MD2 PDF

MACHINE DESIGN -II
Mechanical Engineering, Semester –VII,

University of Mumbai
PROF. SANJAY W. RUKHANDE
FR. C. RODRIGUES INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, VASHI

NAVI MUMBAI
Machine Design - II / MEC701 / Semester VII / Mechanical Engineering / Mumbai University.
Preface
It gives me immense pleasure to present this compilation on Machine Design –II. This content
has been compiled specially for Final Year Semester VII students of Mechanical Engineering in
University of Mumbai. Numerous solved design have been added for the benefit of student
community and teaching faculty. Design Data Book by PSG is referred for design.
Despite my best efforts, should some mistakes have crept in, these may kindly be brought to my
notice. I welcome constructive criticism for further improvement of this compilation.
I would like to express my thanks to all my students whose continuous feedback is the source of
inspiration. A feedback in the form of suggestion and comments from the readers will be highly
appreciated.
- Sanjay W. Rukhande
Fr. C. Rodrigues Institute of Technology,
Vashi, Navi Mumbai
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Prepared by: Prof. Sanjay W. Rukhande /FCRIT, Vashi, Navi Mumbai
SR. No. CONTENTS Page No.

1 Syllabus 3
2 Module 1. GEAR DESIGN 4
3 Spur Gear 4
4 Helical Gear 18
5 Bevel Gear 24
6 Worm and worm wheel 30
7 Gear box 40
8 Design problem 1 (Spur Gear) 45
9 Design problem 2 (Spur Gear) 49
10 Design problem 3 (Helical Gear) 53
11 Design problem 4 (Bevel Gear) 58
12 Design problem 5 (Worm and worm wheel) 71
13 Module 2. ROLLING CONTACT BEARING 76
14 Numerical ( 1 to 7) 89
15 Module 3. SLIDING CONTACT BEARING 102
16 Numerical (1 to 3) 114
17 Module 4 : CAM AND ROLLER FOLLOWER MECHANISM 123
18 Numerical 1. 138
19 Numerical 2. 120
20 Module 5. BELT AND CHAIN DRIVE 154
21 Flat Belt design 154
22 Numerical (1and 2) 161
23 V-Belt design 170
24 Numerical 1 177
25 Chain Drives 180
26 Numerical (1 and 2) 186
27 Module 6. CLUTCH DESIGN 198
28 Numerical (1 to 3) 209
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SYLLABUS
Course Code: MEC701/Subject: Machine Design - II/Credits: 4+1
Objectives
1. To study functional and strength design of important machine elements
2. To study selection of rolling element bearing and design of hydrodynamic bearing.
Outcomes: Learner will be able to…

1. Select appropriate gears for power transmission on the basis of given load and speed.
2. Design gears based on the given conditions.
3. Select bearings for a given applications from the manufacturers catalogue.
4. Select and/or design belts for given applications.
5. Design cam and follower and clutches
Modules Detailed Content Hrs.
01 Design of spur, helical, bevel and worm gears with strength, wear and 16
thermal considerations.
Two stage Gear box with fixed ratio consisting of spur, helical and
bevel gear pairs: gear box housing layout and housing design.
02 Types of bearing and designation, Selection of rolling contact bearings 05
based on constant / variable load & speed conditions (includes deep
groove ball bearing, cylindrical roller, spherical roller, taper roller,
self-aligning bearing and thrust bearing).
03 Design of hydro dynamically lubricated bearings (Self-contained) 05
Introduction to hydro static bearings
Types and selection of Mechanical Seals
04 Design of cam and roller follower mechanisms with spring and shaft. 06
05 Design and selection of Belts: - Flat and V belt with Pulley 08
construction.
Design and selection of standard roller chains.
06 Design of single plate, multiplate and cone clutches, with spring, lever 08
design and thermal, wear considerations.
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MODULE: 1
GEARS
Introduction to Spur Gear:

Spur gears or straight-cut gears are the simplest type of gear. They consist of a cylinder or disk
with teeth projecting radially. Though the teeth are not straight-sided but usually of special form
to achieve a constant drive ratio, mainly involute but less commonly cycloidal, the edge of each
tooth is straight and aligned parallel to the axis of rotation. These gears mesh together correctly
only if fitted to parallel shafts. No axial thrust is created by the tooth loads. Spur gears are
excellent at moderate speeds but tend to be noisy at high speeds.
Spur gear is the most common type of gear used. It is used for transmitting power between two
parallel shafts. In this type of gear, the teeth cut on the cylindrical face are parallel to the axis of
the gear. Though several types of profiles can be used for cutting teeth on a spur gear, we
commonly use involute teeth profile. A spur gear drive is a combination of two spur gears
properly meshed with each other. It is used for transmitting rotational motion between parallel
shafts. It offers a definite velocity ratio.
If the driving gear is smaller the than the driven gear, then rotating velocity is reduced in the
driven gear. If the driving gear is larger than the driven gear, rotational velocity is increased in
the driven gear. If both the driving and driven gears have the same number of teeth, there is no
change in the rotational velocity. In a spur gear drive, the smaller gear is called pinion and the
larger one is called gear. When designing a spur gear drive, the pinion is made harder than the
gear because the pinion has to run more no. of cycles as compared to the gear.
 Advantages and Disadvantages of Gear Drive over Belt and Chain Drive:
Advantage:
 Transmission efficiency is high.

 Large power can be easily transmitted.
 Maintenance is easy.
 Gear drives are compact.
 They have good durability and precision.
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Disadvantage:
 Gear drives are more costly as compared with chain drive.
 Installation is difficult.
 Manufacturing of gears is complex and expensive.
 Tooth wear may occur during power transmission.
 Inaccuracies in gear teeth causes noise and vibrations.
 Classification of Gears:
Gears can be classified into many types based on several criteria. The classification of gears
is listed below:
1. Based on the peripheral velocity of gears
A. Low velocity gears – Gears with peripheral velocity < 3 m/s
B. Medium velocity gears – Gears with peripheral velocity = 3-15 m/s
C. High velocity gears – Gears with peripheral velocity > 15 m/s
2. Based on the position of axes of revolution
A. Gears with parallel axes
I. Spur gear
II. Helical Gear
a) Single Helical Gear, b) Double Helical Gear (or) Herringbone Gear
B. Gears with intersecting axes
a. Bevel Gear
i. Straight bevel gear
ii. Spiral bevel gear
iii. Zerol bevel gear
iv. Hypoid bevel gear
b. Angular gear
c. Mitre gear
C. Gears with non-parallel and non-intersecting axes

a. Worm gear
i. Non-throated worm gear
ii. Single-throated worm gear
iii. Double-throated worm gear
b. Hypoid gear
c. Screw gear (or crossed helical gear)
3. Based on the type of gearing

a. Internal gear, b. External gear, c. Rack and Pinion
4. Based on the tooth profile on the gear surface
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a. Gears with straight teeth

b. Gears with curved teeth
c. Gears with inclined teeth
 Conjugate action:

The gears must be designed such that the ratio of rotational speeds of driven and driver gear is
always constant. When the tooth profiles of two meshing gears produce a constant angular
velocity during meshing, they are said to be executing conjugate action.
That is (ω1 / ω2 ) = constant,
where ω1 = Angular velocity of the driver. ω2 = Angular velocity of the driven.
Gears are mostly designed to produce conjugate action. Theoretically, it is possible to selection
arbitrary profile for one tooth and then to find a profile for the meshing tooth, which will give
conjugate action. One of these solutions is involute profile. The involute profile is universally
used for constructing gear teeth with few exceptions.
 Law of gearing:
The law of gearing states that the angular velocity ratio of all gears of a meshed gear system
must remain constant also the common normal at the point of contact must pass through the pitch
point.
Example: if ω1 and ω2 are the angular velocities and D1 and D2 are the diameters of two gears
meshed together then
 Different Pressure angle systems:
Pressure angle in relation to gear teeth, also known as the angle of obliquity, is the angle between
the tooth face and the gear wheel tangent. It is more precisely the angle at a pitch point between
the line of pressure (which is normal to the tooth surface) and the plane tangent to the pitch
surface. The pressure angle gives the direction normal to the tooth profile. The pressure angle is
equal to the profile angle at the standard pitch circle and can be termed the "standard" pressure
angle at that point. Standard values are 14.5 and 20 degrees. Earlier gears with pressure angle
14.5 were commonly used because the cosine is larger for a smaller angle, providing more power
transmission and less pressure on the bearing; however, teeth with smaller pressure angles are
weaker. To run gears together properly their pressure angles must be matched.
The table below shows the value of addendum, dedendum, working depth & tooth thickness in
terms of module for standard pressure angle.
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Gear 14.50 full depth 200 full depth 200 stub involute
Terminology involute system involute system system
Addendum M m 0.8 m
Dedendum 1.157 m 1.25 m m
Clearance 0.157 m 0.25 m 0.2 m
Working Depth 2m 2m 1.6 m
Whole Depth 2.157 m 2.25 m 1.8 m
Tooth thickness 1.5708 m 1.5708 m 1.5708 m
 Forms of teeth:
There are three standard systems for the shape of teeth as shown in figure below.
14.50 full depth 200 full depth 200 stub
i. 14.50 Full Depth Involute system: The basic rack for this system is composed of straight
sides except for the fillet arcs. In this system, interference occurs when the number of
teeth on the pinion is less than 23. This system is satisfactory when the number of teeth
on the gears is large. If the number of teeth is small and if the gears are made by
generating process, undercutting is unavoidable.
ii. 200 Full Depth Involute system: The basic rack for this system is also composed of
straight sides except for the fillet arcs. In this system, interference occurs when the
number of teeth on the pinion is less than 17. The 200 pressure angle system with full
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depth involute teeth is widely used in practice. Increasing pressure angle improves the
tooth strength but shortens the duration of contact. Decreasing pressure angle requires
more number of teeth on the pinion to avoid undercutting. The 200 pressure angle is a
good compromise for most of the power transmission as well as precision gearboxes. The
200 pressure angle system has the following advantage over the 14.50 pressure angle
system.
 It reduces the risk of undercutting.
 It reduces interference.
 Due to the increased pressure angle, the tooth become slightly broader at the root.
This makes the tooth stronger and increases the load carrying capacity.
 It has greater length of contact.
iii. 200 Stub Involute system: The gears in this system have shorter addendum and shorter
dedendum. The interfering portion of the tooth, that is, a part of the addendum, is thus
removed. Therefore, these teeth have still smaller interference. This also, reduces the
undercutting. In this system the minimum number of teeth on the pinion, to avoid
interference, is 14. Since the pinion is small, the drive becomes more compact. Stub teeth
are stronger than full depth teeth because of the smaller moment arm of the bending
force. Therefore, the stub system transmits very high load. Stub teeth results in lower
production cost, as less metal must be cut away. The main drawback of this system is that
the contact ratio is reduced due to short addendum. Due to insufficient overlap, vibrations
are likely to occur.
 Interference in involute gear:
A gear teeth has involute profile only outside the base circle. In fact, the involute profile begins
at the base circle. In some cases the dedendum is so large that it extends below this base circle.
In such situations, the portion of the tooth below the base circle is not involute. The tip of the
tooth on the mating gear, which is involute, interferes with this non-involute portion of the
dedendum. This phenomenon of tooth profile overlapping and cutting into each other is called
‘interference’. In this case, the tip of the tooth overlaps and digs into the root section of its
mating gear.
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Interference is non-conjugate action and results in excessive wear, vibrations and jamming.
When the gears are generated by involute rack cutters, the interference is automatically
eliminated because the cutting too remove the interfering portion of the flank. This is called
‘undercutting’.
 Gear nomenclature terminology:
 Pitch surface: The surface of the imaginary rolling cylinder (cone, etc.) that the toothed
gear may be considered to replace.
 Pitch circle: A right section of the pitch surface.
 Addendum circle: A circle bounding the ends of the teeth, in a right section of the gear.
 Root (or dedendum) circle: The circle bounding the spaces between the teeth, in a right
section of the gear.
 Addendum: The radial distance between the pitch circle and the addendum circle.
 Dedendum: The radial distance between the pitch circle and the root circle.
 Clearance: The difference between the dedendum of one gear and the addendum of the
mating gear.
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 Face of a tooth: The part of the tooth surface lying outside the pitch surface.
 Flank of a tooth: The part of the tooth surface lying inside the pitch surface.
 Face width (b): Face width is the width of the tooth measured parallel to the axis.
 Fillet radius: The radius that connects the root circle to the profile of the tooth is called
fillet radius.
 Circular thickness (Tooth thickness): The thickness of the tooth measured on the pitch
circle. It is the length of an arc and not the length of a straight line.
 Tooth space: The distance between adjacent teeth measured on the pitch circle.
 Backlash: The difference between the circle thickness of one gear and the tooth space of
the mating gear. Backlash=Space width – Tooth thickness
 Circular pitch (p): The width of a tooth and a space, measured on the pitch circle.
 Diametral pitch (P): The circular pitch, equals the pitch circumference divided by the
number of teeth. The diametral pitch is, by definition, the number of teeth divided by
the pitch diameter.
 Module (m): Pitch diameter divided by number of teeth. The pitch diameter is usually
specified in inches or millimetres; in the former case the module is the inverse of
diametral pitch.
 Velocity ratio: The ratio of the number of revolutions of the driving (or input) gear to the
number of revolutions of the driven (or output) gear, in a unit of time.
 Pitch point: The point of tangency of the pitch circles of a pair of mating gears.
 Common tangent: The line tangent to the pitch circle at the pitch point.
 Base circle: An imaginary circle used in involute gearing to generate the involutes that
form the tooth profiles.
 Gear material and Heat treatment:

It is essential to select proper materials and heat treatments in accordance with the intended
application of the gear. Since gears are applied for various usages, such as industrial machinery,
electric/ electronic devices, household goods and toys and composed of many kinds of materials,
typical materials and their heat treatment methods are introduced.
 Requirements of material :
 High ultimate tensile strength to control bending failure.
 High hardness to control pitting.
 Low density to control moving mass.
 Good anti wear properties
 Appropriate toughness to absorb shocks.
 Less thermal expansion and high conductivity (in case of worm & worm wheel).
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 Good machinability.
 Availability.
 Cost.
 Heat treatment:
 Quenching:
Quenching is a treatment performed on steel, applying rapid cooling after heating at high
temperature (Approximate 800C). Quenching is applied to adjust the hardness of steel. There are
several types of quenching in accordance with cooling conditions; oil quenching, water
quenching, and spray quenching. After quenching, tempering must be applied to give toughness
back to the steel that might become brittle.
 Thermal Refining:
Thermal Refining is a heat treatment applied to adjust hardness / strength / toughness of steel.
This treatment involves quenching and tempering. Since machining is applied to products after
thermal refining, the hardness should not be raised too high in quenching.
 Induction Hardening:
Induction Hardening is a heat treatment performed to harden the surface of the steel containing
carbon more than 0.35%, such as S45C or SCM440. For gear products, induction hardening is
effective to harden tooth areas including tooth surface and the tip, however, the root may not be
hardened in some cases. The precision of gears declines by induction hardening. To encourage
the gear accuracy, grinding must be applied.
 Carburizing:
Carburizing is a heat treatment performed to harden only the surface of low-carbon steel. The
surface, in which carbon is present and penetrated the surface, gets especially hardened. Inner
material structure (with low-carbon C=0.15%) is also hardened by some level of carburizing,
however, it is not as hard as the surface. The precision of carburized gears declines by 1 grade or
so, due to deformation (dimensional change) or distortion. To encourage the gear accuracy,
grinding is essential.
 Nitriding
Nitriding is a heat treatment performed to harden the surface by introducing nitrogen into the
surface of steel. If the steel alloy includes aluminium, chrome, and molybdenum, it enhances
nitriding and hardness can be obtained.
 Gear tooth failures and remedies:
There are two basic modes of gear tooth failure, breakage of the tooth due to static and dynamic
loads and the surface destruction. The complete breakage of the tooth can be avoided by
adjusting the parameters in the gear design, such as the module and the face width, so that the
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beam strength of the gear tooth is more than the sum of static and dynamic loads. The principal
types of gear tooth wear are as follows:
 Bending failure: Every gear tooth act as a cantilever beam. If the total repetitive
dynamic load acting on the gear teeth is greater than the beam strength, then gear
tooth will fail in bending. To avoid such failure the module and the face width of the
gear is adjusted so that the beam strength is more than dynamic load.
 Pitting failure: Pitting is known as the failure of surface fatigue in the gear tooth.
Mainly it occurs due to the frequent loading of the tooth surface and the contact stress
is above the surface fatigue strength of the material. In the fatigue region material is
removed and there is a formation of pit in the material. Due to the presence of the pit,
which causes the stress concentration plus the pitting is spread over to the adjacent
region. The pitting covers the whole surface.
 Scoring failure: Due to high temperature, particles of gear material are separated and
are rewelded specially observed when pinion and gear are made of same material. To
avoid scoring design the parameter such as speed pressure and proper flow of
lubricant to maintain temperature within permissible limits. Use different materials
for gear and pinion. The bulk temperature of the lubricant can be reduced by
providing fins on the outside surface of the gear box and a fan for forced circulation
of air over te fins.
 Abrasive wear: Foreign particles in the lubricant such as dust, rust, spatter or
metallic debris can scratch or brinell the tooth surface. Remedies against this type of
wear are provision of oil filters, increasing surface hardness and use of high viscosity
oils. A thick lubricating film developed by these oils allows fine particles to pass
without scratching.
 Corrosive wear: The corrosion of the tooth surface is caused by corrosive elements,
such as, extreme pressure additives present in lubricating oils and foreign materials
due to external contamination. These elements attack the tooth surface, resulting in
fine wear uniformly distributed over the entire surface. Remedies against this type of
wear are providing complete enclosure for the gears free from external combinations,
selecting proper additives and replacing the lubricating oil at regular intervals.
 Gear material selection
For ferrous and nonferrous metals

 Cast iron: for low speed and very low power operation
 Carbon steel: HB < 350 – Normalised/ Annealing. HB >350 – Case hardened.
 Alloy steel: low/high speed
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For medium- high torque and speed other material combination is used. The constrain for steel
material combination is HB ≤ 350, 60≥HB1- HB2 ≥ 30.
Material selection: Cast Iron: PSG 1.4

Cast steel: PSG 1.9
Alloy steel: PSG 1.14 - 1.15
Recommended combinations: PSG 8.4 - 8.5 (with permissible stresses)
 Lewis Bending Strength Equation

Lewis Assumptions:
 Load is shared by only one pair of teeth.

 Sliding friction is neglected.
 The tangential force is spread uniformly along the width of the gear.
 The effect of radial force i.e. direct compression & bending are neglected.
 Direct shear by force Ft is neglected.
 Tooth is considered as a cantilever beam.
 Tooth profile is involute.
 Beam theory is applied under static condition.
 Inscribed parabolic tooth based on uniform strength beam is assumed.
Beam strength equation:
Considering gear tooth as cantilever and uniformly distributed load as shown in figure.
It is known that,
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= ,
Z = = =
σb = , σb =
Ft = σb × = σb × b ×
y= ---- Lewis form factor.
Ft = σb.b.π.m.y
Y = π.y
Ft = Fs = σb.Y.m.b ….. Lewis beam strength equation
 Modified equation of Lewis:
From Lewis beam strength equation,
Ft = σb.Y.m.b
ψm = width factor =
m ≥ 1.26 …….. Modified equation of Lewis.
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 Derivation for contact stress equation:
Lewis wear load is given by
Fw = d1.Q.k.b
Where d1- P.C.D of pinion

Q - ratio factor = + for external - for internal i = gear ratio
k - elastic factor
B – face width
Modified wear load equation for pinion
Fw1 = d1.b.k.Q
FN = d1.b. [ α = 200 for full depth
( ) centre distance a = d1 =
... Contact stress equation for pinion.
 Barth velocity factor:
Since higher velocity gear operation results in increased stresses due to impacts at initial contact,
a velocity-based factor is commonly included in tooth bending stress. The Barth velocity factor
for carefully cut wheels is given from PSG 8.51 as Cv =
Where, Cv = Barth velocity factor, Vm = Pitch line velocity.
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 Lewis dynamic load:

Lewis Dynamic load is given by
Fd = Ft × Cv …….. PSG 8.51
Where Fd = Lewis dynamic load, Ft = Lewis beam strength, Cv = Barth velocity factor
 Buckingham’s dynamic load:
According to Buckingham, small machining error and deflection of teeth under load cause
periods of acceleration, inertia forces, and impact loads on the teeth similar to variable load
superimposed on a steady load.
The Buckingham’s dynamic load is given as
Fd = Ft + ….. PSG 8.51
Where Fd = Lewis dynamic load, Ft = Lewis beam strength, Vm= Pitch line velocity
 Wear load:
Replacing an entire gear set or gearbox is a costly affair. Hence to enable the gearbox to work for
a long period of time, the wear strength has to be greater than the dynamic load.
Lewis wear load is given by
Fw = d1.Q.k.b
Where d1 - P.C.D of pinion
Q - Ratio factor = (+ for external, - for internal, i = gear ratio)
b – Face width, k - elastic factor
k= [ or,
The surface contact strength can be used for checking,
……PSG 8.13A
 AGMA relations:
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American Gear Manufacturing Association (AGMA) is the global network for technical
standards, education, and business information for manufacturers, suppliers, and users of
mechanical power transmission components.
The design contact stress according to AGMA relation is given by
[σc] = 2.8*BHN – 70
 Gear tooth proportions: Refer PSG 8.22
Pinion Gear
No of teeth Z1 Z2
Pitch circle diameter d1 = m.z1 d2 = m.z2
Addendum diameter da = d1 + 2m da = d2 + 2m
Dedendum diameter dd = d1 – 2d dd = d2 – 2d
Constructional details:
The construction of pinion and gear is given by the relation:

n = 0.55
Where n - number of arms

Pc - Circular pitch in cm
Z - Number of teeth
Conditions: n < 3 - Integral shaft construction
3 < n < 7 - Web type construction
n > 7 - Arm type construction Fig: Representation of spur gear pair
 Force Analysis of Spur Gear:
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 Design procedure of spur gear pair:
As per given specification the design procedure can be adopted. For open end problems the
generalized procedure is given as below:
 Selection of drive
 Deciding number of stage
 Selecting pressure angle system
 Checking for variation in V.R
 Material selection
 Lewis form factor
 Module calculation
 Checking for bending failure
 Checking for pitting failure
 Gear proportions
 Constructional details
 Comparison of Spur Gear and Helical Gear:
SPUR GEAR HELICAL GEAR
1) In spur gears, the teeth are parallel to the axis 1) In helical gears the teeth are inclined to the axis of
of rotation. rotation
2) In spur gear, the initial contact line extends 2) The initial contact of helical gear teeth is point
all the way across the tooth face. which changes into a line as the teeth come into more
engagement.
3) There is comparatively less gradual 3) There is gradual engagement of the teeth and the
engagement of the teeth and the smooth transfer smooth transfer of load from one tooth to another
of load from one tooth to another occur. occur.
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4) The operation is not as smooth as in case of 4) This gradual engagement makes the gear operation
helical gears. smoother and quieter than with spur gears.
5) Comparatively higher dynamic factor, Kv. 5) Comparatively lower dynamic factor, Kv.
 HELICAL GEAR BASIC TERMINOLOGY:
Helix Angle: A helix angle is the angle between any helix and an axial line on its right, circular
cylinder or cone. It ranges between 15o and 45o.
Normal Pitch: Circular pitch measured in normal plane is

called normal circular pitch.
Normal Module: It is the module in the normal plane.
Transverse Circular Pitch: It is the Circular pitch

measured in transverse plane.
Transverse Module: It is the module in the transverse plane.
Representation of Helical Gear Pair is shown in figure.

Fig: Representation of helical gear pair
Relation between normal module and transverse module. Normal section and transverse section
of the helical gear is as shown in figure.
Where,
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 Virtual No. of Teeth on Helical Gear:
Following figure shows the section in normal plane and plane of rotation. In plane of rotation
section is circle and in the normal plane the section is ellipse.
The equivalent number of teeth (also called virtual number of teeth, Z𝐯) is defined as the number
of teeth on a gear of radius Re.
Semi minor axis of the ellipse = d/2
Semi major axis of the ellipse = d/ (2cos ψ)
The shape of the tooth in the normal plane is nearly the same as the shape of a spur gear tooth
having a pitch radius equal to radius Re.
Re = d/(2cos2 ψ) .
Z𝐯 = (Circumference of the equivalent spur gear)/(Circular pitch)
Z𝐯 = (𝟐π𝑹𝒆. /π𝒎𝒏)
𝒁𝒗= 𝟐𝑹𝒆./𝒎𝒏 = 𝒅 / 𝒎𝒏𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝝍 . , Substituting mn = mt cosψ, and d = Z mt,
𝒁𝒗 = 𝒁/ 𝒄𝒐𝒔3 𝝍.
 Strength of Helical Gear:
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When the bending strength of helical teeth is computed, values of the Lewis form factor Y are
the same as for spur gears having the same number of teeth as the virtual number of teeth (Zv) in
the helical gear and a pressure angle equal to αn. Determination of geometry factor J is also based
on the virtual number of teeth.
 Lewis Dynamic Load:

Fs = [σb].b.y.P
Fd = Ft ×Cv
Fs > Fd for safe design under lewis dynamic load,
Where, Fd = dynamic load acting on the gear, Fs = static load, σb = bending strength of the gear,
b = width of the gear, Cv = Velocity factor
 Buckingham Dynamic Load :

(According to Buckingham, the incremental dynamic load is given by the following equation;
Fd = Ft + Fi
Where, Fi =
V = pitch line velocity, m/s

c = deformation factor, (PSG 8.53, Table 41)
e = sum of errors between meshing teeth, mm, (PSG 8.53, Table 42 )
b = face width of teeth, mm
= helix angle, deg.
 Wear Strength:
The wear strength of spur gear is Fw = b.Q.d1.K,
For a helical gear, the component of (Fw)n in the plane of rotation is related as Fw . cos β = (Fw)n .
Further, for a helical gear, face width along the tooth width is b. cos β and the pitch circle
diameter for a formative pinion is d1 /cos2 β.
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Substituting these values, the equation for wear strength of a helical gear is
(Fw) n= b. cos β.Q. d1. cos2 β. K
Fw. cos β = b. Q. d1. cos3 β. K
Fw = b. Q. d1. K / cos2 β
This is the Buckingham’s equation for wear strength in the plane of rotation. Therefore, Fw is the
maximum tangential force that the tooth can transmit without pitting failure.
It may be recalled that the virtual number of teeth Zv is given by
Zv = Z/ cos3 β.
Therefore, Z1v = Z1/ cos3 β and Z2v = Z2/ cos3 β.
And Q = 2 .Z2v/ (Z2v + Z1v) or Q = 2 Z2/ (Z2 + Z1)
(Similarly for a pair of internal gears Q = 2.Z2/ (Z2 - Z1)
Where, Z1 and Z2 are the actual number of teeth in the helical pinion and gear, respectively)
The pressure angle αn = 20o is in a plane normal to the tooth element. Thus the K factor is given
by
Where, [ = Surface endurance strength (N/mm2)
E1, E2 = moduli of elasticity of materials for pinion and gear, respectively, (N/mm2)
αn = pressure angle in a plane normal to the tooth element
 Tooth Proportions:
In helical gears, the normal module mn should be selected from standard values, the first
preference values are, mn (in mm) = 1, 1.25, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8 and 10
The standard proportions of tooth (Ref. PSG 8.22)
Helix angle, β =
Normal module: ;
Transverse module: = ;
22
Centre distance: ;
Height factor: = 1 for full depth and 0.8 for stub teeth;
Bottom clearance: c = 0.25 , for stub teeth c = 0.3 ;
Pitch diameter: and ;
Tip diameter: and ;
Root diameter: and
 Force Analysis for helical gear:
Helix angle
; ;
 Contact Stresses:
In the case of spur gears of contact ratio less than 2, the theoretical length of tooth contact is
1.0b. With helical gears, the length of contact per tooth is b/cosβ and the helical action causes the
total length of tooth contact to be approximately b/cosβ times the contact ratio (CR) at all times.
The AGMA recommends that 95% of this value be taken as the length of contact when
computing contact stress.
For checking, ….. Ref. PSG 8.13
23
 Design Procedure:
For generalised open end problem the design procedure can be followed as given below.
1) Selection of drive and decision of no. of stages.

2) Assumption, selection of profile of gear, helix angle and finding number of teeth.
3) Material selection ( PSG1.9 & 8.5)
4) Determination of weaker gear : Lewis form factor (PSG 8.50)
5) Design for the weaker gear based on bending criteria (PSG 8.13A)
6) Checking failure in dynamic loading (Lewis and Buckingham)
7) Checking failure for the wear / pitting ( PSG 8.13)
8) Gear tooth proportions
9) Construction details
10) Force analysis
11) Shaft design based on torsion and bending
BEVEL GEAR:
 Introduction to Bevel Gear:
Bevel gears are gears where the axes of the two

shafts intersect and the tooth-bearing faces of the
gears themselves are conically shaped. Bevel gears
are most often mounted on shafts that are 90
degrees apart, but can be designed to work at other
angles as well. The pitch surface of bevel gears is a
cone. Two important concepts in gearing are pitch
surface and pitch angle. The pitch surface of a gear
is the imaginary toothless surface that you would have by averaging out the peaks and valleys of
the individual teeth. The pitch surface of an ordinary gear is the shape of a cylinder. The pitch
angle of a gear is the angle between the face of the pitch surface and the axis. The most familiar
kinds of bevel gears have pitch angles of less than 90 degrees and therefore are cone-shaped.
This type of bevel gear is called external because the gear teeth point outward. The pitch surfaces
of meshed external bevel gears are coaxial with the gear shafts; the apexes of the two surfaces
are at the point of intersection of the shaft axes. Bevel gears that have pitch angles of greater than
ninety degrees have teeth that point inward and are called internal bevel gears.
24
Bevel gears that have pitch angles of exactly 90 degrees have teeth that point outward parallel
with the axis and resemble the points on a crown. That's why this type of bevel gear is called a
crown gear.
 Gear Terminology
1. Shaft angle:
Angle between the intersecting axes of gear generally is 90.
2. Face Width:
Length of the tooth measured along the pitch cone generator
b = (8 to 10) m.
The angle subtended at apex by axis and pitch cone angle.
3. Cone Distance (R):
The length of pitch cone generator from pitch circle to apex.
4. Back Cone
The cone generated by line which is perpendicular to pitch
cone generator at point on a pitch circle.
5. Pitch cone angle ( δ1, δ2 ): The angle subtended at the apex by the axis and the pitch cone
generator.
6. Back cone angle: The angle between the back cone generator and axis of geometry is known
as back cone angle.
It is a compliment of pitch cone angle i.e. (90 - δ1+ δ2 )
 Characteristics of Bevel Gear:-
1. Power transmission to intersecting shaft.

2. Intersecting shaft angle Σ = δ1 + δ2.
3. Pitch surfaces, frustum of cone with common apex to get pure rolling.
4. Nature of contact is line contact.
5. Kinematics and dynamics are same as spur gear in back cone.
6. All terminology is referring to a larger cone.
7. Force analysis refers to midpoint of face width of the tooth.
8. Maximum Velocity Ratio = 5.
9. Difficult in manufacturing & assembly for VR > 2.
10. Nature of load is impact to backlash.
11. Tooth thickness varies along the generator for straight bevel gears. It is maximum at the large
cone and minimum at the smaller cone.
25
12. Due to variation in tooth thickness manufacturing is difficult so for Multistaging bevel
gearing stage is selected at high speed side.
Gear ratio:-
O
o
δ1
δ2
RP2 RP1
δ2
δ1
2
PP RP2
2
RP1
Let Pitch cone angles are δ1 , δ2 and Intersecting Shaft angle is Σ

Velocity Ratio , ;
, Since
; ;
and
26
 Virtual number of teeth:
Bevel gear has equivalent spur gear in back cone.
RPv is back cone radius.
In Δ AMD,
,
, Similarly,
 Relation between Average module (ma) & Transverse Module (mt)
; Normally, b= 10
PSG … 8.38
 General steps in Bevel Gear Design:-
1. Calculate design power [P].

2. Assumptions,
27
i. Tooth profile
ii. Type of Meshing
iii. Cutting Method
3. Standard Velocity Ratio
4. Pitch angles
5. Virtual no. of teeth
6. Lewis form factor
7. Material Selection
8. Module calculation
9. Checking for Dynamic Load
10. Checking for Wear Load
11. Tooth proportion
12. Gear Bodies
13. Force analysis
14. Shaft design
 Force analysis:
𝛼 – pressure angle
𝛾 – helix angle
The force (Pn) is resolved into three components, tangential, (Pt), and radial component (Pr) and
axial components (Pa) which are related to the pressure angle as above.
28
Also, , ,
 Gear Bodies:
Depending upon the size, material, and type of application, cost and other deciding factors, such
as anticipated stress conditions and operational parameters, the gears may have different
condition structural designs and shapes. Gear blanks may be machined from a solid raw-stock or
may be manufactured by casting, forging and fabricating by welded construction. Often the
designer has to reckon with such considerations as machining facility and availability of heat-
treatment measures. Small pinions are often made integral with the shaft. In such a design, which
is normally referred to as a pinion shaft, the key is dispensed with and the provision of an axial-
locating device is also eliminated. Gears are also made by drop-forging and die-casting. Steel
gears with diameters up to 500 mm are usually made full without recess. Large gears are
generally of cast construction. Very large and wide gears are usually of two-walled variety and
are either of cast or welded construction. For saving costly materials, composite designs of gears
are sometimes resorted to. In such designs, the gear rim of quality steel is press-fitted or shrink-
fitted on to the gear-hub which is made of comparatively inferior material. Grub screws are
sometimes fitted between the rim and the hub for extra securing. To avoid fatigue failure, gear
teeth are often chamfered sideways or are rounded off laterally. To effect reduction in weight,
the gear crown or the rim may be joined to the central hub through arms or spokes.
, where Pc is circular pitch (𝛱m) in cm.
If, n ≤ 3 then construct Integral Shaft type,

3 ≤ n ≤ 7 then Web type Construction
and if n ≥ 7 then Arm type Construction.
 Shaft Design
In order to design the shaft on which the gear is mounted, many diverse factors have to be taken
into account. Stress concentration is a major factor. The main determining factors for the
calculation of the diameter of the shaft are the maximum bending moment and the torque to
which it is subjected. Besides strength considerations, shafts are sometimes checked for stiffness,
deflection and critical speed. For long shafts, a certain angle of twist must not be exceeded. For
such cases this is the deciding factor for the ultimate selection of the shaft diameter. Shafts which
29
have to with stand bending forces caused by machine elements mounted on them should be
checked against the deflection which results from such loadings. Elements carried by the shaft
should be mounted close to the bearings to reduce deflection. The maximum deflection must be
kept within the allowable limit which is normally 0.001 to 0.003 times the span, i.e. the distance
between the bearings. In case of high speed shafts (greater than 1500 rpm) of certain types of
machines, the critical speed should be checked. Imbalance in the system causes vibration. The
vibration amplitude may reach such values as to cause ultimate failure of the shaft. Resonance
occurs when at a critical shaft velocity, the frequency of vibration of external forces and of the
shaft system coincide. The speed at which resonance sets in is called the “critical speed”. To
avoid the disturbance caused by this phenomenon, the operating speed must be widely away
from the critical speed which should lie at least 10% above or sometimes widely below the
operating speed.
An indication of the impending failure of the shaft is its excessive vibration. However, the shaft
does not fail all of a sudden. Proper balancing, therefore, is of utmost importance for high speed
shafts together with the machine elements mounted on them.
30
WORM AND WORM WHEEL
A worm drive is a gear arrangement in which a worm (which is a gear in the form of a screw)
meshes with a worm gear (which is similar in appearance to a spur gear). The two elements are
also called the worm screw and worm
wheel.
This type of arrangement is used to

transmit power between non-intersecting
and non-parallel shafts.
Worm gears are used when large gear

reductions are needed. It is common for
worm gears to have reductions of 1:20,
Worm Wheel Worm and even up to 1:100 or greater.
Many worm gears have an interesting

property that no other gear set has: the worm can easily turn the gear, but the gear cannot turn the
worm. This is because the angle on the worm is so shallow that when the gear tries to spin it, the
friction between the gear and the worm holds the worm in place. This feature is useful for
machines such as conveyor systems, in which the locking feature can act as a brake for the
conveyor when the motor is not turning. One other very interesting usage of worm gears is in the
Torsen differential, which is used on some high-performance cars and trucks.
 Terminology in Worm and Worm Wheel:

Diametral Pitch: Diametric pitch (also referred to as pitch) is the relationship between the
number of teeth in a gear and each inch of the gear’s pitch diameter (PD). For example, a worm
gear with 16 teeth (T) and a one-inch pitch diameter is a 16-diametral.
Circular Pitch: With a worm, circular (also referred to as linear) pitch is a distance measured
along the pitch line of the gear. It can be determined by measuring – with an ordinary scale – the
distance between any two corresponding points of adjacent threads parallel to the axis.
With a worm gear, circular pitch is a distance measured along the pitch circle of the gear. It can
be determined by measuring – with an ordinary scale – the distance between any two
corresponding points of adjacent teeth. As noted above, this measurement should be taken on the
pitch circle, which is approximately halfway down a tooth.
31
Figure – Worm Circular Pitch
 Thread Dimensions:
The following terms are used when describing the dimensions of a worm-thread.
1. Dedendum – the part of the thread from the pitch line of the worm to the bottom of the thread.
The dedendum is equal to one addendum plus the working clearance (defined below).
2. Working Clearance – the distance from the working depth (defined below) to the bottom of
the thread.
3. Working Depth – the space occupied by the mating worm gear tooth. It is equal to twice the
addendum.
4. Whole Depth – the distance from the bottom of the thread to its outside diameter.
Figure: Drawing of Worm showing cross section and full view of the thread
Pitch Diameter: The pitch diameter of a worm is the diameter of the pitch circle (the
“imaginary” circle on which the worm and worm gear mesh). There is no fixed method for
determining the pitch diameter of a worm.
32
Figure – Pitch Diameter of Worm
Hand of Gear: Worms and worm gears are manufactured with right or left-hand threads and
teeth. The hand of a worm or worm gear may be determined by noting the direction in which the
threads or teeth lean when the worm or worm gear is held with the hole facing up. In a worm
gear set, the worm and gear must have the same hand, pitch, number of threads, and tooth
dimensions. They also must have the same pressure angle and lead angle.
Leads and Lead Angle: The lead of a worm is the distance any one thread advances in a single
revolution. The lead angle of a worm is the angle formed by the worm thread and a line
perpendicular to the worm axis.
Figure– Lead Angle
Pressure Angle: The pressure angle is the angle at which a force is transmitted from the worm
thread to the worm gear tooth. It determines the relative thickness of the base and top of the
thread.
Figure– Pressure Angle
33
Center Distance: The center distance of a worm and worm gear in mesh is the distance between
the centres of the two shafts. When mounted on the proper center distance, the worm and worm
gear will mesh correctly.
Figure – Centre Distance
 Nature of Bodies of Worm and Worm Wheel:
A worm gear is used when a large speed reduction ratio is required between crossed axis shafts
which do not intersect. A basic helical gear can be used but the power which can be transmitted
is low. A worm drive consists of a large diameter worm wheel with a worm screw meshing with
teeth on the periphery of the worm wheel. The worm is similar to a screw and the worm wheel
is similar to a section of a nut. As the worm is rotated the worm wheel is caused to rotate due to
the screw like action of the worm. The size of the worm gear set is generally based on the center
distance between the worm and the worm wheel.
Figure– Nature of bodies for worm and worm wheel.
34
If the worm gears are machined basically as crossed helical gears the result is a highly stress
point contact gear. However normally the worm wheel is cut with a concave as opposed to a
straight width. This is called a single envelope worm gear set. If the worm is machined with a
concave profile to effectively wrap around the worm wheel the gear set is called a double
enveloping worm gear set and has the highest power capacity for the size. Single enveloping
gear sets require accurate alignment of the worm-wheel to ensure full line tooth contact. Double
enveloping gear sets require accurate alignment of both the worm and the worm wheel to obtain
maximum face contact.
 Efficiency of Drive:
The worm and worm gear drive is never 100% efficient as there is always some power loss due
to the friction (rubbing action) between the worm and worm gear. The following factors have an
impact on the friction and, therefore, the efficiency of a drive:
• Lubrication, • Speed of worm, • Material of worm and gear, • Load, • Finish of surface on
worm thread, • Accuracy of cutting worm and gear, • Lead angle of worm
Figure shows the Efficiency with respect to number of threads and Efficiency of Drive with respect to
lead angle.
Figure: Efficiency with respect to number of threads and lead angle.
35
 Material Selection:
Gear manufactures standard stock worms made from high quality steel (both hardened and
unhardened). Depending on pitch, hardened worms are available with polished only threads as
well as with ground and polished threads. Standard stock worm gears are available – depending
on pitch – in fine grain cast iron and bronze.
Material Notes Applications
Worm
Acetyl / Nylon Low Cost, low duty Toys, domestic appliances,

instruments
Cast Iron Excellent machinability, Used infrequently in modern

medium friction. machinery
Carbon Steel Low cost, reasonable strength Power gears with medium
rating.
Hardened Steel High strength, good durability Power gears with high rating
for extended life
Worm wheel
Acetyl /Nylon Low Cost, low duty Toys, domestic appliances,

instruments
Phosphor Bronze Reasonable strength, low Normal material for worm

friction and good gears with reasonable
compatibility with steel efficiency
Cast Iron Excellent machinability, Used infrequently in modern

medium friction. machinery
 Design Criteria:
Transverse module is axial module of worm. The axial module can be calculated based on wear
failure and checked for bending failure under static and dynamic conditions.
36
 Force Analysis of worm and worm wheel:
Figure - Force Analysis of Worm and Worm Wheel.
The tangential, axial, and radial force components acting on a worm and gear are illustrated in
the Figure. For the usual shaft angle, the worm tangential force is equal to the gear axial
force and vice versa.
F =F , F =F
1t 2a 2t 1a
The worm and gear radial or separating forces are also equal, F1r = F2r
The radial force:
If the power and speed of either the input or output are known, the tangential force acting on this
member can be found from equation,
1. In the Figure above, the driving member is a clockwise-rotating right hand worm.
2. The force directions shown can readily be visualized by thinking of the worm as a right hand
screw being turned so as to pull the “nut” (worm gear tooth) towards the “screw head”.
3. Force directions for other combinations of worm hand and direction of rotation can be
similarly visualized.
The thread angle λ of a screw thread corresponds to the pressure angle of the worm. One can
apply the force, efficiency, and self-locking equations of power screw directly to a worm and
gear set. These equations are derived below with reference to the worm and gear geometry.
37
Figure below show in detail the forces acting on the gear. Components of the normal tooth force
are shown solid. Worm driving condition and forces acting on the worm gear tooth are shown
below.
The friction force is always directed to oppose the sliding motion. The driving worm is rotating
clockwise:
F2t = F1a = cos cos λ - sin
 Thermal Analysis of Worm and worm :
The efficiency of a worm gear drive is low and the work done by friction is converted into heat.
When the worm gears operate continuously, considerable amount of heat is generated. The rate
of heat generated ( is by by,
Where, ,
kW = power transmitted by gears
The heat dissipated through lubricating oil to the housing wall and finally to the surrounding air.
The rate of heat dissipated by the housing walls to the surrounding is given by,
where,
k = overall heat transfer co-efficient of housing walls
38
t = temperature of lubricating oil
A = effective surface area of housing
The heat generated should be less than equal to the heat dissipated. In limiting condition the
above two equation can be written as,
The above equation gives the power carrying capacity based on thermal considerations.
 General Design Procedure for worm and worm wheel drive:

1. Determine the design power.
2. Determine the layout foe worm and worm wheel.
3. Decide the number of stars based on the gear ratio.
4. Determine the number of teeth on worm wheel.
5. Decide the diametrical factor (q) from PSG [8.45].
6. Determine the lead angle.
7. Determine the helix angle individually for worm and worm wheel.
8. Find the virtual number of teeth.
9. Determine the Lewis form factor.
10. Perform material selection from PSG [8.45].
11. Determine the weaker element.
12. Decide the Axial module of worm i.e. transverse module of worm wheel from PSG [8.44]
13. Select a standard module from the found value.
14. Check for dynamic failure.
15. Determine the efficiency of drive.
16. Write the tooth proportions.
17. Calculate the heat dissipation area of our design,
18. Determine the heat generated and heat dissipated.
19. Decide locational dimensions.
20. Perform force calculation.
21. Analyse forces and find bearing reaction.
39
22. Select the lubrication method.

 Worm Gear Speed Reducers:
Worm gear speed reducers are comprised of the terms “gearbox” and “speed reducer” that are
used interchangeably in the world of power transmission and motion control. Gearboxes are used
for speed reduction and torque multiplication. The term speed reducer became vernacular when
gearboxes were first implemented in industry. Speed reduction was an important function for the
gearbox, to replace more cumbersome belts and pulleys technology. Demand for worm gear
speed reducers is increasing as more mechanical applications in several industries require speed
reduction, ranging from rock crushers to robots.
Figure – Typical Speed Reducer for Worm and Worm Wheel.
For the case of a worm wheel as the driver, the forces are as in Figure
Ft2 = Fn (cosα n cos γ + μ sin γ)
Fx2 = Fn (cosα n sin γ – μ cos γ)
Fr2 = Fn sinα n
Note that the direction of F depends on the direction of rotation of the worm. The three force
components, F, FR and FTW must be taken up by both worm and gear bearings. The directions
acting on the worm gear and worm are opposite. Total bearing force on each member is the
vector sum of these three forces. With the worm as driver and the gear rotating as shown in
Figure, the direction of these forces on each member are shown in Figures. With the aid of these
figures the radial bearing loads for shafts with two bearings can be obtained from Cases (a) and
(b). Once again both thrust and radial forces need to be taken up by the bearings.
40
GEARBOX
A gearbox is a set of gears for transmitting power from one shaft to another. They are used in a
wide range of industrial, automotive and home machinery applications. The shape of the tooth is
an involute helicoid as if a paper piece of the shape of a parallelogram is wrapped around a
cylinder, the angular edge of the paper becomes the helix. If the paper is unwound, each point on
the angular edge generates an involute curve.
In spur gear, the initial contact line extends all the way across the tooth face. The initial contact
of helical gear teeth is point which changes into a line as the teeth come into more engagement.
Herringbone or double helical gear are two helical gears with opposing helix angle stacked
together. As a result, two opposing thrust loads cancel and the shafts are not acted upon by any
thrust load. The advantages of elimination of thrust load in Herringbone gears, is offset by
considerably higher machining and mounting costs. This limits their applications to heavy power
transmission.
Figure: 3 stage helical gear box
Housing of Gears:
The function of housing is to support the transmission elements like gears, shafts and bearings in
correct position and to take up all the forces developed in the speed reducer, during its operation.
Construction of housing:
The housing for the gearboxes is usually split into two parts; lower part and upper part or cover
that are joined in a plane passing through the axes of shaft. This plane is usually horizontal.
41
Common elements of housing:

1. Wall of housing
2. Bosses of bearings
3. Flanges for lower part of housing and cover
4. Flanges for connecting lower part of housing to base plate or frame
5. Inspection opening
6. Seat for nuts or screw heads for joining lower part of housing to base plate of frame
7. Inspection opening
8. Boss for drain plug
9. Boss with threaded hole for oil gauge
10. Threaded hole for drain gauge
11. Holes for puller bolts
12. Holes for dowel pins
13. Threaded holes for screws or studs joining lower part of housing to cover
14. Threaded holes for screws or studs joining lower part of housing to base plate or frame
15. Grooves foe cap collars of bearing
16. Lifting eyes
17. Threaded hole for air vent
Figu
re: Housing view of gear box
42
Proportions of housing:
t Thickness of housing wall t = 0.0025a + 5

tc Thickness of cover wall tc = 0.02a + 5
tf1 Thickness of flanges between housing and cover tf1 = 1.5 t
tf2 Thickness of foundation flanges tf2 = ( 2 - 2.4) t
tr Thickness of rib tr = 0.85 t
dst Diameter of the foundation bolt dst = 0.036a +12
d1 Diameter of the bearing bolt d1 = 0.75 dst
d2 Diameter of the bolts for securing cover and housing d2 = (0.5 - 0.6 ) dst
d3 Diameter of the bolts for bearing cap d3 = (0.4 - 0.5 ) dst
C Distance of the foundation bolt axis from housing wall C = 1.2 dst + 5
C1 Distance of bolt housing wall C1 = 1.2 d2 + 5
K Width of the foundation flange K = C + dst + (2 to 5)
K1 Width of flanges between housing and cover K1 = C + d2 + (2 to 5)
Sectional view of gear box are shown in following figure:
Figure: Cross section of single stage Gear box and two stage gear box.
43
Gear bodies:
Integral type construction

Advantages:
1. It reduces the amount of machining since there is no need to cut keyways on the shaft and the
pinion.
2. It reduces the number of parts since there is no key.
This reduces the cost.
3. It increases the rigidity of the shaft and also
increases the accuracy of contact.
Disadvantages:
1. The shaft has to be fabricated from the same material Fig
as that of the pinion, which is often of the higher : Integral Type Construction
quality and costly.
2. When the pinion is to be replaced because of wear or
tooth break down, the shaft has to be discarded as well.
Web Type Construction

Advantages:
1. Used for small gears up to 250 mm pitch circle diameter.
2. Capable of transmitting the shaft without shearing of the hub.
Disadvantages:
1. Cannot used for large sized gears.
Approximate proportion are as follow
,
,
,
;
; F
ig: Web Type construction
44
Rim Type Construction

Advantage:
1. Rimmed gears save costly high strength materials.
Disadvantage:
1. More expensive to manufacture.
Forged Gears Fig: Rim Type

Advantages:
1. In case of forged gears, material utilization factor is (2/3), which is more.
2. Gears forged with integral teeth normally have longer fatigue and wear life.
3. Precision forged gears have more load carrying capacity.
4. Less or no material loss.
5. With the elimination of internal discontinuities, low rejection rates, better machinability, less
machining allowances--cost of production of aggregates is reduced considerably.
6. Forged gears have light weight construction which reduces the inertia and centrifugal forces.
Disadvantages:
1. Difficult to maintain good surface finish of teeth without grinding.
2. Forging involves significant capital expenditure for machinery, tooling, facilities and
personnel.
3. Forged gears become economical only when they are manufactured on large scale.
45
Problem 1
Design a single stage gearbox using spur gear for following specifications
Power= 10 KW,
Input speed = 1440 rpm,
Output speed =360 rpm.
Solution:
1. Drive selection and no. of stages:
Selecting open drive for given power of 10KW:
Velocity Ratio, i = = = 4 < 5 hence, selecting single stage with velocity ratio as 4
2. Assumption:
i. Selecting tooth profile as 20° involute, Full Depth.
ii. Meshing of gear Sn gearing, where, X1=X2=0
iii. Quality of gear – Precision cut to control dynamic load
3. Number of teeth calculation
Minimum no. of teeth on pinion Z1= 18
Minimum no. of teeth on gear Z2= i Z1 = 4 18 =72
Adding 1 hunting tooth on gear, Z2 = 73
4. Checking for percentage variation in VR
iact = = 4.055
% deviation = = = 1.375% < 3%
Hence, hunting tooth addition is valid.

5. Material selection (PSG 1.9, 8.4)
Material [ ] [ ] BHN [ ]
Pinion/Gear C45 140 500 229 360
46

y1 = 0.154 – ……20 FD involute (PSG 8.50)
y1 = 0.1033
y2 = 0.154 – = 0.1415
Fs1 = [ ] Y1 = = 116.829 N/mm2
Fs2 = [ ] Y2 = = 159.952 N/mm2
Fs1 < Fs2
Therefore, pinion is weaker.
Therefore, design pinion.
7. Permissible stress, [ = 140 N/mm2
8. Design Criteria: Design of pinion is based on strength and checking for wear and dynamic
load.
m>
P= 10KW
[P]= 1.1 10 = 11KW (assuming minor shock working for 8hrs)
[Mt] = = = 72.94 Nmm
[ ] = 140 N/mm2
Y1 = = 0.3245
z1 = 18
1 = = 10 ….. (PSG 8.14)
9. Module calculation
m> , m> , m > 3.763
Increasing module by 20% to take care of pitting failure,

m = 1.2 3.763 = 4.515, From PSG 8.2 selecting std. module as
m = 5 mm
Therefore, the width of the gear tooth, b = 10 5 = 50 mm
47
10. Checking for Lewis dynamic load

i. Static strength is given as , Fs = [ ]
Fs = = 11.35 KN
ii. Lewis dynamic load is given by , Fd = Ft Cv
Ft = = = 1609.77 N
Finding pitch line velocity, Vm = = = 6.78 m/s

For carefully cut gear (PSG 8.51),
Cv = = = 2.13
Therefore, Fd = Ft Cv = 1609.77 2.13 = 3.428 KN

Since, Fs > Fd , design is safe in Lewis dynamic load.
11. Checking for pitting,
Induced contact stress is given as,
( )= ……. (PSG 8.13, eq 1.4)
Where centre distance, a = = = 227.5 mm

Design contact stress, [ ] = 500 N/mm2
Velocity ratio, i = 4
Modulus of elasticity, E = 2 105 N/mm2
( )=
( ) = 310.590 N/mm2
Since, [ ] > ( ), design is safe in wear.
12. Gear proportions

Addendum, a = m = 5 mm
Dedendum, d = 1.25 m = 6.25 mm
Clearance, c = 0.25 m = 1.25 mm
Working depth, hw = a + d - c = 10 mm
Pinion Gear
48
No. of teeth, z 18 73
Pitch circle diameter d1 = 90 mm d2 = 365 mm
Addendum diameter , da d1+2m = 100 mm d2+2 m = 375 mm
Dedendum diameter, dd dd1 = (z1-2f0)m-2c = 77.5 mm dd2 = (z2 -2f0) m-2c = 352.5 mm
13. Construction details

i. Pinion
n = = 2.612 < 3
Therefore, Integral shaft construction.
ii. Gear
n = = 5.26 < 7
Therefore, Web type construction.
14. Shaft Design

 Pinion shaft
Let material for shaft = C-40 with [𝞽] = 40N/mm2
[Mt] = 72.94 × 103 N/mm2
[т] = , ds = = = 21.019mm
Lets select, shaft diameter as ds = 30mm
 Gear shaft
Let material for shaft = C-40 with [𝞽] = 40N/mm2
[Mt] =
[Mt] = 291.78× 103 N/mm2
ds = = 33.36mm, Lets select shaft diameter as ds = 60mm
15. Gear Box Housing dimensions
49
t Thickness of housing wall t =2 =26.13mm ≥ 6
tc Thickness of covering wall tc = 0.9t = 23.52mm ≥ 6
tf1 Thickness of flanges between housing and cover tf1 = t = 26.13mm
tf2 Thickness of foundation flanges tf2 = 1.5dst= 125.34mm
tr Thickness of ribs tr = t =26.13mm
dst Diameter of foundation bolts dst = 83.56mm ≥ 12
d2 Diameter of bolts for securing cover and housing d2 = 66.32mm ≥ 10
K Width of foundation flange K = (2.1 to 2.5)dst =208.9mm
K1 Width of flanges between housing and cover K1 =(2.1 to 2.5)d2 = 165.8mm
H Height of shaft axes from lower surface of H =(1 to 1.12)a = 254.8mm

housing
Δ1 Axial clearance between gear side and protruding Δ1 =0.8t = 20.90mm
inner elements of housing
Δ2 Radial clearance between gear face from bottom Δ2 = 1.2t =31.35mm
of housing
……………………………………………………………………………………….
Problem 2:
Design a spur gear pair for the first stage of gear box having following specifications
Power = 15kW
Input speed = 1440 rpm
Output speed = 90 rpm
Solution:
1. Deciding no of stages
Overall velocity ratio, iO/A = , iO/A = 16
50
is = , is = =4
selecting, i1 = 3.98 and i2 = 4.02
2. Assumptions:
i. Selecting pressure angle system as 20°, Full Depth , involute profile .

iii. Quality of gear – Precision cut to control dynamic load
3. Number of teeth:
Minimum no of teeth on pinion (z1) = ( )
z1 = , z1 = 18 and z2 = i1 z1 = 3.98 18 = 72
Adding 1 hunting tooth z2 = 73
Checking for variations in VR
istd = 3.98 iact = = 4.05
%VR =
%VR = 1.758 < 3%, Therefore, adding hunting tooth is valid.
4. Material selection (PSG 1.9, 8.4)
Material [ ] [ ] BHN
Pinion 40Ni2Cr1Mo28 400 1100 600
Gear 15Ni2Cr1Mo15 320 950 500
y1 = 0.154 – ……20 FD
y1 = 0.1033
y2 = 0.154 – = 0.1415
51
Fs1 = [ ] Y1 = = 129.81 N/mm2

Fs1 = [ ] Y2 = = 142.251 N/mm2
Fs1 < Fs2
Therefore, pinion is weaker.
Therefore, design pinion.
6. Permissible stress, [ = 140 N/mm2
7. Design Criteria: Design of pinion is based on strength and checking for wear and dynamic
load.
m> where,
P = 15 kW
[P] = 1.1 15 … (Assuming minor shock working for 8 hours)
[P] = 16.5 kW
[Mt] = = = 109.419 Nmm
[ ] = 400 N/mm2
Y1 = = 0.3245 z1 = 18 1 = = 10 ….. (PSG 8.14)
8. Module calculations
m≥ ≥ ≥2.726

m = 1.25 2.726 = 3.407
From PSG 8.2, m = 5 mm
Therefore, width of gear tooth, b = 10 5 = 50 mm
9. Checking for Lewis dynamic load

Static strength is given as Fs = [ ] = = 32.45
kN
Dynamic load, Fd = Ft Cv
Where, Ft = = = 2341.33 N

For carefully cut gear (PSG 8.51),
52
Cv = = = 2.13
Therefore, Fd = Ft Cv = 2431.33 2.13 = 5.178 kN
Fs > Fd , Therefore, design is safe in Lewis dynamic load.
10. Checking for pitting,
Induced contact stress, ( ) = …. (PSG 8.13, eq 1.4)
Where, centre distance, a = = = 227.5 mm

[ ] = 1100 N/mm2, velocity ratio, i = 4.05
Modulus of elasticity , E = 2 105 N/mm2
( )=
( ) = 383.72 N/mm2
[ ] > ( ) , Therefore, design is safe in wear.
11. Gear proportions

Addendum, a = m = 5 mm
Dedendum, d = 1.25 m = 6.25 mm
Clearance, c = 0.25 m = 1.25 mm
Working depth, hw = a + d - c = 10 mm
Parameter
Pinion Gear
No. of teeth, z 18 73
Pitch circle diameter d1 = 90 mm d2 = 365 mm
Addendum diameter , da d1+2m = 100 mm d2+2m = 375 mm
Dedendum diameter, dd
dd1 = (z1-2f0)m-2c = 77.5 mm dd2 = (z2-2f0)m-2c = 352.5 mm
12. Construction details

i. Pinion
53
n = = 2.612 < 3 , Therefore, Integrated shaft construction.
ii. Gear
n = = 4.97 < 7 , Therefore, Web type construction.
NUMERICAL 3: A single stage helical gear box is used to transmit 12.5 KW power at 1440
rpm of pinion. The desire transmission ratio is 5:1
Assume 20 degree FD involute profile and material C50 for pinion and gear.
i) Find the module
ii) Check gear for Lewis dynamic load
iii) Check gear for contact stresses.
iv) Write constructional details.
Solution:
Step 1: Selecting open drive
Step 2: Deciding stages and Selecting pressure angle system
i = 5, single stage
Selecting 20° FD involute system and
Assuming meshing of gear Sn gearing,
where, X1=X2=0
and quality of gear as Precision cut to control dynamic load
Step 3: Number of teeth calculation
Minimum number of teeth on pinion
54
Minimum no. of teeth on pinion Z1= 18

Minimum no. of teeth on gear Z2= i Z1 =5 18 =90
Adding 91 hunting tooth on gear, Z2 = 91
Step 4: Checking for variation in VR
iact = = 5.055
% deviation = = = 1.111% < 3%
Hence, approximation is valid
Step 5: Material selection (PSG 1.9, 8.4)
Material [ ] in Mpa [ ] in Mpa BHN [ ] in Mpa
Pinion and C50 720 604 241 380

Gear
Step 6: Virtual no teeth

Assuming Helix angle,
Step 7: Lewis form factor
y1 = 0.154 – ……(for 20 FD )
y1 = 0.1096
y2 = 0.154 – = 0.1467
Since y1< y2 and material for pinion and gear is same,
Therefore, pinion is weaker. Therefore, designing pinion.
Step 8: Permissible stress

55
[ …. PSG 8.18
Where, ,
Hence, [ N/mm2
Step 9: Design criteria: Design of pinion is based on strength and checking for wear and
dynamic load.
P= 12.5 KW, [P] = 1.1 12.5 = 13.75 KW ….. (Assuming minor shock working for 8hrs)
[Mt] = = = 91.1825 Nmm
[ ] = 152 N/mm2
Y1 = = 0.3443
z1 = 18
Assuming, width factor, 1 = = 10 …. (PSG 8.14)
2.3437
= 2.3437 1.2 = 2.81 mm, From PSG 8.2 selecting std. module as
=3
Therefore, width of the tooth, b = 10 3 = 30 mm
Transverse module, mt = = = 3.13 mm
Step 10: Checking for Dynamic load,
Gear tooth strength, Fs = [ ]

Fs =
Lewis Dynamic load, Fd = Ft Cv
56
Ft = = = 3377.129 N

Cv = = = 1.67, for carefully cut gear (PSG 8.51),
Therefore, Fd = Ft Cv = 3377.129 x 1.67 = 5639.8 N
Fs < Fd
Therefore, design is not safe in bending.
Hence modifying face width to 12 times module , hence width b = 36mm
Hence, Static strength, Fs =
load.
Step 11: Checking for pitting,
Induced contact stress, ( ) = …. (PSG 8.13, Eq.. 1.4)
Where, centre distance , a = = = 170.97 mm ..........(PSG 8.22)
Velocity ratio, i = 5 , Assuming , Modulus of elasticity as E = 2 105 N/mm2
( )=
( ) = 605.675 N/mm2
[ ] < ( ), Design contact stress, [ ] = 604 Mpa,
Therefore, design is not safe in wear, hence increasing BHN to 250
Now modified contact stress of material by AGMA relation,
[ ] = 2.8 X 250 -70 = 630 Mpa, > ( ) , safe in wear.
Step 12: Gear proportions (PSG 8.22)
Centre distance, a = 170.97 mm
57
Tooth depth, h = 2.25 mn = 6.75 mm
Bottom clearance c = 0.25 mn = 0.75 mm
Height factor fo = 1,
Pinion Gear
No. of teeth 18 91
d1 = mt x Z1 = 56.34 mm d2 = 284.83 mm
PCD
da2 =
Tip da1 = 62.467 mm
diameter, da 291.474mm
dd1 = dd2 = -2c

Root
diameter, dd = 277.9738 mm
= 48.9673 mm
Step 13: Construction details

iii. For Pinion
Number of arm , n = = 2.32 < 3
Therefore, Using Integral type construction.
iv. For Gear
n = = 5.22 > 3 and < 7
Therefore, Using Web type construction.
58
Numerical 4)
59
60
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63
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67
68
69
70
71
Numerical 5)
Design a gear box for worm and worm wheel drive for a following specifications,
Power = 12KW, Worm speed =900RPM, Velocity ratio =30.
Solution:
a) Design power
Assuming Service Factor: 1.3, [P]=12×1.3=15.6KW
b) Velocity Reduction ratio
i= 30; N2= N1 / 30 = 30 rpm
c) Step 4: Layout
Selection of layout with worm up position as shown in figure.
d) Assumptions
i. Selecting tooth profile is 20° involute for Worm and Worm Wheel
iii.Quality of gear – Precision cut to control dynamic load
iv. Selecting overhauling type Worm and Worm wheel, efficiency, η > 50 %
v: Selecting nature of bodies as single throated.
vi : Selecting RH- RH, nature of Helix.
e) Selection of starts (Z)

Selection is based on overall gear ratio,
Z (increase number of starts =2)
Z+ z ≥40 ……PSG 8.52
Z(1+i) = 40
Z = 40 /31
Z = 1.29 , selecting no. of start as 2
No. of tooth on gear are z= i × Z = 30 × 2 = 60
f) Diameter factor ‘q’
, ….. PSG 8.44/8.45
let q = 11
72
g) Lead angle and Helix angle on WW & W …. (PSG 8.44)
Lead angle, = 10.3°
Helix angle on WW = = 10.3°

Helix angle on Worm = = 90 -10.3 = 79.7°
g) Calculation of Virtual number of teeth
= 349.87
Zv2= = 63
h) Lewis form factor ……PSG8.50
Yv1 = π × ….. For 20° involute

Yv1 = 0.4756
Yv2= π × , Yv2 = 0.438
i) Material selection
Pa
Element Material [σb] in MPa [σc] in MPa
Worm ( steel) C45 135 (For mx>6) 500
Worm Wheel Bronze chilled, 110 149
σu >390 MPa
N/
High σu for bending strength, High BHN to control pitting, Heat generation causes scoring.
In WW scoring is predominant than pitting hence to avoid scoring dissimilar material are
selected.
j) Checking for weaker element

Strength factor for worm, fs1= [σb1] × Yv1= 135 × 0.4756 = 64.206
Strength factor for worm wheel, fs2 = [σb2] × Yv2 =110 × 0.438 = 48.18
Worm wheel is weaker, design the worm wheel.
k) Design criteria
Transverse module, mt of worm wheel is axial module of worm. The axial module is calculated
based on wear failure under static and checked for bending failure under static and dynamic
condition.
73
Where, z = 60, q=11, =149 Mpa
= = 4965.634 N.m
Calculating Centre distance, a = 38.91cm = 389.1mm,
mx = 10.96, Selecting standard mx =12 …….PSG8.2
l) Checking for bending (static)
Induced bending stress, ……E11.4/ …PSG 8.44
< …. Safe in bending
m) Check for dynamic load
Static strength,
Where, ,
n) Checking for Lewis dynamic load
Lewis dynamic load,

Pitch line velocity,
, , ….. PSG8.52
74
....hence design is safe in Lewis dynamic load.
o) Constructional details, ….Ref: PSG 8.43

Addendum, a = mx =12mm
Clearance, c = 0.25mx = 0.25×12 = 3mm
Dedendum, d = a + c =15mm
Parameter Worm Worm Wheel

Pitch circle diameter d1= mx × q =12×11=132mm d2 = z × mx =720mm
Addendum diameter da1=d1+2×fo ×mx =156mm da2=(z+2fo+2X). mx = 744
Dedendum diameter df1 =d1 - 2fo.mx - 2c =102mm df2=d2 - 2fo.mx -2c = 690 mm
p) Thermal check
Due to high sliding velocity heat generation is major problem is Worm and Worm wheel. The
thermal conditions are checked only after study state conditions. After steady condition heat
transfer will takes place by convection and radiation.
Estimated projected area by AGMA,
Heat generated:
Hg = (1-η) × [P]
Pitch line velocity at worm,
Sliding velocity,
(From PSG 8.49) , From graph using extrapolation, μ =0.03 for Vs =6.32 m/s
,
Efficiency,
Heat generated,
Hg = (1-0.8549)*15600 = 2263.56 watt
75
Heat Dissipation:
Hd = Hc +Hr
Where, Hc = heat transfer by convection =
Hr = heat transfer by radiation =
Where, C1 = (11 to 15) W/m2K (still air – normal breeze),
C1 = 35 W/m2K (forced convection),
and C2 =5.67 x 10-8
Assuming, Temperature of housing,
,
Equating heat generated with heat dissipated and calculating required area,
Hg = Hd = +
2263.56 = +
Hence, A= 3.08 m2
Required area without blower = 3.08 m2
Required area with blower = 1.625 m2
Since available projected area , blower has to be provided. OR the balance area can
be provided by fins or fan can be mounted on the worm shaft.
===================================================================
76
Chapter 2
Rolling Contact Bearing
 Introduction
Bearing is a machine member whose function is to support a second member, preventing its
motion in the direction of an applied load but at the same time allowing its motion in another
predetermined direction.
 Classification of Bearings
1. According to friction applied.
(a) Sliding Bearing:

In sliding bearings, a lubricant is introduced between mating surfaces. Based on type
of lubrication, sliding bearings are further classified as: -
 Hydrodynamic lubricated bearings:
If lubricant is a fluid and completely separated the moving surface during
normal operating conditions, then such a bearing is called hydrodynamic
lubricated bearing. Type of lubrication is called fluid film/thick film or
perfect lubrication.
 Partial lubricated bearings:
If layer of fluid lubricant does not completely separate the moving surfaces so
that partial metal to metal contact exist, then such bearings are called bearings
with boundary lubrication.
(b) Rolling contact bearing:
Rolling contact bearings are bearing in which balls, rollers or needles are used to
separate two mating surfaces and to support applied load.
2. According to the direction in which the applied load is supported by bearing relative to
axis of shaft
(a) Journal bearing:
If bearing supports a load in radial direction, then it is called as journal or sleeve
bearing. They are further classified based on angle of contact of bushing with journal.
1) Full journal bearing:
 Contact angle of bushing with journal is 360°
 Bearing completely surrounds journal
 Shaft member-journal,
 Cylindrical body around journal-bearing.
 Commonly used in machinery especially when load varies in radial direction.
2) Partial journal bearing:
77
 Angle of contact of bushing with journal is 180° or less.

 Used in limited application when load acts in a constant direction or when
there is little change in direction of load.
(b) Thrust bearing:
If bearing supports the shaft in axial direction, then it is called thrust bearing.
 Comparison of rolling contact bearing and sliding contact bearing:
Sr. Rolling contact Bearing Sliding contact Bearing

No.
1. Require lower starting torque and suitable for Require higher starting torque due to metal
applications where there are frequent starts. to metal contact in the beginning and during
reverse of motion.
2. Suitable for low load and speed application. Not suitable for low load and speed
application.
3. For precise location of journal axis these are Journal moves eccentrically with bearing;
preferable. eccentricity varies with load.
4. Better from space consideration. They require pump, filter, sump and other
accessories. Hence consume more space.
5. They are not cost affected since they are Cost is affected with quantity. Quiet high
standard usually made is mass scale. for few pieces but compatible for larger
pieces.
6. Maintenance cost is less. Maintenance cost is high.
7. Can be lubricated once for bearing life Require alternate or continuous lubrication.
8. For finite life load carrying capacity decreases Load carrying capacity is in linear
with increase in speed. proportions to speed.
9. Lower resistance to shock loads. It is better suited for shock loads.

Ex. Connecting rod, crankshaft.
10. Noisier at high speed. Less noisy at high speed.
78
11. Life of bearing is finite and decreases with It can adjust load and speed within
increase in load and speed. prescribed limit.
12. Low initial cost. High initial cost.
13. Mounting of bearing is difficult. Mounting of bearing is relatively simple
14. With increase in speed coefficient of friction As speed increases and hydrodynamic
increases. action takes place, coefficient of friction
reduces.
 Rolling element bearings types:

Rolling Element Bearings, also known as Rolling Contact Bearings or simply Rolling Bearings,
dissipate the load on the bearing by transmitting the load to the rolling elements inside the
bearings. Depending on type, shape, and size of these roller elements, Rolling Contact Bearings
are further classified into the following types:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
(e) (f) (g)
Fig: (a) Cylindrical roller bearings with cage. (b) Deep groove ball bearing. (c) Needle roller bearing. (d) Taper
roller bearing. (e) Spherical roller bearing. (f) Roller thrust bearing. (g) Self-aligning ball bearing.
79
 Designation of RCB
RCB is designated normally by a 4-digit number, let’s consider ABCD where,
i. ‘A’ represents the type of bearing
6 – DGBB
2 – Self aligning bearing
3 – Double Row Angular roller bearing
30, 31, 32 – Taper Roller bearing
NU2 – Cylindrical Roller bearing
ii. ‘B’ represents type of load
0- Extra light
2- Light
3- Medium
4- Heavy
iii. ‘CD’ represent the diameter of the bore of the bearing
 Dimension Series
The last two digits of the designation of RCB represents the bore diameter. These are termed as
the dimension series. The diameters are represented in the following manner.
00 – Diameter = 10 mm
From 04 onwards the diameter is determined by multiplying the designated last two-digit
number by 5, for e.g.
06 – Diameter = 30 mm and so on.
 Static load carrying capacity

It is defined as load carrying capacity on bearing when shaft is stationary. It produces permanent
deformation in balls and races which increases with increase in load. Permissible static load
depends upon permissible deformation.
80
The static load carrying capacity of a bearing is defined as the static load which corresponds to a
total deformation of balls and races at the most heavily stressed point of contact, equal to 0.0001
of the ball diameter.
 Static equivalent load for RCB

The static equivalent load is a hypothetical load that produces contact stress equal to maximum
stress under actual conditions, while bearing is stationary, in the area of contact between the
most heavily stressed rolling element and bearing raceway.
The static radial load passing through center of the bearing is taken as the static equivalent load
for radial bearings, while the static axial load in the direction coinciding with the central axis is
taken a static equivalent load for thrust bearing.
P0 = (X.V.Fr + Y.Fa)*S.F
P0 = Static equivalent load; X = Radial load factor; Y = Axial load factor, V= race rotation factor,
Fr = Radial load, Fa = Axial load, S.F = Service Factor.
 Dynamic load carrying capacity

The Dynamic Load capacity can be defined as the load that will give a life of one million
revolutions of the inner race. The dynamic load rating hence plays a vital role for the bearing
life. The relation between the bearing life and the dynamic load capacity is expressed as follows:
L = (C/P)3- for Ball bearing
L = (C/P) 10/3 – for Roller bearings
Here L = Bearing Life in millions of revolution,
P = Equivalent Radial Load,
C = Dynamic Load capacity of the bearing
Basic Life or ‘L10’ is the life that 90% of bearings can be expected to reach or exceed the
theoretically calculated life under conventional operating conditions. L10 indicates that only 10%
of the bearing sample will fail to reach or exceed the theoretically calculated life. L10 is
expressed in terms of ‘million revolutions’ or ‘mr’.
Median Life ‘L50’ is the life of the bearing at 50% reliability i.e. only 50% of the bearings can
be expected to reach the rated life. Median Life is 5 times of the Basic Life.
81
Load Life Relationship: This expression gives a direct relationship between the dynamic
capacity of the bearing and the basic life of the bearing. It is expressed as
Here, C = Basic Dynamic Carrying Capacity

P = Equivalent Dynamic Load, which depends on the radial and axial loads on the bearing.
k = Bearing constant which varies as:
 For ball bearings, k = 3
 For roller bearings, k = 3.333
It is important to note that the terms ‘C’ and ‘P’ are considered under standard conditions.
The load life relationship can be modified for operating conditions as follows:
Where, L is the desired life in million revolutions

C and P are the actual operating Basic Dynamic Carrying Capacity and Equivalent
Dynamic Load respectively.
 Dynamic Load Rating for RCB under variable loads
The rating life of bearing is based on fundamental equation,
Consider a bearing is subjected to variable loads. Let P1, P2, P3…….be the loads on the bearing
for successive N1, N2, N3………revolutions respectively. If the bearing is operated at constant
load P1, then the life is given by,
L1
The fraction of life consumed with load P1 for N1 revolution is given by,
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Similarly, fraction of life consumed with load P2 for N2 revolution is given by,
Hence, total life is given by,
If equivalent load is acting on N revolutions then,
N = N1 + N2 + N3……
 BEARING FAILURE:
Bearings, in general are subjected to a variety of loads and operating conditions. Thus, there are
different causes of bearing failure. Essentially, bearing failure due to structural or strength
factors are widely considered during the design of bearings. Bearing failure can occur due to one
or more of the following reasons:
1. Abrasion
2. Corrosion
3. Fatigue Cycles
4. Extreme Loads or Induced Pressures
5. Overheating
6. Misalignment
7. True and False Brinelling
8. Improper Lubrication
83
9. Contamination
10. Loose or Tight Fittings
Life of bearings is generally expressed in terms of reliability and probability. Life of bearing is
not a definitive value but an estimate presented on the basis of a sample calculation.
 Selection of Bearing Life:
Bearing life is generally expressed in the number of revolutions is sustains under operating
conditions before undergoing some form of failure as mentioned previously. However bearings
of a certain type i.e. Deep Groove Ball Bearings, Self-Aligning Ball Bearings, etc. can have
different life under identical operating conditions. Thus, it is necessary to calculate bearing size
along with the bearing life calculation.
The life of bearing is expressed in terms of reliability of the bearing. For instance, if the life of
bearing is expressed as 500 million revolutions at 95% reliability, then it means that the 95% of
the bearing population of this category will sustain 500 million revolutions before failing. This
expression of bearing life is a calculative prediction method.
Bearing life based on the type of machinery:
Sr. No. Class of machines Bearing life; working
hours
1 Rarely used machines; eg: Demonstrative machines 500
2 Intermittent operations; secondary machines; eg: 4000 to 8000
hand tools, domestic appliances
3 Intermittent operations; primary machines; eg: 8000 to 12000
Machinery used in conveyor plants, lifts
4 Machine use 8hrs/day and not always fully used; eg: 12000 to 20000
Stationary electric motors, general purpose machine
5 Fully utilized machines for 8hrs/day; eg: cranes, 20000 to 30000
industrial material handling systems
6 Continuous use machines for 24hrs/day; eg: Pumps, 40000 to 60000
compressors, mine hoists, etc.
7 Machines with high degree of reliability with 100000 to 200000
24hrs/day full utilization; eg: Paper making
84
machinery, on-board merchant ship machines
 Reliability of RCB:
Reliability of the Rolling Contact Bearings is the proportional estimate of the bearings that will
reach or exceed the rated life as provided by the manufacturer. If the reliability of a bearing is
80% then 80% of the bearings from the sample population can be expected to reach or exceed
the rated life. Relation between the life and probability of survival is given by following
equation.
Where P is the desired reliability and P10 is the basic reliability, P10 is always 90%. L10 is the
basic life and L is the desired life. b - Constant 1.34 for DGBB.
 Selection of RCB from catalogue:

Bearings are subjected to essentially two forces namely; Radial force and Axial force. The extent
and combination of these two forces on the bearings help in basic determination of the type of
bearing. The following is the list of different bearings classified according to the nature of the
subjected load:
Sr. Type of Bearing Application (Load Nature)
No.
1 Deep Groove Ball Bearing Both radial and thrust loads – at high speeds
2 Self-Aligning Ball Bearings Insensitive to shaft misalignment
3 Single Row Angular Ball Bearings For heavy axial loads
4 Double Row Angular Ball Radial and bidirectional heavy thrust loads
Bearings
5 Spherical Roller Bearings High radial and bidirectional axial loads
6 Cylindrical Roller Bearings Heavy radial loads at high speeds
7 Taper Roller Bearings Combined radial and axial loads
8 Single Thrust Ball Bearings Unidirectional axial loads only
85
9 Double Thrust Ball Bearings Bidirectional axial loads

10 Spherical Roller Thrust Bearing Heavy axial loads at high speeds; self-aligning
 Factors Influencing Life of RCB

1. Manufacturing process:
The standard rolling contact bearings have 4 major parts: inner and outer races, rolling
element, and cage. Both the races are manufactured by steel tubing, which may involve
drawing, extrusion, and turning operations. The rolling elements are generally produced
by the cold forging process. The cage is produced by stamping operation on the sheet
metals. All these components are heat treated before their assembly. Any miscalculation,
deviations, errors, limitations, and incompetence in the manufacturing process may cause
a reduction in both expected bearing life and performance.
2. Variable loading:
Bearings are designed, manufactured, and optimized for certain set of working
conditions. Any change in the loading pattern on the bearing may cause damage to the
bearing resulting in loss of work, efficiency, time, energy, resources, and money. If the
loading patterns on the bearing during its operation are unknown or random, it is difficult
to calculate and estimate the efficiency and durability of the bearing. Also, the bearings
should be utilized as per the conditions prescribed by the manufacturer or according to
the conditions mentioned in the design data book for proper and efficient performance.
3. Temperature:
The temperature of the working environment around the bearing also affects the life of
bearing. If the bearings are designed without considering proper temperature coefficients,
the resultant bearing life may be less than the required or expected bearing life as the
thermal expansion of the roller elements causes improper functioning of the bearings.
4. Miscellaneous
Other factors that influence the bearing life is also affected by abrasion of the cage,
corrosion of rolling elements, improper lubrication, faulty assembly and alignment etc.
The effect of these factors can be reduced by proper maintenance of the bearings.
 Applications of RCB
The following are some of the applications of the Rolling Contact Bearings:
1. Dental Drills
2. Wind Turbines
3. Home appliances such as fans, washing machines
4. Machines tools such as Lathe machine, Drilling machine, milling machine etc.
5. Bicycles and motorbikes
6. Front and rear axle of automobiles
7. Conveyor belt drive systems
8. Robotic systems
86
9. Material handling systems such as cranes, automated guide vehicles (AGVs)

10. Pumps, Motors, and Compressors
 Steinbeck’s Equation of Basic Static Capacity of Bearing

Basic Static Carrying Capacity [C’]: It is that load on the bearing that produces a permanent
deflection of ‘0.0001d’ in the roller elements such as balls, rollers, races, etc. Richard Stribeck
proposed a relation to calculate the Basic Static Carrying Capacity depending upon the number
of balls or rolling elements in the bearing based on the assumptions:
1. The races are rigid and retain their circular shape even after loading.
2. The balls are equally spaced.
3. The balls in the upper half do not support any load.
4. There is a single row of balls.
Figure : Stribeck's Basic Static Carrying Capacity
Let C0 be the basic static carrying capacity of the ball bearing in Newton, N
Let P1, P2, P3… be the radial forces acting at the contact between the inner race and respective
balls in Newton, N.
Let ∂1, ∂2, ∂3… be the radial deflections at the contact between the inner race and respective
balls, in millimetres, mm.
Consider the equilibrium of the forces in the vertical direction,
87
Now, the radial deflections at the contact between the inner race and respective balls is related to
the radial forces acting at the contact between the inner race and respective ball.
, , ,
Where, k0 is the constant of proportionality.
Now,
, , ,
Thus,
, , ,
Equation (1) can be written as
As the races are rigid, the displacement of inner race with respect to outer race will be due to the
deformation of balls.
, , ,
Thus, we get,
, , ,
Thus, Equation (2) becomes;
Where,
Now,
88
Where, Z = No. of balls
The value of M and M/Z can be found out from the table
M 8 10 12 15 20
Z 1.84 2.28 2.75 3.47 4.58
M/Z 4.35 4.38 4.36 4.37 4.37
It is seen that ‘Z/M’ is practically constant and Stribeck suggested the value of 5 for ‘Z/M’
Substituting this value in Equation (5)
From experiment it is found that to produce the permanent deformation of a ball is maximum
load at the most heavily stressed ball is given by
Where, d = diameter of the balls

K = constant depending on radius of curvature at point of contact and material of the balls
Where; C0 is the Basic Static Carrying Capacity, Z is the number of rolling elements; in this
case number of balls, d is the diameter of the balls, K is known as the Stribeck’s stress constant
For straight roller bearings the relation is modified incorporating the roller length (l)
89
NUMERICALS:
Problem I: What change in the loading of a ball bearing will cause the expected life to be
doubled?
Solution:
Let initial load = (Peq)i
Initial expected life = Li
Now as mentioned in the question the expected life doubled
New expected life (Ln) = 2* Li
The relation between the expected life and load on bearing is given by
……………………………………………………PSG (4.2)
For ball bearing, k = 3
For initial conditions the equation will be,
For the new conditions the equations will be,
As Ln=2*Li,
From equation 1 substituting value of Li
= 0.7936
90
Therefore, for life to be doubled, the load is reduced by 20.64%.
Problem II
Select suitable DGBB for following specifications.
a) Radial Load = 4000 N; Thrust Load = 2000 N; Life = 8000 Hrs., Shaft Speed = 1000
RPM; Reliability = 99%
b) Radial Load = 3000 N; Thrust Load = 2000 N; Life = 3 years at 10 hrs. per day, shaft
Speed = 1200 RPM, Shaft Diameter = 50 mm; Service Factor = 1.2;
Solution: a)
i) Lhr = 8000 Hrs. Fr = 4000 N; Fa = 2000 N; N = 1000 RPM
[Lmr] = = = 480 mr
For 99% reliability,
= , b = 1.34 for DGBB ……………………. PSG (4.2)
L0.99 = 83.11 mr
Suitable bearings for 50 mm diameter are 6010, 6210, 6310 and 6410
1) Let’s check life of DGBB 6010
Dynamic Load Capacity ‘C’ = 17000 N, Static Load Capacity ‘C0’= 13700 N……PSG (4.13)
e = 0.31; > e;
Therefore, x = 0.56 and y = 1.4 ……………..PSG (4.4)
91
Peq = (X.V.Fr + Y.Fa) S = (0.56*1*4000+1.4*2000) 1.2 = 6048 N………..…PSG (4.2)
Lmr = = = 22.0208 mr...……….………...…PSG (4.2)
Since, [Lmr] required > Lmr, Bearing 6010 is not suitable.

e = 0.27; > e;
Therefore, x = 0.56 and y = 1.6 …………………………………………………PSG (4.4)

Peq = (X.V.Fr + Y.Fa) S = (0.56*1*4000+1.6*2000)1.2 = 6528 N………………..…PSG (4.2)
Lmr = = = 74.75 mr…………………………………………………...PSG (4.2)
Since, [Lmr] required > Lmr, Bearing 6210 is not suitable.

Dynamic Load Capacity ‘C’ = 48000 N, Static Load Capacity ‘C0’= 35500 N…….PSG (4.14)
e = 0.24; > e;
Therefore, x = 0.56 and y = 1.8;....……………………………………….………PSG (4.4)

Peq = (X.V.Fr + Y.Fa) S = (0.56*1*4000+1.8*2000)1.2 = 7008 N……………..…PSG (4.2)
Lmr = = = 321.322 mr……………………………………………...PSG (4.2)
Since, [Lmr] required < Lmr,
Therefore, Bearing 6310 is suitable for given specification.
92
Solution: (b): Given Data:
Lhr = 3 years and 10 hrs. a day; Fr = 3000 N; Fa = 2000 N; N= 1200 RPM
[Lmr] = = = 788.4 mr
Suitable bearings for 50 mm diameter are 6010, 6210, 6310, and 6410
For, DGBB 6010

e = 0.31; > e;
Therefore, x = 0.56 and y = 1.4; ………………………………………………….PSG (4.4)

Peq = (X.V.Fr + Y.Fa) S = (0.56*1*3000+1.4*2000)1.2 = 5376 N……………..…PSG (4.2)
Lmr = = = 31.62 mr………………………………………......…..…PSG (4.2)
Since, [Lmr] > Lmr

Bearing 6010 is not suitable.
For, DGBB 6210

e = 0.27; > e;
Therefore, X = 0.56 and Y = 1.6;....………………………………….……PSG (4.4)

Peq = (X.V.Fr + Y.Fa) S = (0.56*1*3000+1.6*2000)1.2 = 5856 N……..…PSG (4.2)
Lmr = = = 103.56 mr…………………….………...…..…PSG (4.2)
93
Since, [Lmr] > Lmr, Bearing 6210 is not suitable.
For, DGBB 6310

Dynamic Load Capacity ‘C’ = 48000 N, Static Load Capacity ‘C0’= 35500 N…….PSG (4.14)
e = 0.27; > e;
Therefore, x = 0.56 and y = 1.6; ....…………………………………….……….…PSG (4.4)

Peq = (X.V.Fr + Y.Fa) S = (0.56*1*3000+1.6*2000)1.2 = 5856 N………………...…PSG (4.2)
Lmr = = = 550.7 mr…………………….………………………....…PSG (4.2)
Since, [Lmr] > Lmr, Bearing 6310 is not suitable.
For, DGBB 6410

e = 0.24; > e;
Therefore, X = 0.56 and Y = 1.8...……………………………………………….…. PSG (4.4)

Peq = (X.V.Fr + Y.Fa) S = (0.56*1*3000+1.8*2000)1.2 = 6336 N………………..…PSG (4.2)
Lmr = = = 1348.49 mr……………………….………….………..…PSG (4.2)
Since, [Lmr] < Lmr

Therefore, Bearing 6410 is suitable for given specification.
94
Problem III
A 6207 DGBB is subjected to following repeated load cycle. Determine the expected life of the
bearing in hours with probability of survival of 95%. Phase, Radial Load (KN), Axial Load
(KN), Speed N (RPM), Fraction of cycle (%)
Phase Radial Load Axial Load Speed N (RPM) Fraction of

(kN) (kN) cycle (%)
I 2 1.2 500 15
II 1.5 1 600 20
III 1 1.5 400 30
IV 1.2 2 800 35
Solution:
Given Bearing: 6207
Type: DGBB; Medium Shock; Diameter = 35 mm.
Consider cycle for 1 min,
N = Speed (RPM) x Fraction of cycle.
Therefore,
N1 = 500*0.15 = 75, N2 = 600*0.2 = 120, N3 = 400*0.3 = 120, N4 = 800*0.35 = 280
Hence, N1 + N2 + N3 + N4 = 595
95
For bearing DGBB 6207,

Dynamic Load Capacity ‘C’ = 20000 N, Static Load Capacity ‘C0’= 13700 N………PSG (4.13)
Consider,
Service Factor ‘S’ = 1.2 and V= 1 and from PSG (4.4),
Phase X Y P = (X.V.Fr + Y.Fa)s
(kN)
I 0.0875 0.6 0.56 1.6 3.648
II 0.073 0.667 0.56 1.6 2.928
III 0.109 1.5 0.56 1.6 3.552
IV 0.146 1.667 0.56 1.4 4.166
Dynamic Load Rating for Rolling Contact Bearing is given by,
Peq =
Peq = = 3.786 KN
Lmr = = = 147.41 mr , Lmr =
Therefore, Lhr = = 4129.33 hrs.
= , For 95% probability p = 0.95, b = 1.34 for DGBB……...PSG (4.2)
96
PROBLEM IV:
Find the rating life of a single row angular contact ball bearing 7310 which carry the radial load
of 2500N and axial load 1500N. Assume service factor = 1.5
Solution:
Data: Fa = 1500N, Fr = 2500N, S = 1.5
Given Bearing Designation: 7310
Bearing Details: Single Row Angular Contact Bearing (PSG 4.4)
Basic Dynamic Carrying Capacity, C = 5300kgf = 53000N (PSG 4.19)
Basic Static Carrying Capacity, C = 4050kgf = 40500N (PSG 4.19)
From PSG 4.4,
, Thus, X = 0.56, Y = 1.8
Equivalent Load, P,
Load Life Relationship,
For Ball Bearings, k = 3
Thus, the rating life of the given bearing is 640 million revolutions.
97
PROBLEM V:
Select a suitable spherical roller bearing for the following specifications:
Radial load = 5kN, Axial load = 1.5kN, Speed = 960rpm, Expected life = 5000hrs at Reliability
of 92%.
Solution:
Given data, Fr = 5000N, Fa = 1500N, N = 960rpm, T = 140°C, Lhr = 5000hrs, p = 92%
Let the service factor = 1.6
To find the rating life, L10
Here p = 92%, p10 = 90%, k = 1.17 for spherical bearings
Thus, L10 = 351.57 mr

Since required life is high, Assume the bearing to be ‘22212C’ (PSG4.32)
C0 = 8500kgf = 85000N, C = 10000kgf = 100000N
98
e = 0.23, ……. PSG 4.4,
Therefore, X = 0.67, Y = 4.4 …….. (PSG 4.4)

Now, Equivalent Load on Bearing on inner race,
Calculating Basic Life for 22212C
, Assuming temperature effect at T= 140o, C actual = 0.9C = 90,000N
Since, the basic life (204.94 mr) is less than the required life (351.57mr), hence bearing is not
suitable . Selecting the next bearing as 22214C
C0 = 10800kgf = 108000N, C = 12200kgf = 122000N
, e = 0.23 ……… PSG 4.4
, Therefore, X = 0.67, Y = 4.4 ….. (PSG 4.4)
Calculating Basic Life for 22212C,

At temperature , T= 140o, C actual = 0.9x122000 = 1,09,800N
Since, the basic calculated life (370.32 mr) is greater than the required life (351 mr), the bearing
‘22214C’ can be suitably selected.
99
PROBLEM VI:
Select suitable Taper Roller bearing for following specification:
Shaft diameter = 35mm, Radial load = 800N, Axial load = 750N, Speed = 760rpm, Expected life
= 8000hrs at reliability of 92%.
Solution:
Diameter = 35mm, Fr = 800N, Fa = 750N, N = 760rpm, Lhr = 8000hrs, p = 92%
Assume service factor, S = 1.5
Basic life, L10
, Here P = 92%, P10 = 90%, k = 1.17 for taper bearings
Available bearings; 32207A and 32307A based on shaft diameter of 35mm

For 32207A; C0 = 5050kgf = 50800N, C = 5760kgf = 57600N
100
For 32206-208, e = 0.37 , , Thus, X = 0.4, Y = 1.6,
Thus, Equivalent load at the inner race,
Thus, the Required Basic Life (446 mr) is less than the Rated Bearing Life (16123.63 mr)
Hence bearing is suitable, Selecting Bearing: 32207A
PROBLEM VII:
Select a suitable ball bearing to operate on a following work cycle for life of 5 years at 8hrs/day
for 300 days per year.
Radial Load, N Speed, rpm % of time
1500 400 25
1000 500 35
800 600 40
Solution:
Consider cycle for 1 minute;
N1 = 400*0.25 = 100 rpm
N2 = 500*0.35 = 175rpm
N3 = 600*0.40 = 240rpm
N = N1 + N2 + N3 = 515rpm
Consider Deep Groove Ball Bearing,
From PSG 4.4, when Y = 0, X = 1
Thus, Equivalent load on the bearing at the inner race with a service factor of 1.5,
101
To find out cubic mean load,
Now, required life,

Lhr = 8*300*5 = 12000hrs
Thus, rated life in million revolutions,
Load Life Relationship;
For ball bearings, k = 3
Now, from PSG 4.12, 4.13, 4.14, 4.15,

We can select the following Deep Groove Ball Bearings;
6007 and above; 6205 and above; 6304 and above; 6403 and above
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102
Module 3
SLIDING CONTACT BEARING:
A sliding contact bearing is any bearing that works by sliding action, with or without lubricant.
This group encompasses essentially all types other than rolling-element bearings. Also referred
to as sleeve bearings or thrust bearings, terms that designate whether the bearing is loaded
radially or axially.
 Lubricants:
Lubrication is the science of reducing friction by application of a suitable substance that is

lubricants between the two mating surfaces of the bodies with relative motion.
Types of Lubricants
1. Liquid lubricants e.g. Minerals , vegetable oils
2. Semi solid lubricants e.g. Grease
3. Solid lubricants e.g. Graphite, molybdenum disulphide
Lubricants is a substances inserted or introduced between the two contacting surfaces having
relative motion, so as to reduce the friction and wear.
The lubricants perform the following functions:
1. To reduce the friction between the contacting surfaces;
2. To reduce the wear;
3. To carry away the frictional heat;
4. To protect the surfaces against corrosion;
5. To carry away the worn-out particles; and
6. To prevent the entity of foreign particles, like dirt and dust, to the contact zone.
Viscosity:
The internal frictional resistance offered by a fluid to change its shape or relative motion of its
parts. An oil film placed between two parallel plates is shown in figure. The lower plate is
stationary and the upper plate is moved with a velocity U by means of a force P.
The intermediate layers will move with velocities

which are proportional to their distance from the
stationary plate. Hence
According to Newton’s law of viscosity, the shear stress is

proportional to the rate of shear at any point in the fluid.
Hence,
103
When the velocity distribution is nonlinear with respect to h,

Then,
 Physical and Chemical Properties of Lubricants:

Following properties are desirable in lubricants used in bearings:
1. It should have an optimum viscosity for the given application.
2. It should have high viscosity index
3. It should have good oiliness property.
4. It should have high specific heat.
5. It should have high thermal conductivity.
6. It should have high flash point
7. It should have high fire point.
8. It should have low pour point.
9. It should have anti-foaming property
10. It should have high oxidation stability
11. It should not be acidic.
12. It should have good demulsibility i.e. it should have low demulsibility number.
13. It should be chemically stable with bearing material and atmosphere over the range of
temperatures encountered in the operation.
14. It should be commercially available at reasonable cost.
 Basic Modes of Lubrication:

The basic modes of lubrications are
1. Thick film lubrication
2. Thin film lubrication
3. Zero film bearing which operates without any lubricating oil film
In thick film lubrication two surfaces of the bodies in relative motion are completely seperated
by a film of lubricant. These are further classified to
1. Hydrodynamic lubrication
2. Hydrostatic lubrication
3. Elasto-hydrodynamic lubrication
4. Solid-film lubrication
In thin film lubrication the lubricant film is relatively thin and there is partial metal to metal
contact. These lubrication can be observed in machine tool slides and door hinges.
104
 Hydrodynamic lubrication:
In hydrodynamic lubrication, the two surfaces in relative motion are separated by a relatively
thick film of fluid, so as to prevent the metal to metal contact. The hydrodynamic lubrication is
also called full film or thick film lubrication. In hydrodynamic lubrication, the load supporting
high pressure fluid film is created due to:
a) The shape of the zone between the contacting surfaces.
b) The relative motion between the contacting surfaces.
 Hydrostatic lubrication:
In hydrostatic lubrication, the load supporting high pressure fluid film is created by an external
source, like pump. The lubricant, which is pressurized externally, is supplied between the two
surfaces.
 Elasto-hydrodynamic lubrication:
This lubrication occurs when a lubricant is introduced between the surfaces which are in rolling
contact. The lubricant is entrapped in deformation zone between the contacting surfaces.
 Solid-film lubrication:
When the bearings are operated at extremely high temperatures, the lubricating oils are not
suitable as they may be lose their properties at such high temperatures. In such cases, a solid-
film lubricant, such as graphite or molybdenum disulphide is used.
 Hydrodynamic Bearing:
Applications of hydrostatic bearings are Crank shaft, hydraulic turbine, centrifugal pumps etc.
Hydrodynamic Journal bearing is a sliding contact bearing working on hydrodynamic lubrication
and support the radial load.
Journal bearing are classified as,
1. Full Journal Bearing
In full journal bearing the angle of contact of the bearing with the
journal is 360o
2. Partial Journal Bearing

In Partial journal bearing the angle of contact Fig: Full Journal Bearing
of the bearing with the journal is less than 360o
3. Fitted Journal Bearing

In fitted journal bearing there is no clearance between
the bearing and the journal. The diameter of journal
and bearing are same.
Fig: Partial journal bearing with 120o angle of contact.
105
Following figure shows the position of journal at rest, at start and at full speed when it rotates in
clockwise direction.
In hydrodynamic bearing initially the journal is at rest. As the journal starts to rotate, sufficient
pressure is developed in the clearance space. During this period there is partial metal to metal
contact and a partial lubricant film. That is there is thin film lubrication. As the speed is
increased, more lubricant is forced into the wedge shaped clearance space and sufficient pressure
is built up, separating the surfaces of the journal and the bearing, which is thick film lubrication.
There is transition from thin film lubrication to thick film lubrication as the speed increases. This
is McKee’s investigation.
 Thrust Bearing:
A thrust bearing is a particular type of rotary rolling-element bearing. Like other bearings
they permit rotation between parts, but they are designed to support a
predominately axial load i.e. pressure on bearing is parallel to the axis of the shaft.
There are two types of thrust bearing:
a) Footstep bearing: It is a thrust bearing in which the end of the shaft is in contact with the
bearing surface.
b) Collar bearing: It is a thrust bearing in which collar integral with the shaft is in contact
with the bearing surface. The shaft can be with single collar or multiple collars.
106
 Pressure distribution in hydrodynamic bearing:

The following figure demonstrates a
hydrodynamic journal bearing and a
journal rotating in a clockwise direction. Journal
rotation causes pumping of the lubricant (oil) flowing
around the bearing in the rotation direction. If there is
no force applied to the journal its position will remain
concentric to the bearing position. However a loaded
journal displaces from the concentric position and
forms a converging gap between the bearing and
journal surfaces. The pumping action of the journal
forces the oil to squeeze through the wedge shaped
gap generating a pressure.
The pressure falls to the cavitation pressure (close to
the atmospheric pressure) in the diverging gap zone Fig: Oil pressure distribution in hydrodynamic bearing
where cavitation forms. The oil pressure creates a
supporting force separating the journal from the bearing surface. The force of oil pressure and
hydrodynamic friction force counterbalance the external load F. The final position of the journal
is determined by the equilibrium between the three forces.
 Hydrostatic Bearing (Externally pressurised bearing):

In hydro static bearings, the load supporting high pressure fluid film is created by an external
source, like pump. The lubricant, which is pressurised externally, is supplied between the two
surfaces. So, hydrostatic bearings do not require motion one surface relative to another.
Figure: Elements of hydrostatic bearing
107
 Advantages of hydrostatic bearings:

1. They can take heavy loads even at exceptionally low speeds.
2. The load carrying capacity of bearings is independent of the speed.
3. They have very low friction loss, even at the starting.
4. They have high positional accuracy.
5. In hydrostatic bearings, any fluid which is already present in a device lubricant. For
example, liquid oxygen in rocket engines, water hydraulic machinery and kerosene in
aircraft engine serve the purpose of lubricant.
 Limitations of hydrostatic bearings:
1. They required auxiliary equipment like, pump, filter, oil supply line, etc. the system is
more complicated, expensive, and liable to failure.
2. They have high initial as well as maintenance cost.
3. Overall power loss is not necessary low.
 Applications of hydrostatic bearings:

The hydrostatic bearings are used in:
1. Vertical turbo generators
2. Ball mill
3. Gyroscopes
4. High speed dental drills,
5. Spindles of internal grinding machines.
6. Large telescopes,
7. Machine tools,
8. Centrifugal,
9. Rolling mills,
10. Rocket engines.
 Squeeze film bearings:
In wedge film journal bearing, the bearing carries a steady load and the journal rotates relative to
the bearing. But in certain cases, the bearing oscillates or rotate so slowly that the wedge film
cannot provide a satisfactory film thickness.
108
Fig: Squeeze film bearing
If the load is uniform or varying in magnitude while acting in a constant direction, this becomes
a thin film or possibly zero film problem. But if the load reverse its direction, the squeeze film
may develop sufficient capacity to carry the dynamic loads without contact between the journal
and the bearing. Such bearings are known as Squeeze Film Journal Bearing.
 Difference of Hydrodynamic bearing and hydrostatic Bearing
Hydrodynamic bearing hydrostatic Bearing

1. The load supporting fluid film is created by 1. The load supporting fluid film is created by
the shape and relative motions of the sliding an external source like a pump.
surfaces.
2. These bearing are also called as self-acting 2. The pressure is created by external source
bearing because the pressure is created within hence also called as externally pressurised
the system. bearing.
3. These bearings are simple in construction. 3. These bearings are complex in construction.
4. Low initial cost and maintenance cost. 4. Initial cost and maintenance cost is high.
5. Less load carrying capacity at low speed. 5. High load carrying capacity even at low
speed.
6. Used in Engine and centrifugal pumps. 6. Used in turbo generator, ball mills and
centrifuges,
109
 Properties of Bearing Materials:

1. Compressive strength
2. Fatigue strength: Material should have high endurance strength
3. Conformability: Accommodate shaft deflection and bearing inaccuracy without wear and
pitting.
4. Embedability: Accommodates small particles of dust, dirt etc. without scoring of material.
5. Bondability: Many high capacity bearing are made by bonding one or more thin layers of
bearing materials.
6. Corrosion resistance: It should be highly corrosion resistant.
7. Thermal conductivity: It should have high thermal conductivity to carry heat generated due to
friction.
8. Thermal expansion: It should have low thermal coefficient of expansion to keep constant
eccentricity.
9. Cost and availability: Material of bearing should be readily available and cost effective.
 Materials used for Bearings:

1. Babbits
2. Bronze
3. Copper-lead alloy
4. Aluminium alloy
5. Cast-iron
6. Silver
7. Sintered metal
8. Non-metallic materials
 Important Parameters used in hydrodynamic journal bearing:
1. Sommerfeld number: It is most important parameters. It contains all the variables which
are controlled by the designer. It has been used as an abscissa in all the charts except the
viscosity chart. It is a function of characteristic number and r/c ratio.
The Sommerfeld number is given by
Where, S – Sommerfeld number,

Z – Viscosity of the lubricant (MPa-s)
N- Journal speed (RPS)
P – Unit bearing pressure (MPa)
110
2. Length to diameter ratio (l/d)

3. Minimum film thickness variable (ho/c)
4. Eccentricity ( ):
5. Coefficient friction variable: It gives the coefficient of friction of hydrodynamic bearing.
6. Flow variables: It gives the flow rate of the lubricant in hydrodynamic bearing.
, where, l – length of the bearing (mm), Q – Flow of the lubricant (mm3/s).
7. Flow ratio (Qs/Q): It gives amount of axial flow in terms of total flow rate of lubricants.
8. Maximum film pressure ratio (P /Pmax )
9. Position of maximum film pressure angle (θpmax): It gives an angular position of
maximum pressure in fluid film.
10. Zero pressure angle (θpo): It gives the terminating position of the high pressure fluid film.
11. Position of minimum film thickness angle (Ф): It gives an angular position of the
minimum fluid film thickness.
12. Temperature rise variable : ( )
Frictional power or the heat generated is given by, (kW) = f W V =
Where, f- coefficient of friction, W –Radial load acting on the bearing, N- Journal speed in RPM.
The heat carried away by oil flow is given by,
Where, m –mass of the lubricating oil passing through the bearing (Kg/s), Specific heat of
lubricating oil (KJ/Kg ), – Temperature rise ( )
The mass of the lubricating oil,
Equating the heat generated and the heat carried away by oil flow, change in temperature
can be calculated.
For most lubricating oils,
The average temperature of the lubricating oil, ,
Where,
 Minimum film thickness (ho):

The minimum oil film thickness is a very important variable which governs the load carrying
capacity and the frictional loss of the bearing. It is the oil film thickness along the line joining the
centers of the journal and bearing. It depends upon the surface finish, viscosity of the oil and
nature of load.
111
 Bearing characteristics number (ZN/P) and bearing modulus for

journal bearing.
The transition from thin film lubrication to thick film hydrodynamic lubrication can be better
visualized by means of a curve called .
A bearing characteristic number is a dimensionless parameter given by, ( )
Where, ,N–
Journal speed, p – Unit bearing pressure.
Figure show bearing characteristics number curve. Thin

film lubrication in the region BC and thick film lubrication
in the region CD. These two modes of lubrication are
divided by AC.
The coefficient of friction is minimum at C or at the

transition between these two modes.
The value of the bearing characteristics number

corresponding to this minimum coefficient is called the
Bearing Modulus. It is denoted by K.
The bearing should not be operated near the critical value K at the point C. A slight drop in the
speed (N) or a slight increase in the load (P) will reduced the value of resulting in boundary
lubrication. That is a slight increase in pressure will make the part of a shaft or axle that rests on
bearings operate in partial lubrication state resulting in high friction, heating and wear.
In the design of fluid bearings, the Sommerfeld number (S), or bearing characteristic number, is
a dimensionless quantity used extensively in hydrodynamic lubrication analysis. The
Sommerfeld number is very important in lubrication analysis because it contains all the variables
normally specified by the designer.
Variation of coefficient of friction with ZN/P:
By experimentation, it is observed that the coefficient of friction µ is the function of µ = ø (ZN/P).
Bearing Modulus is a dimensionless parameter on which the coefficient friction in a bearing

depends. In the region to the left of Point C, operating conditions are severe and mixed
112
lubrication occurs. Small change in speed or increase in load can reduce ZN′ /p and a small
education in ZN′/p can increase the coefficient of friction drastically. This increases heat which
reduces the viscosity of the lubricant. This further reduces ZN′ /p leading to further increase in
friction. This has a compounding effect on the bearing leading to destruction of Oil film and
resulting in metal to metal contact. In order to prevent such conditions, the bearing should
operate with a ZN′/p at least three times the minimum value of the bearing modulus (K).
Suppose it is operating to the right of the line BA and there is an increase in lubricating
temperature. This results in lower viscosity and hence a smaller value of the ZN′/p. The
coefficient of friction decreases, and consequently the lubricating temperature drops. Thus the
region to the right of line BA defines “stable lubrication” because the variations are self-
correcting.
 The guidelines foe hydrodynamic lubrication

1. In order to avoid seizure, the operating value of the bearing characteristic number should be at
least 5 to 6 times bearing modulus.
2. If the bearing is subjected to fluctuating load the operating value of bearing characteristic
number should be at least 15 times the bearing modulus.
3. When the viscosity of the lubricant is very low, the value of bearing characteristic number will
be low and boundary lubrication will result. Hence if the viscosity of the lubricant is very low
then the lubricant will not separate the surfaces of the journal and the bearing.
4. Metal to metal contact will occur resulting in excessive wear at the contacting surfaces.
 Petroff’s Equation or Bearing Friction:
In 1883, Petroff published his work on bearing friction based on following simplified
assumptions.
1) No eccentricity between bearings and journal and hence there is no “Wedging action” as
shown in figure.
2) Oil film is unable to support load.
3) No lubricant flow in the axial direction
113
Prepared by: a) Unloaded
Prof. SanjayJournal bearing /FCRIT,
W. Rukhande b) Laminar
Vashi, flow
NaviofMumbai
fluid in clearance space
With reference to Figure, an expression for viscous friction drag torque is derived by considering
the entire cylindrical oil film as the “liquid block” acted upon by force F.
From Newton’s law of Viscosity: F = μ AU /h
Where F = friction torque/shaft radius = 2 T f / d
A= π d l
U = π d n (Where n is in rps and d is in m)
h = c (Where c = radial clearance = 0.5(D-d))
r = d /2
Substituting and solving for friction torque:
T f = 4 π2 μ n l r3/c ----------(1)
If a small radial load W is applied to the shaft, then the frictional drag force f w and the friction
Torque will be:
Tf = f w = 0.5 f (d l p) d ---------- (2)
Equating eon. (1) and (2) and simplifying,
Where r = 0.5 d and u in Pa. This is known as Petroff’s equation for bearing friction.
It gives reasonable estimate of co-efficient of friction of lightly loaded bearings. The first
quantity in the bracket stands for bearing modulus and second one stands for clearance ratio.
Reynolds’s Equation:
Assumption made by Reynolds to derive differential equation for hydrodynamic lubrication.
1. The lubricant obeys Newton’s law of viscosity.
2. The lubricant is incompressible.
3. The inertia forces in the oil film are negligible.
4. The viscosity of the lubricant is constant.
5. The effect of curvature of the film with respect to film thickness is neglected. It is assumed
that the film is so thin that the pressure is constant across the film thickness.
6. The shaft and the bearing are rigid.
7. There is a continuous flow of lubricant.
114
The Reynolds’s equation is
There is no exact solution to Reynolds’s equation for a journal bearing having a finite length.
However Raimondi and John Boyd solved this equation using the iteration technique. The results
of this equations are available in the form of charts and tables. In the Raimondi and John Boyd
method, the performance of the bearing is expressed in terms of dimensionless parameters.
The distance between the centres of the bearing and the journal in operating condition is called as
eccentricity.
The radial clearance c is given by, c = R-r
The eccentricity ratio ( is the ratio of R-r eccentricity to radial clearance.
From figure, R = e + r + ho
Where, ho is minimum film thickness in mm.
Radial clearance c = R-r = e + ho =
Hence,
Where,
 Bearing design parameter:
1. Lengh to diameter ratio (l/d) :

The shaft diameter is determined by strength or rigidity consideration. As l/d ratio increases oil
film pressure also increases. Hence long bearing has more load carrying capacity. But it is
difficult to get sufficient oil flow through the passage between the journal and the bearing
therefore while designing l/d is taken as 1 or less than 1.
115
Short bearing has more side flow which improves heat dissipation.
When shaft and the bearing are precisely aligned, the shaft deflection does not present a serious
problem, then l/d can be taken as more than 1.
In practice, l/d ratio varies from 0.5 to 2, but for most of the applications, l/d is taken as 1.
When l/d ratio is more than 1, the bearing is known as long bearing, when l/d ratio is less than 1,
the bearing is known as short bearing and when l/d ratio is equal to 1, the bearing is known as
square bearing.
Fig. Effect of l/d ratio on average bearing pressure
2. Unit bearing pressure: The unit bearing pressure is the load per unit of projected area of the
bearing in running condition. It depends on many factor such as bearing material, operating
temperature, the nature and frequency of load and service conditions.
The permissible bearing pressure can be selected from PSG 7.31 corresponding to application.
3. Start-up load: The unit bearing pressure for starting condition should not exceed 2MPa.
Start-up load is load on shaft when shaft is stationary. It consist of dead weight of shaft and
attachments. Start-up load used to determine minimum length of the bearing on the basis of
starting condition.
4. Radial Clearance (c) : It should be small to provide necessary velocity gradient. It required
costly finishing operations, rigid mounting and clean lubricating oil. It increases initial cost and
maintenance cost. C =(0.001)r
5. Minimum oil film thickness (ho): Surface finish of the journal and bearing is controlled by
minimum oil film thickness. Below the lower value of ho, there is metal to metal contact and
hydrodynamic film breaks.
116
6. Maximum oil film temperature: Lubricating film oxidized when operating temperature
exceeds 120 degree. Babbitt bearing tend sto soften at 125 degree celcius for bearing presure of
7MPa and at 190 degree celcius for bearing pressure of 1.4 MPa. There fore bearing temerature
should be kept minimum. The Limiting temperature for Babbit bearing is 90 degree celcius.
 Types and selection of mechanical seals.
Seals are used to prevent leakage of fluids through gaps between moving and stationary parts of
various machines. The design of a sealing device will depend upon the type and properties of the
sealed medium, i.e. pressure and temperature, as well as by the speed and direction of movement
of the seals part.
Seals are classified into;
(i) Static seals
(ii) Dynamic seals
 Static seals:
Static seats exist where then is no relative motion between the two surfaces being sealed.
Application requirements involve keeping liquid, gas or dust out.
The 0-ring is usually the first line of defence in preventing leakage of gas, fluids or preventing
environmental contamination. The O-ring is considered generally as a static seal however in a
broad range of applications, environments and limited dynamic applications.
Static Seals include: Rubber O-Rings, Military O-Rings and Metal O-Rings
 Static Radial Seals:

Static radial seals are forms when squeeze is applied to the inside diameter and outside diameter
of the O-ring. Cap and plug type configurations commonly utilise radial seals.
 Static Axial Seals:

They are formed when squeeze is applied to the top and bottom surfaces of the O-ring. Axial
seals are most often used in flange type designs where O-ring seats against the groove’s low-
pressure side.
 Dynamic Seals:
Dynamic seals create a barrier between moving and stationary surfaces in applications such as
rotating shafts and piston rings. Dynamic seals include: V Cup-Packing, Pump Seal , Labyrinth
Seal ,Oil Seal, Radial Lip Seal , Gasko-Seal , Hydraulic & Pneumatic Seal , Bearing Isolators
Exclusion Seal, Dynamic Shaft Seals.
117
These seals are used in more dynamic applications than all other
types and these can accommodate rather high speed and
continuous shaft rotation. The most common type of dynamic
shaft seal is the "Radial lip seal". In this type, a flange or lip
attached to the housing is held against the shaft. Sealing is due to
the interference fit between the flexible sealing element and the
shaft. These seals are primarily used for retaining lubricants in
equipment having rotating, reciprocating, or oscillating shafts.
These seals are also commonly known as "oil seals" or 'shaft
seals'. The rotating shaft application is most common. The lip
seals have the following advantages:
(1) Small space necessary. Fig: Construction of oil seal
(2) Relative low cost for high effectiveness.
(3) Ease of Installation.
(4) Ability to handle many variables while seating.
NUMERICALS:
1) For a full journal bearing having the following data

i) Radial load: 2800N, ii) Journal speed: 1440rpm, iii) Journal diameter: 50mm
iv) L/D=1, v) Radial clearance: 0.05mm, vi) Viscosity: 25cp
Find, Sommerfeld number, Co-efficient of friction, Minimum film thickness, Temperature rise of
oil, Oil flow rate, Heat generated and heat dissipated, Mass of lubricated oil for cooling
Solution:
Given data: Load, W = 2800N, Speed N = 1440RPM, Journal diameter D=50mm, L/D=1,
Radial clearance, C=0.05mm, Viscosity, Z=25cp
, Bearing pressure (p) = 7 – 14kgf / , assuming p =12 kgf / ... (PSG 7.31)
1. Sommerfeld number
………………………………………………….... (PSG 7.31)
118
= 0.5096
From PSG (7.36), taking the non-dimensional values corresponding to S = 0.5096
𝛜 S ϕ
0.2 0.8 0.670 68.93 7.15 3.46 29.7

0.4 0.6 0.278 58.86 3.61 3.49 16.5
3. Co-efficient of friction
Using linear interpolation,
= 5.70
4. Minimum film thickness

= 0.718
= 0.0179mm.
5. Temperature rise of oil

= 24.29
Here kgf/cm2 …………………………………………PSG 7.36)
, = 20.53 °C
119
6. Oil flow rate

= 3.472
= 5.20 cm3/s
7. Heat generated and heat dissipated.

Heat generated, Hg = µW.V …………………..... (PSG 7.34)
Hg = µW = = 361
Hg = 361 Watt = 60.16 Watt
Heat dissipated, Hd = ...................................................... (PSG 7.34)
Tavg = 58° C ............................................................................................ (PSG 7.41)
Th = Tavg - = 58 - = 47.73° C
Th – Ta = 47.73 – 30 = 17.73° C
Hd = watt = 12.17 Watt
Hg > Hd Hence, artificial cooling can be provided
8. Mass of lubricated oil for cooling

Hg = ms , Where, m= Mass of lubricated oil for cooling, s = specific heat of lubricated oil,
change in temperature (Assume 20°C)
s = (1840 – 2100) JKg/°C, et s = 1900 JKg/°C
Hg = ms ,
120
Summary:
Sommerfeld number =0.5096
Co-efficient of friction =
Minimum film thickness = 0.0179mm
Temperature rise of oil = 24.29°C
Oil flow rate = 5.20 cm3/s
Heat generated = 60.16 Watt
Heat dissipated = 12.17 Watt
Mass of lubricated oil for cooling
……………………………………………………………………………………………
121
2) For a given data for a 360 degree hydrodynamic bearing, find

i.) Dimensions ii. ) Co-efficient of friction iii.) Minimum film thickness, iv.) Viscosity of oil
v.) Temperature rise in oil vi.)Operating temperature of oil vii.) Heat generated and heat
dissipated
Given Data: W=20kN, N=1000rpm, p=1.3 N/mm2, l/d=1, fit = H8e8
Solution:
1. Dimensions
W = 20kN, p = W/LD
1.3 = 20/L2 , ∴L = D = 125 mm
From PSG 3.7 and 3.9
For shaft diameter: - , for hole diameter:-

Max. Clearance = 0.211 mm
Min. clearance = 0.085 mm
∴ Avg. clearance = 0.148 mm
Now, clearance ratio (D/C) = 125/0.148 = 845, ∴ D/C = 845
For L/D = 1, ϴ = 360
2. Minimum film thickness

From PSG 7.36, = 0.415, ∴ ho = 0.030695 mm
ϵ=1- , ∴ ϵ = 0.585
From PSG 7.36 for full bearing
ϵ S
0.4 0.264 5.79 3.99 24.3

0.6 0.121 3.22 4.33 14.2
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S = 0.137 (using interpolation)
3. Co-efficient of friction
= 5.79 + (3.22-5.79) ( ), = 3.41, ∴ = 0.004
4. Viscosity of oil
S= , 0.137 = 8452, ∴ Z = 14.36 cp
5. Temperature rise of oil
= 0.585, = 24.3 + (14.2-24.3) ( ),
= 14.96, =14.2 kgf/cm2 ………………………..…………… (PSG 7.36)
∴ = 13.69
6. Operating temperature of oil
Ta = To + , Ta = 30 + 13.69, Ta = 43.69
7. Heat generated
Hg = Wv, Hg = 0.004 x 20000 x , Hg = 523.598 Watt
8. Heat dissipated
Hd = ...... (PSG 7.34)
Tavg = 58° C .....(PSG 7.41)
Th = Tavg - = 58 - = 51.155° C
Th – Ta = 51.155 – 30 = 21.155° C
Hd = Watt = 91.36 Watt
Hg > Hd Hence, artificial cooling is provided.
123
9. Mass of lubricated oil for cooling

Hg = m.s
Where, m= Mass of lubricated oil for cooling, s = specific heat of lubricated oil,
change in temperature (Assume 20°C)
s = (1840 – 2100) JKg/°C, Let s = 1900 JKg/°C
,
Summary:
Dimensions: L= D = 125mm
Sommerfeld number =0.137
Minimum film thickness = 0.0306 mm

Temperature rise of oil = 13.69°C
Heat generated = 523.598 Watt
Heat dissipated = 91.36 Watt
Mass of lubricated oil for cooling
124
3) Design a journal bearing for the following specifications:

Load= 12 kN, Speed = 1440 RPM
Diameter of journal = 75 mm
Ambient temperature = 16
Operating oil temperature = 60

Absolute viscosity of oil at 60oc = 0.023 kg/ms
Data: W = 12x103 kN, N = 1440 RPM, D = 75 mm, To = 16 , T = 60 , Z = 0.023 kg/ms
Solution:
i) Bearing pressure
P= (Assume L/D =1 )
P= = 2.133 N/mm2
ii) Sommerfeld number
S = = , (Assume D/C =1000 )
S = 0.258
From PSG 7.36 for full bearing
0.121 3.22 4.33 14.2 0.68 0.4

0.264 5.79 3.99 24.3 0.497 0.6
iii) Minimum oil film thickness

By interpolation,
= ,∴ = 0.591
125
∴ , ∴
iv) Co-efficient of friction

By interpolation,
= ,∴ = 5.682
∴ , ∴
v) Oil quantity in circulation

By interpolation,
= ,∴ = 4.004
∴ , ∴ m3/s
q = 98864.197 X m3/s = 98864.197 X X 60 lit /min

q = 5.931 LPM
vi) Side Leakage
By interpolation, 23.833 =
∴ = 0.564, = 0.504, qs = 2.992 litre/min
vii) Power loss in friction
Pf = , Pf = 0.385 kW
viii) Temperature rise of oil
ϵ=1- = 1 – 0.591 = 0.409

By interpolation,
= , ∴ = 23.87
∴ , ∴
126
ix) Heat generated

Hg = Pf, ∴ = 0.385 kW
x) Heat dissipated
Hd = (1- ) = (1- )
(Here ….. (PSG 7.36))
Hd = 0.407 kW , Hg < Hd Hence, artificial cooling is not needed.
Summary:
Sommerfeld number = 0.258
Minimum film thickness = 0.0221mm
Temperature rise of oil = 3.58 °C
Oil flow rate = 5.931 lpm
Heat generated = 385 Watt
Heat dissipated = 407 Watt
127
MODULE 4
CAM AND ROLLER FOLLOWER MECHANISMS

 Introduction:
A cam is a rotating machine element which gives reciprocating or oscillating motion to another
element known as follower.
The cam and the follower have a line contact and constitute a higher pair. The cams are usually
rotated at uniform speed by shaft, but the follower motion is pre-determined and will be
according to the shape of the cam.
The cams are widely used for operating the inlet and exhaust valves of internal combustion
engines, automatic attachment of machineries, paper cutting machines, spinning and weaving
textile machineries, feed mechanism of automatic lathes etc.
In design of cam, it is necessary:
1. To generate the profile of cam for the given type of follower motion; and
2. To calculate the contact stress between cam and follower so as to ensure the safety of
cam and follower against pitting failure
 Terminology Used in Cam Follower

1. Base circle: It is the smallest circle that can be drawn to the cam profile.
2. Pressure angle: It is the angle between the direction of the follower motion and a normal to
the pitch curve. This angle is very important in designing a cam profile. If the pressure angle is
too large, a reciprocating follower will jam in its bearings.
3. Trace point: It is a reference point on the follower and is used to generate the pitch curve. In
case of knife edge follower, the knife edge represents the trace point and the pitch curve
corresponds to the cam profile. In a roller follower, the centre of the roller represents the trace
point.
4. Pitch point: It is a point on the pitch curve having the maximum pressure angle.
5. Pitch circle: It is a circle drawn from the centre of the cam through the pitch points.
6. Pitch curve: It is the curve generated by the trace point as the follower moves relative to the
cam. For a knife edge follower, the pitch curve and the cam profile are same whereas for a roller
follower, they are separated by the radius of the roller.
128
7. Prime circle: It is the smallest circle that can be drawn from the centre of the cam and tangent
to the pitch curve. For a knife edge and a flat face follower, the prime circle and the base circle
are identical.
8. Lift or stroke: It is the maximum travel of the follower from its lowest position to the topmost
position.
Figure: Terminology in cam and follower
 Pressure Angle and Its Significance
Pressure angle (ø): It is the angle between the axis of the follower stem and common normal
(axis of transmission) or the line of force exerted by the cam on the follower.
Pressure angle varies in magnitude during the rotation of the cam. The components of the force
along the line of motion that is Ncosø is useful component in overcoming the output load. The
perpendicular component Nsinø should be kept as small as possible to reduce friction between
the follower and its guide way.
1. When pressure angle is zero, complete transmitted force goes into the motion of the follower
and there is no side thrust on the guide of the follower.
2. When pressure angle is 90 degree, there is no force acting on the follower and hence no
motion of the follower.
3. The pressure angle should be kept up to 30 degree for translating follower and upto 35 degree
if the follower is oscillating on the pivoted arm.
129
Pressure angle equation:
The maximum pressure angle:
Where,
r – Distance between can centre and roller centre,
– Prime circle radius,
y- Instantaneous displacement of follower,
Base circle radius of cam,
– Radius of the roller,
- Angular velocity of cam.
 TYPES OF CAM:
Cams can be classified according to the shape, according to the follower moment and according
to the construction of the follower.
 According to the shape, it is further divided into six types they are:
1. Wedge or flat cams

A wedge cam has a wedge and also has translational motion. The follower can either
have translated or oscillation motion. To maintain a contact between the follower and
cam, a spring is used.
130
2. Radial or Disc Cams

The follower moves radially along with the centre of rotation, is known
as radial cam. Due to the simplicity and compactness the radial cams are
very popular. The follower oscillates about an axis parallel to the axis of
rotation of the cam.
3. Spiral cams
In the spiral cam, groove is cut in the form of a spiral and is also known
as face cam. The grove consists of teeth and they are meshed with a pin gear follower.
From the axis of the cam, the follower velocity is proportional to the groove radial
distance. Mainly the spiral cams are used in computer.
4. Cylindrical cams
Cylindrical cams are also known as drum cams or barrel cams. In
the cam, the cylinder consists of a circumferential contour cut in the
surface and the cylinder rotates about its axis.
5. Spherical cams
In the spherical cam, the follower oscillates about the axis perpendicular to the axis
surface of rotation of the cam. In the spherical cam consists of a spherical surface which
transmits motion to the follower.
 According to the follower moment:

1. Rise – Return – Rise (RRR)
In the Rise- return – Rise, there is an alternate rise and return of the follower with no
periodic form of dwells. The follower has a linear or an angular displacement.
2. Dwell – Rise – Return _ Dwell (D-R-R-D)
In Dwell – Rise – Return – Dwell after a dwell there are rise and return of the follower.
This type is used more normally than the Rise – Return – Rise type of cam.
3. Dwell – Rise – Dwell – Return – Dwell (D-R-D-R-D)
131
Dwell – Rise – Dwell – Return – Dwell is the most commonly used cam. Cam dwelling is
followed by dwell and it rises and returns successively. In the case of return of the
supporter is by a fall. The motion is known as Dwell – Rise – Dwell.
 According to the construction of the follower:

1. Preloaded spring cam
The preloaded spring is used to make a contact between the follower and the cam
2. Positive drive cam
In the positive drive cam, the contact between the follower and the cam is maintained by
a roller follower working in the groove of a cam. During normal working conditions, the
follower does not move out of the groove. By using the conjugate cam, positive drive is
obtained.
3. Gravity cam
Rising surface of the cam is achieved by rise of a cam, and the cam must be returned by
the force of gravity. This can also return due to the weight of the cam. There are certain
limitations due to the uncertain behaviour.
 TYPES OF FOLLOWER:
Classification of followers is done according to the shape, according to the movement and
according to the location of the line of movement.
 According to the shape:
1. Knife edge Follower
Knife edge follower is known as the end of the contacting follower has a “sharp knife
edge”. The sliding motion must be taken between the cam surface and knife edge. The
small contacting surface results in excess wear. The side thrust must exist between the
guide and the follower.
2. Roller follower
If the follower contacting end is a roller then it is known as the roller follower. The
rolling motion must be takes place in between the cam and the roller. The wear must be
critically reduced. The side trust exists between the guide and the follower. One can
observe the roller follower mainly when there is availability of more space in oil engines,
stationary gas and aircraft engine.
3. Mushroom Follower or Flat Faced follower
If the contacting end of the follower is flat faced, then it is known as the flat face or
mushroom follower. In this condition the side thrust between the guide and follower is
reduced very much. Due to limited space in cam the flat faced followers are used to
operate the automobile engine valves are used.
132
4. Spherical faced follower

The follower connecting end is spherical, and then it is known as spherical faced
follower.
In order to minimize the stress that is developed by the flat faced follower, the spherical
faced followers are used.
 According To The Motion Of The Follower:
1. Translating follower or reciprocating follower

The cam rotates uniformly when the follower reciprocates within the guides, it is known
as translating follower or reciprocating follower.
2. Rotating follower or oscillating follower
In the cam when the uniform rotary motion is converted into the determined oscillatory
motion of the follower, it is known as the rotating follower or oscillating follower.
 According to the path of motion of the follower:

1. Radial follower
If the line of movement of the follower passes through the centre of rotation of the cam, it
is known as radial follower.
2. Off-set follower
If the line of movement of the roller follower is offset from the centre of rotation of the
axis then it is known as the off – set follower.
 TYPES OF MOTION OF FOLLOWER:
133
Cam follower systems are designed to achieve a desired oscillatory motion. Appropriate
displacement patterns are to be selected for this purpose, before designing the cam surface. The
cam is assumed to rotate at a constant speed and the follower raises, dwells, returns to its original
position and dwells again through specified angles of rotation of the cam, during each revolution
of the cam.
Some of the standard follower motions are as follows:
1. Simple harmonic motion
2. Uniform velocity
3. Uniform acceleration and deceleration
4. Cycloidal motion
 Simple harmonic motion:

The motion executed by point Pl, which is the projection of point P on the vertical diameter is
called simple harmonic motion. Here, P moves with uniform angular velocity ωp, along a circle
of radius r (r = s/2). From figure it is seen that velocity of the follower is zero at the beginning
and at the end of each stroke and it is maximum at the mid of each stroke. The acceleration is
maximum at the beginning and at the end of each stroke and is zero at the mid of each stroke.
The jerk is zero at beginning and at the end of each stroke and is maximum at mid of each stroke.
However there are two infinite jerks at the beginning and end of each stroke because the
acceleration is suddenly brought to zero from finite value. Therefore, this motion is used only for
moderate speed.
Displacement,
Velocity, ,
Acceleration,
Where, s = Stroke or displacement of the follower.

θo = Angular displacement during outstroke.
θr = Angular displacement during return stroke
134
ω = Angular velocity of cam.
Time taken for outstroke ,
Time taken for return stroke,
Max. Velocity of follower during outstroke = Vomax = r ωp, ,
Similarly Max. Velocity of follower during return stroke,
Max. Acceleration during outstroke = aomax = rω2p =
Similarly, Max. Acceleration during return stroke,
 Uniform Velocity:
135
Figure shows the displacement, velocity and acceleration patterns of a follower having uniform
velocity type of motion. Since the follower moves with constant velocity, during rise and fall, the
displacement varies linearly with θ. Also, since the velocity changes from zero to a finite value,
within no time, theoretically, the acceleration becomes infinite at the beginning and end of rise
and fall. The line BC and DE are the straight lines representing the rise and return of the stroke.
AB, CD and EF represent dwell period.
 Motion of follower with uniform acceleration and retardation or parabolic motion:
Fig shows the displacement

diagram of follower when it
moves with uniform
acceleration and retardation.
During the first half of the

outward motion, the
follower moves with
uniform acceleration and
during the remaining half of
the stroke it moves with the uniform retardation. During the first half of the return stroke, the
follower moves with uniform retardation and during the remaining half of the stroke it moves
with uniform acceleration.
The procedure for drawing the uniform displacement diagram of follower with uniform
acceleration and deceleration is as follows:
a. Divide the angular displacement of cam during out stroke and return stroke into equal
number of parts (say 6) and draw vertical lines through these points.
b. Draw a vertical line through point 3 and divide it into same equal number of parts say 6.
Named A, B, C, D, E and F.
c. Join OA, oB, oC, fD, fE and fF etc.
136
d. The intersection of these lines with the

vertical lines drawn from points
1,2,3,4,5,and 6 give the points o,a,b,c,d,e
and f.
e. The curve joining these points represent the
displacement curve for outstroke.
f. Follow the same procedure for return
stroke also.
Figure shows the displacement, velocity

acceleration and jerk of follower with uniform
acceleration and retardation (parabolic motion).
From figure it is seen that velocity increases from
0 to maximum during uniform acceleration and it
again reduces to 0 during retardation. The
magnitude of acceleration remains throughout the
cycle but in second half the direction is opposite to
first half of acceleration.
The jerk is infinite throughout the cycle, the infinite jerk will give rise to shock load which
causes vibrations and high stresses .therefore this motion can be used for low and moderate cam
motion only.
 Motion of follower with Cycloidal motion:
Cycloid is the path generated by a point on the circumference of a circle, as the circle rolls
without slipping, on a straight/flat surface. The motion executed by the follower here, is similar
to that of the projection of a point moving along a cycloidal curve on a vertical line as shown in
figure.
The cycloid is the locus of a point on the circle which is rolled on a straight line,
137
Figure : displacement diagram of the follower when it moves with cycloidal motion .
The procedure of drawing the displacement diagram with cycloidal motion is as follows:
1. Divide the angular displacement of cam into equal parts (say 6)

2. Draw the diagonal line Of.
3. Draw a circle at point ‘o’ such the circumference is equal to follower displacement. i.e.
2 r =h .Therefore, r =hm/2 . This circle is also divided into the same no. of parts as cam
displacement.
4. Project the circle point in its vertical diameter and then in a direction parallel to the
diagonal ‘of’ to the corresponding vertical line1.2.3.4,……6 etc giving the intersection
points a,b,c,…..f etc
5. Draw the curves through the points a,b,c,d…f etc which gives the cycloidal displacement
curves for the follower during outstroke,
6. Project points a,b,c…..d etc corresponding vertical line 7,8,9,10….etc Which give the
intersecting points h,i,j,k….etc which gives the cycloidal displacement curve for the
follower during return stroke.
From figure it is seen that the velocity of the follower is zero at the beginning and at the end of
stroke and it is maximum at the mid of
each stoke.
The acceleration is zero at the beginning,

mid and at the end of stroke and is
maximum at one fourth and three fourth
of each stroke.
The jerk is maximum at the beginning,

end and mid of each stroke and is zero at
one fourth and three fourth of each
stroke.
It may be noted that jerk is having finite

value throughout the cam angle therefore
cycloidal curve is best suited for high
speed cams as compared to other
motions discussed so far.
138
 DESIGN OF VALVE SPRING

The design of spring involves the determination of following parameters
Wire diameter (d), Mean coil diameter (D), Number of active coils (n), Total number of coils (n')
Maximum deflection of spring ( ), Solid length ( ), Free length ( ) ,Pitch of coil (p), Natural
frequency of spring ( )
=maximum spring force, N , =minimum spring force, N
=maximum compression of spring, mm , d = wire diameter, mm
D= mean coil diameter, mm

C= spring index . It is taken as 6 to 10 for valve spring.
=shear stress correction factor =
=Wahl shear stress factor=
=number of active coils
=total number of coils
G=modulus of capacity for spring material,
=mass of spring, kg
=solid length of a spring, mm
=free length of spring, mm
p=pitch of coil, mm
K=stiffness of spring , N/mm. It is generally taken as 10 to 12 N/mm for valve spring.
=mean shear stress induced in spring,
=shear stress amplitude in spring ,
=ultimate tensile strength for spring wire,

139
=yield strength in shear for spring wire, =0.45
=endurance limit in shear for spring wire, =0.22
G=modulus of rigidity for spring material,
=factor of safety. It is 1.5 to 2.0 for valve spring
(i)Wire diameter (d):

The spring is subjected to fluctuating forces. It is subjected to hundreds of millions of stress
cycles during its life time. Therefore, it is to be designed for fatigue loading using the modified
Soderberg diagram.
The mean force ' ' and force amplitude ' ' on spring are,
= .... (a) and = .....(b)
The mean shear stress ' ' and shear stress amplitude ‘ ' are given by:
= ...(c) and = ... (d)
Where, = and =
The wire diameter can be determined by using relation:
...(1)
(ii) Mean diameter of coil (D): D = Cd ... (2)
(iii) Number of active coils ( ):
The number of active coils is given by, ... (3)
(iv) Total number of coils ( ):
The square and ground ends are used for valve springs. Therefore,
... (4)
(v) Maximum compression of spring ( ):
The maximum compression of the spring is given by, ... (5)
140
(vi) Solid length ( ): ... (6)
(vii)Free length ( ); = Solid length +Maximum compression + Total clearance between coils
in compressed condition.
The total clearance between the coils in compressed condition is taken as 15% of Maximum
compression. Therefore,
Or ... (7)
(viii) Pitch of coil (p): The pitch of coil is determined by using relation,
, ... (8)
(ix) Natural frequency of spring ( ):
If the natural frequency of the spring coincides with the frequency of operation of cam, a
resonance occurs and very large deflections of coil will be produced with correspondingly high
stresses. This phenomenon is as surge in spring. Under this condition, the failure of spring may
take place. To avoid the possibility of surge in springs, it is necessary to ensure that natural
frequency of spring be considerably remote from frequency of application of the load.
The natural frequency of spring is given by
 Design Procedure for Cam and Follower

Step 1: Motion Analysis of follower
1. Displacement Analysis
Displacement equations for different notions are given on PSG 7.110.
Put different values of θ and plot the graph between h vs θ.
2. Velocity Analysis
Similarly get the velocity equation from PSG 7.110 and plot the respective graph.
3. Acceleration Analysis
Similarly get the acceleration equation from PSG 7.110 and plot the respective graph.
141
Step 2: Calculation of prime circle radius Rp and base circle radius Rb. Also calculate ρkmin and
ρkmax. Where, ρkmin – radius of curvature of pitch curve, ρkmax – radius of curvature of cam
profile (Refer PSG 7.113 and PSG 7.114 for above calculations)
Step 3: Force Analysis
Analyze the forces acting on the cam and follower mechanism by initially excluding the spring
force and then including the spring force.
Step 4: Determination of cam width and pin diameter
1. From PSG 7.115 get the formula for contact stress. Select suitable cam and follower
material from PSG 7.115 and calculate the cam width. Select suitable value of cam width
for safe design. The safety condition is
2. Select suitable pin material from PSG 1.9and calculate the pin diameter considering
double shear is acting on the pin. Select suitable value for safe design.
Roller Pin Design

Step 5: Spring and Cam Shaft Design
1. Select required parameters from PSG 7.105 and PSG 7.100. Select spring material from
PSG 7.102 and PSG 7.105 and design spring accordingly.
2. Select suitable material for Cam Shaft from PSG 1.9. Calculate the shaft diameter
considering shear stress is acting on the shaft.
142
143
Numerical:
1. A rotary disc cam with central translatery roller follower has following motion. Forward
stroke of 30mm in 900 of cam rotation with SHM motion, dwell of 500 of cam rotation
and return stroke of 30mm in 1000 of cam rotation with SHM. Remaining dwell to
complete the cycle. Mass of the follower is 1kg and cam shaft speed is 500rpm. The
maximum pressure angle during forward stroke and return stroke is limited to 220. The
external force during forward stroke is 400N and that of return stroke is 50N. Find cam
dimension, roller follower along with pin and spring.
Solution:
Given that,
h = maximum follower displacement/stroke of follower = 30mm
θO = angular displacement of cam in out stroke = 900
θR = angular displacement of cam in return stroke = 1000
Maximum pressure angle, αmax = 220 during forward stroke
External force Fext = 400N (Forward Stroke), Fext = 50N (Return Stroke)
Follower motion = SHM (both)
ω= = = 52.359 rad/sec
Step 1: Motion analysis of follower

A. Displacement analysis
For SHM, displacement is given by the equation from PSG 7.110
Where, y – follower displacement instantaneous

h – Maximum follower displacement
Displacement diagram:
144
B. Velocity analysis
From PSG 7.110,
Where, θ – Cam angle for displacement y

β – Cam angle for rise h
h – Maximum rise of follower
At θ = 00 and θ = β, v=0
At θ = β/2 for forward stroke
Therefore, V = Vmax = = 1.57 m/sec
For return stroke,

At θ = 00 and θ = β2, V=0
At θ = β2/2, V = Vmax for return stroke
Fig: Velocity Diagram
Therefore, V = Vmax = = 1.178 m/sec
C. Acceleration analysis
From PSG 7.110,
At point 2 and 5; a = 0 for forward stroke

At θ = 0; a = amax
Therefore, amax = = 164.49 m/sec2
At point 3; θ = β1
amax = = -164.49 m/sec2
During return stroke

At point 4; θ = 00
145
Therefore, amax = = 133.24 m/sec2
Similarly at point 6; θ = β2
Therefore, amax = = -133.24 m/sec2
Acceleration Diagram:
Step 2: Calculation of prime circle radius Rp and base circle radius Rb. Also calculate ρkmin
and ρcmin
 Based on forward stroke ,
From PSG 7.113,
Therefore, dy/dθ = (dy/dt)(dt/dθ) = 1/ω (dy/dt)max

Therefore, dt/dθ = ω and dy/dt = vmax
yθ = displacement of follower at this angle y(θ=β/2) at vmax = 0.015m
Therefore, Rp = 0.0592 m 60 mm
 Now based on return stroke
Vmax = 1.178 m/sec, αmax = 220 , Therefore, Rp = 0.0406 m 40.6 mm

146
Selecting higher value of Rp such that the pressure angle remains within permissible limit and
also to avoid interference undercutting of cam.
Rp = 60 mm
Now assuming roller radius Rr = 15 mm

Base circle radius, Rb = Rp –Rr = 60 -15 = 45 mm
Pitch circle radius, Ra =Rp + yθp
Now for θp i.e. angle corresponding to pitch point is given by.
For SHM,
On solving, we get
θp = 39.290 i.e. cam angle at pitch point
Therefore, yθp = = 12.03 mm
Therefore, Pitch circle radius, Ra = Rp + yθp = 72.03 mm

 For roller follower (convex profile)
From PSG 7.114 ,
For y at point 3, y = 30 mm, Rp + y = 90 mm
dy/dt = 0 at point 3; = 0 and = -133.24/(52.359)2 = -0.0486
Therefore,
ρkmin = 0.0584m = 58.4 mm > Rr (radius of roller) … to avoid undercutting
From PSG 7.114 ,
Radius of curvature of cam profile,
ρcmin = ρkmin – Rr = 58.4 – 15 = 43.4 mm > 0 … to avoid undercutting
147
Step 3: Force Analysis on cam and follower mechanism

Initially excluding spring force
Fresultant = mg + mẍ + Fext
Points Force in N
1 1x9.81 + 1x164.49 + 400 = 574.3
2 1x9.81 + 0 + 400 = 409.81
3 1x9.81 + 1x(-164.49) + 400 = 245.32
4 1x9.81 + 1x(-133.24) + 50 = -73.43
5 1x9.81 + 0 + 50 = 59.81
6 1x9.81 + 1x133.24 + 50 = 193.05
To maintain a continuous contact between roller follower and cam, let us introduce a spring of
stiffness k. Generally the force between cam and follower at any instant should not be less than
(20-30 N).
Therefore, Fresultant 20 N, F4 + Fspring = 20, Therefore, Fspring = 97.43 N
Stiffness, k = F/d, Therefore, k = 97.43/30 = 3.248 N/mm

Initial compression of spring. Fs = k x ϰ
Therefore, ϰ = 6.158 mm
(When spring is compressed at that time force on spring is Fresultant)
Actual Force Analysis including spring force
Point Deflection F = mg + mẍ + Fext + k(ϰ + d) [Total force in N]
in spring
1 0 574.3 + 20 = 594.3
2 15 409.81 + 20 + 3.348x15 = 480.03
3 30 245.32 + 20 + 3.348x30 = 365.76
4 30 -73.43 + 20 + 3.348x30 = 47.01 > 20
5 15 59.81 + 20 + 3.348x15 = 130.03
6 0 193.05 + 20 = 213.05
148
Now, Fmax = 594.3 N at point 1,

Therefore, Normal force at the point of contact,
Pn = = 594.3/cos22 = 640.97 N

 From PSG 7.115, Contact Stress is given by,
(Note: +ve sign for convex profile and –ve sign for concave profile)
Considering roller material as hardened steel and cam material as C-20 then for steel
E1 = E2 = 2 x 105 N/mm2
From PSG 7.115, [σc] = 5000 kgf/cm2 = 500 N/mm2 (Assuming 8.3% sliding)
Therefore,
On solving b = 8.033 mm [Let b = 10 mm]

Checking for condition,
Therefore, 10/90 = 0.111 0.3, Hence, safe
Assuming pin material as C-20, From PSG 1.9, σy = 260 N/mm2 and [τ] = 45 N/mm2
Considering double shear of pin, Pn = 2 x x dp2 x [τ]
Therefore, 640.97 = 2 x x dp2 x 45, Therefore, dp = 3.011 mm 5 mm
Step 5: Spring and Cam Shaft Design
Fs max = (h + ϰ) x k = (30 + 6.158) x 3.348 = 121.06 N

Assuming design force, [Fs max] = 121.06 x 1.3 = 157.37 N
For spring, steel material PSG 7.102 and 7.105
149
Therefore, design stress, [τ] = 0.263 σu (for severe service)
Assume dwire = 5 mm and Grade Ⅰ (PSG 7.105)
[τ] = 0.263 x 1210 = 318.23 N/mm2, τinduce = …….[PSG 7.100]
where, ks – stress factor, for spring index C=6, ks = 1.2525
Therefore, τinduce = 1.2525 x = 120.46 N/mm2 < [τ] …………. Safe
No of turns, = 85.34 86 turns … [PSG 7.100]
D = C x d = 6 x 5 = 30 mm
 Design of Cam Shaft:
Fnet max = 594.3 N [from force table] , Vmax = 1.57 m/s [Comparing points 2 and 5]
Therefore, Torque = = 17.82 N-m
Fmax = 594.3 N
L = 3b = 30 mm
B.M. max = (Fmax x L)/4 = 4.457 N-m
Equivalent Torque, Te = = 35.92 N-m

Assuming C-30 material for shaft,
σy = 300 N/mm2, [τ] = 0.5 σu/4,
Let [τ] = 40 N/mm2
150
Te = Π/16 [τ].ds3,
35920 = Π/16 x 40 x ds3
ds = 16.599mm
Let ds =18mm
SUMMARY
Parameters Values
Maximum Velocity in Forward Stroke 1.57 m/sec
Maximum Velocity in Return Stroke 1.178 m/sec
Maximum Acceleration in Forward Stroke 164.49 m/sec2
Maximum Acceleration in Return Stroke 133.24 m/sec2
Prime Circle Radius (Rp) 60 mm

Base Circle Radius (Rb) 45 mm
Pitch Circle Radius (Ra) 72.03 mm
Radius of curvature of pitch curve 58.4 mm
Radius of curvature of cam profile 43.4 mm
Spring Force 97.43 N
Spring Stiffness 3.248 N/mm
Initial Compression of Spring 6.158 mm
Normal force at point of contact 640.97 N
Cam width 10 mm
Pin Diameter 5 mm
No. of turns 86 turns
151
Diameter of Spring 30 mm
Diameter of Cam Shaft 18 mm
NUMERICAL 2:
A rotary disc cam with central translatery roller follower has following motion. Forward stroke
of 30mm in 1000 of cam rotation with parabolic motion, dwell of 400 of cam rotation and return
stroke of 30mm in 800 of cam rotation with cycloidal. Remaining dwell to complete the cycle.
Mass of the follower is 1.5 kg and cam shaft speed is 600 RPM. The maximum pressure angle
during forward stroke and return stroke is limited to 250. The external force during forward
stroke is 500N and that of return stroke is 100N. Design cam, roller follower, spring, cam shaft.
Solution:
Given that,
h = maximum follower displacement/stroke of follower = 30mm
θO = angular displacement of cam in out stroke = 1000
θR = angular displacement of cam in return stroke = 800
Maximum pressure angle, αmax = 250 during forward stroke
External force Fext = 500N (Forward Stroke), Fext = 100N (Return Stroke)
Follower motion = Parabolic motion (forward stroke)
Follower motion = Cycloidal motion (return stroke)
ω= = = 62.359 rad/sec
Forward Stroke – Parabolic motion , Return Stroke – Cycloidal motion
STEPS 1 :- MOTION ANALYSIS OF FOLLOWER

A) Displacement analysis :-
for
for
For return stroke
152
, Plot h- for different values of
B) VELOCITY ANALYSIS :-
For forward stroke from PSG 7.110 for parabolic motion
for , at
For return stroke ,

at
for cycloidal from PSG 7.110
= 2.639 m/s
c) ACCLERATION ANALYSIS:-
For forward stroke from PSG 7.110 for parabolic motion
AND ,
=155.51 m/
For return-stroke – for cycloidal motion
at , = 381.56 m/
at
=-381.68 m/
153
Step 2: Calculation of prime circle radius Rp and base circle radius Rb. Also calculate ρkmin
and ρcmin.
Rp - Prime circle radius, Rb - Base circle radius, ρkmin - Radius of curvature of pitch curve, ρcmin
- Radius of curvature of cam profile
Based on outward stroke
From PSG 7.113, , Therefore, dy/dθ = (dy/dt)(dt/dθ) = 1/ω (dy/dt)max
Therefore, dt/dθ = ω and dy/dt = vmax

, Therefore, Rp = 0.05872 m 59 mm
Now based on return stroke
From PSG 7.113,
Therefore, dy/dθ = (dy/dt)(dt/dθ) = 1/ω (dy/dt)max

Therefore, dt/dθ = ω and dy/dt = vmax = 2.7/62.83=0.0429731
154
Therefore, Rp = 0.077 m 77 mm
Here maximum negative acceleration is -155.51m/s2
At maximum negative acceleration, y=h/2=30/2=15mm=0.015m
(Rp +y)=59+15=74mm=0.074m
dy/dt=2.16 at point of maximum negative acceleration.
= =0.0343, & = -155.51=-0.39393
= =0.05050m=50.50mm Rr,
To avoid undercutting (see PSG 7.114) , and radius of curvature of cam profile-
From PSG 7.114 , ρcmin = ρkmin – Rr = 50.50 – 15 = 35.5 mm > 0 … to avoid undercutting
Step 3: Force Analysis
Initially excluding spring force. The force acting on cam , Fresultant = mg + mẍ + Fext
POINTS FORCE IN NEWTON (N)
1 1.5*9.81 + 1.5*155.51+500 = 747.48
2 1.5*9.81 + 1.5*(155.51) +500 = 747.48
3 1.5*9.81 + 1.5*(-155.51) +500 = 281.45
4 1.5*9.81 + 1.5*(-155.51) +500 = 281.45
6 1.5*9.81 + 1.5*0 + 100 = 114.715
7 1.5*9.81 + (-1.5)*381.68 + 100 = -457.8
8 1.5*9.81 + 1.5*0 + 100 = 114.715
9 1.5*9.81 + (-1.5)*(-381.68) + 100 = 687.235
10 1.5*9.81 + (-1.5)(0) + 100 = 114.715
155
From above table at point 7 there is a chance of separation of cam and follower. Therefore let us
introduce spring of Stiffness k. Generally the force between cam and follower at any instant
should not be less than 20-30N.
Therefore, we can write,
FResultant ≥ 30N, F7 + FSpring = 30
 FSpring = 30-(-457.8) = 487.8N,
, , k = 21.68 N/mm
Initial Compression of the spring

Fs = k x, 30 = 21.68 * x , x = 1.3837 mm
Force analysis including the spring force
POINTS DEFLECTION F = mg + mẍ + Fext + k(ϰ + d) [Total force in N]

OF SPRING
1 0 747.98 + 30 = 777.98 N
2 15 747.98 + 30 + (21.68*15) = 1103.18 N
3 15 281.45 + 30 + (21.68*15) = 636.65 N
4 30 281.45 + 30 +(21.68*30) = 961.85 N
6 30 114.715 + 30 + (21.68*30) = 795.115 N
7 22.5 -457.8 + 30 + (21.67*22.5) = 607.30 N
8 15 114.715 + 30 + (21.68*15) = 469.915
9 7.5 687.235 +30 + (21.68*7.5) = 879.835
10 0 114.715 + 30 + (21.68*0) = 144.715 N
Now, Fmax = 1103.18 N

Normal force acting on cam (PSG 7.115)
Pn = = = 1217.22 N
156

From PSG 7.115, Contact Stress is given by,
Considering roller material as hardened steel and cam material as C-20, then
[c] = 500 kgf/cm2 = 500 N/mm2
Assuming 8.3% sliding, From PSG 7.115
E1 = E2 =
b = 16.12 mm, Taking b = 18 mm

Check for condition b/dbase ≤ 0.3
, Hence safe.
Assuming pin material ZSC – 20, y = 260 N/mm2……..PSG 1.9

 = 0.5 * y/f.o.s = 0.5 * 250/3 ,  = 43.033 N/mm2., Take  = 45 N/mm2
Consider double shear of pin
Pn = ,
dp = 4.15mm , Take dp = 6 mm
STEP V: - Spring and Cam Shaft Design

Fs max = (h + x)k = (30=1.3837) 21.68
Design load , Fs max 1.3 * 680.39 = 884.5N
For spring steel material from PSG 7.102 and 7.105
Zper = 0.263 * u (For severe service)
Assume d = 5 33 and Gr.1
157
Zper 0.263 * 1210 , u = 1210 N/mm2

Zper =318.23n/mm2
Zind = …..PSG 7.100
Ks=Wahl’s stress factor , For spring index 6
= 1.2525
Zind = = 677.05N/mm2 > Zper= 468.14N/mm2
Hence failed , Take Gr. 4 Zper=0.263*1780 =468.14 N/mm2

Zind= 677.05 N/mm2 > Zper=468.14N/mm2, hence failed
let take d = 6mm and Gr. 4 , Zind = =470.18 N/mm2
and Zper=0.263*1700 = 447.1 N/mm2

Till Zind>Zper hence failed, Take d= 7 mm and Gr. 4
τinduce = , τinduce = 345.43N/mm2, and τper=0.263 1640
i.e. τper=431.32N/mm2, Now, τinduce τper, Spring is safe
Number of turns n = from PSG 7.19
n = =15.69 turns, D = c d=6 7= 42
Design of Cam Shaft

Fnetmax=1103.18N
Vmax=2.7m/s (Comparing both Vmax)
Torque= = =47.4Nm
Taking design Torque as Td=2Torque=2 47.4=94.8Nm
B.M = = = 14892.93 N-m

Equivalent torque = Te = (Tf2 + BM2)1/2 = (94.82 + 14892.932) = 14893.23 N
Assuming C-30 material of shaft, N/mm2 ……………….. PSG 1.9
158
= 0.5* = 0.5 , = 37.5 N/mm2
Take 40 N/mm2, Te = ds3
14843.23 *103 = * 40 * ds3, ds = 123.77 mm
Take ds = 125 mm
159
Chapter 5
BELT AND CHAIN DRIVE DESIGN
 Introduction
Belt, chain and rope drives are called ‘flexible’ drive. There are two types of drives- rigid
and flexible. Gear drives are called rigid or non-flexible drives. In gear drives, there is
direct contact between the driving and driven shafts through the gears. In flexible drives,
there is an intermediate link such as belt, rope or chain between the driving and driven
shafts. Since this link is flexible, the drives are called ‘flexible’ drives. In gear drives,
rotary motion of the driving shaft is directly converted into rotary motion of the driven
shaft by means of pinions and gear.
 Selection of belt
Belt drives are built under the following required conditions: speeds of and power
transmitted between drive and driven unit; suitable distance between shafts; and
appropriate operating conditions. The equation for power is:
Power (kW) = (Torque in newton-meters) × (rpm) × (2π radians)/ (60 sec × 1000 W)
Factors of power adjustment include speed ratio;
1. Shaft distance (long or short);
2. Type of drive unit (electric motor, internal combustion engine);
3. Service environment (oily, wet, dusty);
4. Driven unit loads (jerky, shock, reversed);
5. pulley-belt arrangement (open, crossed, turned)
 Types of belt drive

There are four basic types of belts
1. Flat belts
The flat belts are rectangular in cross section. In flat belts, the width of belt is substantially
higher than the thickness of belt. They can be used to transmit a moderate amount of power
from one pulley to another, when the two pulleys are not more than 15 metre apart.
160
2. V-belts
The V-belts are trapezoidal in cross section. They can be used to transmit a large amount of
power from one pulley to another, when the two pulleys are relatively close to each other.
3. Circular belts or ropes

The circular belts or ropes are circular in cross section. They can be used to transmit a large
amount of power from one pulley to another, when the two pulleys are more than 5 metre
apart.
4. Timing belts
The timing belts or toothed transmit the power by means of teeth rather than friction; hence
there is no slip.
 Types of flat belt drives:

1. Open belt drive
2. Cross belt drive
3. Open belt drive with idler pulley
4. Multiple belt drive
5. Quarter turn belt drive
6. Compound belt drive
7. Stepped or cone pulley drive
8. Fast and loose pulley drive
 Materials:
The desired properties of the materials used for the belts are
High coefficient of friction, High flexibility, Durability, High strength
The different materials used for the flat belt are as follows
1. Leather, 2. Fabric, 3. Rubber, 4. Polyester or polyamide
Rubber canvas material properties :- [σu] = 40-45 N/mm2, E = 100 N/mm2, µ = 0.3 ,
ρ = 1000-1200 kg/m3
161
 Belt Speeds:
Linear speed of the belt
V= =
D*N = d*n, = , Speed Ratio, i = =
If the thickness of belt is considered, then Speed Ratio, i = =
The belt speed should be between 17.5 m/s < V < 22.5m/s
 Slip of the belt:

The difference in the linear speeds of the pulley rim and the belt is known as slip and is
generally expressed as a percentage.
Let, S1 = percentage slip between the driving pulley and the belt
S2 =percentage slip between the belt and the driven pulley
V = linear speed of the belt, mm/s
Linear speed of the belt, V = - *
Or V= [1- ] … (a)
Again, =V–V*
Or = V [1- ] … (b)
Substituting the value of ‘V’ from equation (a) in equation (b)
= [1- ] [1- ], = [1- ] [1- ]
= [1- ] = [1- ], Or = [1- ]
Speed ratio, i = = [1- ] , Where, s = S1 + S2 = Total percentage slip
If the thickness’’ of the belt is considered, then, Speed ratio, i = = [1- ]
162
 Creep of belt:
When the belt moves over the pulley to transmit power, the tension in the tight side is more
than the tension in slack side. As the belt material is elastic, it elongates more on tight side than
on slack side, resulting in unequal stretching on two sides of the drive. Therefore, the length
of the belt received by the driving pulley is more than the length that moves of the driving
pulley. Hence, belt must creep back slightly relative to driving pulley rim. On the other
hand, the length of the belt received by the driven pulley is less than the length that moves of
the driven pulley. Hence, the belt must creep forward slightly relative to driven pulley rim.
This motion of belt relative to driving and driven pulley due to unequal stretching of the two
sides of the drive is known as creep.
Difference between slip and creep:

Creep is due to the elastic property of belt whereas, the conventional slip is due to insufficient
frictional grip between the belt and pulley. However, the effect of the creep as well as slip is to
reduce the speed ratio, and hence power transmission.
 Power transmission of the belt:

Power transmitted between a belt and a pulley is expressed as the product of difference of
tension and belt velocity:
P = (T2 – T1) v
Where, T1 and T2 are tensions in the tight side and slack side of the belt respectively. They are
related as:
 Tension ratios:
Tension ratios is defined as ratio of tension in the tight side to tension in the slack side
= .....For flat Belt, = .....For V-Belt
where, μ is the coefficient of friction between belt material and pulley material (0.2 to 0.3) , α is
the angle subtended by contact surface at the centre of the pulley in radian and β is the semi
cone angle of V-cross section (widely β =20 degree).
163
 Centrifugal tensions:
When the belt continuously runs over the pulleys, therefore, some centrifugal force is caused
whose effect is to increase the tension on both the tight as well as the slack sides. The tension
caused by centrifugal force is called centrifugal tension. At lower belt speeds (less than 10 m/s),
the centrifugal tension is very small, but at higher belt speeds (more than 10 m/s), its effect is
considerable and thus should be taken into account.
Let Tc = Centrifugal tension in the belt, N

M = mass of the belt per unit length, Kg/m
V = linear speed of the belt, m/s
r = radius of the pulley over which the belt runs, m
Consider a small element ‘PQ’ of the belt subtending an angle of ‘dϴ’ at the centre of the pulley.
Centrifugal force acting on belt element ‘PQ’ = mass * centripetal acceleration
= M r dϴ * = m V2 dϴ
Consider an equilibrium of force on belt element ‘PQ’ in Y-direction

M V2 dϴ - 2 Tc sin (dϴ / 2) = 0
M V2 dϴ - 2 Tc(dϴ / 2) = 0
Tc= M V2
Thus the centrifugal tension depends upon
164
1. The mass of the belt per unit length ‘M’, 2. The belt speed ‘V’.
 Condition for maximum power with centrifugal tension (Tc):
When centrifugal tension is neglected , T1 / T2 = eµθ

T1 = Tight side tension in Newton (N)
T2 = Slack side tension in Newton (N)
µ = Coefficient of friction between the pulley and belt materials
θ = Angle of contact or angle of lap on the smaller pulley
Initial tension = Ti = (T1 + T2)/2
Power transmitted = (T1 –T2) v Watts (W)
v is the linear velocity of the belt in meters , v =πD N/60
Where N is rpm and D is the diameter of the pulley in meters,
When centrifugal tension is considered , Tc = m v2
Where m is mass of belt PER UNIT LENGTH, kg/m
Initial tension = Ti = ((T1 + T2)/2 + Tc)
Ttight = T1 + Tc
Tslack = T2 + Tc
Ttight / Tslack = eµθ
Power transmitted = (Ttight — Tslack) v Watt
Condition for maximum power transmission :
Tmax = 3 m v2
T1 = (2/3) Tmax
T2 = (1/3) Tmax
V = (Tmax/3 m) 0.5
Max Power = (2/3) Tmax (1 — eµθ)x( (Tmax/3 m)0.5) Watts
 Initial Tension in the belt:
When a belt is wound round the two pulleys (i.e. driver and follower), its two ends are joined
together, so that the belt may continuously move over the pulleys, since the motion of the belt
(from the driver) and the follower (from the belt) is governed by a firm grip due to friction
between the belt and the pulleys. In order to increase this grip, the belt is tightened up. At this
stage, even when the pulleys are stationary, the belt is subjected to some tension, called initial
tension.
When the driver starts rotating, it pulls the belt from one side (increasing tension in the belt on
this side) and delivers to the other side (decreasing tension in the belt on that side). The increased
165
tension in one side of the belt is called tension in tight side and the decreased tension in the other
side of the belt is called tension in the slack side.
Let, T0 = Initial tension in the belt,
T1 = Tension in the tight side of the belt,
T2 = Tension in the slack side of the belt, and
α = Coefficient of increase of the belt length per unit force.
A little consideration will show that the increase of tension in the tight side = T1 – T0
and increase in the length of the belt on the tight side = α (T1 – T0) …(i)
Similarly, decrease in tension in the slack side = T0 – T2
and decrease in the length of the belt on the slack side = α (T0 – T2) …….(ii)
Assuming that the belt material is perfectly elastic such that the length of the belt remains
constant, when it is at rest or in motion, therefore increase in length on the tight side is equal to
decrease in the length on the slack side. Thus, equating equations (i) and (ii), we have
α (T1 – T0) = α (T0 – T2) or T1 – T0= T0– T2
.’. T0 = (T1+ T2)/2 (Neglecting centrifugal tension)
To = (T1 + T2 + 2Tc)/2 (Considering centrifugal tension)
Note: In actual practice, the belt material is not perfectly elastic. Therefore, the sum of the
tensions T1 and T2, when the belt is transmitting power, is always greater than twice the initial
tension. According to C.G. Barth, the relation between T0, T1 and T2 is given by,
T1 + T2 = 2 T0
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 Design Procedure of Flat Belt
STEP 1: Calculate Design Power

STEP 2: Calculation of diameter using savarin relations from the data given, take the centre
distance, dia. of the pulley & speed ratio. (Or assuming belt velocity)
STEP 3: Calculation of actual belt speed, v =𝜋 d N/60 m/s.
STEP 4: From limiting value of speed selecting pulley material
STEP 5: Calculate diameter of bigger pulley
STEP 6: Calculate center distance
STEP 6: Calculate the length of the belt
STEP 7: Calculation of arc of contact (PSG 7.54).
STEP 8: Determine the belt material
STEP 9: Determine expected life of belt
STEP 10: Calculation of allowable tensile stress and Belt dimensions.
STEP 11: Design of shaft
STEP 12: Pulley construction
STEP 13: Arm construction
NUMERICALS
Problem 1 : Design a Flat Belt drive for the following specification;
Power = 15KW, Input Speed = 1440rpm, Output Speed = 440rpm , expected life of the belt is
1year.
Solution:
STEP 1:- From PSG 7.53, Assuming steady load

Design power , [P] = 1.2 x P = 1.2 x 15 = 18 KW
STEP 2 :- Let D1 and D2 be the diameters of smaller and bigger pulley respectively,
By Severain's relation, 1100 < Dmin < 1300
1100 < Dmin < 1300
255.18 < Dmin < 301.70 mm ,

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From PSG 7.54

Selecting standard diameter of pulley as , D1 = 280 mm
STEP 3:-Check for belt speed (PSG 7.54)
V= = = 21.11 m/s
STEP 4:- Material for pulley,

Cast Iron as V < 30 m/s
CI pulley is selected.
STEP 5 :- Bigger pulley diameter
D2 = D1 x xη [Assuming η = 98%, 2% slip]
D2 = 280 x x 0.98 = 898.036 mm
Selecting standard diameter of the pulley as D2 = 900 mm.... PSG 7.54,

Checking for output speed, N2
N2 = 21.11 x 60 x 1000/pi x D2 = 447.96 rpm
STEP 6:- Centre distance and Belt length
Assuming Centre distance , C = 2D2 = 2 x 900 = 1800 mm
, Considering Open Drive Belt Length (L) is given by
L = 2C + (D2 + D1) + ....... PSG 7.53
L = 5506.928 mm = 5.506 m
STEP 7 :- Angle of lap (θ)
For smaller pulley,
Angle of lap θ = 180 - 2 α , where, α= = 9.91 ,let α = 10 degree
Hence , θ = 180 - 2 x 10 = 160 degree

STEP 8: Selection of belt material
Rubber Canvas
σu = 4.5 N/mm2, ρ = 1200 kg / m3, E = 100 N/ mm2, µ = 0.25
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STEP 9 :- Belt tension
= eµθ = =2
T1 = 2T2
T1 - T2 =
T1 - T2 = 18/21.11, T2 = 852.67 N , T1 = 1705.35 N

STEP 10 :- Selected life in hours
Assume 10 hours 1 day - 360 days/year
Lhr = 1 year x 360 x x 10 = 3600 hours
Expected life of belt in number of stress cycles
n = Lhr x 3600 x x 2 = 99.57 x 106 cycles
STEP 11 :- Maximum allowed tensile stress in belt for given life is given by
[ ] ^m =
where σ-1 = 0.2 σut ( based on 10-6 cycles )

σ-1 = 0.2 x 4.5 = 9 N/mm2 , m = 6 for flat belt
σtmax = 6.13 N/mm2
σtmax = + + ρv2 x 10-6
Assuming = 10, as ( = 6 20 )
b = 10t
6.13 = + + 1200 x 21.112 x 10-6
t = 7.78 mm , t = 8 mm, b = 80 mm
STEP 12 :- Pulley dimension & shaft design
For driving pulley
D1 = 280 mm < 400 mm, hence it is web type construction.
width of pulley B = b + 13 = 80 + 13 = 93 mm
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Bearing installation distance B1 = 2B = 186 mm

Bearings are installed 186 mm apart
T1 + T2 = 852.67 + 1705.352 = 2558.02 N
By symmetry RA + RB = 1279.01 N
Total bending torque, Tb1 = 1279.01 x 93 = 118.94 x 103 N-mm
Consider torque on both pulleys
Tt1 = = = 119.36 x 103 N-mm
Tt2 = = = 390.852 x 103 N-mm
Hence the shaft is shifted to both bending & torsion
ds =
σy = 360 N/mm2 , σb = = = 120 N/mm2, τ = 0.5 x σb = 0.5 x 120 = 60 N/mm2
ds1 = 35.11 mm , from PSG 7.25 selecting 38mm

Length of hub = 2 ds1 = 2 x 38 = 76 mm
Step 13: Driven pulley design

D2 = 900 mm ,
Arm type construction.
Selecting 6 no, of arms
T = (T1- T2)(D2/2) = 456.356 KN-mm
Selecting C45 from PSG 1.9, [τ] = 45N/mm2
ds = = 45 mm
Fig: Cast Iron pulley with 4 arm
STEP 14: Arm design
Selecting GCI-15 as pulley material, from PSG 1.9,
Assuming [σb] = 10 to 13 N/mm2
170
Cross section of arm is elliptical, Assuming b =
To accommodate arm as the web, condition is
, so, a = 56.54 mm, b = 56/2 = 27 mm
PSG 7.120, section modulus, z= = 8872.332 mm
Bending Moment of arm = M = ( ) *e = 396.375 *
Induced bending stress,
(σb)= = 7.446 < [σb], Design is safe
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
PROBLEM 2: Design a Flat Belt drive for the following specification
Power = 20 KW, Input Speed = 960 rpm, Output Speed = 320 rpm, using KW rating method
design Flat Belt and find the life in hours. Also design shaft and pulleys.
Solution: Given data, P = 20KW, N1 = 960 rpm, N = 320 rpm
STEP 1:- [P] = 1.3 x (P)
Service Factor = 1.3 [PSG 7.53]
[P] = 26KW
STEP 2:- Assuming velocity = 20 m/s
17.5<v<22.5 , V =
20 = , D = 397.887 mm
Selecting standard pulley: - D = 400 mm [PSG 7.54]

STEP 3:- Driven Pulley,
D=Dx x η = 400 x x 0.98 = 1045.33 mm
PSG 7.54 Selecting standard pulley, D = 1120 mm

STEP 4:- Center distance
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Assume the center distance as, optimal center distance = (1.5 to 2.5) D = 2D
C = 2240 mm
Belt length, L = 2C + (D + d) +
L = 2 x 2.24 + (1.12 + 0.4) + (1.12-0.4) (4* 0.224)
L = 4.48 + 2.3876 + 0.057857 = 6.925 m

STEP 5:-Angle of lap (ϴ)
For smaller pulley ϴ = 180 - 2α , α = sin-1( )
Change in output speed
N2 = N1 x x η = 960 x x 0.98 = 336 rpm
STEP 6:- Selecting belt using KW rating

Selecting FORT949g [PSG 7.34]
KW rating of FORT belt 1 mm & width 1 ply at 10 m/s belt speed is given by,
For [KW] 10 m/s = 0.0289 KW/per mm per ply
[KW] 23.75 m/s = x 0.0289 = 0.0578 KW/mm per ply
Millimetre plies at belt,

I x b = corrective load/ [KW]v
Now, corrective load, P x load correction factor =26 x 1.02 = 26.52 KW
It is known that,
6 < < 20, I x b = = 458.823
Length , l Width, b Std. Width, b
3 161.07 -
4 120.8 125
5 96.6 100
172
6 80.53 -
8 60.40 -
Selecting i = 5 and b = 100

Let b/t = 10
σtmax= σt + σb + σc = + + ρv2 x 10-6
STEP 7:- Material - Rubber canvas

ρ = 1200 kg/m2, E = 100 N/mm2, σt = 45 N/mm2, σ-1 = 9 N/mm2
STEP 8:-belt tension
T1 – T2 = =
T1/T2=eμϴ
T1 = 2.329T2
Therefore, T2= 977.88 N, T1 = 2268.68 N
STEP 9:- Maximum allowable tensile stress in belt
+ + ρv2 x 10-6 = + + 1200 x 202x 10-6
σtmax = 5.24 N/mm2
[ ]m = , σ-1 = 9 N/mm2, m = 6 , np = 2, nb = 107
For flat belt, n = 25.67 x 107 = Lhr x 3600 x x 2 = 22345.9 hours
B = b + 13 = 100 + 13 = 113 mm
Bearing span = B1 = 2B = 2 x 133 = 226 mm
STEP 10:- Force analysis
(i) Bending of shaft
T1 + T2 = 3246.56 N, RA = RB = 1623.28 N
Total bending torque
Tb1 = 1623.28 x 113 = 183.43 x 103 N-mm
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Consider torque on both pulleys
Tb1 = = = 258.626 x 103 N-mm
Tb2 = = = 775.88 x 103 N-mm
Consider larger value of torsional torque for shaft design,

STEP 11:- Pulley and shaft design
The shaft is subjected to both bending & torsion,
ds =
Assuming shaft material C45 & FOS = 3

σy = 360 N/mm2
σb = = = 120 N/mm2
[τ] = 0.5[σb] = 0.5 x 120 = 60 N/mm2
ds =
ds = 44.44 mm 45 mm
Length and diameter of the hub, Dh = Lh= 2 ds1 = 2 x 45 = 90 mm

The driving pulley diameter, D1 = 400 mm
STEP 13: Driven Pulley design:

Since D2 = 1120mm
(i) Number of arms of driving pulley = 6
(ii) Cross-section of arms = Elliptical
Selecting GCI-15 as pulley material, from PSG 1.9
Assuming σb =[ 10- 13] N/mm2
Assuming b =
174
To accommodate arm as the web,
amax
so, a = 47.123 mm
a= 0.9 * 47.123 = 42.41
b = 42/2 = 21 mm
PSG 7.120, section modulus
z= = 3744.35 mm4
BM of arm = M = ( ) *e = (2268.68 - 977.88)* 155
σb = = = 8.905 N/mm2 < [σb] , Design is safe
175
V-Belt
V belts (V-belts, vee belts, or, less commonly, wedge rope) solved the slippage and alignment
problem. It is now the basic belt for power transmission. They provide the best combination of
traction, speed of movement, load of the bearings, and long service life. They are generally
endless, and their general cross-section shape is roughly trapezoidal (hence the name "V"). The
"V" shape of the belt tracks in a mating groove in the pulley (or sheave), with the result that the
belt cannot slip off. The belt also tends to wedge into the groove as the load increases—the
greater the load, the greater the wedging action—improving torque transmission and making the
V-belt an effective solution, needing less width and tension than flat belts. V-belts trump flat
belts with their small center distances and high reduction ratios. The preferred center distance is
larger than the largest pulley diameter, but less than three times the sum of both pulleys. Optimal
speed range is 1,000–7,000 ft/min (300–2,130 m/min). V-belts need larger pulleys for their
thicker cross-section than flat belts. High variety of belt sizes available permits the application of
V-belt in a wide range of drive applications, such as: Machine tools, industrial washing
machines, textile machines, Continuous paper machines, high power mills, and stone crushers.
For high-power requirements, two or more V-belts can be joined side-by-side in an arrangement
called a multi-V, running on matching multi-groove sheaves. This is known as a multiple-V-belt
drive (or sometimes a "classical V-belt drive"). V-belts may be homogeneously rubber or
polymer throughout or there may be fibers embedded in the rubber or polymer for strength and
reinforcement. The fibers may be of textile materials such as cotton, polyamide (such as Nylon)
or polyester or, for greatest strength, of steel or aramid. When an endless belt does not fit the
need, jointed and link V-belts may be employed. Most models offer the same power and speed
ratings as equivalently-sized endless belts and do not require special pulleys to operate. A link v-
belt is a number of polyurethane/polyester composite links held together, either by themselves,
such as Fenner Drives' PowerTwist, or by metal studs, such as Gates' Nu-T-Link. These provide
easy installation and superior environmental resistance compared to rubber belts and are length
adjustable by disassembling and removing links when needed.
CONSTRUCTION:
The main V-belt components are:

1) Belt body made of a special rubber compound which provides, due to its excellent mechanical
characteristics, high transmission efficiency and assures a minimum rubber wear off;
2) Tensile member consisting in high-strength low stretch cords, which grant length stability
over the belt life time;
3) Fabric jacket or cover made of fabric, protecting the tensile member and permitting the use
176
of back side idler.
 ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OVER FLAT BELT:
Following are the advantages and disadvantages of the V-belt drive over flat belt drive:-
Advantages:-
1. The V-belt drive gives compactness due to the small distance between centers of pulleys.
2. The drive is positive, because the slip between the belt and the pulley groove is negligible.
3. Since the V-belts are made endless and there is no joint trouble, therefore the drive is smooth.
4. It provides longer life, 3 to 5 years.
5. It can be easily installed and removed.
6. The operation of the belt and pulley is quiet.
7. The belts have the ability to cushion the shock when machines are started.
8. The high velocity ratio (maximum 10) may be obtained.
9. The wedging action of the belt in the groove gives high value of limiting ratio of tensions.
Therefore the power transmitted by V-belts is more than flat belts for the same coefficient of
friction, arc of contact and allowable tension in the belts.
10. The V-belt may be operated in either direction, with tight side of the belt at the top or bottom.
The center line may be horizontal, vertical or inclined.
Disadvantages:-
1. The V-belt drive cannot be used with large center distances, because of larger weight per unit
length.
2. The V-belts are not so durable as flat belts.
3. The construction of pulleys for V-belts is more complicated than pulleys of flat belts.
4. Since the V-belts are subjected to certain amount of creep, therefore these are not suitable for
constant speed applications such as synchronous machines and timing devices.
5. The belt life is greatly influenced with temperature changes, improper belt tension and
mismatching of belt lengths.
6. The centrifugal tension prevents the use of V-belts at speeds below 5 m/s and above 50 m/s.
 DESIGN PARAMETERS OF V-BELT:
V-belt power rating:

Each type of belt section has a power rating. The power rating is given for different pitch
diameter of the pulley and different pulley speeds for an angle of wrap of 180 degree. A typical
nature of the chart is shown below. Here, for example, for pitch diameter of D1, power rating of
the A section belt is kW1, kW2, kW3, kW4 for belt speeds of N1, N2, N3, N4 respectively.
177
 V BELT DESIGN FACTORS:
Service Factor: (PSG 7.69)

A belt drive is designed based on the design power, which is the modified required power. The
modification factor is called the service factor. The service factor depends on hours of running,
type of shock load expected and nature of duty.
Design Power = service factor X Required Power (P).
Modification of kW rating: (PSG 7.63 to7.67)

Power rating of a typical V-belt section requires modification, since, the ratings are given for the
conditions other than operating conditions. The factors are as follows, Equivalent smaller pulley
diameter and belt speed. In a belt drive, both the pulleys are not identical, hence to consider
severity of flexing, equivalent smaller pulley diameter is calculated based on speed ratio. The
power rating of V-belt is then estimated based on the equivalent smaller pulley diameter.
Equivalent Pitch diameter = pitch diameter x small diameter factor (Fb). Fb can be selected
corresponding to velocity ratio from PSG. 7.62.
Angle of wrap correction factor: (PSG 7.68)
The power rating of V-belts are based on angle of wrap, α =180 degree. Hence, Angle of wrap
correction factor is incorporated when α is not equal to 180 degree.
Belt length correction factor: (PSG 7.59, 7.60)

There is an optimum belt length for which the power rating of a V-belt is given. Let, the belt
length is small then, in a given time it is stressed more than that for the optimum belt length.
Depending upon the amount of flexing in the belt in a given time a belt length correction factor is
used in modifying power rating.
 PULLEY SYSTEMS
A belt and pulley system is characterised by two or more pulleys in common to a belt. A belt
drive is analogous to that of a chain drive, however a belt sheave may be smooth (devoid of
discrete interlocking members as would be found on a chain sprocket, spur gear, or timing belt)
so that the mechanical advantage is approximately given by the ratio of the pitch diameter of the
sheaves only, not fixed exactly by the ratio of teeth as with gears and sprockets.
178
 TYPES OF PULLEY
These are different types of pulley systems:

Fixed: A fixed pulley has an axle mounted in bearings attached to a supporting structure. A fixed
pulley changes the direction of the force on a rope or belt that moves along its circumference.
Mechanical advantage is gained by combining a fixed pulley with a movable pulley or another
fixed pulley of a different diameter.
Movable: A movable pulley has an axle in a movable block. A single movable pulley is
supported by two parts of the same rope and has a mechanical advantage of two.
Compound: A combination of fixed and movable pulley forms a block and tackle. A block and
tackle can have several pulleys mounted on the fixed and moving axles, further increasing the
mechanical advantage.
 STANDARD DIEMENSIONS OF THE

PULLEY:
Width: It is the width of belt at its pitch zone.

Nominal top width: It is the top width of the
trapezium outlined on cross sectional area.
Nominal height: It is the height of trapezium outlined
on the cross section of the belt.
Pitch length: It is the length of pitch line of belt.
Angle of belt: It is the included angle obtained by
extending the sides of the belt.
Pulley generally has three main parts as below:

1. Rim, 2. Hub, 3. Arm
Pulley diameter and width are calculated from design of required standard cross section.
Minimum pulley diameter depends on following factors:
4. Number of belts, 2. Belt speed
179
Relationship between pulley width and width of rim are shown and based on various
manufacturing catalogue, pulley diameter and crown height is also shown in table below:
Belt width Pulley width Pulley diameter (mm) Crown height (mm)
40-112 0.3
up to 125 mm 13mm
125-140 0.4
From 125 mm to 250 25mm 160-180 0.5
220-224 0.6
From 250 mm to 375 38mm 250-280 0.8
mm 315-355 1.0
From 375 mm to 500 50mm
mm
 CROWNING OF PULLEY
Before V-belts were invented, machinery was usually powered through flat canvas belts running
on crowned pulleys. These flat belts stayed centered on pulleys without any guides or flanges.
The key to keeping them tracking centered on the pulleys is the use of "crowned pulleys". A
crowned pulley is a pulley that has a slight hump in the middle, tapering off ever so slightly
towards either edge. How a crowned pulley keeps the belt tracking on it is a mystery to most
people. An example of a crowned pulley can be found in the drive wheel of a shop band-saw.
This demonstrates that the principle also works with steel belts, which are much more rigid
laterally than leather or rubberized canvas belts. Band saws also rely on crowned pulleys to help
keep the blade aligned. The thrust bearing behind the blade is there to help absorb the force of
pushing the stock into the blade. But when the saw is just running idle, blade should ideally not
touch the thrust bearing. The crown alone is enough to keep the blade lined up.
 PROPORTIONS OF CAST IRON PULLEY AND MILD STEEL PULLEY
Cast Iron Pulleys:
a) Number of arms:
1) For pulleys up to 200 mm diameter, web
construction is used.
2) For pulleys above 200 mm diameter and up to
450 mm diameter 4 arms are used.
3) For pulleys above 450 mm diameter 6 arms
are used.
b) Cross-sections of arms - elliptical.
180
Thickness of arm b, near rim = taper 4 mm per 100 mm.

Radius of the cross-section of arms, R=3/4 b
Minimum length of the bore l = 2/3 a;
It may be more for loose pulleys, but in no case it exceeds a.
c) Radius: rl = b/2 (near rim), Radius r2 = b/2(near rim).
 MILD STEEL PULLEYS:
Minimum length of boss - The length of boss is

equal to half the width of face, subject to a
minimum of 100 mm in the case of pulleys with
19 mm diameter spokes and minimum of 138
mm for pulleys with 22 mm diameter spokes.
The length of the boss is practically greater than
the width of the pulleys.
Thickness of rims - The thickness of 5 mm for the rim of all the pulleys tabulated in table may
be applicable for mild steel pulleys only.’ For cast iron flat pulleys the thickness may be
specified as below:
Rim thickness = D/200 + 3 mm for single belt and
Rim thickness = D/200 + 6 mm for double belt
 SELECTION OF BELTS FROM MANUFACTURER’S CATALOGUE:
In most of the applications, belts are generally selected by the designer from the manufacturer’s
catalogue. This helps in the use of standard available sizes. Following input data is required for
the selection of belt:
1. Power to be transmitted
2. Transmission ratio
3. Centre distance
Select suitable V-belt section: Five types of standard V-belt sections are available.
181
Determine diameters of pulley:

Recommended diameter of smaller pulley (d) can be taken from table 20.4 for selected cross
section. Diameter of larger pulley (D) can be calculated, for required velocity ratio i.e. for given
input speed (N1) and required output speed (N2), using the following relationship:
N1d = N2d
Calculate design power

For design purpose, maximum power transmitted by the belt is obtained by multiplying the
required power (P) by service factor (Ks). Value of Ks can be taken between 1 and 2, depending
upon the service conditions i.e. light, medium, heavy or extra-heavy duty, type of driver and
driven machinery and operational hours. [P] = Ks X P
Determine Pitch Length and Centre Distance

Calculate length of the belt from its relation with d, D and C. Select the nearest standard value.
Determine corrected power rating.
Power transmission capacity / rating (R): for a single V-belt, for different types of cross
sections, can be taken from manufacturer’s catalogue. Corrected power rating is obtained by
multiplying the power rating by Pitch Length Correction Factor (Klength) and Angle of Contact
Factor, Ka
Determine the number of belts required

Required number of belts is determined by dividing the design power with corrected power
rating for one belt.
182
NUMERICAL
1. Design V belt drive for following specification:-

P= 30KW, Input speed = 960 rpm, Output speed = 500 rpm, Medium duty, medium shock level.
Find the no. of V-belt from 1) manufacturing catalogue 2) for expected life of 12 months. Also
design shafts and pulley
Solution: Given data, P= 30KW, N1 =960 RPM, N2 =500 RPM and Medium duty, medium
shock level.
Calculating velocity ratio, VR = 𝑁1/ 𝑁2 = 1.92
Service factor for medium duty, for 12 hours a day = 1.2
Design Power [PSG 7.69]
[P] = 30 x1.2 = 36 kW , Cross section selection [PSG 7.58]
Based on power rating
C, D & E cross sections are available,
Selecting E, where, W1 = 38 mm, T = 23 mm
Assuming semi-cone angle =20°,
W2 =W1 – 2t X tanα = 38 – (2 X 23 X tan 20) = 21.257 mm
C/S Area= 0.5 (W1 + W2 )T = 0.5(38 + 21.257)23 = 681.46 mm2
Pulley dimensions:
Using Savrain’s relation
368.188 mm < d< 435.131 mm, From psg 7.54 d = 400 mm

For driven pulley,
,D= 400 X 1.92 X 0.98 = 752.64 mm, From PSG 7.54, D= 800 mm
Centre distance (C): from PSG7.61
Cmin=0.55(D+d) + T, T=0, Cmin=0.55(800+400) =660 mm

Cmax = 2(D+ d) =2400 mm
Assuming C =1600 mm,
183
Angle of lap = 165.67°
Pitch Length from PSG 7.61
L =5109.955 mm, PSG 7.60 standard length, L = 5426 mm
Substituting in above equation, C = 1759.153 mm
Belt speed
V = (𝜋𝑥 𝐷 𝑥 𝑁)/ 60000 = 𝜋 𝑥 960 𝑥 400/ 60000 = 20.104 m/s
T1-T2 = [𝑃]/ 𝑉 = 36000/ 20.106 = 1790.49
,
𝑇1 / 𝑇2 = 12.63 , T1 = T2 X 12.63
From above equations, T1 = 1944.44 N, T2 =153.95N
Belt material selection:

Rubber canvas is selected, σu= 40 N/mm2, E = 100 N/mm2, μ = 0.3, σ-1 = 0.2 X σu = 9 N/mm2
ρ = 1000 Kg/m3,
From manufacturing catalogue,
No. of belts = 𝑃∗ 𝐹𝐴/ 𝐾𝑊∗𝐹𝐶∗𝐹𝐷 From PSG 7.70
Where, P x Fa= [P] = 30kw,
For V-V belt; PSG 7.68
Fd= 0.97
Fc = 0.94, PSG 7.62
Equivalent pitch diameter de = d x Fb, For velocity ratio = 1.92, Fb= 1.13
de = d x Fb =400 x 1.13 = 452 mm
No of belts = 𝑃∗ 𝐹𝐴/ 𝐾𝑊∗𝐹𝐶∗𝐹𝐷 = 36/21.77∗ 0.94 ∗ 0.97 = 1.92 = 2.
Expected life in hours:

The expected life of belt is 12 months
Assuming 12 hrs a day and 25 days a month of working time of belt
Lhr = 12 X 25 X 12 = 3600hrs
Lmr = Lhr X 3600 X Np X (𝑉/𝐿) = Lhr X 3600 X 2 X (20.106/5.109)= 10.2 X 107 cycles
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Maximum allowable tensile stress:
nb = 10^7, m = 8 for V belt

σ-1= 9 N/mm2, n = 10.2X107
σtmax = 6.732 N/mm2
σtmax= (𝑇1/A∗𝑛) + (𝐸∗𝑡/ 𝑑) + 𝜌xv2, solving
n = 1.76, let n = 2
Shaft Design:
let the material be C30, [τ] = 30 N/mm
[P] =(2𝜋∗𝑁1∗𝑇1)/ 60
T1 = 36∗60∗1000/ ( 2𝜋∗960) , T1 = 358.09 Nm = 358.09 X10^3Nmm
ds1 = 39.32 mm = 40 mm
[P] = (2𝜋∗𝑁2∗𝑇2)/60 , T2 = 36∗60∗1000/ (2𝜋∗500)
T2 = 687.54 Nm = 687.54 X103Nmm
ds2 = ds1X 𝑖 3 = 40 X 1.92 3 = 49.71 mm = 50 mm
From PSG 7.70, Assuming Pulley material as GCI 20
Web Type pulley
ds1 = 40 mm
ds2 = 50 mm
dh1 = 2ds1 = 2 X 40 = 80 mm
For cross section E, Ip = 32, e = 1.35 X Ip = 1.35 X
32 = 43.2 mm
f = 0.9 X Ip = 0.9 X 32 = 28.8 mm
h = 0.7 Ip + 1 = 0.7 X 32 + 1 = 23.4 mm
Minimum distance to pitch
B = 0.3X Ip = 0.3 X 32 = 9.6 mm
Lh1 = 2ds1 = 2 X 40 = 80 mm
B = (n-1) X e + 2f = (2-1) X 43.2 + 2 X 28.8 = 100.8 mm
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CHAIN DRIVES
 Introduction:
Chain drives are means of transmitting power between two mechanical elements. Chain drives
consist of an endless series of chain links that mesh with toothed sprockets. Chain sprockets are
locked to the shafts of the driver and driven machinery. Chain drives represent a form of flexible
gearing. The chain acts like an endless gear rack, while the sprockets are similar to pinion gears.
Chain drives provide a positive form of power transmission. The links of the chain mesh with the
teeth of the sprockets and this action maintains a positive speed ratio between the driver and
driven sprockets.
Chains can be used to perform three basic functions:
1. Transmitting power
2. Conveying materials
3. Timing purposes
 Advantages and Disadvantages over belt drive:

Advantages:
i. Chain drives do not slip or creep, therefore constant velocity ratio is obtained.
ii. Chain drives are more compact than belt drives.
iii. Chain drives give higher transmission efficiency.
iv. The chain drive has ability of transmitting motion to several shafts by one chain only.
v. It gives less load on shafts.
vi. Chains are easy to replace.
vii. Chains can operate effectively at high temperatures.
viii. Chains do not deteriorate due to oil, grease, sunlight, or age.
ix. Chains withstand chemicals and abrasive conditions.
x. Chains can operate in wet conditions.
Disadvantages:
i. The production cost of chain is relatively high.
ii. Smooth speed transmission is not possible due to chordal action.
iii. It requires accurate mounting and careful maintenance.
iv. Noisy compared to belt drive.
v. Life is less compared to belt drive.
 Components of chain drive :

i. Chain
ii. Sprocket
iii. Shafts
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i. Chain: The chains are made up of rigid links which are hinged together in order to provide
necessary flexibility for wrapping around the driving and driven wheel.
ii. Sprocket: A sprocket is a toothed wheel that is designed to engage with something that will be
pulled over the wheel as the wheel rotates
iii. Shafts: Shaft is used to transmit torque between rotating element.
 Types of Chain Drives:

The chains, on the basis of their use, are classified into following three groups.
I. Hoisting and Hauling (or crane) chains
II. Conveyor (or tractive) chains
III. Power transmitting (or driving) chains
Hoisting and Hauling (or crane) chains :

These chains are used for hoisting and hauling purposes. These are of two types:
a) Chains with Ovel links
b) Chain with square link
Conveyor Chain: - Used for elevating and conveying within 0.8 to 3m/s.
a) Detachable or hook joint
b) Closed joint type.
Power Transmitting Chain: It is used for short center distance.

a) Block or bush chain
b) Bush roller chain
c) Silent chain
Block or bush chain

The chains used in conveyor belts are commonly block chains, which consist of solid or
laminated blocks connected by side plates and pins. The blocks engage with teeth on sprocket
wheels. Depending on the material being moved, devices are connected to the blocks.
Bush roller chain

A roller chain is a development of the block chain in which the block is replaced by two side
plates, a pair of bushings, and rollers. This type of chain is used on bicycle and is adaptable to
many other needs, from small small-strand drives for microfilm projectors to multiple-strand
187
chains for heavy-duty service in oil-drilling equipment. Roller chains are assembled from pin
links and roller links. A pin link consists of the two side plates connected by two tightly fitted
pins. A roller link consists of two side plates connected by two tightly fitted bushings on which
hardened steel rollers are free to rotate. When assembled, the pins are a free fit in the bushings
and rotate slightly, relative to the bushings, when the chain goes onto and leaves a sprocket.
Silent chain:
A silent chain is essentially an assemblage of gear racks, each with two teeth, pivotally
connected to form a closed chain. The links are pin-connected, flat steel plates with straight
teeth. Silent chains are quieter than roller chains, can operate at higher speeds, and can transmit
more load for the same width.
 GEOMETRY OF
CHAIN AND PARAMETERS:
The engagement between the chain and sprocket is shown in above figure. Some of the
parameters related to chains are:
i. Pitch of chain (P): It is the distance between the hinge centre of

one link and the corresponding hinge centre of the adjacent link.
ii. Pitch Angle:

It is the angle between the two lines joining the centre of sprocket
and the hinge centres of two adjacent links, when the chain is
wrapped around the sprocket.
Pitch diameter of sprocket: It is defined as the diameter of an

imaginary circle that asses through the centre of link pins as the
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chain is wrapped around the sprocket.

Let P = chain pitch, mm
Z = number of teeth on sprocket
α = pitch angle, degree
D = Diameter of sprocket, mm
Average Velocity :
The average velocity is given by, v = (zpn /60000)
Speed Ratio :
It is the ratio of input speed to output speed and is given by,
Where, n1 and n2 = speed of driving and driven shafts

Z1, Z2 = number of teeth on driving and driven shafts
Number of links and Length of chain :
The number of links in a chain is determined by following relationship,
The length of chain is always expressed in terms of number of links,

L = Ln ×P
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Centre Distance: The centre distance is given by,
Polygon effect in chain drive:
The chain passes around the sprocket as a series of chordal

links. This action is similar to that of a non-slipping belt
wrapped around a rotating polygon. Chain forms a polygon
instead of a circle when rapped round a smaller sprocket
with less number of teeth. Thus the chain does move along
the pitch circle but moves through smaller chordal distance
causing vibrations, noise and impact on the sprocket teeth.
It is called the polygonal effect. Thus the radius and hence
the velocity is continuously changing in between the two
teeths. The magnitude of speed variation is dependent on
the number of teeth on the smaller sprocket. Polygonal
effect reduces the chain life too. To reduce the polygonal
effect, use minimum number of teeth on smaller sprocket
as 19. With this, speed variation is only 1.6 % which is
small.
 Characteristics of chain drive:

1. They can be used for short to medium distances. Gears need additional idler gears.
2. They can be used for transmission of higher loads compared with belt drives.
3. The power transmission efficiency of chain drives may be as high as 99%; higher
compared to flat and V belts. A chain drive does not slip and to that extent, it is positive
drive.
4. Due to the polygonal effect and wears in the chain joints, they are not suitable for precise
speed control.
5. They have longer life, no creep, and the ability of driving several shafts from a single
source of power compared to belt drives.
6. They can only be used for transmitting motion between parallel shafts. Crossed flat belts,
bevel gears, worm gears, and some crossed helical gears can be used to transmit motion
between nonparallel shafts.
7. The location (center distance) and alignment tolerances need not be as precise as with
gear drives, but require precise alignment of shafts, compared to belt drives. The best
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services can be expected when both the input and output sprockets lie in the same
vertical plane.
8. They require proper maintenance, particularly lubrication, when compared to gears.
 Design procedure of chain drive:
i. Assumptions
ii. Find the design load
iii. Find the number of teeth
iv. Find pitch using following relation,
v. Select the proper chain

vi. Check the failure against tensile load
vii. Find diameter of input and output sprocket
viii. Find diameter of shaft
 Selection of chain from manufacturing catalogue:
i. Given data from requirement

ii. Select number of teeth on smaller sprocket (sprocket pinion)
iii. Select service factor or load correction factor for given application
iv. Calculate design power
v. Find tooth correction factor (K1)
vi. Find the multiple strand factor ( K2 )
vii. Calculate required power rating of chain
viii. Select chain from manufacturer’s catalogue having the required power rating
ix. Find dimensions of selected chain from manufacturer’s catalogue
x. Find the number of links in chain (M)
xi. Calculate the corrected centre distance
xii. Find the maximum theoretical power the chain can transmit based on tensile strength.
191
NUMERICAL
Design chain drive for following specifications:

Power to be transmitted = 10kW, Input speed=100rpm, Output speed=30rpm,
Also design shaft, input sprocket and output sprocket.
Solution:
1. Assumptions: i. Horizontal chain, ii. Drive unit is flexible, iii. Machine unit is rigid
iv. Nature of duty: 8-10 hrs/day, v. Nature of load: Heavy
2. Design Power:
[P] = P*Ks, where, Ks = K1 * K2 * K3 * K4 * K5 * K6

K1 = 1.5 (Heavy shock)
K2 = 1 (Distance regulation factor)
K3 = 1 (Centre distance of sprocket)
K4 = 1 (Layout factor)
K5 = 1 (Lubrication factor)
K6 = 1 (Shift factor/rating)
[P] = 10 * 1.5 = 15kW
Number of teeth:
i = N1/N2 = 100/30 = 3.33

Z1 = 23 ……………………………….. (From PSG 7.74)
Z2 = i×Z1 = 3.33 × 21 = 76.67= 77
Pitch Selection:
Let m = 2 (Duplex), Z1 = 23, σ = 3.15 kgf/mm2 = 31.5 N/mm2
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P ≥ 27.8 mm
w = 7.60 kgf
Q = 17700 kgf = 177kN
Checking of Tensile Failure:
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Tensile failure is checked indirectly by comparing the actual FOS (Factor of safety) and
Minimum FOS specified by manufacturer,
Minimum FOS = 7.0 ………………………………... (PSG 7.77)
194
195
Input Sprocket diameter:
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Summary:
Chain selection
Selecting Chain DR100
Number of Links np = 132 mm
Length of Chain L = 4191 mm
Exact centre Distance a = 1273 mm
Input Sprocket Diameter d1 = 233.17 mm
Output Sprocket Diameter d2= 778.404 mm
Shaft Design: Material C30
Input Shaft Design ds1 = 62.417 mm
Output Shaft Design ds2 = 88.56mm
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200
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MODULE 6
CLUTCH
 INTRODUCTION
A clutch is a mechanical device that is used to connect or disconnect the driving shaft to the
driven shaft at the convenience of the operator. It is used whenever the transmission of power or
motion must be controlled either in amount or over time.
In the simplest application, clutches connect and disconnect two rotating shafts (drive shafts or
line shafts). In these devices one shaft is typically attached to an engine or other power unit (the
driving member) while the other shaft (the driven member) provides output power for work. In
Automobiles the flow of mechanical power from the prime mover to driven machine is
controlled by the means of clutch. In order to change the gears or to temporarily stop the vehicle,
the requirement is that the driven shaft should stop but the engine should continue to run. This is
achieved by the means of a clutch, mounted between the engine and the gear box, which is
operated by a lever.
 Types of Clutches:
Generally the clutches are classified into two types –
 Positive Clutches
 Friction Clutches
Positive clutches:
These clutches are generally used when positive drive is required. The jaw clutch, which is the
simplest type of positive clutch, permits one shaft to drive another shaft through direct contact.
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Fig: Square jaw clutch coupling Fig - Spiral jaw clutch coupling
The jaw clutch consists of two halves, one of which is permanently fastened to the driving shaft
by the key while the other half of the clutch is free to slide axially on the splined driven shaft,
thus permitting it to engaged or disengaged by sliding. Square shaped jaws are used where the
engagement or disengagement of the teeth takes places in motion and under load. Such teeth
can transmit power in either direction. While the spiral shaped jaws can transmit power in one
direction only.
Friction clutches
This plate consists of two plates .One plate is rigidly keyed to the driving shaft,
while the other is free to slide axially on splined driven shaft. Friction lining is normally
provided on the driven plate. Two plates are held together due to axial force applied by the
compression spring. The frictional force between the two contacting surfaces is responsible for
transmitting the torque or power.
Fig -Single plate friction clutch Fig - Multiple plate friction clutch
205
 Types of Friction clutches:
 Uniform Pressure Criterion-
In this theory, it is assumed that the normal intensity of the pressure is uniform over the entire
contacting surface i.e. p=constant, In general if there are ‘N’ pair of contacting surfaces then the
equations for uniform pressure theory is given as-
W= π.P. (r02-ri2). Where, W is the axial thrust which the friction surfaces are withheld.
 Uniform Wear Criterion-

In this theory, it is assumed that the rate of wear is uniform over the entire contacting surface i.e.
Pr = constant. Here, the wear is considered to be uniform over the entire surface.
 Design Considerations in a Friction Clutch

The following considerations must be kept in mind while designing a friction clutch.
1. The suitable material forming the contact surfaces should be selected.
2. The moving parts of the clutch should have low weight in order to minimise the inertia
load, especially in high speed service.
3. The clutch should not require any external force to maintain contact of the friction
surfaces.
4. The provision for taking up wear of the contact surfaces must be provided.
5. The clutch should have provision for facilitating repairs.
6. The clutch should have provision for carrying away the heat generated at the contact
surfaces.
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7. The projecting parts of the clutch should be covered by guard.

 Requirements of a Good Clutch
1. Gradual Engagement
2. Good Heat Dissipation
3. Compact Size
4. Sufficient Clutch Pedal Free Play
5. Ease of Operation
 Design of single plate clutch
Consider two friction surfaces maintained in contact by an axial thrust (W) as shown in fig. (a)
Let, T = Torque transmitted by the clutch,

p = Intensity of axial pressure with which the contact surfaces are held together,
r1 and r2 = External and internal radii of friction faces,
r = Mean radius of the friction face, and
μ = Coefficient of friction.
Consider an elementary ring of radius r and thickness dr as shown in figure. It is known that area
of the contact surface or friction surface= 2π r.dr
∴ Normal or axial force on the ring, δW = Pressure × Area = p × 2π r.dr
And the frictional force on the ring acting tangentially at radius r, Fr = μ × δW = μ.p × 2π r.dr
∴ Frictional torque acting on the ring, Tr = Fr × r = μ.p × 2π r.dr × r = 2 π μ p. r2.dr
Following two cases can be considered:
1. When there is a uniform pressure, and
2. When there is a uniform axial wear.
1. Considering uniform pressure. When the pressure is uniformly distributed over the entire
area of the friction face as shown in Fig.(a), then the intensity of pressure,
207
7
Where W = Axial thrust with which the friction surfaces are held together. The frictional torque
on the elementary ring of radius r and thickness dr is Tr = 2π μ.p.r2.dr
Integrating this equation within the limits from r2 to r1 for the total friction torque.
∴ Total frictional torque acting on the friction surface or on the clutch,
2. Considering uniform axial wear. The basic principle in designing machine parts that are
subjected to wear due to sliding friction is that the normal wear is proportional to the work of
friction. The work of friction is proportional to the product of normal pressure ( p) and the
sliding velocity (V). Therefore, Normal wear ∝ Work of friction ∝ p.V
Or p.V = K (a constant) or p = K/V
Let p be the normal intensity of pressure at a distance r from the axis of the clutch. Since the
intensity of pressure varies inversely with the distance, therefore p.r = C (a constant) or p = C / r
and the normal force on the ring,
∴ Total force acing on the friction surface,
We know that the frictional torque acting on the ring,
208
∴ Total frictional torque acting on the friction surface (or on the clutch),
 Design of multi plate clutch:
 Construction:
A multiple plate clutch has more number of clutch plates. A typical clutch consist of the
following components: Clutch basket or cover, clutch hub, drive (friction) plates, driven (steel)
plates, pressure plate and the clutch springs.
The clutch housing is attached to the engine crank shaft flywheel. The pressure plate is fixed on
the flywheel through the clutch springs. The engine flywheel turns the clutch housing. The inner
circumference of the clutch basket is splined to carry the thin metal plates. The clutch basket
splines engage the tabs on the friction drive plates. This sources the clutch housing and the drive
plates to rotate together. Additionally they are free to slide axially within the clutch basket.
Interleaved with the drive plates, there are many number of driven plates. These driven friction
plates have inner splines. These splines engage with the outer splines on the clutch hub. As such,
the driven friction plates can slide on the clutch hub. The clutch hub is linked to the input shaft of
the transmission gear box.
The drive plates and the driven plates are firmly pressed together by the pressure plate due to the
clutch springs. The drive plates, driven plates and the strong clutch coil springs are assembled
within the clutch basket.
209
Working: During clutch engagement, spring pressure forces the pressure plate towards engine
flywheel. This causes the friction plates and the steel driven plates to be held together. Friction
locks them together tightly. Then the clutch basket, drive plates, driven plates, clutch hub and the
gearbox input shaft all spin together as one unit. Now power flows from the clutch basket
through the plates to the inner clutch hub and into the main shaft of the transmission.
The clutch gets released or disengaged when the clutch pedal is pressed. This causes the clutch
pressure plate to be moved away from the drive and driven plates, overcoming the clutch spring
force. This movement of the pressure plate, relieves the spring pressure holding the drive and
driven plates together. Then the plates float away from each other and slip axially. Thus, the
clutch shaft speed reduces slowly. Finally, the clutch shaft stops rotating. Power is no longer
transferred into the transmission gearbox.
Depending upon the power output of the engine, and the weight of the vehicle, four to eight sets
of plates (four to eight drive plates and four to eight driven plates) may be housed in the clutch
basket. The multiple plate clutch may be of dry type or wet type. When the clutch functions in
atmosphere, it is called a dry clutch. When the clutch operates in an oil bath, it is named as a wet
clutch.
Let n1 = Number of discs on the driving shaft, and n2 = Number of discs on the driven shaft.
∴ Number of pairs of contact surfaces, n = n1 + n2 – 1 , and total frictional torque acting on the
friction surfaces or on the clutch, T = n.μ.W.R
Where R = Mean radius of friction surfaces given by
 Design of cone clutch:

In a cone clutch, the driver is keyed to the driving shaft by a sunk key and has an inside conical
surface or face which exactly fit into the outside conical surface of the driven. The driven
member resting on the feather key in the driven shaft, may be shifted along the shaft by a forked
lever. In order to engage the clutch by bringing the two conical surfaces in contact. Due to the
frictional resistance set up at the contact surface, the torque is transmitted from one shaft to
another shaft. In some cases, a spring is placed around the driven shaft in contact with the hub of
the driven. This spring holds the clutch faces in contact and maintains the pressure between
them, and the forked lever is used to disengagement of the clutch.
210
 Applications:
1) Conveyers: Speed Compensation

2) Mixers: Motor Protection
3) Motorcycles: Gear Box or Transmission
4) Packaging Machine: Spins Down Freely
5) Printing Press: Ink Roller Drive
 Advantages:
1) Small axial force is required to keep the clutch engaged.
2) The design is simple.
3) For a given dimension, the torque transmitted by cone clutch is higher than that of a single
plate clutch.
 Disadvantages:
1) One pair of friction surface only.
2) The small cone angle causes some reluctance in disengagement.
 Notations and Formulae of Cone Clutch:
𝛼 = Semi-Cone Angle (Generally 12.50)

R = Maximum radius of friction lining
R = Minimum radius of friction lining
F = Axial Force
Mt = Torque transmitting capacity
P = Pressure intensity on friction lining
According to Uniform Pressure Theory (P is constant), Axial Force and Torque transmitting
capacity is given by,
and
211
According to Uniform Pressure Theory (P.r is constant), Axial Force and Torque transmitting
capacity is given by,
and
 Thermal analysis of clutch:
 The design of the clutch or the selection of the clutch that is commercially available
depends not only upon the torque transmitting capacity but also upon its ability to
dissipate heat.
 The later consideration is important because the coefficient of friction of the friction
lining generally decreases with increasing temperature.
 If the temperature exceeds the limiting value, it may lead to the destruction of friction
lining.
 During the engagement of the clutch, there is relative angular motion between the
driving surfaces and the driven surfaces, and hence part of the power is lost in
overcoming the friction between these surfaces.
 The power lost in overcoming the friction is converted into heat, and is absorbed by the
clutch assembly. This results in rise in temperature of the clutch assembly
 The rate of heat generation (i.e. power lost )during the engagement of the clutch is given
by
Hg = T θR
Where, Hg = rate of heat generation, T = torque transmitted, θR = instantaneous relative angular
velocity between the driving and driven surfaces = θ1 - θ2 = ω1 – ω2
Where, ω1 = angular velocity of driving surface and ω2 = angular velocity of driven surface
 The total heat generated (i.e. total energy lost) during the single engagement of the clutch
is given by,
E= Or E= T θR
Where, E= total heat generated (or total energy lost)

θR= total relative angular displacement between the driving and the driven surfaces
during the engagement of clutch = θ1- θ2
θ1 = total angular displacement of driving surface during the engagement
θ2 = total angular displacement of the driven surface the engagement
 This heat generated is absorbed by the clutch assembly E=m C ΔT

 The temperature rise of the clutch assembly is given by, ΔT =
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Where , ΔT = temperature rise of the clutch assembly, m = mass of clutch assembly and
C = specific heat of clutch assembly
 Temperature Time curve:
Initially, the temperature is constant. Then there is a sudden increase in temperature to

temperature T1. Afterward, there is a gradual decrease in temperature and it reaches point D.
Then, there is a sudden increase in temperature to T2. Then, there is again gradual decrease in
temperature with time.
 Design Parameters:
1) Single Plate Clutch:
1) Power, 2) Speed, 3) Friction Plate dimensions with material (Radius and width)
4) Shaft dimensions and material
5) Thermal Analysis (Temperature of clutch)
2) Multi Plate Clutch:

1) Power, 2) Speed, 3) No. of Frictional Surfaces, 4) No. of Driving and Driven Plates
5) Friction Plate dimension with material (Radius and width), 6) Shaft dimensions and material
7) Thermal Analysis (Temperature of Clutch)
3) Cone Clutch:
1) Power, 2) Speed, 3) Frictional Plate dimensions (Radius and width)
4) Semi-cone Angle, 5) Shaft dimensions, 6) Thermal Analysis
 Friction Materials:
213
The desirable properties of a good friction material are as follows:.
1) High coefficient of friction.

2) Good thermal conductivity.
3) Remains unaffected by environmental conditions like moisture or dirt particles.
4) High resistance to abrasive and adhesive wear.
5) Good resilience to provide good distribution of pressure.
There are 2 types of friction materials in common use-

1) Asbestos based: There are 2 types of asbestos friction materials- woven and moulded. A
woven asbestos friction disk consists of; asbestos fibre woven around brass, copper or zinc wires
and impregnated with rubber or asphalt. Moulded asbestos friction disk are prepared from the
wet mixture of brass chips and asbestos, which is poured into the mould and given the shape of
disk.
2) Sintered Metals: There are 2 varieties of friction disks made from sintered metals- bronze
base and iron –base, depending upon the major constituent. The advantages of sintered-metal
friction metal friction disks are as follows:
1) Higher wear resistance
2) Can be used at high temperature.
3) Coefficient of friction is constant over a wide range of temperature and pressure.
4) Unaffected by environmental conditions.
The values of coefficient of friction for different combinations are given in following table:
Contacting Surfaces Coefficient of Friction

Wet Dry
Woven asbestos-cast iron 0.1-0.2 0.3-0.6
Moulded asbestos-cast iron 0.08-0.12 0.2-0.5
Bronze-base sintered metal-cast iron 0.05-0.1 0.1-0.4
Bronze-base sintered metal-steel 0.05-0.1 0.1-0.3
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NUMERICAL:
For the following specifications, power =15 kW , speed =2800 RPM,

Engagement per hour = 40
1. Design a single plate clutch (Dry running)
2. Design a multi plate clutch (Wet running)
Solution:
Given data : Power P = 15KW , Speed = 2800 rpm , Engagement per hour = 40
1. Single Plate Clutch

1. Design power
[P] = (P) *Kw, where Kw = k1 + k2 + k3 + k4
Where k1 = Driver dynamic characteristic factor
K2 = Driven dynamic characteristic factor
K3 = Wear factor
k4= Frequency of operation factor
Kw = Factor based on working conditions.. Let kw = 2
[P] = 30KW
Layout of clutch design
Single plate clutch parts are:
1. Input shaft
2. Flywheel
3. Pressure plate
4. Output shaft (spline)
5. Friction plate
Torque transmission capacity:

T = 𝑃∗60/ 2𝜋𝑁 = 30∗1000∗60/2𝜋∗2800 = 102.31 N-m = 102.31*103 N-m
Input shaft and output shaft
Material = C-35, [𝜏] = 30N/mm2
Ds1 = 1.1(16∗𝑀𝑡/𝜋∗𝜏3) ^ (1/3) = 30 mm

Ds2 = 30 mm
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Friction plate
Material = C-30
Friction material = feredo lining
𝜇 = 0.3
Allowable pressure Pa = K* Pb …………..PSG 7.89
Pb = 0.25 to 0.3N/mm2 (dry clutch)……….PSG 7.89
Vmax = 𝜋∗30∗2800/60∗1000 = 4.389 m/s
K = 0.84 …………………………… (Graph)PSG 7.90
P a = 0.84*0.25 = 0.21 N/mm2
Principle dimensions:
Rmin =2 Ds = 60 mm
C = Plate Thickness + 2 * Lining Thickness
Let C = 5 mm
No of Friction Surfaces:
i = 2 (Dry Clutch)
i = (𝑀)/ (2𝜋∗𝑃∗𝑏∗𝜇∗𝑅2)……………PSG 7.90
2= (102.31∗1000∗4)/ (2𝜋∗0.21∗ (𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥−60) ∗0.3∗ (𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥+60) ∗ (𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥+60))
Rmax = 84.69 mm, let Rmax = 86 mm
b = Rmax - Rmin = 86-60 =16 mm
Thermal Check:
Assumptions:
1) Heat transfer under steady state condition.
2) Heat transfer under convection and radiation.
3) Thermal Check under static condition.
Heat Generated:
Hg = ½ * [Mt] * 𝜃𝑠 𝑛
Let 𝜃𝑠 = 4 π radians
Slip time = 0.08 sec, Let ts = 0.08 sec
60 sec : 2800rpm , 0.08 sec : 3.733 rev , 𝜃𝑠 = 8𝜋 radian
No. of operations per minute 𝑛= 40/60 = 0.667
Hg = ½ [102.31] * 8 π * 0.667 = 857.54 Watt
Heat rejected (dissipation)

Hd = Hc + Hr …………………………………….. (Convection and Radiation)
Hc = C A (Th – Tc)
Let Ta = 303 K , We have, C = 7.1 (Vm)^0.78
216
Vm = mean velocity = 𝜋∗𝐷𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛∗𝑁/60 = 𝜋∗146∗2800/60∗1000 = 21.405 m/s

C = 7.1 (21.405) ^0.78 = 77.46 Watt/m2 0C
To find Area,
A = 2*π/4 *Dmax2 + π*Dmax*B
B = 20+5+10 = 35 mm
A = 65.38*1000 mm2
Hr = C1 A (Th4 – Ta4)
C1 = 5*10-8 Watt/m2K4
Heat generated = Heat dissipated, Hg = Hd

857.54 = 77.4*65.38*1000 (Th - 303)*10-6 +5*10-8*65.38*103(Th4 - 3034)*10-6
Th = 451.05 K = 178.05 0C…………………..… (Temperature of Clutch)
2. MUTIPLE PLATE CLUTCH
Layout of Multi Plate Clutch is as shown in figure:
Multiple plate clutch parts:

1. Input shaft
2. Housing
3. Output shaft
4. Driving plates
5. Driven plates
Material for plate C-30 , μ = 0.3

Pallowable = K*Pb
Dmin = 2*Ds = 60 mm, Rmax = (1.25 to 1.8) Rmin
Let Rmax = 1.25*60 = 75 mm, Dmax = 150 mm
Vmax = 𝜋∗150∗2800/60 = 21.99 m/s, K =0.5 ……………………PSG 7.90
Pallowable = 0.5*0.25 = 0.125 N/mm2
No. of Friction Surfaces:
i = [𝑀𝑡]/2∗𝜋∗𝜇∗𝑅𝑚2∗𝑏∗𝑃𝑎 …………………………………….......PSG7.89
Rb = Rmax – Rmax = 15 mm
Rm = 67.5 mm
i = 102.31∗1000/2𝜋∗0.3∗0.015∗0.125∗0.06752
i= 5.29, let i= 6
217
Plates:
No. of driven plates:
M2 = i/2 -1 = 6/2 -1 = 4 ……………….PSG 7.90
No. of driving plates
M1 = i/2 = 3 ……………… PSG 7.89
Friction plate:
Rmin = 60 mm, Rmax = 75 mm

b = 15 mm, Let t = 6 mm
Dmax = D + 2t = 150 + 12 = 162 mm
B = C1m1 +C2m2 + t + margin = 1*4 + 5*3 + 6 + 5 = 30 mm
Thermal check:
Assumptions:
1) Heat transfer under steady state condition.
2) Heat transfer under convection and radiation.
3) Thermal Check under static condition.
Heat Generated:
Hg = ½ * [Mt] * 𝜃𝑠 𝑛
Let 𝜃𝑠 = 4 π radians
Slip time = 0.08 sec, Let ts = 0.08 sec
60 sec : 2800rpm
0.08 sec: 3.733 rev
𝜃𝑠 = 8𝜋 radian
No. of operations per minute 𝑛=4060 = 0.667
Hg = ½ [102.31] * 8 π * 0.667 = 857.54 Watt
Heat rejected (dissipation)
218
Hd = Hc + Hr ……………………………………. (Convection and Radiation)

Hc = C A (Th – Tc)
Let Ta = 303 K
We have, C = 7.1 (Vm)^0.78
Vm = mean velocity = 𝜋∗𝐷𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛∗𝑁/60 = 𝜋∗150∗2800/60∗1000 = 21.99 m/s
C = 7.1 (21.99)^0.78 = 79.10 Watt/m2 0C
To find Area,
A = 6*π/4 *Dmax2 + π*Dmax*B,
B = 30 mm
A = 6*π/4*1502 +π*150*30 = 204.988*103 mm2
Heat generated = Heat dissipated

Hg = Hd
857.54= 79.10*204.988*1000(Th - 303)*10-6 +5*10-8*204.988*103(Th4 - 3034)*10-6
Th = 351.559 K = 78 0C………………………..… (Temperature of Clutch)
……………………………………………………………………………………………..........
Numerical 2) Show that for maximum torque transmission, RI/R0 = 0.577

Solution:, Let R0 = outer radii of friction surface. Ri = inner radii of friction surface.
Permissible intensity of pressure = Pmax
According to uniform wear theory, the torque transmitting capacity of plate clutch is given by,
Substituting equation 2 in equation 1,
………… (3)
Substituting in equation (3)

,
219
For maximum torque transmitting capacity,
Therefore,
, = 0.577 ,
The variation of torque characteristics against d/D is shown in below figure:
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Numerical 3) Determine the dimension of cone clutch and the axial force required to disengage
and engage the clutch for the following specification.
I) Power to be transmitted = 25kW, (ii) speed = 1440 rpm, (iii) maximum pressure = 0.28
N/mm2, (iv) semi - cone angle = 12.5 degree, (v) outer diameter = 250 mm, (vi) Co – efficient of
friction = 0.25.
Solution: Given: P = 25kw, N = 1440 rpms, Pmax = 0.28 N/mm2, α = 12.50
D0 = 250 mm , Therefore, r0 = 125 mm and µ = 0.25
To Find: (1) Dimensions, (2) W (3) Wd
Force required to engage the clutch,
W = 2πPmax*ri*(ro – ri) = 2π*0.28*ri*(125 - ri) ………. (1)
[Mt] = = = 165.78 Nm = 165.78 x103 Nmm
Design Torque:
Take factor of safety (fos) = 1.25,
Tα = 1.25*[Mt] = 1.25*165.78*103 = 207.225*103
220
For Cone clutch, Tα = , Where, R = =
207.225*103 = *
ri*(125 – ri)*(125 + ri) = 203953.417

(ri)3 * - (125)2 * ri = -203953.4172 , ri = 117.87 mm ≈ 118 mm
From (1), W = 2π*0.28*118*(125 – 118)= 1453.175 N
= , b = 32.34 mm
Force required to disengage , Wd = (1 +
Wd = (1 + = 3.09 kN
Answers: (1) Dimensions , ri = 118 mm, ro = 125 mm, b = 32.34 mm

(2) Force required to engage, W = 1.453 kN
(3) Force required to disengage, Wd = 3.09 kN
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MACHINE DESIGN -II

Mechanical Engineering, Semester –VII,

PROF. SANJAY W. RUKHANDE

FR. C. RODRIGUES INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, VASHI

SR. No. CONTENTS Page No.

Course Code: MEC701/Subject: Machine Design - II/Credits: 4+1

Outcomes: Learner will be able to…

Modules Detailed Content Hrs.

Introduction to Spur Gear:

 Transmission efficiency is high.

C. Gears with non-parallel and non-intersecting axes

3. Based on the type of gearing

a. Gears with straight teeth

 Different Pressure angle systems:

Dedendum 1.157 m 1.25 m m

Clearance 0.157 m 0.25 m 0.2 m

Working Depth 2m 2m 1.6 m

Whole Depth 2.157 m 2.25 m 1.8 m

Tooth thickness 1.5708 m 1.5708 m 1.5708 m

14.50 full depth 200 full depth 200 stub

 Interference in involute gear:

 Gear nomenclature terminology:

 Gear material and Heat treatment:

 Gear tooth failures and remedies:

 Gear material selection

For ferrous and nonferrous metals

Material selection: Cast Iron: PSG 1.4

 Lewis Bending Strength Equation

 Load is shared by only one pair of teeth.

Beam strength equation:

y= ---- Lewis form factor.

Ft = Fs = σb.Y.m.b ….. Lewis beam strength equation

 Modified equation of Lewis:

From Lewis beam strength equation,

m ≥ 1.26 …….. Modified equation of Lewis.

 Derivation for contact stress equation:

Lewis wear load is given by

Where d1- P.C.D of pinion

FN = d1.b. [ α = 200 for full depth

... Contact stress equation for pinion.

 Barth velocity factor:

Where, Cv = Barth velocity factor, Vm = Pitch line velocity.

 Lewis dynamic load:

 Buckingham’s dynamic load:

Fd = Ft + ….. PSG 8.51

b – Face width, k - elastic factor

The surface contact strength can be used for checking,

The construction of pinion and gear is given by the relation:

Where n - number of arms

 Force Analysis of Spur Gear:

 Design procedure of spur gear pair:

 Comparison of Spur Gear and Helical Gear:

SPUR GEAR HELICAL GEAR

 HELICAL GEAR BASIC TERMINOLOGY:

Normal Pitch: Circular pitch measured in normal plane is

Transverse Circular Pitch: It is the Circular pitch

Representation of Helical Gear Pair is shown in figure.

 Virtual No. of Teeth on Helical Gear:

 Strength of Helical Gear: