTH
Sa)reflex lac'imation as unilateral, b) 5th cranial nerve
= (opthalmic division) as the afferent pathway for reflex PROTECTVE
•ilacrimation c) 7th nerve is efferent pathway d) motor
impulses travel on the greater superficial petrosal nerve. RSPZR.,:
"SIMULATIO:,

Seems to reinforce other work covering the fact that tearing VISU•L
is caused emotionally, by irritation of the conjunctiva and/or X OT•HER

co, -.ea but I do not recognize this author's method for accountinc
for olfactory stimulus (other references (physiglogy of the eye, AUGMETATION
with olfactory stimulation as an input to the 5th cranial DEVICES
nerve). DEVMs

Normally little of the normal secretion goes through the STRAPS

t S~EXTREMITY
canaliculi (drain)- most evaporates. AXPRAL
'rhenyl-blomo-accto-nitrite (teargas) administered to the
= VISUAL
RVSUALORY
cornea/conjunctiva stimula es pain and tears (p. 325)-
t

5th nerve input. X LC.•MATI..

TEMPERAr-uRE
c-.mnpathetic nerve probably not part of reflex or psychic MASK
crimation but nay be part or normal secretion.

4
o-'

________EZ Iu

B-102
- - .
 , 1

Design & Test of a full scale wearable Exoskeletal Structurair-106

S, i L "VIII/"."3/ '64

LEAD AUTHOR: Cornell Aeronautical Lab Contract UUXAN,\

S "X
ANIMA:LSI -

A final design of a nonpowered, wearable exoskeletal device is AUDITORY'

presented. The device follows all basi movements of the wearer x ,oMEC.NL
except for the fingers, toes and neck. Two features of the CARrJIOVSCL
exoskeleton are that each joint has adjustable stops that GNRAL

- L can be used to lirit the range of motion, and each joint is GNR
instrumented to record its position continuously with time. SYRI..NT
The extroskeleton is adjustable for size so that it can be •.C.R
PROTE~CTIVE
worn by 90 percent of the adult, male population. (The
source of the antropological data used is presented in Reference RVIEW

.) SIMULATION
VISUAL
A test program is discussed that is used to draw conclusions OTHERS
V concerning the feasibility of surrounding a person with an
exoskeleton during the performance of work tasks. Experiments
to determine experimelitally the effect of limiting the AUG••.NTATION 3
allowable range of motion at given joints upon the ability of DVzcE
the subject to perform selected tasks are presented. Velocity IIEL14ET
and acceleration of exoskeletal joints during the performance STRAP
of certain tasks are given. AURAL
X EXTREMITY

7 ~VISUAL ;
Extremity Drive RESPIRATORY
LAC R IMAT I ON
TEMPERATURE
MASK
Interesting data concerning position, velocity and acceleration
of various human skeletal joints during certain motions (poorly
defined). Most useful piece of information Dertains to elbow
joint (P. 62, 63) werein we can obtain the orderofmagnitudeof
elbow velocity position & acceleration.
zoo

I- - 7iII -- ,
__ -

V i • .,,
a viCz

II iii
o
__
4
4-
B-1'03
. ....... . -i

Au~to___•Cornell Aeronautical Lab ContractF 17

Soc aa
so(, .........
: .........
;........• ..... ......... ..........
; :......... I
.................. . ......
a

EXOS$EL.ETAL "OIYT kIWYO S

.o........REFER TO F'.- U.E-- 32 o ....... j..... .......... ......... .

700 ......... .............. . ..... ..... .....
'I XC3KELITAL LIKE
........ ............ .......................
JOIN4T CODE

'0 ......... ..... 3 .. ..... .....

%00 . ..........
-J ,
t.. .-.. .•
*
.. ... ...... ... . ..................
a
......... :..........
..... ai

. .... .. ....
.... . ... . ....
.'.......... . ... . .... . .... .

""4 20 . . ..
... . .. ...
.. . . . . ...
.. I........
a
.. .. .. . ... .... .............
. .. . .
...
. ..

C2 . ..... .... .. ...

S.. ........... ....... .. .... o................
......... .

"•'=• ... •;t ........... . .......... •,.... ... ...... ................... ..... ... .
.................. .......... . . .........
. .......
O "'"

, , %
-•.N a

-O . ....... .. •.....~ .. •. ".-...-

* a aI• a a a -- il
a 20 40

PERCCH•Tk•F
B................
Fi gure :35

O 4-
 AUHO
AUUR Cornell Aeronautical Lab Contract I 17
200 ............................. ........ ...... .............. ........ ................. ...... ...... "..........

[ ....... ......................... ...r........ . . . . . . •......... •......... .........

...:........
......
i.........
i........
.........
....
..i.........
i........
........
........
EXOSKEL#,TAL JOIIIT !IU'!ZER3
2EFER TO FIGUIE 32
i
.•.,.•
: .. .•. .... ......... !..... ........... ........ ......... i..........: .........
....i .~ ..........

ISO ... . .. ........ ......... .................. "

* S * S • ..

Cj7
...A . . ........ ... EXOS M EI.
+.•.. TAL L,:+
I +......... .......... •........

...... .... . .. . .. ........ . . . ............ . ..... '" ..

I,,-•-
\ ' 4 . . . ..........
4.4 2. EX-X L4A .......... ......

too ... .. .. .. . .. .. . . ... . .......

4. ........
3w

, .3 - . : •
i ...... \ .\...... ........ ]...... ...i........... .. ........ ........ !........ !........ ..
;.,... . ...... ..

'..... .......
.'. . . ....
... ..
.. . ..

so: • ; • ... ..:. . .....=.

.'- 7 . .-.. .•. . .........

. , ,N ...... ........... .•.... ..-: ..... .

o - , ; , i .+' , : . - 7, - ,'"........
•. ..... . ....

Figure 34,
• l ~VELOCITY OF EXOSKM.FT.%L JOINtTS C;URING TYPICAL 'SH-OULDER ANED
ARPA
M.V',ovdEPT s 1sEr•T 3
oF 4

L B-105
1 .
 Cornell Aeronautical Lab Contract .75S

EXOSXELETLL JOIiT KVL*RS

TO FIGURE 32
EPtFER, ,

so ........ ..............
..... .......................
............... ............... .

60. . " . . .. :. . . . ....... .... .... .. .. . . . . . . . . .

JOIN1T CODE

A1 2 ----

2 .. . :.-. . .. ... -- -...- ....

.--
.. ...

"....
............
....
...........
. -- (
+............. . ......
......... ...
...
...
20 . . .. . .. . .. .... .

".. ....
....
....
....
...............
. 40 ..
.. .
. .. .. ,.... ...........
......... ........ ..............

o) ( )........ ..... .
.......
-.-0 ...... .. . .. . .................. ........ ...

: ,,o, ,,o•
.,, - ,,o, o, -*•,,
,o, ,., o, , ,. ... .. .. - , =,I . ,o, n .. S:..........a * ,.... •...
; ..

Fi gure 33
..
PSTOOFEAGSKELETAL JCIRTS DURtM:G TYIPICAL' SHOULK:1
*, ,
AND AF.M IMOVEMENTS .. S
-

B-10
 TITL_•, '.l36
A Technique for Photographing Human Retinal Circulation
During Blackout on the USAFSAM Human Centrifuge ,1-1Q7
-- _ _ __-_ _,,^_:. 3/'68
LEAD A-'uýLq'R Kirkland, V. E. XHMN
SIPHIYSIOLOGICAL,
CATECORY

To study the human retina on -amoment-to-moment basis during AUDITC1RY

the rapid sequence of events occurring before, during, and 3ZOMECHNL

after a blackout episode on the human centrifuge requires a XCARD••SCL

technique which will not harm the subject, yet will allow constalt FORCE
viewing. In a previous study an ophthalmoscope was used to GEN-A

5 ! study the retinal changes and then the subjective impressions LYRINTH

L of che investigator were recounted to a medical illustrator. .C.L

PROTECTIVE

A method has now been developed using a modified Zeiss fundus

REVZIW

camera which allows photographs to be taken of the retinal REs.IRAT

circulation every 0.6 second during the entire +G maneuver at

SIMULATION

the subject's blackout level. VZSUt

OT~HER

S7AUGM•$ETATION
1. Largely irrelevant to our needs. DEVICES

IEIE.'ET
2. Results of experiments using this device would however be SA
useful. STRAPS
EXTREMITY
<.:•"•,,,lLBNP

S- illXVISUAL

USAFM had developed a technique for photographing the human REPIRAT

retinal circulation during blackout. LACRI.ATION
TEMPERATURE
MASK

SHE I

OF.

B-107
--. .. . . ;
 T.=, TTZrr 67
The Normal Human EKG & Its Common Variations in es-of------- N
at Experimental
; Si tuatoonss cd enc1c-1 •,DAR%.6/'56
LA .. ......... X il.tm',N$s

proMcGueres T. F.c nNIMALS

'. ~CAT£EGORY
S~An attempt has been made to define as clearly as possible, within AUDIOz~RY
Sthe limits of presently accepted knowledge, the boundaries of 2IoM-ECHNL

Snormal in electrocardiography. "Normal" having been defined, XcARDovs¢,-

attention is turned to possible changes during experimental rORCE .
procedures. These changes include the following five basic GE.NERA

modes or combinations thereof: positional effect, chemical LABYRINTH

effect, circulatory effect, nervous system effect, and

M.CNTR

temperature effect. defects

Varying arrthythmias and conduction PROTEc .Iv-_

are discussed, as are cardiac chamber dilitation, cardiac strair, REvIE.

myocardial hypoxia, and various EKG artefacts. ,.'
NSPI
SIMULATION
VISUAL
OTHER

Relevant to the interpretation of EKG traces.

Report presents a technique for analyzing these'traces. AUG•aNETAT•ON

oEVIcts
Describes each wave and interval. Also describes severalin
abnormalities and their effect on the EKG. Main use is
HELNE

understanding the vernacular presented in other works. sRAPs

Description presented below. EXTRAMITY

x LBNP
VISUAL
P wave R wave Q-T Interval T wave U wave RESPIRATORY .
LACRIMATION
TENPERATURE -.

MASK

P-R interval QRS interval S-T segment -i

Q wave S wave T-P interval

(Isoelectric line)

Figure 1. Normal EKG Complex

SHB0T
I
B-108i
 Protocol for Research Project "Feasibility of Using R..,l 8
LBNP to Simulate Transient & Sustained Acceleration Forces"'. -
AR ,,rr.:3/8/76

Howard. J. C. ANTMP.LS -
-
L'!1YSIOLOCZCAL
CATEGORY
AUDITORY
BIOMEC"(NL
Relevant to LBNP. Memo outlines Howard's approach to a XcARDzOVSCL
experiment to determine feasibility of rising LBNP to RCE
stimulate the vascular response of High G. A bibliography GENERA
is also presented. LAYRINTH
MAN. CNTRL
PROTECTIVE
R~EVIEW
1. He intended to use eight male subjects. SIMULATION
RESPIRAT

2. His associates for the project were to be VIsuA

Richard F. Haines, PHD and Ernest P. McCutcheon, M.D. oTHER

AUGMENTATION
DEVICES

STRAPS
AURAL
II EXTREMITY

RESP IRATORY
LACRIMATION
T.MPERATURE
MASK

' !'

SHEET 1

L, B-109
 Precautions to Ensure the Safety of Subjects During *.19

LBNP Experimentation. (Memorandum) ,3-l10

,,,,• , • [ATE: : ,
LEA AxH~ XHUMA14S
ANIMALS,-
Howard, J.C.
PHYSIOLOCICAL
CA'rCOORY
AUDITORY
Relevant to LBNP. Memo by Howard to safety office at Ames. MIOMECNL
X CARDIOVSCL
FORCE
GENERAL
I. Memo contains stress analyses for the LBNP device. It LABYRINTH
MAN.4
j
also indicates a maximum pressure differential of 2 psi. CNTR
PROTECTIVE
' 2. Also included is a system block diagram. REVIEW -,
RESPIRAT 'I
SIMULATIONO
VISUAL
OTHER

AUGMENTATION
DEVICES 9
11ELMET
STRAPS
1AURAL
EXTREMITY

*: VISUAL
RESP'XRATORY
LACRIMATION
TEMPERATURE
MASK

f -.

I. •

i .1

B-11
S'1E 1
S.. . o- "
 rTL_.. ITRr.

,c-
o 2 68
IIl
Letter to G. J. Kron 0^.I,-..?/9/ 78

LEA ;U1 X IIUMANi -

ANILALS -
Younp, L. R.

3
PHYS IOLOGICAL

CATEGORY
AUDITORY
0 IOMErC!4TL
3 X CARDIOVSCL
LBNP, Respiration, Visual FORCE
GENERAL
LABYRINTHT

r1AN .CNTRL

a- I. suggests totheproduce
Larry mixture
breathing reduced 0 pressure in the
use of Hypoxia PROTECTIVE
aný thereby inducing REvzIw

I the cardio-vascular effects desired by LBNP.

etc.) may be induced
He hypothesizes
in this manner.
x SPIRAT'.
sz:MUzxrToN
all the effects (visual
X VISUAL

2. He also discusses LBNP and enclosed the J. Howard documents

OTHE
(HG-109 & HG-ll0)
AUGMENTATION
DEVICES
HEIELMET
STRAPS
AURAL
4 EXTREMITY

X RESPIR&TORY

LACRIMATION
TEMPERATURE
MASK

!tA
SHEET I
_ or 1

L B-ill
TITLE&_•. Rn.r
. 49
Sensory Motor Adaptation & After Effects of Exposure to 4
Increased Gravitational Forces ita- 1.21
DA•TN .3 /'70
LEA A)tIUMAN• -
.Cohen. M- M. ANIMALS

PHYSIOLOGICAL
Eight subjects were exposed to accelerative forces of 2.0 G in CATEGORY
the Navel Air Development Center human centrifuge facility. A'UoztORY
Samples of hand-eye coordination were examined both during and x 310mzv.n
after exposure. CARozOVSCL
XFORC-
While exposed to the 2.0 G environment, subjects initially GENERAL
reached below, and then, above, a mirror-viewed target. When LABYRINTH
the accelerative forces were removed, transient after-effects x M4N.CNTRL
were observed in which subjects reached still further above PROTECTIVE
the target before they returned to baseline levels of accuracy. REVIEW

The after-effects resulted only when the subjects had an RESZRAT'N

opportunity to make reaching movements while they were exposed SIMULATION

to the increased accelerative forces. Where present, the X VISUAL

after-effects were observed for both arms. O•hER

The data suggest that the relationship between intended motor

outputs and their proprioceptive-kinasthetic consequences AUGETTION
provides adequate information for rapid behavioral compensation DEVICES

and adaptation to altered accelerative forces. Further, IMLMET

vestibular and/or sensory-tonic factors are implicated in STRAPS

AURArL
bringing about changes in the apparent elevation of targets AURAL
viewed under increased accelerative forces. ".BNP
xVISUAL
RESPIRATORY'
LACRIMATION
Extremities TEMPERATURE
MASK

1. See abstract.
2. Elevator effect further described - Under +Gz objects appea.
higher than what they really are but this effect of this
illusion do not become apparent until downstream in the
acceleration profile and after some "neurological recalibration
to increased arm weight has occurred.
3. After Gz there is recalibration process to the 1G state whe e
2 overreaches with not only the practiced area but the Unpractic d
arm (one left at rest during acceleration) as well indicating
recalibration is central (neurological) rather than localized i
the muscles.

SHEET I,
'OP

B-112
"_,.__._o
I
Analysis of Position Sense in Human Shoulder •r.46
,c- 1 22

•mab•m. Cohen, L. A. ANIMA:LS-

PHIYS IOLOGICALt
CArCGORY
AUDITORY
X EIOMECN'L
CARDIOVSeCL

7ORC•
GENERAL
LABYRINTH
%kAN. CN T RL
2 PROTECTIzVE
,i REVIEW
RESPIRAT'M
SIMULATION

VISUAL
OTHER

AUGMENTATION
DEVICES
I{EZMET
STRAPS
1. Six subjects required to touch, with extended arm, AURAL
eyes closed, a reference point and then lower arm XEXTREMITY
and retouch the point from "memory". Reference
points located in 4 concentric circles in front VISA.L
of subject. Error in reposition was x 1.50 which RESPIRATORY
is considered to be the accuracy of the position LACRIMATION
sense of the shoulder. TEMPERATUPE
MASK

2. Author also cites Goldscheider's finding of a

movement sense threshold of the shoulder N 0.05 cm

3. Author also concludes that the understanding of

a specific shoulder position is not provided by
1 receptor sensitive to that position but also
the frequency of firing of various receptors.
(joint receptors attributed the following fire
characteristics) _

(A I •,#6-X .4/id ,-' •-'•.', "•

- -•
B-1.13
----
 TTL_._I,
Effect of Gradual Onset +G Acceleration on Rate , ., 107N -•
of Visual Field Collapse &Z ntraocular Pressure ,c-124 .

/,..•LEAD
NT .B=k HUMANS - X
Haines, R.F. ANT..,r.S -

CATEGORY¥
[ ~~Visual, LBNP xxo.
k X CARDIOVSCL-
FORCE
GENERAL

A35YRINTH
MAN.CNTRL
PROTECTIVE
RLEVIEW
RESP IRAT ' N
SIMULATION
X VISUAL
OTHER

DEVICES
HEIZT
STRAPS
1. The rate of visual field collapse is presented for' :
-'•X 1 min.
"GOR of G.5g These data are largely EXTRE.
L13NP
irrelevant
paper by Rositano which Authors
because etof althis. presentsreference
data for a X VZSUAL

more rapid onset ra-tes. The FOV collapse cited ECsPRAT'ONY

from that work is l/6 0 /sec as compared to 0.2790/ T--RUR"
sec - 0.356*/sec results of authors work.

2. Interesting fact presented - Foveal light loss

(blackout occurred before complete PLL during
all eight test runs for five of the six subjects.

.2. 4H B-11

. ..Th - , --..
 T TuZ Effects of High Gon Pilot Muscle Strength 140i
Available for Aircraft Control Operation 128

i ' Kroemer, K.H..E. IN,VNLs - .

'~~PHYSTOLOC ICAL

ICA'ECGORY
\t;DrITORY
X IOMECHNL
CARD IOVSCL
FORCE
GENERAL

LAB YRINTH
,A4 .CNTRL
PROTECT 'Vt
REVIEW
RESPIRAT'4
SI4ULAT zo,%
VISUAL
6 OTHER

a-
AUGMENTATION
S• .
IDEVICES

DEVIT
Extremities
HELMET
STRAPS
? i •AURAIL
1. Specific data not legible. Text points out: EXTREMITY
LBNP
a) Little formalized work in this area VAL
b) The obvious occurred in the centrifuge RTORY
experiments: L&CRZSIMATOON

ia) +Gz decreased available x axis force of limb T.MPERATV

MASR

iia) +G increased available downward force

iiia) +G decreased available upward force (above

5g some subjects could not move limbs but
others could contrary to prior belief).

4l

B--1

SIE.p 1.
-

__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _•P 2
B-115
 Testing Psychometer Performance
During
Sustained Acceleration

Collyer, S.- C. I , M.-

".,'SIOLOGICAL
Some material useful to our introduction. Survr' CATEGORY
covering visual light detection thresholds, contrast AUDITORY
thresholds, lacrimation, visual acuity, tracking & 3ze~•.'L
piloting tasks, color shifts CARDIOVSCL
FORCE
X GENERAL
LABYRINT11
Author notes in his conclusions: X N. C Xz
PROTE•CT IVE
1) Only a few studies (with disappointing results no REVIEW
less) which attempt to measure simultaneously G RsPz•T.N
induced changes in behavioral and physiologic SZIJLATIC:;
variables . Some researchers doubt the success of vzsuA
such physiologic-psychologic approaches in the XOTHER
near future.
2) Basic problem is the complexity in es'tablishing AUG•'XNTATZON•
the connection between behavioral integrity and DEVCES
integrity of the physiologic system. HE-LMET

3) Also notes that the physiologic indices have not AURAL

S~been reliable or sensitive correlates to change EXTx.R..,4ITY,
in psychomotor efficiency-especially in complex ,.N•
tasks approximating operational.conditions. XvzsuA
RESPIRATORY
4) But acceleration
of stresses bestinduced
hope ofhypoxia.
success involves study*
- X&CRIMTTIOC
T--.ERATUR.

On fidelity of simulation: High fidelity implies good

relevance to operational situation but is costly, has
few test subjects, and produces difficulty in choosing
an appropriate me'asure of performance decrement. Low
fidelity (GK.-simpler?) avoids these problems.

On color shifts-few significant results found at low

acceleration (less than 3G) levels.

On lacrimation:
1) Study by Creer et.al. incountered visual degrad-
Sation above -14Gx due to excessive lacrimation.

2) Study by Smedal et.al. suggests blurring of vision

under -Gx due to lacrimation & due above -6Gx to
distortion of the placids disk reflection due to
lacrimation.
SHIEET I i.

--op 2
_ __ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ __ _ _16
 ...
.i

SCollyer, S. C. , , 50

Problems in using a piloting task as a performance measurement

of G strers is the difficulty in determining the source of
L impairmenL (specific sensory or cognitive impairment?) p. 21.

Interesting point (P. 17): performance of subjects inexper-

ienced 4n the G stress environment varies widely even though.
they were extensively trained under static conditions whereas
performance d.egradation of experienced subjects was pre-
dictable.

Under G stress (P. 16) pilots tend to concentrate on most

T, and ignore
demanding single task (pitch control for instance) error
simpler tasks' (yaw control) with consequent large
build up in the simpler tasks.
I
Recommendations, developed for the USAF School of Aerospace
Medicine (SAM), concern a human psychomotor performance task
which could be used to monitor, on a moment-to-moment basis,
to perform
an operator's abilitystress.
tained acceleration
satisfactorily
First, made ofsus-
a survey was during the
literature on looic and behavior changes during acceleration.

Next, an experimental program was planned and carried out, in

whi.ch candidate tasks were evaluated under conditions of hy-
poxia and alcohol intoxication. Final recommendations were
then made for: (a) a running memory task to measure a de-
crement in cognitive skills; and (b) an automated testinig
system, for installation on the SAM centrifuge, suitable not
only for the recommended test but also for many other di-
versified tasks.

!Jr

B-117
! ,
L
I

r I-

S-- So Z 21

B-117
?-L' Systems Analysis of Physiological Performance nrrP.I 250
Related to Stresses such as those Experienced
in High Performance Aircraft.
.LEADA UZIt : 1U.A'uIs -•

Walters, R. F. ANIMALS -

P11YSOLoC:CAL
Cardiovascular, respiratory, LBNP , CATEGORY
AUDITORY
BIOMECH%*L
X CARDZOVSCL --

. Author states that in an exercise environment, roRCe

which would probably be the case in a simulator GEZERAL
cockpit, the movement artifacts cause difficulty L.xY.• qT
with most noninvasive blood pressure monitoring MAN.C.NTRL
devices. U. C. Davis has therefore relied prim- PROTECTZVE
arily on the use Doppler ultrasound & Korotkov REVZEW
sounds in a manual mode. X azSPIRAT'lx
SIZ(ULATIO';
* Heart rate data is also subject to the effects of VZSUAL..
artifacts. The use of a NASA supplied R-wave de- OTHER
tector has mitigated these considerably.

• A cardiorespiratory steady state model-was limited AUG21-.TAT10

to use in nonexercise mode. Gair & phase indicate zvzcs
a first order system with t = 6 min. The response
to dynamic exercise is Vinear up to 70% of V02 STAPS
max. As workload increases t increases . Stroke AUA
volume unimportant at work loads e70% V02 max. EXTREMITY

XL5B4P
* The ventilatory response to exercise is influenced VISUAL
by the degree of proprioceptor activity in the XRESPZRATORY
working links. LACRZMAT-10Z.
- TEMPRATURE
MASK

A final summary of contract wo~rk performed during the

five year period October 1, 1972 through September
30, 1976 is presented . Results of the contract in- Li
clude significant findings in information systems
technology, physiology of exercise, and instrumenta-
tion associated wi-th human subject experiments in W6
human physical performance.

SHEET I .

B-118

- .- .. , '- .- . , --
 I'

TITLEs
nr.. 241
Environment Modification for Human Performance

LEAD ACTILO, Trumbull1, R. HUMANS-

• ,\~rN AL$ -

P11YS TOTO01CAI
No abstract available at this time. CTEGORY
AUDITORY
Very general survey covering many other environ- TOMECXL

mental inpacts other than acceleration. CADIOVSCL

FORCE
XGZNERAL

k MAN,. CNTRL
PROTECTIVE
REVIEW

RESP IRAT '4

SIMULATION
VISUAL
OTHER

1. Author references a study by Hendler where AUGMENTATION

"as ambient, and skin temperature decreased, OCVZCES

tactile sensitivity also decreased." Notes ,-LE

that a simil'iar symptom occurs at high temper- STRAPS

- tatures. AURAL

VISUAL
RESPIRATORY
LACRIMATION
TEMPERATURE

MASK

ii.
[i
|4

B-1

I I S1IEET 1

L ~B-2.19

ii •
 _ *
U• . Relation of Signal Light Intensity to Physiologic ntrr.*207
Endpoints During +Gz Acceleration

Rogge, J. D. A MALS -x
PHjYSI OLOGICALt

Results of previous studies suggest that lowering the CATEGORY

luminance of the signal lights lowers the blackout AUDITORY

BIOMECM
and grayout.level during +G acceleration. In this
study,variations in luminance of the central and periX FORCE .
pheral signal lights in the range that is suitable FORCE
for routine centrifuge operation failed to produce LABYRZNTH -.
any detectable change in blackout or grayout levels. MAX.CNTRL
dC The visual phenomena described in the previous studie PROTECTZVE:
may have risen mainly from such local changes in the REVIEW
eye as changes in visual threshold, retinal meta-
bolism, and visual acuity; whereas, blackout obtained RszrRoT*4

with light intensities used in this study resulted XVISU

from hemodynamic changes caused by +G acceleration
and possibly some local changes in the eye itself.
OT ]

DEVICES

Cardiovascular, visual MET

STRAPS

I.
I
Data is presented relating luminance, G level
and blackout & greyout.
LSNP
AURAL
EXTREMITY
Four subjects ýere used.x VISUAL
The centrifuge was programmed to provide a series REsPzI.RATOR
of ROR rides (1 g/sec & 15 sec plateau) and GOR LCRIMAToN
rides ('07 g/sec) until the endpoint was reached. TEMPERATURE
M4ASK
2. The results of these data analyses showed n,
trends toward higher or lower end points as a
function of luminance. The variation between
light settings is no greater than the variation
among the control runs done at constant light
setting•. -

3. These results differ from the results of previous

studies; The authors speculate that this may be
due to the fact that in previous work the lum- 4

inance was close to the visual threshold & (lum-

inances for these tests .01 < periph 4100 &
0.12tand i 120 foot-lamberts). According to the
authors, White (WADD 60-34) has shown that the
visual threshold itself increases with increase
in +G Authors state that studies in which ver"
bright light sources have been used have shown
that there is still some visual capability left
in blackout and perhaps even in unconsciousness. SHET I "
• , ......... 0___"OF 1

B-120
 Th- Effect of Positive Acceleration (G) on the
R ation Between Illumination and Dial Reading FIG-

LEAD AUT110t. HUM,•ANS X

SWhite, W. S. ^NZ,,•Ls-

PHYS TOT.OGICAL.
CATECORY

No abstract available at this time. ,UOZORY

3ZOMECHNL
CARDIOVSCL
FORCE

Visual dimming as a function of G for both visual

GZNERM
LAB.cNTH
scene and instruments.
PROTECTIVE
REVIEW
RESPIRAT •N

1. Dial reading performance not affected by G x VISUALT

above 42 f.l. illumination (l-4g region . OTHER

2. Dial reading performance definitely affected in

the 0.1 - 1.0 fl. region. Cross plot of data AUGMIENTATION
given (for constant performance to find effectiv DEVICS
illumination vs G) yeilds well behaved plot -
see attached sheet. This illumination attention STRAPS
factor should probably be washed out as illumin- AuRAL.
ation 42 f.L. from 1 f.L. If washed out EXTREMITY
however not sure what function to use for dimminc LNP
as we enter blackout. xvzsuA.
RESPIRATORY
LACRIZMATICN1
Or re ru TEMPERATURE

60 PK

B-12

FIG. 2. Percentage of readin~gs in error as

a functionl of hrigtnltes%• level for each
value. SHE=: I
AUT~~tOR ,-.S Wht

.258

II

4 A

I ttT

B- 122
.T1 69 171
Acceleration Effects on the Ability to Activate .G- •
Emergency Devices in F4 Aircraft
HUMAN4S X
I
Fessenden, E. ~PIIYS
A\NIMALS -
tOL(OGIC,\L

Experiments have been performed and are described in cA:,ECIORY

this report which measure the influence of environ- AUDzroRY
ment on the time it takes to reach an emergency x ,omzc".-
control activation device and which measure the XCARDIOVSCL
change of physical position at the time of activation roRca
[ due to the environmental forces. Data are reported
for both loose and tight torso harness straps.
G and minus G are identified as the components of
Minus
GEEA
usy.:n-
XAN..CNRI
Svriousenvironments which cause
l ikely emergency PROTECTIVE

pilots |the greatest difficulties. REvIEW

I ~RZISPZIRAT '

The contribution of combined individual anthropometri s rSIMU

measures has been identified as having pronounced VISUAL
on-the reach ability of certain contr-ol OTHER
1.
e.influence
devices under specific enviro.nments. Improvements
in existing seat harness systems and testing for
j future .systems to be developed are recommended. AUaME•4TATIN
~DEV ICES
X IIEL.'4T
X STRAPS

straps, SShouldermovement,
extremity and helmet. AURAL
X EXTRE14ITY
Sr.LINP

9 VISUAL
RESPIRATORY
1. Very little data of direct use to our needs. LCR.IATION
Host
M extremity movement deals with ability TEMPERATURE
to reach a control and not accuracy in MSK
reaching the control'under High G nor is
force reduction data as a function of G
presented in a form useful to us. Strap
forces are not given.
,2. There is con~siderable data given on the
envelope of helmet and shoulder movement
extent at various G levels in G and G
z x

Ii

L SHEET

B-123
 E.ssmndmnn. E. r 469

HEAD POSITIONS

a. ~2.5 G,

3 E+-5 G. ""
WO SKID
-, --- SPIN

V,.. - •--. •- .. ,

ILSA
X DISPLAC'-t,,E,,,T (N.rn"

3W),L~..ALR F'OSIT•O,,.S '

I,' ROO

- C 6M -2.5G

2-2 x - • .. - ,:.) - -E..

FGR
6 Environmental Envelopes (Loose Strdps).

F11GETE
or2
 -- -

I¶tuman Musc'iloskeletal Tolerance Limits to Ejection

and Related Higlh Mechanical Stress Environments ]57

I'.M
hA , Burstein,
•~~~m in
A. H.
l
,• MA,-
I

PTfYS:nLOICzcAL

No abstract is available at this time. CTCGORY

AUD ITRY

X 3ZOM~CHto,
l "' CAROZOVSCL,

Extremities - Joint stiffness, FORMC

GENERAL
N da taa------------------- -AYR TH

No data that we could use. PAOTECTIVE

SM--LATION
VISUAL
OTHER

I. DEXVICtS :

tXLHET

STRAPS
AURAL
X ZXTR]LzTY

1= VI SUAL
USP14ATORY
LACRZ•MAT ON
TEMPERATURE

MASK

I:I
B-125
 Exploratory Investigation of the Man Amplifier r 40
Concept.

II
L.D & [ Clark, D. C. lM -
P1IYSIOLOCC'CA
Preliminary investigations were conducted to ascer- CA'ECR.Y

tatn and define some of the major problems and un-

certainties requiring additional research before x 3zAcHNL
feasibility of the Man Amplifier concept can be CR:ovscL
evaluated. Study areas included carrying capability roacZ
human factors from the. standpoints of. bbdy kine- GENERAL
matics and physical anthropology, structures and
mechanical design, and servo syster, and power re- %IAN.C;TL
quirements. The dynamic response characteristics PRoT•C-:VE
of an elbow-joint amplifier, as determined theoret- REVIEW

ically and experimentally, were compared. Com-

parison of position tracking tests performed both SZ.uLA.:.
with and without power boost provided by the elbow- VISU
joint servo indicated that employnment of power boost OT14E
did not increase the tracking error above that
exhibited by the unaided operation. It. was concluded
that: (1) duplication, in the Man Amplifier, of all AUC•"?:C:
the human joint motion capability is impractical; OEVZC-S
(2) experimentation is necessary to determine the ,zWL-T
essential joints, motion rages, and dynamic ST.RAPS

responses; (3) the inability to connect the over- AUML

turning moments wiTl, in many instances, limit the xEXTR1~T

load-handling cap'ability; (4) conventional valve LBNP

controlled hydraulic servos are unsuitable for the VsU

RISPIRATORY
Man Amplifier, (5) particularly difficult problems
will be encountered in the general areas of mech- McRZ.-&ZC,
anical design, seneors, and servo-merchanisms. PsKRA
Some specific tasks that should be undertaken to -.
assess engineering feasibility of the concept are
outlined.

Extremities

1. Contains
1 positional
elbow flexion trace of maximum effort
& extension. ".

2. Otherwise, not much

data pertinant to our
needs.

3. Note: Hydraulics ruled

o•because of power supply needed, not due
to response etc., s.
or 2

B-126
 "14
I ?"~'~' Clark$ D. C. 4

-F
S-'Ar

1.
B-12
 Arterial Tonometry for the Atraumatic Measu.'e','nt ,•r.. 230
of Arterial Blood Pressure. - 19

LEADA~jT1ORLILMANS - X
Stein, P. 0. ANIMALS -

new method of arterial tonc metry was developed .

This noninvasive technique is based on the prin-
SA PHYS IOLOCICAL

CA ZGCRY.
AUDITORY
ciple that displacement of a mechanical force- 3IOMECRNL
sensing device located over a superficial artery can xCAROIOVSCL
be made to be proportional to blood pressure (BP) FORCE

within the artery. The particular advantage of the GENERAL

method is that instantaneous and transient variation LAYRINTH-

of blood pressure can be observed and the configura- MAN.CNTRL

P C
tion of wavenorms can be recorded. In normotensive PROTECTIV
patients, peak-systolic or diastolic BP changes of REVIEW

30% or less from control values correlated linearly RESPIRAT'N

with intra-arterial BP (P< 0.001). Increments of SI.ULATIO,
greater magnitude were indicated by prominent XVISUAL

changes, but did not show this linear correlation. OTHER

Ahsolute immobility of the extremity and transducer
was required for satisfactory measurements. This
constituted a practice problem. The method seems j
potentially suited for the atraumatic measurement OEVIC--

of transient effects of drugs or physiological HELMET

STRAPS
interventions, or for the continuous monitoring of AUL
arterial BP during surgery. EXTREMITY
X LBNP
X VISUAL
RESPIRATORY -
LBNP, visual, Indirect BP Measurement LCRI.ATION

TEMPERATURE "
MASK

Authors investigate the use of a tonometer for

measuring blood pressure in superficial arteries,
non-invasively. The device is a force transducer
placed over the vessel. It operates on the
principle that the force measured is proportional
to the pressure in the artery. This method provide
good results in continuous fashion however the
I
method is rendered unusable by the constraint that -!
the limb containing the artery must be maintained
immobile.

B-128

-_i .. ..-.-.
....
 AUHO in P.St 0. -c -3

ISIt
crements. Dru .i

I ISS/SO m Ii 100/SO -. 130/SO

sF~ wa----htespohlW'.

2 t-

.~-~-~--~ I - ---
-~~i.~: - O

L ______ __B__129

fro!"AM
TITL...m .e, 132
Blood Pressure Measurement with Doppler
G-1 60
Ultrasonic Flowmeter
DATE::
LEA AUT11OR-" HUMANS -X
Kazanilas, T.M. ANIMALS -

PHYS IOLO•ZCAL
The frequency shift of sound scattered from blood cATEzoORY
moving within a superficial vessel has been shown AUDITORY
to provide a reliable indication of blood flow BIOMEC,•,L
velocity. This approach appears to be more sen- XCARDIOVSCL
sitive than indirect sphygmomanometers utilizing FORCE
Korotkoff sounds but hitherto it has not been GENERAL
directly validated. A'transducer was applied to LABYRINTH
the skin over the radial artery and the Doppler
Ssignal was radiotelemetered and recorded together PROTECTIVE
with pressure from a proximal cuff. The pressure REVIEW
at which arterial flow resumed during cuff deflation RsIMUL .TI
measured systolic pressure and the cuff pressure SIMuLON
at which diastolic flow was sustained measured xvISA
diastolic pressure. Brachial arterial pressure OTHER
was measured through an indwelling arterial needle
in the opposite arm. In 65 measurements in 12 AT
subjects in whom arterial pressure was lowered
from normal levels UEMVESo
the Valsalva by amyl
maneuver, nitrite occlusion
or partial inhalation,
of the ,IL•T
brachial artery, the correlation coefficient was sTRAPS
0.991 for systolic
i pressure and 0.905 for diastolic EXTREMITY
AUL
pressure. The maximum error was 10 mm Hg in these xTR-IT
studiesh In five'patients in clinical hypotension V
and shock, the Doppler ultrasonic flowmeter was RES PIRATORY
RESAT '
shown to be superior to standard sphygmomanometry LACRIMATION
and to indicate accurately systolic pressure at T URE
values as low as 44 mm Hg. It is concluded that the
Doppler method provides a sensitive and accurate
noninvasive approach for the semicontinuous measure-
ment of systemic arterial pressure.

--------------------------------------------------------
-9,

Monitoring, non invasively, of blood pressure for .

LBNP & visual effects.
I.I
1. Authors compare results using a transcutaneous
Doppler ultrasonic flowmeter to results using an
indwelling artinal needle connected to.a pressure I
Stransducer. The output of the flowmeter is
fed through signal processing equipment & a
frequency analyzer.

B-130
 ITIO
Ie!zo2 Kazamias, T. M. LF 132

* 2. The results show significant correlation. The method,

however, still requires a pressure cuff to record systolic
& diastolic pressures. The only apparent advantage of
this method over the syphymomanometer is that the
Orequency shift fur velocity changes is more reliable
than the Korotkoff sounds.

I.

B1

I.

1, 1:_
I!I
B-131
 Effect of Moderate Positive Acceleration (G) Rrr.. 251
on Ability to Read Aircraft-Type Instrument Dials 'e-164
DA'TE:
IIUM'ANS -X
Warrick, M. J. ANZI•.ALS -
PIIYSIOLOCICAL
CArEGoRY
Nn abstract is available at this time. AUDITORY
]atOME CW•IL
CARDIOVSCL
FORCE .5

Visual - Instruments CENRAL

L&•YRINTH
MAN.CCNTRL
--

PROTECTIVE
1. Very early work (centrifuge) to determine
if there is progressive degradation in RZSPZRAT',
reading instruments at G levels lower than SZU.ALZ
that crossing blackout. 3 G selected and x s
findings were limited to simple answer oI(ZR
yes 3 G produced increased error in reading
instruments. No significant attempt made
to explain why error increased from 18% AUGEDTPIO,•
@ 1.5 G to 2401C @ 3 G. HELMET
STRAPS
2. Authors note at increased G the subject may STRAP
experience a dimming of a bright light. AURZA
EXTREMITY
Peripheal vision is lost (?-no definition
kJ. of lost) and finally blackout occurs x
however subject is still conscious. •SP:MTOR -
LACRZMATION
TEMPERATURE -T
MAS1X

B-132
I -i

-- --- SHEET 2. '=

I _____________. __.
LýT Human Carotid Artery Wall Thickness, Diameter tvr.
190
& Blood Flow by Non-Invasive Techniques

Olson, Robert M. L
ANIM.ALS

LBNP, visual indirect BP measurement

---------------------------------------------------
CATEGORY
AUDITORY

BRZOKECHn:

diameter, blood flow by a noninvasive technique. FORCE

J. Appl. Physiol. 37(6):955-1974-This paper pre- G =NRA
sents a technique tested in vitro and dogs a, d used LABYRINTH
Sin humans to measure carotid artery wall thickness
blood flow, and diameter continuously by placing a PROTECTIVE
transducer on the skin over the artery. The trans- EvzIEw
ducer consists of a pulse echo crystal used to locate RZSPZMT'N
the carotid artery and measure its diameter and SIMLTON
wall thickness. It also has a pair of Doppler shift xvzsu&L
crystals used to measure the velocity of blood flow OTHER
in the vessel In a typical case, the diastolic in-
side diamete the carotid artery was 8.0 mm, dias-
tolic wall thickness 600, systolic inside diameter AucGMEN•AT:o
8.6 mm and pulsatile wall thinning 100mm. The peak blood DEVICES
flow varied inversely with pulsa rate. Occlusion of HELM
one carotid resulted in an increase in diastolic STRAPS
jbut not systolic flow in the other, AuM
------------------------- ---------- EXT.EM• Y
x LSt4P
Method combines the use of pulse echo for artery XVISUAL
,*. diameter measurement and aiming of the Doppler shift ul- O VsPA
1
trasonic transducer which measures the blood flow & LACRI.AION
velocity and the arterial wall velocity. BP is not TEMPERATURE
i presently an output. While this method appears to •sX
be promising at present the appropriate signal
processing and analysis hardware is not available.
j
However, simple calibration on each subject pre-
mission may be sufficient. Somebody probably should
continue to develop this technique.

II

41

iSHEET 1

I B-133

- -~.c,±,
- - .. ... ... " "-', ,- --• ...-.
!? , Estimation of Retinal Blood Flcw by Measurement i
2
2r.7.o
of the Mean Circulation Time. -170
*RA
AUT,~ IIU.44%,
13X

Bulpit C.• J ANIMALS-

?HUYS IOLOCCAL
A m-thod is described for measuring the segmental mean CATEO RY
circulatory time and estimating th.e segmental flow in AUDITORY
the human retina. Serial retinal photographs were SIoMEc"
taken after intravenous fluorescein injection and the "% oZOVSCI-
relative concentration of fluorscein in the superior tem- roRc&
poral artery and vein calculated from measurements of GMERAL
the optiWal density of the vessel images. Arterial
and venous time-concentration curves were constructed HAN.C.NTL
and the mean circulation time calculated. In normal X PO•Z-
subjects the mean circulation time in the superior RVIEW
temporal segment varied from 1.39 to 9.85 sec. This EsP,,•T,-
variation was largely explained by variations in the szUTzoN
volume of the vascular bed which was taken tm be cela- VISUA
tive to 'che sum of the square of arterial and venous oC+R.
diameters. Volume flow shows le.s than a two-fold
varlation in normal subjects, mean 55 + SD 11 units/
sec. Similar results for volume flow i7ere, found in 10i
AUNM.NTAZC,
hypertensive subjects although flow was more variableirDVICZS
these patients, mean 54 + 18 units/sec. Some anaemic RZLME
patients showed a marked-increase in volume flow, ST
and there was a significant relationship between AU"A
packed cell volume and retinal volume flow Z• +.
(R = 0.65, P - 0.01). x Law
---------------------------------------------- ------------------ -VVISUAL
Not relevant to this study IcATIoN
TF.UPZRATURZ -_

---- ---
--- ----
--- ---
--- --- --- --- --- MASK

Method requires extensive calibration of each subject

and the injection of fluorescein dye. Further, a
camera is required to photograph tIe retina.

I "T

B.3

B-134
I
Comparison of the Protective Value of an Anti- r..*15 00
Blackout Suit on Subjects in an Airplane & on the
Mayo Centrifuge.
LKA AUTHOS UUANSt - X
Lambert, E. H. AIMALS-

No abstract is available at this time. PYSOLOGI'AL

CATEGORY
AUDITORY
310MECRL
----------------------------------------------------------- -------------

Cardiovascular, LBNP, visual protective devices. xcAORovsCE

(,EERAL
I I.•iRYRINTH

Data are presented on various levels of visual

ANW.CNTAL
XPROTECTIVE
degradation as a function of acceleration, w/o REV:Ew
an anti G-Suit, both in the Mayo centrifuge & RESPIRATN
in an airplane (Ra-24a). The data are both SIMULATION
continuous & discrete. The author implies the XVISUAL
accelerations have been transferred to the OTHER
subjects head. This is important because of the
short arm of the Mayo Centrifuge (a 13').
Some average values are: AUGMENTATI3ON
]. DEVICES
CLEAR DIM PLL B0 HZI MET
STRAPS
Control 2.7g 3.0g 3.3 3.8 CENTRIFUGE AURAL
•Anti-G Suit 3.5 4.1 4.3 5.0 EXTREMITY
X LBNP
Control 3.2 3.7 4.0 4.5 AIRPLANE X VISUAL
Anti-G Suit 4.5 4.9 5.0 5.5 RESPIRATORY
LA;RINATbION
TEMPERATURE
MASX ,HA~ti
2. Also presented are data on ear pulse & ear opac-
ity. The author concludes that there is no
statistically significant differences in the
effect of the anti-blackout suit between the
airplane and centrifuge. The anti-G Suit used
1.was G-4 (Z-1).

I1:
SHIET I.
B 5o. 1
LB13
 Prolonged Linear and Radial Accelerations t1r. . 2 4 4
Chapter 5 of Foundations of Space Biology
and Medicine. r'A'r!::
LEA AURo UMAN"S - X
Vasll'yev, P. V., Kotovskaya, A. R. ANIMLS-

piZysZOLOCZCAL
Cardiovascular data CATZGCRY "
References to lacrimation AUDITORY
Vision effects 3IOMZCNU
Bioelectric activity of myocardium reduces with G suit x CAADZOVSCL -,
usage FORCZ
- - - X G V4Z RA L
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --
-

--- -- - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - -
1) angle of stress
Authors 15 (13t•e-18i•portance of the aorta-retina x). .cNTRL
x O--CTI
SIUXVIEW
2) Vision disruption (fogging loss of acuity) attrl- x ,
buted to "abundant" lacrimation in -Gx and relate SMULATZO:O,.
this indirectly to levels of -8Gx. VISUAL
OTHE1"
3) "No correlation has been found between increases in
S. cardiac rhythm and tolerance to +Gx forces." Pro-
gressive bradycardial may occur at various heart AU.RI.ESTAT:.O0.
rates degrading heart rate as a predictor of tol- DLVICtS
t4
erance. JLE
STRAPS
. 4) Vision disruption in +Gx is characterized by the AUR "
authors to be "..grey veil, fog, whitish fog, M- IT
looking through rain or fog.." note word 'through'. xzjjp
XVISUAL
* 5) Cardiovascualar compensatory reactions have a tim~e XsEzSPIRAOR
response of 8-12 sec. (GK-in contrast to the 5 sec xcLAcRj:NA~Z
stated in HG 191) and.some recovery is experienced T.ZERATUR! -
under continued acceleration, when such compen-
sation occurs. ""
6) Authors state -Gx loss of acuity due to lacrimation
and note Smedal et.al . tested for cornea defor- -
mation and found none.

7) Re: light stimulus thresholds-central vision:

Threshold 2 times 1 Gz level at 3 Gz
Threshold 3.4 times 1 Gz level at 4 Gz. -,
Peripheral vision:
Thres-hold 1.5-times 1 Gz level at 2Gz
Threshold 3 times 1 Gz level at 3Gz
SThreshold 4 times 1 Gz level at 4Gz
8) Critical point of hypoxia application is at the
sympathetic connections of the ganglionic and
Duane may have altered this opinion).

!+ Vision
9) ~~is abovemaintained
22-23 mm only
Hg. when blood pressure (retina) sz-

SB-136
 I
fl.i&' Lighting, IntEgral, Red, Aircraft Instrument, nrr,4.72
General Specification for; MIL-L-254670 and Light-,, 1
Ing, Instrument, Integral, White General specifica
LEAD .UrT P.1 Fe, HUMANS -
U. S. Government AZ41MALS -
PHiYSIOL.OGICAL
No abstract is available at this time. CATEGORY
AUDITORY
--- iO KEC L
CARDIOVSCL
Data for cockpit instrument dimming due to visual FORCE
effects. GENERAL
LABYRZINTH
- - -- -- e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e MAN, ,TRL
P ROTECTIVE

I. White light illumination (MIL-L-27160C) REVIEW

Brightness, When 4.50 +C.0 50V are
applied to the lighting terminaTs, the light
S3.3.5
StUTIO:J
RUSP!RAT'N

intensity and distribution shall be as follows- XVISUAL

"OTHER
1. a. White areas: 1.00 +0.50 foot,lambert.
b. Gray area: 0.06 +0.30 foot-lambert. AUGMIAT!O,
DEVICES
c. Black areas: 0.05 +0.03 foot-lambert when HMIT

refle.cted light (weeag and ring lighting) STRAPS

is used and 0.4)4 +0.02 foot-lambert for re- AURAL

EXTRXWMI7Y
fracted light (baEk lighting). LINP

d. Pointer, lubber lines, command bars, minia- XVSUAZ

ture airplane symbols, diviation bards. and LsCzMoY

other similar reference marks: 1.20 +0.50 4
foot-lambert. MASK

I e. Red areas: 1.00 +0.05 foot-lambert.

The brightness of other colors and the selection
of colors shall be governed by their relative
brightness in daylight and shall be subject to
I )the approval of the procuriny activity. When no
other guidance is availao.le, the birghtness of
these other colured areas shall be 1.00 +0.05
foot-lambert.

2. Red light i lumination (MIL-L-254670)

3.3.8 Brightness. When 5.00 +0.10V or 115
Terminals, whichever applied
+2V, 400 +20 Hz are to-the lighting
is applicable, the light
a intensity and the light distribution of the
lighting system shall be such that the bright-
ness of the p-esentation shall conform to Table
I, For any single dispray markings. In no case
j shall the brightness of the pointer and lubber SHEET 1
11:
- s.....- ' font lm.^,. o7 2

[..B-137
 U . S. Government 172

TAILZ 1. Photometric brithtneeua

Incandescent Zleetroalumstnoecnt
Daylight Color Llghtthg System LtihtunR System -,

lrightness Brightness
I (Foot-Lavberts) (Toot-Likaborta)
White - (Markings) .... 1.0 :t 0.5 0.5 t 0.2 1
WVhitte - (Pot,•ser and
Lubbet Lines) ....
If 1.2 t 0.5 0.5 t 0.2

Cray - (Background).... j 0.6 ±t 0.3 - 0.2 1 0.1

SlackL -(lacbkground) .... 0. 0ii 0.2 1 0.02 ±t 0.0 1

I!

Ii

I2
Ij
B
I
oro
I
J41
i- ]
S!
o u 2:
 II
mIU Elye.
Head and Neck Mobility of Pilots Measured at the ,r.s 37
a 17 4.
UAmI'

44ALZ= IHUMAN$ X
Champolan._M.__C. ________

.PHYS.OLO..CAL
. The mean narness tensions chose by pilots on CATEGORY
initial strap-in were in most cases greater with AUDITORY
winter than summer AEA. X o0Mtc.
CARDIOVSCL-

Mean initial tensions: FRoCE

X'
Leg straps 5-2 lb Summer AEA LAZYKflNTH
Shoulder straps 5-7 lb M-M.cN.T
Leg Straps 7-6 lb Winter AEA PRoTrۥz% i
Shoulder straps 8-3 lb RVIEW
RISPZRAT'"
2. During a run the mean tensions required to restrair SIMULATZON
the subject's back and shoulder movement were XVISUJAL
increased by 1½ to 2 lb more than the initial OTHER
tensions.
A study of the head and neck mobility of nine selected AUGMENTATION
subjects
envelope of the has bee Spilot
pilot's made by measuring
eye position as he the movement
cranes his 0tvzcys
HEL

head and neck up, down and side to side. During S1RP5
these movements the subjects looked forward at a tar- AURL
S: get board intQ
~strapped through a sight aperture.
an ejection The subjects
seat instrumented were
to moni- .N
'?IPSUA.L
" tor harness tension and were clothed in standard RAF
summer and winter aircrew equipment assemblies. The s1
effects of wearing a standard RAF Mark 2/3 flying TZP.`
helmet, and differences between movement with summer 1sX
and winter flying clothing have been assessed.

Shoulder harness tension given for initial comfort-

- ,able strap in and then once retightened such that
* there is no appreciable movement of his 7th cervical
vertebrae when head craned forward. Data may also
be applicable to head/helmet motion.

rI

SHEET I

B-139

•- •- '- ~~..................."
..........
-L ...............• . -••.. .......... -- •.. ....... '
 SChampion, M. C. Lip_____
a 3 7.

cC Ca.
&A Q
C m. w Ci

%4-
ES Q

9-- P- r F- ft- a u .-

fe Qj 0 tý L' %0* 6mOe~r-

m IN % U; cIr:

cn

$A1.2 9 IC4n-

CIO L. .

LT) -4r- M 9 Ln V.J ,a

-jC.k3lýc ý tý r ; c ý 0 ýc

M NM0Min- Q nL , nm

CC

B014
I
-t

• General P.rformance Specification Lighting, 7F

Instrument, Integral White; Sepcification Nos ,o-15
16ZF031 and 16ZF032. ,

General Dynamics ANIMLS_-

I PHYSI~OLOGCACL
CATEGORY

No abstract is available at this time. AUDITORY

I
Instrument Dimming
FORC&
GEEA
b LABYRINTH
-- - - - - ee- ----------- --
eeeeeeeeeeeeee--- MN.Z CN!TRZ
1PROTICTMV

1. Pretty much the same data is included in RF,' taw

MIL-L-245670 and MIL-L-27160C except
additional areas covered: a) lamps other than
MS24367-715 A515, MS90451-7152 or MS90452-7153 VIUA
shall be illuminated to 0.1 +0.05 foot lamberts OTHER
@ 2.7 vdc. b) Knob markings-VIL.minated to 0.8
foot lamberts .c) Yellow emergticy markings
illuminated to 0.35 +0.15 foot laIiberts. AooENTAT••ZO
. -- DEVZCES

STMKPS
AURAL
EXTRZNMlTY

'VISUAL

REZSPIRATORY
LACRTN1ATIOI
TVGERATURE

IVU

Ii"
ta

---------- ,.- .

B-141.
 TITL Comparison of the Effects of 1Oo Tilt & Several Rer.,180
Levels of LBNP on Heart Rate & Blood Pressure in i,-176
Man DATr:

Musgrave, F.S. ANIMLS -

PIYSIOLOGICAL
The purpose of this investigation was to compare, CATEGORY .,
with respect to heart rate and blood pressure, several AUDi.ORY
levels of lower body negative pressure (LBNP) with a 3o1MECHL
change in posture from the supine to the erect pos- x CAR IOVSCL
ition. Five young male subjects were expnsed, in0 FORCE
separate experiments, to 15 minutes of tilt at 70 GENERAL
and LBNP at levels of 20, 40, and 60 mm Hg. The mean LASYRZNTH
heart rates and blood pressures for
Sduring a control period and after 5, 12 and 15subjects
the five minutes .AN.CNTRL
PROTECTIVE

respectively of tilt or LBNP, were: 70

79), (88, 119/77), (90, 118/77) and (90, 119/77);
tilt

for LBNP at 20 mm Hg (74, 128/80), (76, 125/81), and

(75,129/ EvIEw
RESP.RAT,,
x sz1Mrzoa
I
(76, 125/81); for LBNP at 40 mm Hg (72, 129/79), X'VISUAL
(83, 121483) and (82, 122/83); and for LBNP at 60 mm OTHER *

Hg (75,129/80), (92, 120/84); (94,116/82) and (98,

115/82). In terms of heart rate and blood pressure,
a 700 tilt 4 s closely approximated by LBNP at a level AUGME•T•A.TIO
of 50 mm Hg. In a previous study, we determined that DL'fICES

LBNP at the 40 mm Hg level produced redistributions

4c of blood similar to those observed in assuming the STRAPS 4
"J upright posture. That a greater level of LBNP is AURA
needed to produce equivalent changes in heart rate EXT.EMITY

and blood pressure is probably due to the elevation BP

"of the carotid and aortic barorecptorsabove the VISUAL
heart which occurs during a tilt bu* iot during LBNP LESPIoATONY
The subjects reported sensations of nead-up tilt TEMPRIATIOR
during the onset of LBNP and head-down tilt below TEPEAuRE
the horizontal during the cessation of LBNP. Cardio-
vascular phenomena, such as large shifts in blood .
between thoracic reservoirs and the lower extrem-
nities, may influence spatial orientation.

LBNP

1. Th8 orthostatic effects on heart rate and BP of a

70 tilt @l.Og is closely approximated by LBNP
@ 50 mm Hg. Temporal d~ta are presented for 20,
40 & 60 mm Hg LBNP & 70 tilt. The .data ar~ prp-
sented at 2 minute intervals which is too long
to ascertain any time response information in the j
interval of interest (< 1.0 min.). Systolic &
diastolic blood pressure and heart rate at vari-
ous levels of LBNP are sho,.wn in the abstract
above. Grap'hical data are presented in the paper. SHEET 1 .'

B-142
--- - -----
i . Improved Waist Seal
Devices.
Design for Use with LBNP ,tc- 177
D)AT U;i. ""'
• 'Wolthuis, R. A. ANI.MALS -

PIYS IOLOGICAL

A new waist seal is described which permits placement cEroi

of the seat at a descrete anatomical level, provides for AUDZTORY

adequate subject comfort, allows case of ingress and 1OXCH.L

egress, and accommodates a wide range of subject CARDIOVSCL

waist sizes. Details of the design are provided FORCE

through the use of appropriate photographs. GENEA

LABYRINTH

PROTECTIVEI
LBN P REVIEW
I ~RESP IRAT 'N
X SZMULATION

A description of an improved waist" seal is presented. • X OTHER

vISUL
It is a relatively crude, inexpensive but apparently
effective device. It is constructed from plywood,
masonite and dental dam material (source.given). AUG.•,ATIOW
While this device would not be appropriate in a DEVICES
simulator, laboratory use would oe possible. This E=
device would probably be effective as an interface STRAPS

, between LBNP & UBPP or vice-versa. AURAL

1 . EXTREMITY
XLBNP
VISUA.L
RESPIRATORY

LACRIMATION

~ I TEMPERATURE
MASK

AWN",B-143
 LBNP as an Assay Technique for Orthostatic Toler- R-F. s.262 i
ance: I. The Individual Response to a Constant tn-",8
Level (-40 mm Hg) of LBNP
.L~.AZWB~olthuis, R. A. • O -
,HUMANS
ANIMALS

PHYSIOLOGICAL

LBNP ex-
Seven male suojects each participated in six
C"ACE'GORY

periments. These experiments were separated by at UIORYCHN

least one week intervals and consisted of 15 minutes CovS,

of -40 mm Hg LBNP. A trials by subject trend analysis

was used to determine the presence or absence of chang
i as
individual.
of time for each measurement in each
a function Measurements showing a trend were chac- LABYRNETH
-

acterized
In by slope and intercept; those not changing PROTECTIVE
OC

with time were averaged. The large, between individ- -z

ual variability of response in the present study in- REs..*A...

dicated that -40 mm Hg. is not an optimal level for SIMULATION
all subjects where LBNP is used as an orthostatic VISUAL
assay test; the level of reduced pressure used must OTHER
be tailored to each individual response. In addition,
the week to week response variability within each
subject was substantial, indicating the difficulty in AUGMENTATION
establishing a valid normal response by a fixed set DEVICES
of trials. HELME•
SURAPZ

EXTRE'AtTY

LBNP L'NP
VISUAL
.. ................................. 'LACRIMATTONREPRTR ........

1. Experimenters used a plywood chamber with plywoo TEMPERAURE

& foam rubber waist seal. Devices had a 12,5 ft MAsK

volume BP measured every 30 seconds using an

automatic blood pressure cuff pumping device & 1
microphone. Leg volume, VCG & VBCG were monitored
a~s well.

2. Data presented shows:tT

Heart rate change
Systolic BP Change
+2.5- 22.5 BPM
-0.7--I0.8 mm Hg
2.6 mm Hg
3
Diastolic BP Change -2.3-
Stroke Volume change -3.8--32.9 ml
Calf Volume Change +1.34% avg. @30sec, +2.16%
avg @ 15 min

SSHEET 2
.O
B-144 4

B-144 !

.. . . .. . .- - . •,•,• ...- '" .'• "', - . "J 4.•

 ........
..... . .. .. .. m . ,, . m .•.. ln i ,a I nn u ll Nll m mn - , . .. 7
I i
[-•L•"LBNP
Part
As An Assay Technique For Orthostatic Toleranc mr.,263
II. A Comparison of the Individual Response t-c.179
to Incremental vs Constant LBNP. "
L' Wolthuis, R. A. ANIMALS

Seven male subjects each participated in six incre- CATEGORY

PHstOLOGICAL
mental (-20-30-40 mm. Hg) and six constant level
(-40 mm. Hg) LBNP experiments. ATORY The incremental
and constant level LBNP experiments were performed CAROIOVSCL
in parts, with each pair separated by at least a FORCE
one week interval. The physiologic data were ana- GENERAL
Slyzed by subject, measurement and experiment. The LAYRTH A
individual physiologic responses to -40 mm Hg within MAN.• i
Seach of these two protocols were statistically PROTECTIVE
similar indicating that the level of pressure REVIEW
rather than duration at pressure is the major deter- RspIRAT,.
minant of individual response to this type of X SIMULATION
stress. The use of a slope-intercept and correla- xVIsUAL
tion coefficient provided a good data reduction oTER
scheme for characterizing the individual response
to incremental LBNP. Finally, it is suggested that
incremental LBNP offers a more flexible protocol AUGMENTATION
where LBNP is used as a test for changing ortho- DEVICES
static tolerance.
STRAPS
AURAL
EXTREMITY

LBNP x L".P
VISUAL

I I RESPIRATORY
LACRIMATION

1. Similar data & techniques to Part I data also TEMPERATUR

presented vs time out not in the intervals of MASK

S~interest to us.

I 2. Slope (rate of change) information presented

but biased by t~e long term effects. -
I

[ ___________ '
__________ s.zzT
o•4
3 ,HE

SB-145

S*•, "r. .. .. .. ~* #.-*.. -.*... -- + -+L- .. . - . .. .. .

 I

T!TiL, LBNP as an Assay Technique for Orthostatic Toler- .,264

ance: III. A Comparison of the Individual
Response to Incremental LNP vs Incremental LBNP
LEAD AUT||O_ R|UMANS-•

Wolthuis, R. A. ANIMA -
Four trained subjects each participated in several PHIYSIOLOGICAL
CATEGORY .C.
paired LBNP and Leg.Negative Pressure (LNP) ex- AUDITORY
perimers. Negative pressure was applied in three IOME.CR -
five-minute incremental steps; pressure levels CARDZOVSCL
K for LNP were -10 mm. Hg greater tt':n the corr- FORCE
esponding levels used for a given individual GENERAL
durinq LBNP. Individual calf volume changes durnn LABY•-INH
LNP were greater than those measured durlrg MAM.C€Tn
LBNP. On the other hand, individual heart rate PROTECTIVE
and stroke volume changes during LBNP always REVIEW
exceded those obtained during LNP. Vhese findings PSPIRAT*,
suggest that the abdominal-pelvic region plays an XszUIMTION
important role in the response elicited by LBNP. XVISUAL

OTHER

DEVICES

STRAPS

1. The LBNP levels used were -30, -40, -50, -60, AUR-
& -70 mm Hg. The results show more dramatic EXTREMY
effects from LBNP than from LNP. As would be X LS,
expected. Not much useful information for VISUAL

this study contained herein. LACRIMATION

TEMPERATUPRE
MASK

F 4

-A

B*4
 Physical Subatmospheric
Without Effects of Seated & Supine
Pressure Exercise
Applied with & "r,-_182
to the 51
i Lnwer Body, DA rA".

ran ~e-r. K. H , ,ANIMALS -

P11YS A0LOC!C 4M.
Eight subjects were evaluated on a bicycle ergometevc\rrvotGRY
once a week for four weeks in both the upright and AUOZTORY
the supine position, with and without the addition 1OKZCHL
of -30 mm. Hg lower body negative pressure. Up- x CARDZOVSCL
right ergometry without negative pressure was ass- FORCE
ociated with the highest maximum oxygen consump- 31,NcRAL
tion, whereas upright exercise with negative press- LABYRINTH
ure and supine exercise with and without negative MAN. CTRL
pressure were remarkably comparable. The cardio- PROTECTIV•
vascular response during submaximal upright exer- RE.VEW

cise with negative pressure resembled that seen X RESPZRAT,.4

after physical deconditioning. This difference was X SMULATIMO
not as apparent at maximum performance. These x VIsuA
I results indicate that in an earth environment the OTHR
integration of LBNP with upright exercise provides
an overload phenomenon that may be used to accel-
r erate a cardiovascular conditioning response. In AUZoTA :
space, the mechanics of exercise might be facili- OEVZCES
tated, a good cardiovascular conditioning device
could be provided, and a means of orthostatic stres AURAPS
testing would be available. AURAL

--------------------------------------------------------------------------
t. VISUAL.
RESPIRATORY
LBNP LACRIZMATI N

TEMPERATURE
MA--

1. Data presented: heart rate, minute ventilation,

maximal 0 consumption, and respiratory quo-
tient. LhNP at -30 mm Hg. purpose was to
compare exercise on ergometer with & without
LBNP at supine & seated attitudes.

2. Not much useful data to us other than plot of

heart rate over the first minute but Ooints
9( out at 0 & 1.0 min. Vacuum cleaner used for
tl J Company Device
& Space source.
vacuum Sunnyvale by Lackhand Missile
madeCalifornia.

SHEET L
___or 1

B-147
flZ• Cardiovascular Changes During Tilt & Leg Rr. 15
Negative Pressure Tests. 113
.. ,,= ,. ,I-•ATE .

.LEADAUT110RlB HUMANS-
Bartok. S. J. ANIMALS -
PH1YSIOLOGICAL
Eight students were studied before and following nine CA'rs *.

days of supervised bedrest using 15 minutes of 700 AUDITORY

tilt, followed by 15 minutes of negative pressure up 3oEcHIM-
to 30 mm Hg applied to the left leg as the testing XCAROIOVSCL
stresses for measuring cardiovascular change. Values FORCZ
recorded included heart rate, blood pressure and rel- GENER
ative chancas in leg volume using mercury in silastic LASYRINTH
strain gauges at the greatest calf circumference. MAcNrT -
The maximal increase in heart rate during tilt was PROTEC:!Vt
approximately 40 percent higher at 0 and 2.5 hours REVIEW
post-bedrest than pre-bedrest. The diastolic pressure REsPxRz-:.,
following bedrest tended to be higher pretilt and XSI.ULATIoN
increased more during tilt, resulting in higher VZSUAL
mean pressure and narrowed pulse pressures. The OTHE
maximum leg volume after 15 minutes of tilt was un-
changed following bedrest, but the slope of the
initial change in leg volume with tilt was 50 DuOEV T :S
percent lower at 0 and 2.5 hours post-bedrest than DEVICES
during pre-bedrest or later recovery periods. These HELMET
filling curves were digitized and the filling pattern STRAPS

at 10 seconds, 30 seconds and 3 minutes was sign-. AURAL

ificantly (P <.05) lower at 0, 2.5 and 12 hours post- EXTREMITY

bedrest, than during pre-bedrest. At 3, 5 and 7 xL

days post-bedrest, the filling curves were still VRSIUAT
significantly lower at 3 minutes after tilt, but were SPRATORY
significantly higher at 5, 10 and 30 seconds after STEMPERATURE
tilt. The four students who were exercised during MASK
bedrest showed greater changes in the filling curve
than the four who did not exercise.
The negative pressure tests showed changes in heart
rate and blood pressure similar to the tilt tests,
but to a lesser degree. Leg volume increases were
greater following bedrest. i

LBNP
------------------------------------------------------- -------------------

1. Blood pressure was taken at 2 & 3 minute interval

but leg volume was monitored continuously. Data
shows the effect of bedrest on leg volume
changes due to the first three minutes of tilt.
These data are only useful if the leg volume -
data can be related to B.P. and if tilt can be
related to LNP. Relationships between tilt and
LBNP have been previously made. - S
or•
-ETI

B-148
 3'Effects of LBNP on Central
Venous Tone & Heart Rate.
Venous Pressure,
,
218
14

Sears, W. J. AUIMALS

Fifteen healthy volunteers were exposed to graded PCATI(OLOCR C"

-80 cm
lower body negative pressures of -40, -60, forearm
CATEGORY

EKG and AUORY

H 0 for 4 minutes at each level.
310OMECHNL
pfethysmographic traces were taken simultaneously. x .
Central venous inpressure
were recorded 4 cases.and Noarterial
change cuff pressures
in venomotor GENEAL 4

Spressure Stone was noted below

produced -60 cm
a mean H 0
decriase Exposure
in centr&I1to venous
this LYRINTH
A.NL

pressure of 7 cm H 0. This effect was graded at PROTECTIVE

pressures below -68 cm H70, flattening at higher REVzEW
levels. A mean pulse rate increase of 50% (range USRAT'.
18-80%) occurred in 24 runs at -60 cm H 0. An szIMuAT:ON
inr -ease in venous tone resulted from exposure vzsuAL
U to -80 cm H 0 and in one subject with pre-ex- OTHER
posure to-0 cm H 0 and in one subject with pre-
syncopal symptoms 2at -60 cm H 0 The increased
tone was associated with mean puise rat'e increases AUGMENTATION
"of 60% (range 54-70%a). Mean blood pressures re- DEVICES
mained at approximately control values. A brief HXLMXT
rise in olood pressure and fall in heart rate STRAPS
i followed exposure. (Supported in part by Los AURAL
S }
W
(LXNP
Angeles County Heart Assn., Grant #293-Cl) EXTREMITY

..... VTSUAL

RESPIRATORY

LBNP LACRzMATICN
TEMPERATURE

1. Abstract only - no report

2. Note. That data is presented in cm H2 0 rather

than mm Hg.

0.0142 psi ; 0.0193 psi ; 0.7358 mm Hg

cm H2 0 mm Hg cm H2 0

iSHEE 1
[ B-149
fl?' A Study of Reaction Time to Light and Sound 1r.0
36
as Related to Increased Positive Radial
Acceleration.
LEA1
Canfield,
KUHO~
A. A.
HUANZAS
AMMLS -X .O |
P11YSZOLOG:CAL
CATEGORY
X AUDITORY
3zozizCoIc
L V

CARDIOVSCL --

•U IFORCE
AMNERAL
~I.- = LABYRIN~TH

.j~
V) UZ Lf "

t. REVIEWAZ

AuG.Pz;TzcN
I

= LMCRenADO

-U >
4.) X VISUAL
W 0) 9>

CD IIM
2C 4-C LS

z j

] 0 LA 4-

B- 5
V
SHEE 1C

tD# .9% -. -r. = M

AL-11o0 Canf eld, A. A. 36
Audition purportedly persists to unconsciousness however

reaction time to auditory stimuli increases under High G.

1. 16 subjects wearing G Suits subjected to 1, 3 & 5

G-grayout and blackout not encountered reaction time
tabulatized below for middle intensity light and
t
sound stimuli (divide by 5 for reaction time per
stimulius event).
2. "Reaction times to both sound and light were found to
be significantly longer under conditions of increased
positive radial acceleration" (centrifuge).
3. "...Reactions to sound are more rapid than those to
light in the middle range of intensity..."

4. Authors tend to believe increased rea~ction time was

not due to degradation of higher mental progress (pre-
vious studies of theirs show no such degradation up
to 5 g) but rather increased g adversly affects the
sensitivity of the sense organ such that the stimulus
looses much of its effectivity and acts like a lower
intensity stimulus with associated increased reaction
time (normally encountered with lower level stimulus).

5. HG 133 pg. 23 contests this interpretation of results

quite directly.

I(I

SI13ET 2
.. ~ ..--- l-5
 The Influence of Positive G on Reaching Movements ,. 35
190

LIAO A1 HUMANS
Canfield, A. A. ANIMLS-
PHYStOOtA

Not available at this time CX•!.oRY

AUDI TORY

...................................... . . ...................... . X 3IOMECNHL

CARD ZOVSCL
Very useful document for extremity loading area. Does not per- x roRcE
tain to force capability degradation under G load but rather G1.ERA
the end result of arm ballistic movement under G load in terms Az.&YRINTH
of accuracy. Believe it forms good Justification for our X .AN.c-.TRL -
mechanization approach (dual torque motors). POTECTIVE
RtEVIE•W

(1) Woods Et.Al. at Mayo Clinic shown that man cannot rise RZSPIRAT'N
from his seat under 5G. sz.uLAT:o0.
X VISUAL
(2) Extremity loading under increased G "... introduces OTHER
seriois problems for the pilot when he attempts to reach
for ... controls." (if not a cue, this condition, as a
minimum, ought to affect mission performance and control AUG.ENTATZON

mode). ogvzczs .
U1ELM'ET
S(3)48 S's. 47 using right hand, reach 19" for target areas STRAPS
(as on attached data sheet) under 1,3, and 5G conditions - AUR.A
quadrant, accuracy, speed of movement, response latency x EXR.%TY "
measured. No grayout or blackout. X VIS

(4) Subjects use ballistic, not moving fixation, movement. L.ACRflIATZON ,

-.

Each subjectofmakes
No mention 4 trials to each target at each G level.
G suit. TEMPERAUR
'4ASK

(5) Attached data sheet shows error and propensity to hit a

given quairant not aosition in the ,uadrant, as G varies.
As G level increases thTeresponses ten to move to the
nearer and lower quadrants".
(6) Accuracy degrades as G level increases and authors
attribute this to "inadequacy of the normal kinesthetic cues
under increased G conditions".
(7) Movement time increases with G and is i:tributed to
"Failure of S's to throw the arm with sufficient force to
compensate for its increased weight." (GK-Tends to sub-
stantiate usefulness of under arm torque motor tether).
(8) Reaction time increases and is attributed to "increased
cogitation period" as subjects considered mediation
changes necessary to preserve accuracy.
SHIEET 3

B-152

--. L :,- .- • ... . .= .-... ,'-"'t . . - . .,•=a -Wawa=

J -l . . " •W '
 I

(9) Directional error most interesting:

a) "Experimental error" - under increased G, S's first response
often quite low and on returning to IG response was high - this
surprised the subject. "The first movement at Ig was frequently
made in response to the patten of kinethetic cues that had
been used for moving the arm under the previous atypical weight
conditions."

b) Movement to nearer'and lower quadrants explained as

m i) "Netative Inertia Error" as termed by Brown Et.al. and
reflects arm to then-t-ended termination point (GK-A
longitudinal force "restriction" due to vertical
acceleration-more justification for under arm tether)
ii) "Error of Downward Tendency" strike low under increased
Sacceleration (GK-elbow joint torquer for this)

These two offset one another with target in down position with
I negative inertia error predominant.
(10) No mention of elevator effect

I.

Table 2
,tn.. sta~ndar Deiations,. and Standard Erro of Table 3
inana
e thet Ccular
andSdad
Error o Methe Standard Deviations, and Standard Error of
Mm,
Noe.- subjecta - 48 the Meoa of the Movement Thime

I • e•9 o.of subjects -84

TaIW S.. 3I.. H .. -t Tr

iTu 5,326 D ,728 .64• S.D. TaNe
Positio
o• MSItt
13 S.D..
31 X
.73f8 I r S.D.i
4
UP .74 1.73 US8 3.63 9.67 .3.44Pu~u~(SD .. MSD
Dou" 4.61 2.23 3.84 L38 6.91 3.72 UP 1.33 .295 1.30 .484 2.20 .00U
Lait S.473 2.61 6.97 2.s4 9.66 4.57 Down 1.31 .337 1.27 X#78 lit1 .406 I
RIght 4.33 1.90 7.15 2.97 7.79 3.82 Left 1.33 0 1.38 .438 19 .5
Right 1.28 J323 1.23 .339 1.5 .,J97
"ARl value prsented in this table aft gven in tenths
oditla Ea Of the 48 com from which these "All v are
elu nin secosds. Each ol the 48
Tahm wee tomputed
Kateof ow reted
rep, li theIthekilaverage
esposesmad error
ndraw KOM from which thes
ted the total tin"l takenvalues wen
fat four computed
repos repre.
moven•Ua
P10" kwic"VIL at the I level and tage positio indicated.

Iro.
B-153
 4's_ 7.13 10 41 o.5 23 4

ý4~i3 38 7 '016 sii1314

1 5.) 4

~I l 102 5o 1m, 1492 74 1I18

- o t 42 0A 80(A 47 107,

m6 710 54 j 53~ 112 4' 37 Jý m

,52 140 96 96 103 8 S4

3g5
R:45 127 45 29)74 24 35159j
L.EFT---
.31' 34 65 55 62I118 52 SS1 133
11 91
1:1119 6:11
3 g 5
33; 68 106 58 45 103 37 24 61

43143 86 52 37 89 74 7131
81 111 110 82 111 31
Fmo 1. Frequcncy of resionmc in the varioua target quadrants by target position and levei.

onr 5

B-154 3
 UTI-la G Effect on the Pilot During Aerobatics RFz,1 7 6

ILULL= U.AN,- X9

I M
Moher, S. K. N.41MALS•
-
P HIY$ MOGICAr-I

Sport, precision, and competive aerobatics , and especially air cx.:oty

show and demonstration flying are enjoying a rebirth of interest .AUDTORY
exceeding that of the 1930's. Improved aerobatic airplanes and 3zoKCNn
power plants are in the hands of more civilian pilots than ever xcARZovsc,
before. These aircraft enable the pilot to easily initiate RCE
maneuvers which exceed human tolerances, yet not over stress OV4EML
* • the aircraft. Military aircraft reached this point in World LYRINTR

War 11 and the G-suit was perfected to protect the pilot. The .I.CNTRL
military groups still use the G-suit but this equipment is PMoCzw
impractical for most civil aerobatic activities. This paper xMVZNw j
I provides information on (1) the nature of acrobatic G forces, R&SPIRAN

(2) human physiology in relation to G forces, (3) human SIMULTION

tolerances to various levels and times of exposure to G VZSUAL
forces, and (4) means by which tolerance to G forces may be
increased in terms of (a) the general physical condition and
(b)the time during the maneuver when the G forces are imposed.
I * * * * * *. . . . . * . . . DEVICES

[ Cardiovascular terminology. Review of the effects a student

pilot might encounter during standard aerobatic work.
SRP
AUR
EXTREMITY
(1) Author states a 5 second system response time to change x LANw
V the blood pressure from one +Gz level to another. VIAL
RESPIrATORY
S(2) Blood pressure contr dled by heart rate and constriction LACRIZA-ZON

or dilation of arteries. Stretch receptors, barorecep- TMP3MUR

tors or pressorecptors, monitor the arteriac pressure

and play a feedback role to this control loop called
1i l"Marey's Law"
(3) Blood pools in the ,,ains ýP.ause the veins have thinner
walls than the arteries and tend to distend easier.
Stretch receptors in great neck veins monitor
L. distention under "Bainbridge Effect" and signal for
faster heart rate to reduce neck vein engorgement.
(4) Author states some redout (eyelid) experiences
referenced in the literature. Lists -2 Gz for 5 sec
produces onset of -Gz symptoms in student pilots and
maximum experimental exposures of -4.5G for 5 seconds.

I oror
TITLE, Cardiovascular Responses of Men & Women rr. v,1 77
to Lower Body Negative Pressure. ., 1 4 .194
nATt::

Montgomer, L. D., et al ANIMLS-

PIIYSIOLOG CAL

Changes in blood flow and blood redistribution were CATEGORY

measured by impedance plethysmography in the pelvic AUDZTORY m j

and leg regions of six male and four female subjects BZOMC ML

during three 5-min exposures to -20, -40, and -60 mm Hg XCARDXOoVSCL

lower body negative pressure (LBNP). Female subjects raRCE
demonstrated significantly higher mean heart rate and GENERAL

lower leg blood flow indices than the male subjects LABYRZNTH

during the recumbent control periods. Men had MAN.cN R

slightly higher mean resting systolic and diastolic FoT:•zV_

blood pressures and higher mean control pelvic blood Rzvzw

flow indices. Women demonstrated significantly less RESP'RAT•N
blcid pooling in the legs and slightly less in the SIMULATION

pelvic regior, than men. All of the 18 tests with VISUAL

male subjeC.-s at -60 mm Hg were completed without OTRE-
initial signs of syncope, while only two of the
tests with women were completed successfully without
the subject exhibiting presyncopal condit"ions. The AUG•NZTATOH "
results of this study indicate that impedance pleth- DEVICES
ysmography can be used to measure segmental cardio- .
cascular responses during LBNP and that females may- S
E be less tolerant to -60 mm Hg. LBNP than males. ]
X LNNP

LBNP, cardiovascular VzSUTAL

RESZIRATORY ;
LiCRIMATIO.;

Authors present data at f-our levels of LBNP (0, -20,- T&MZRATULRE

-40, -60 mm Hg) for mici-, & women. The data includes HASK

leg & pelvic blood volumes, pulse pressure, heart

rate, systolic & diastolic BP, a6d lower body volume.
The BP was measured every minute with a Roche
arteriosonde automatic ultrasonic BP monitor. There.-
fore the short interval dynamics is unknown. It is
interesting to note that the Jiastolic pressure (males'
is consistent with'the results reported by Wolthuis
et al (Hg 127). That result is that there is not
a consistent decrease in diastolic BP with an in-
crease in.LBNP. For women however there is the
expe ;ed decrease with the corresponding increase
in L,,IP. The authors use imoedance plethysmography
to -ýaure blood flow & pooling. They report sat- 1
;-f ,tory results and minimum subject instrument
ir ,zface.

.StrEET I 1

B-156
 . -. ... . . .. . ... .. .. .... . ... . .. ... . . . .. . . . . . .. . .I

ILT.U. Venous Pressure in the Head Under Negative ,rr.1 2

I Acceleration ,c- 195

LZ~t ATHO~ UM4ANS A

Shaw, R. Si i I A4NMALS
-

PIIYS IOLOCCAL
Not available
I
at this time CATEGORY
~AUDITORY

DIOHECHNNL
Cardiovascular, visual, protective devices x CA•ZOVSCL
FORCE
- GENERAL
LABYRIN4TH

Venous pressure in the heads of human subjects varied MAN.CNTRL

I linearly with acceleration level comparable to a hy- X PROTECTIVE
drostatic column extending from the heart to head. RLV~rW
At -3Gz venous pressure in the frontal vein ranged UZSPIRATN
80-110 mm Hg. Use of the Muller maneuver (inspir- SIMULATION
ation against a closed glottis) causes a decrease VISUAL
in intrathoracic pressure and a marked relief of OTHER
I discomfort. It provides considerable alleviation
of symptoms up to -3Gz by decreasing venous pressure.
450 or 600 backward'tilt pro. 4 dec no sign4ficant pro- AUGMENTATION

tection against negative acceleration. DEVICES

RELKET
STRAPS
AURA.
rEXRMiITY
LBNP
XVISUAL
RESPIRATORY
LACRIMATI0Z:
TEM•ELRATUR•

4AASK

Il.

-. I
SIIEET I

0U B-157
 , The Effect-of High Acceleration Forces upon mr. 1 229
Certain Psyslological Factors of Human Subjects __
Placed in a Modified Supine Pcsition.
nA'rt::

*LA .IA&ULZOI~3 HUMANS

SStauffer, F. R. AN1MALS -
P1lYSZOLOC.-C7
Not available at this time. CATEGOR•
- I
--------------- -- -------------------- AUDITORY
SIOMECInI.
Extremity cardiovascular, visual, respiratory, CARDOVS•L I
protective devic s. rORZ
GZNZPAL
........................................----- •-- ------ LABYRZINTI

The seat in the centrifuge was pivoted such that the PROT•Z•I..V
acceleration resultant vector created a force on the uvzzw
subject in a chest to back direction. This was done IsI T
to evaluate this approach as a protective device. SILON
The results though should be applicable to the +Gx VISUAL
problem. However there appears to be several arti- OTHER I
facts which limits the applicability of these results
in the aforementioned manner.
AUGENTATIONi

STRAPS

NZN

VISUAL,

RESPXWATORY
LACRIZMATIO'Z
TEMPERATURE
MIASK J

I
O
B-15 SHEET BI
1
 Correlation of Eye Level Blood Flow Velocity &
IPeripheral Light Loss During +Gz Stres-s tic,
M
!)ATI.
205

L U Rositano, S. A. A 1u•,s -
PPHYSrOLOCICAL
CCATEGORY
AUDITORY
Not available at this time
TIOMEMOR
X CARDIOVSCL

I ..... . ".... "....... -................

FORCE
GN
GENERAL
LABYRINTH

I ,?4 Cardiovascular, Visual, LBNP PROTECT.IVE

RO..C€TIV.

REVIEW

Purpose of paper was to determine if eye level blood flow RESPIRAT,.

velocity could serve as a predictor of impending visual SIMULATION
degradation during + Gz stress. Data were taken for ROR, GOR & X VISUAL
G on G runs. 50% CLL was the endpoint. Retrograde flow OTE

precedes visual effects by 5 seconds. Mean eye level arterial

pressure at zero flow was 25. + 5 mm Hg for all stqbjects. AUGMENTATION•
--
Gon G - Temporal flow velocity provided consistent objective DEVICES

of impending visual degradation. Diastolic ELMET

retrograde flow preceded onset of visual change by 3 to 5 sec AURAL
for all subjects. Negative mean or flow cessation preceded AURL
peak visual degradation by up to 10 sec:onds for all subjects. EXTPMITY
LBNP
X VISUAL
I. * RE3PIRATORY
LACRIMATIO%
TEMPERATURE
"I. MASK

44
I

1. SHEET I

SB-159

g .w.
 :11i
AUTHOR Rositano, A. ,~ 1 ~,2O
"no A

ICI

"". ,l 'I,~ -I

!6

" a T
9MM mlf-Ip Pa"
ILS

71w'e 2
Response To RapLd Onset Acceleration

• r wo-. vi.o
'
60000,

WIL4VW OCO
P A AgSWJU

,Go.

7J--=4
Iriqure 4
I,,-I I
Respnm•e To G an Go Acceleration profiles I

SHEET 2
OF 2

B-160
-- ..- -, * ~A-~. ~ -
 - I
ZT:.'L Effects of Acceleration on Pilot Performance .ill
i1r- 211

HLU.MtANS
-

Chambers, R. M. ANIMALS

PHYS 3IOCICL

Not available at this time CArCGORY

AUDITORY
111OMECHN11
.......... ............... ††X AIOVSCL i

FORCE
Ar
Authors find significant differences in pilot control between GE'''.I
LAB.RINT
static and dynamic simulations. XMAZ4.CNTRL
SData on contrast thresholds as a function G lacrimation noted. PROTECTIVE
REVIEW
X RESPIRAT's
(1) +6 to +12Gx maoy be some tearing & difficulty in keeping X SIMULATION
x VISUAL
eyes open. for-Gx some pain m be experienced,
small petechire may occur on lower eyelids (pg. 7) OTHER

(2) At +7Gx target must be twice as large as unaccelerated

state conditions to be seen. White observes that at AUGIMETATION

4Gz light must be 3 times as bright as IG to be seen. DEVIC•S

(Pg. 8s. ce ,accraT

STRAPS

W (3) In a spacecraft orientation acceleration study performance AURAL

of pilot was altered in dynamic simulations as opposed EXTREMITY

to static: Under dynamic - XVISUAL

a) Pilot unaware of some of their control inputs (p44). xRESPIRATORY
XLAi"RIMATION
b) Acceleration disrupted timing and precision of TEMPERATURE
control inputs - inputs become less discrete and MASK
"much higher frequency of occurance. (55)

c) Control response variability increases under dynamic

conditions.

ii.i

I!.
|I
SHIICZT I3

B-161
 13-a

14 - 4.2

93 * *21 \
'ahmn Lu*--- I t.Lmb!

S8~,ir
~ eut
, o f oxeietwoigte enint~ ew
bri~li non lnrmnto hmiil ni

eA
Offi
~ \\ sn otitm ie-enin

j ~'".B-162
 AUhR Chambers, R. M. ,111

1 87

-I13

~to

I..

1. 1"&1
3 4
AectIefallon iIn &Gt Urdil

1. ?tFiure It). Effects of Pn;itive accelarn~ton (+G.)onbihti~

discrimitnntion ord~ p%.C 4, ~
fh'~! an rxn immtic ctrcul.-r I

L B-163
 Syncope Induced by Application of Negative 'r'r.9 220
Pressure to the Lower Body & its Effect on
Lung CO Diffusing Capacity.
LEn AUu.1CtANS X7
Shaw, D. B. ANIMALS -
PUYS IOLOGZCAL
Application of negative pressure of,-70 cmH 0 to the CA.TEGORY
lower half of the body in nine healthy human volunteers AUDZTORY
induced progressive chang;2s in all subjects, which IoMC"L
appeared to be typical of vasovagal syncope. The XCARDZOVSCL
subjects withstood the strain for 7 to 17 min; atmos- FORCE
pheric pressure was restored in time to prevent loss GENERL
of consciousness in most individuals. Heart rate LABYRITH
rose steadily to maxima between 110-140/min, then fell N1.cNTR
precipituously to normal or sub-normal levels one or PROTECTIVE
two min before fainting. In all subjects the pul- REVI
monary diffusing capacity for carbon monoxide (D1 ) X IspzR,.
fell by 12.5 per cent on the average during the CO SIMULATION
first six min of negative pressure, then rose toward V
control levels in 5 of the 7 subjects who had tolerated OTRia
the strain thus far; it was within normal limits in
all subjects 8 min after removal of the strain. The
circumference of the upper arm fell progressively AUGMXETATIO
until the pressure was restored. One experiment using DVIcES /1
radioactive Xenon (133Xe) indicated that there was • .
an increase .in the perfussion gradient down the lung. sTRs
d uring the negative pressure lhase. The application
of reduced pressure to the lower body should provide
a safe, rapid method for studying individual resis- X
AUA
-1 IXTR
tance to .vasovagal syncope.and possibly to the strain vIsuAL I
of positive acceleration. XRZSPZIATON- .Y

TMPLERATRE n
LBNP - Main thrust is to carbon monoxide diffusion T
during LBNP.
-- ------------------------------------------- m-----------
The application of -70 cm HIO produced, in some
subjects, presyncopal, and in one subject, syn-
copal episodes. Although the syncoped occurred |
after 13 minutes of exposure. I
An interesting reaction was reported;"every subject .
noted heaviness or straining sensation in the 3
injuinal region from the onset of negative pressure
9 This was accompanied by a feeling of fullness in
the legs and thighs and of being forced into the
seat which was likened by a trained pilot to that
I
experienced when pulling an aircraft out of a dove.

SHEET 1I

B-164
 - The Elevator Illusion: Apparent Motion of a Visual 185
Target During Vertical Acceleration nc- 223
DATE~
• ' Niven,LEAD
J. AU11OR%
1. UMANS -
AN, MLs -

PHYSIOLOCICAL
CATCEGORY
Not available at this time AUDITORY

3IOMECHNL
CARD
IOVSCL

FORCE

Pertains to High G Visual effects and control of GENzZR

* limbs during reaching maneuvers under high G X LABYRZNTH
MAN .CNTRL
PROTECTIVE
S(1) Subjects with normal vestibular labyrinthine functions REVIE
(5)and three with a dysfunction of the labyrinthine ,
were exposed to + Gz in elevators
--
(not centrifuge) RSPIRAT,,
$SIMULATION

a) Normal subjects tend to see real target rise xVISUA.

I briefly under +Gz and settle under - Gz. oTHE

b) Abnormal subjects see no suciv movement. AUGMENTATION

1 c) Visual afterimages in normal subjects tend to fall

under +Gz and rise under -Gz.
DEVICES
HEM.
STRAPS
d) No clear cut rise-or fall (but some movement) of AURAL
d visual after images in abnormal subjects. L.MP

e) Normal subjects eyes tend to rotate down briefly RESPIRATORY

under +Gz and up under -Gz. This is not observed LACRMTIOo

in abnormal subjects. TEMPERATURE
MASK
f) Authors conclude that elevator effect is a part
of the oculogravic illusion and otolithic in origin.

S(2) Since the otolith is pitched up slightly an increase in

Gz would be perceived the same as a pitch up of the
body/head. This is the predominant oculogravic illusion.
During the change in Gz or the change in perceived
pitch, the eye in attempting to stay on target, is
probably reflexly pitched downward giving appearance
of upward moving field of view. Refixation would
ilikely
1"
.state occur within level.
acceleration
after
200 m.s.(This achieving steady
would then seem to be
1' TI only a transient portion of the oculogravic illusion).

91CE I

[ B-165
UZI, Electrmygraphlc Signals
Musculature During +Gz Impact Spinal.
of the Acceleration 239
226

Tenny son, S.A. ,,Z•LS-

CATEGORY
Not available at this time
------- ----- - - - AUDITORY

- Head neck muscle Delay Times

IX
CAROzovsct
FORCE
1
Extremity musclej xGENER
Primary work on dogs but some data on humans. GNML.

W CN.CTRL

1. Electromyographic delay in spinal musculature URIM4

of dogs found to be approximately 30ms(2lms-58ms) z
2. Authors present coipartive information on humans: , +

a. Neural delay in arm - 60 - 80 ms per hammond. VIsuAL

b. Neural delay in arm = 90 - 140 ms per soechti rg OT8ER I
c. Neural delay in neck -54 - 92 ms per foust

a, b, c above include duration of spindle activity up

to time ofocefferent arriving at muscle X
XEMrT
Iv,,z5
STRAPS
d. Actual muscle tension peak follows behind AURs
peak electromyogriphic signal by 80 ms. Per xEXTE1T
Hannan and Inman studies. •m,
VISUAL3
RESPIRATORY

TZMP3RATURZE

II
I;
4 1

'or

wi
B-166
 Human Response to Sustained Acceleration
U lie- 229
flATt:
a Fraser, T. M
M. ANMALS

)PIUYS ZOLOC .CAL

I •CAT&GQRY
AUOZTORY
Not available at this time
CARDIOVSCL
PORCZ
...... .. . ........... .. .... G.
LAIYRZWNTH
IAM.CNTRL

General Reviw Report uvw:zw

PMRWZV

U•,z•'='1
Relevant to many areas SZMULATION;
VISUAL

Major emphasis is on cardiovascular & pulmonary. Especially

good pulmonary section. Not much visual. Extensive
annotated bibliography. AU••N-AT•ON
DEVICES

STRAPS
AURAL
EXTRWZATt
L84P
X VISUAL
X RZSPIRATORY
LACRIZ*Z'1AZCý
- TVZ1ERATURSE
XASX

$J•XCAT I•,:

1B
1.

,I

L B-167
UkLz, The Components of the Korotkoff Sounds R,r. s 205
,- 238
______________________________________
___________________)____ a
Art.:

" Rodbard, S lm.ms ,x

ANIMALS-

PHYS IOOGICAL
Not available at this time CATrEOR-1Y
AUDITORY
• °" "" "* *• • '* " . . . . . . . " " " " X Cl!-.JDIOVSCL•IM•!t|

Non-invasive blood presspure monitoring rORC&

GENERAL,
(1) The authors contend that much more than systolic BY1=14

and diastolic blood pressure may be inferred from MAV.C.R

analysis of the Korotkoff sounds. They describe PoECVK

the meaning they attribute to the changes in sound. REVIEW

The only application here may be to the development of

aincludes
Korotkoff sounds signal processor. Their summary
the following. xoVIS
SIMULATION4
. I
a) An opening top generated as the rising intra-arterial
pressure overcomes the obstructive force of the AUQGMNTATZON
compression produced by the cuff; b) a rumble DEVICES
generated by flow through the partially opened, IUK
vibrating arterial wall; (c) a closing bruit STRAPS
produced during the arterial downstroke as intra- AR
arterial pressure falls below the cuff pressure; EXTEI
and d) breakers which occur prior to the optning LB-P
top when the arterial upstroke is steep, e) silences
represent laminar flow through a fully opened
XVZSUAL
RsEPRATORY
I
vessel, or absence of flow. LACRIMATZON
TEMIERATURE j
MASK

!
I

i B
IJII
I

B-168]
 mt.•I Critique of Indirect Diastolic End Point 166

• London, S. B., London, R. E. ^A41MA"S -

P1tyS rOL00ZCAL

m - Not available at this time AUDITORY

OZOMECIH4L
. . . .............................. X A.RD.IOVSC,

Non-invasive blood pressure monitoring roc4 .

LAIYRZNTH
(1) The authors attempt to resolve the controversy over VAN. .C'NTRLZ
whether the so called "last sound" or "muffing" is PROT-CTIVE
the correct end point for diastolic index. The EVISw

first sound of Korotkoff is accepted as the index or of REj•I•TN

systolic pressure. Three methods were employed to conduct SIMULTION

this study a) the usual clinical method of listening XV-SUAi
to first, muffle and last sound, b) electronic recording OHhR
of the Korothkoff sounds and cuff pressures c) intra-
arterial pressure recording. &UGZ4NTATIOI

I Their conclusion was that the "last sound" occurs 4 to DEVICES

10 min Hg above the intra-arterial diastolic end point 11z• !
and is a clinically accurate and reliable index of STRAPS
f diastolic pressure. AURAL
& EXTRZHTY
(2) Note: Extensive references accompany this article. x LBNP
X V1SUAL
I: RESP IRATORY
LACRZMATZON
S~~TEMP93ATUiqRE i

~4ASX

- '

)1.

4I-

- SURELT 1.

S~B-169
 -T

TITL:, New Criteria in Indirect Blood Pressure Recording ,r..245

"aG-240

LEAD AUTHIORS HUMANS- !

.. Verghese, C. A. ANIMA'S -

CATESORYOIC
Not available at this time AUDITORY
S. . . . . .. . . r 01OECHNIL "

. AA .. .. .. A. . . A A . . A A . . A . A . X CAP.DIOVSCL
Non-invasive blood pressure monitoring onFORCE

Authors claim that auscultatory methods based on LABYRINTH

variations of K sounds are not acceptable in most stress, MAN.CNTRL
environments. They suggest employing an occlusion cuff PROTECTIVE
pressure of which is recorded along with the brachial REVIEW
artery pulse which is recorded in their embodiement Es .
.
-ii
via a crystal. Systolic and diastolic pressures are SIMULd
U 014

obtained by observing the amplitcde variations of the X VISUAL

pulses. They report a mean difference between their OTHER

method and the std. sphymomanometer of +2.7 mm Hg

Systolic & -0.8mm Hg diastolic amcng 50 subjects. Note
Ref 3 below which uses the ear opacity method. AUGMENTATION
DEVICES
HELM4ET
(2) Note: References STRAPS 1"

1) Bramvell, J. C. & Hickson, S.K. The relation of AURALS j

pulse form to sound production in arteries. Parts EXTREMITY
piX LBNP
i & i•II Heart 13:109, 129, 1926. X VISUAL 1IAL

2) Malcolm, J. E. Blood pressure sounds and their

meaning, William Heinemann Medical Books London "TEMPERATURE
TCN.!RTL'. -
Vol 20.

3) Wood, E. H. oximetry. Medical Physics Vol. III

Year Book Publishers Inc. Chicago pp440-413 1960 -

4) Masterpaolo, J. A. et al Validity of phonoarterio-.--

graphic blood pressure during rest and exercise.
J Appl. Physiology 19:1219, 1964

II

or 1

B-170-
r Artifact Suppression in Indirect Blood Pressure
Measurements
i
REr.*152
utc 241
DATL

.LEAUTHOR: Lagerwerff, J. M. HUMANS -

APFIYSIOLOC.CAL 3
Not available at this time AUDITORY '
BIOMECRNL
X CARDZOVSCL
FORCE •

Non-Invasive Blood Pressure Monitoring NERAL

in grossly LABYRINTH
(1) Indirect BP measurements usually results
inaccurate values due to the fact that most arm and PROTECTIV
body movements generate such broad noise and pressure
spectra that the signal processing electronics is
unable to interpret which signals are true arterial
REVIEW

SIMJLATION
IS
i

pulse wave phenomena. The authors use ECG output as XvzsuA

input, along with Korotkoff sounds and pressure Xducer OTHER
the ECG toallows
readings,
of signal processing
their prediction circuit. The Kuse
of the corresponding
sound. Thereby the circuit only processes signals AU0EINTATION
that have a corresponding ECG indication. DEVICES
HELECT
(2) Results presented seemed to indicate device is usable. STPS
I However calibration may be a problem in the opinion AURAL
of the authors. X EXTREMITY
LBNP
!• ~X VISUAL •:
RESPIRATORY
LACRIM4ATION

TEMPERATURE

II 41

SIttET I

B-171
 ____________-T I
TZ An Automatic Device for Recording Blood Pressure 68 Irtr.,

uc,- 242
• , HUMANS -X "
Fernandez, H. ANIMALS -

PHYSTOLOGZCAL

Not available at this time CATEGORY

. .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . AUDITORY
BIOMECNNL
X CARDIOVSCL

Non-Invasive Blood Pressure Monitoring rCE

GENERAL

(1) Devices measures digital or brachial blood pressure LY.RI.NTH ]

depending on the placement of the cuff which contains PROTECTIVE
the sound microphone. REVIEW

(2' Method inflates cuff automatically then deflates RESPIRAT".

SIMULATION•
based on Korotkoff Sounds. (See diagrams on Sheet 2) sA

(3) A system for the automatic indirect measurement of OT:!R

B.P. has been designed. The system makes possible the
determination of digital or brachial blood, pressure by AUGMENTATION
use of an automatically inflated cuff and a system for DEVICES
detecting Korotkoff Sounds. HLMET
STRAPS
AURAL
EXTREMITY
;'LBNP
XVISUAL)
RESPIRATORY
LACRIMATION
TEMPERATURE
MASK I

SHEET I

or 2.
B-172]
 8!

I •.•,o, Frenandez,H.•-',

II "j
I

4'1

t--
4.
I: -I

C~L. z434
*r-OJ

itFO Ft
B-17

I: -

B-17
"• I .'; .... • .,
• ' 1 • .. ''",4
• ' • : , - k :"•
: ":m ,•
..... : .,<.,,•,• , ,, , " _ a
... ,••. ..•.. . . .......... o•n ,,••'" ,"• ,"
: •. 2• ...
•,-•• .h

Un•
 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ .1 •{ 1
TITLE: 147
Evaluation of Performance of Selected Devices for
Measuring Blood Pressure un- 243
0jATE::

.&L i Labarthe, D."R. ANIMAJ•S -

[] ' ' = }IHYS IOLOG:CAL

Not available at this time CA'TEGORY"

,AUDITORY
BIOMECHINL1

X CARDIOVSCL
S+• FORCE

Non-invasive monitoring of Blood Pressure GENERAL

LABYRINTH
MAN.CNTRL

1) The results of evaluating 5 devices is presented: PROTECTIVE

Arteriosonde 1216, Boston Automatic Recorder, REVIEW
Physiometrics USM-105, Seurs 1080, Ramdon Zero Hawksley RESPIRAT
and Baumanometer 0300, V-lock. SIMULTION
X VISUAL
2) In the author's opinion none of the tested devices OTHER j
performed adequately for substitution, in the program,
for the standard mercury sphygmomanometer.
AU M.-NTAT:ONI
3) Quantitative data resulting from the evaluation is DEVICES
present. HEL'4ET
STRAPSI

4) Descriptions (brief) are given for each device. AURAL

EXTREMITY
-4

5) Address for reprints Darwin R. Labarthe M.D. coordinating X',,NP

Center, Hypertension Detection & Fol.ow-Up Program X'vVsuAL
School of Public Health, University of Texas, Health RESPIRATORY

Science Center, Room 1114, Prudential Building, LCI oN

1100 Holcombe Blvd. Houston TX. 77025 TEMPZATURE
MASK

171

SSKEET
lF
L I
- ___________________________________________
• B-17I

S.. . •- •••+....`•••:``'••-` ,``'`••;-`•j••1"-• • • •` *U-;

I Non-invasive Methods for Assessing Left Ventricular Rr.,256
Performance in Man tc- 244
UNAT:
, Weissler, A. M. ,, , UMANS - - X
~AIM"•'ALS

m
U -PHYIOLOGICAL

Not available at this time CATEGORY

AUDOITORtY
3IOMECXNL

X CARDIOVSCL
Non-invasive monitoring of cardiac performance FORCE
GENERAL
LABYRINTH
• (1) The techniques
•
presented permit estimation of MAN.CNTU.
~PROTECTIZVE
,

Imass (a) (C) Left V wall

Left Ventricular motion& volume
diameter Left V muscle
(d) L.V.(b)outflow REVIEW
RESPIR,.T

dyanmics & (e) Time sequence of L.V. cycle. SIMULTION

XVI SUA.L

I(2) Techniques preseted are Echocardiogram & Scintiphotog-

raphy for (a) Apex cardiograms, (b) Kinetocardiograms
OTHER

Radarkymongraphy, and Cihocardiogram for Cc)

Ballistocardiogram & Impedance Plethysmogram for AUGMENTATION
DEVICES
(d) EKG & Phonocardiogram for systolic intervals.
None seem particularly applicable to the continuous
STRAPS
(3)
monitoring, quantitatively in the simulator environ- AURAL
EXTREM'ITY
ment. xNP
X VISUAL
RESPIRATORY
LACRI14ATION
TEMPERATUJRE
MASK

1Z

[
SHEET I

1 B-175
 4
and on-•

The Effects of Gravity and Acceleration on iR.* 90,

the Lung. Hr- 4 6'
AIJIll1l l ...... hUANr
•- -s

Glaister, D. H. ANIMALS -

The most comprehensive review to date Oh acceleration

PtIYS IOLOCICM.
CA':ErO, JR
effects on respiration, tying in both operational data AUDITORY
and underlying animal tests and theory. Lays the basis axomEmmr
for Gz and Gx effects, with special emphasis on lung COVSC1
mechanics and the varying distribution of ventilation rOacz
and of perfusion with G. Considerable quantitative GEE.RAL
data relevant to respiratory high g augmentation LABYRINTH

PROTECTIVE

Especially strong in pictures and analysis of lung per- irIEw

fusion under ventilation, building on Glaister's X RsEIRA /
personal research. Also introduces and justifies the S ULATION
4 compartment model of lung perfusion; by West, and VISUAL
deals with V/Q regional distribution with G. Many of OTHER

the illustrations are used or adapted for our report.

Table of Contents: UEVICES

Accel. and the centrifuge HI.LET
Ventilation and the mechanics of breathing STRAPS
Distribution of ventilation AURAL
The effects of acceleration on ventilation distributio EXTREM4ITY
The effect of acceleration on the cardiovascular systen 'B"
Regional distribution of blood flow VISUAL
Effects of acceleration on the distribution of pul- XRESPIRATORY
monary blood flow L ,CRIM.ATION
Accel erati on atel ectas is
Ventilation-perfusion ratio inequality and gas exchang
TEMPERATUR1
xMs 1
The effect of acceleration on gas exchange, arterial
oxygen saturation and alveolar shunting
Summary and conclusions.

B
: 11

II
__________________________________________________________
SHIEET
(
1.
2.
1
 Ez-•z
in 0neumatisches 0phthalmomodynamom'eter rtrr..4 19
Fur Den Laborgebrauch
247
IDAUHR
_
m m

Behrendt-, T.
, ,., inAT!-:;

HUM4ANS AX
ANMNLS -

PIYSIOLOCICAL
Ophthalmodynamometry- device for simulating visual CATEGORY
grayout and blackout effects of G by raising the AUDITORY
intraocular pressure through goggles over the eyes azkOMECH"I
CARDIOVSCL
The earlier goggles used by Jaeger, Duane and their FORCE
associates, although producing the desired retinal GENERAL
arterial occulusion, were uncomfortable, difficult LUYRINH
to fit, and experienced high leak rates at the M.CNTw
higher pressures needed to produce blackout. This PROTECTIVE
paper presents a vastly improved design of the zvzIw
goggles which overcomes these problems yet retains RsPzUT.N
simplicity. By constructing the goggle with a soft SIMULATION
and flexible wal.l which bends under against the skin. xvzs-z.
to form a seal, they get a good seal which improves OTR
as the pressure builds up, in the manner of a tube-
less tire. For pressure below 50 mm Hg they required
the use of double faced tape to maintain'the seal. AUGMTAION
I The self sealing was best at pressures between 80
and 150 mm Hg. Pressure drop due to leaks was under
DEVICES
HEMT
1 mm Hg per minute. The glasses required about 30 STRAPS
min to fit, and were worn without discomfort for AURAL
1 our. . ZXTRZXTY
LANP
A pneumatic ophthalmodynamometer for the use in the
-

1.alaboratory. xVISUAL
RESPIRATORY
LACR•.ATION
An improved construction of spectacle is presented TEP-TR
which permits a pneumatic ophthalmodynamometry. The x HAS
basic principle of the developed device and the
efficiency of function are explained. Details of the
construction and first results are described which
show bethat
can the previously encountered difficulties
overcome.

IM
IB1
Ii
I B-177

.. 2.. ...
S : ...: ..:... . .. .. . - -.
TITL", The Ophthalmic Artery Pulsensor . .240
tc2- 48
DATrc:
LA Tho. n HW4 s - x
A4IMNLS-

PHIYS IOLOGICAL
none CATEGORY

310MZCM•IL

Piethysmographic go s. i is a non-technical CARDIOVSCL

descri'ption of a device developed and apparently FORCE

commercially available to measure systolic pressured GENERAL

in, for example, th ophthalmie artery, by watching LARYRInITH

Sit become occluded as external pressure is raised MAN.C4NTRL

PROTECTIVE
in a rigid cup over the eye. REVIEW

No technical details on the device or its use. The usPIaAT'N

discussion following the paper, concerning the

SIMULATIO.

clinical relevance of such measure and their

VISUAL
OTHER
history is quite interesting.

AUGMENTATION
DEVICES
H{ELMET
STRAPS ]
AURAL
EXTREMITY
LRNP

RESPIRATORY
LACRIZMATION
TEMPERATURE
MASK
1
I

SHEET I
O
1 -o

B-178
.................................
 STZ&r., 91
- ., Intraocular Pressure and Ophthalmodynamometry
im- 24 9

I_ , Goldstein, J.A.
ILUMANS
ANIMALS"
PHYS ZOtOC ICAL
- X

SNone cx,•o•y
AUDITCRY
Use of pressure goggles 3ZOMECNL
CARDIOVSCL

Authors studied the relationship between intraocular FORCE

pressure (Pi) as measured with applanation tonometry, GENEALz

and the systolic and diastolic pressures in the LA3YRnNTU

retinal circulation as measured by ophthalmodynamomet y.KAN.cNTRL

They found that especially the diastolic was strongly O•CI.€vE

influenced by pi. REVZEW

USPIRAT'N
For application of the pressure goggles to High G SIMULTON
cuing, therefore, one must be aware of the pilot's VZSUAL

ItAe . or at least of his range, in order to establish

correct values of goggle pressure to correspond
OTHER

to grayout and blackout. AUGM'NTATIoi

I DEVICES
HELM4ET
S~STRAPS
AURAL
I EXTREMITY
LBNP
VISUAL
RESPIRATORY
LACRIMATION
TEMPERATURE
MASK

i|i
II

1 1

B-179

. -Cog
_
I

The Effects of Hyperbaric Oxygenation on Retinal . 25

Arterial Occlusion. 2 50

Anderson, B. ANIALS -"

PIUYSTOLOCICAL
None CATEGORY
AUDZTORY
Ophthalmodynamometry. Interaction of raised Pi
and breathInglOO1% 0 CARDZOVSCL

Primarily a clinical investigation paper, exploring LAYNTH

of breathing 100% 03 at normal ,,NI 4

the effectivetess
pressure and at elevated p:,ssure and improving PROT•C•ZVE
the visual fields of patients with retinal arterial uSvIZw
occlusive disease. Results are generally discour- RMIRAIN
aging. However for our pruposEs we find the SZMUI•LNTIO
following interesting statement which relates 02 vTsVL
effects duing Gz and during increased Pi. + OTHER

"The inhalation of 100% oxygen at high atmospheric

pressures is associated with a great ifcrease in AUa-4TON
oxygen carrying capacity of the blood and pro- oDvzczs
duces a significant prolongation of visual function izELIM
after occlusion of the retinal circulation by STRAP
ophthalmodynamometric pressure on the eye." AURA

LSNP
VISUAL.
USPIRATORY
ZACRIMATMN~

TIP•tATURZ
NAUK
J

li 1
|ii

HtET
I

ISH

B-180
 I .* 63
Experimental Blackout and The Visual System 25'

.Duane,
U T. D. ^Z%%Ls
A

Ao h l pYSIOLOGICAL
A somewhat longer version of the excellent summary CATIQORY
which appeared later in Aerospace Med. (HG67). AUDITORY

CARD IOVSC,'
FORCE

LABYRINTH

NAN .CNTRL
PROTECTIVE

R&SPISAT'N,

S IMULATION
VISUAL
j OTHER

AUOMZNTX.'ZCN
DEVICES
HEL.M4E
STRAPS
U AURAL
EXTREITY
LINP
. ~VISUAL.
RESPIRATORY
LACW1LkAT ZO,
TEMPERATUAE
MASK

I:I

- --

B-181
 1114
'-
The Phylogeny of Muscular Control Configurations nn- 2§6
LO- HA- x 4
Houk, J. C. AN'I.LS -

PHIYS IOLOGZC,\L
This report presents the theoretical constructs for z.,rLOORY
the various models of muscular control in resisting AUDITORY
external loads, and is directly applicable to an
understanding of the problem involved in artifically CARDZOVSCZ,
loading the limb during high g cuing. FORCZ
GENERAL
LABYRINTH 1 4
MAN.CNTPRL 4
Reviews the physiological literature only in as much PROTECTIVE
detail as is necessary to motivate the discussion of E
REVIw
the different control engineer rather than for the RZSPRATN
physiologist. Presents, motivates and criticizes SZ,.\ULATION
the models for spindle and tendon organ innervation, VZS•AL
and the system's aspects. Review open loop control,
alpha control, gamma control, alpha-gamma linkage
(or co-activation), and introduces the poncepts of
a beta system having zero sensitivity of main system AUKNTAT:CN
parameter changes. He emphasizes the role of force OEv!Z"sf
feedback, both for reducing muscle stiffness and in H
minimizing the dependence on variations in the 1
characteristics of extrafusal muscle. ,UA
\TREHIW.TY
LBNP

RESPIRATORY

LACRZNATZON
TMPERATURE 1
MASK

B1

1 '
SHZ
I,

,S$EET 1 3
B-182.:
 An Evaluation of Length and Force Feedback to 11, 257
Soleus Muscles of Decerebrate cats oATE,:
t t11m Nm ', X
_.H o iuk , J ,. C . ANIMALS -

PHYSIOLOGICAL
•,ATZOORY

AUOITORY
This article treats the basic spindle and tendon organ 31OMEC.L
I sensors in the regulation of limb position in response CARDIOVSCL
e to the roRc1
case of extremity loading for a High G cue. 13CNRAL
LAVRINTH
- - -- --- -- - -- - - -- --- - - - - -%NA .C'iTRL
PROTECT IVI
Dealing with the decerebrate cat, in which only lower to Z4I
level control is involved, the authors try
how the gain of stiffness of the limb resistance toto determine RESPIT
SI.MULATION
stretch is affected by length feedback from spindles vISUAL
and by force feedback (which tends to reduce stiffness) ot.=
from the Golgi tendon organs. Force feedback loop
gains of the order of 0.2 and 0.8 were measured, with
half of this attributable to tendon organ pathways. AUGM4ENTA•IO•
Length feedback stiffen muscle strech reflex by about EVcCS

5 times. Gains of both spindle and tendon loops are ELET,•

nonlinear, increasing with the square root of operating STPS

may compensate for the inheren
Force FeedbackSforce. AURAL
muscle nonlinearity over its operating range. Data X•MIT
L analyzed and presented in simple control theory terms. LANP
VISUAL
RZSP IRATORY
LACRIMATION

I:
MASR

SHZICTI
B1

S[ ~B-183 -

...................................
 rT•,

TITLE: 52
,;- g58
Regulatory Actions of the Human Stretch Reflex. DATE:

LEADAUTHR: UMA'45
Crago, P. E. ANJIMALS -
PHYSTOLOGIZCAL

The closest basic experimental work oh human to sit- CATEGoRY

uation of extremity control in high g. Examines the AU-TroRY
Importance of instructions to the subject and the 310.MECM- 1
length regulation portion of the stretch reflex in CARfIOVSCL
H resisting sudden and unexpected variations in-external FoRcE
load, much as would be the case for some of the high GENERAL

g maneuvers LABYRINTH
.AN.CUTIRL
-- PROTECT:VE
REVIEW

Instructions to resist of not resist a limb displace- RESPRAT• N

ment can modify the stretch reflex. They argue that hes zMULAION
stretch reflex gain are not modulated by h gain servo VZSUAL

act in as frequently suggested, but rather is a o.

triggered reaction based upon instruction. The stret h
reflex may compensate for variations in muscle proper AUGMNTATION
ties, maintaining stiffness, but does participate in nfvIES
joint position control. Rather, errors in limb positi _
by the super position of tri.ggered re- sr
are corrected
JUA
_a actions,
K not a continuous servo.
~EXT~REMITY
LDNP
VISUAL
RESPIRAXTORY

1TEMFERAT
LACRIMATIGON
]

AC1
I"
I' SHEET I -
B-184

- ..-.---- t-~-y- . T~z ~ ; t ~ *~~=** ~