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MANAGEMENT PRACTICES TO MITIGATE THE IMPACT OF HIGH

TEMPERATURE ON WHEAT: A REVIEW
Avtar Singh*, Davinder Singh, JS Kang, and Navneet Aggarwal
Department of Agronomy, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-141004

ABSTRACT
th
Climate change is a reality and agriculture is highly vulnerable, particularly in the semi-arid and arid Received on: 25 -Jan-2011
th
regions of India. The climate is changing rapidly through the processes such as CO2 and changed Revised on: 4 -Apr-2011
th
pattern of precipitation resulting in heat and drought stresses, respectively. This changing climate could Accepted on: 20 -Apr-2011
strongly affect the wheat production worldwide. The effect of increasing temperature during grain filling Published on: 5th–Sept-2011
stage of wheat causes substantial reduction in grain yield. In this review paper are discussed the factors
responsible to reduce the grain yield of wheat under the climate change and agronomic management
practices as time of sowing, alternative method of planting, mulching, seed priming, foliar spray of salts,
use of potassium fertilizer with municipal waste water, use of extra irrigation water and foliar spray of KEY WORDS
micronutrients to mitigate the high temperature effect on the productivity of wheat. Priming with moringa
water extract and ascorbate substantially improved the tissue water status, membrane stability, gas
exchange, water productivity of the plant. Timely sowing of wheat crop generally gives higher yield as Climate change; mitigate;
compared to late sown crop. Late sown wheat crop faces high temperature stress during ripening phase. Mulching; seed priming; foliar
Late planting reduces the tillering period and hot weather during critical period of grain filling lead to spray; extra irrigation water
forced maturity thereby reduces the grain yield. Planting of wheat with zero tillage, bed planting and
conventional tillage with mulching produced higher grain yield than conventional tillage. Organic mulches
provided better soil water status and improved plant canopy in terms of biomass, root growth, leaf area
index and grain yield, which subsequently resulted in higher water and nitrogen uptake and their use
efficiencies. The foliar spray of KNO3 (0.5%) at 50 percent flowering stage, 1.0 per cent KNO3 during
anthesis stage, 2.5 mM of arginine, spray of zinc, extra irrigation water during grain filling stage, use of
potassium fertilizers with municipal waste water increased the productivity of wheat under high
temperature conditions.

*Corresponding author: Email: avtar_bimbraw@yahoo.com; Tel: +91-9463200829

[I] INTRODUCTION
Crop performance and yield depend largely on environmental Among these, temperature plays an important role in growth,
interaction. So, the knowledge as how to environment development and yield of wheat. Wheat growing in India is a
influences crop growth, development and yield of great gamble of temperature [2]. High temperature at the both ends
importance. Non-stress environment is ideal for successful cop of wheat growing season in India is a limiting factor. In case of
production. A biological stress can be defined as any November sown crop, high temperature at sowing, helps wheat
environmental factor capable of inducing a potentially injury plant to accelerate its growth and thus shortens the tillering
strains in living organisms [1]. Growth and development of phase by inducing the crop to enter the elongation stage more
wheat is adversely affected by environmental stresses like high quickly and this result in poor tillering of the crop. In case of
temperature, soil moisture deficit, low light intensity, etc. delayed sown crop, stages like flowering and grain filling

SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE
Table: 1. Effect of dates of sowing on growth and yield contributing characters of wheat
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-1
Date of sowing Plant height (cm) Dry matter accumulation at maturity Number of tillers (m row
(q/ha) length)
25 November 82.4 65.9 84.1
10 December 80.1 43.9 54.1
CD (p=0.05) 1.3 5.9 7.1
Source [27]

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coincide with rise in temperature and atmospheric drought discussed the factors responsible to reduce the grain yield of
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during March and April, which causes poor growth and low wheat under climate change particularly the effect of high
grain yield. temperature during reproductive stage.

Continual heat stress affects approximately 7 million hectare [II] FACTORS AFFECTING ON WHEAT UNDER
of wheat in developing countries, whereas terminal heat stress
CLIMATE CHANGE
is problem in 40 per cent of the temperate environments that
encompass 36 million hectare. Spring wheat is grown in these 2.1. Effect seed priming
areas experience severe heat stress in certain phases of crop
growth. In India also almost the entire wheat growing area falls The climate is changing rapidly through the processes such as
under the tropical and sub-tropical environment. A sudden rise CO2 and changed pattern of precipitation resulting in heat and
in temperature during grain filling prior to maturity is a widely drought stresses, respectively. This changing climate could
prevalent phenomenon in almost all parts of India, causing strongly affect the wheat production worldwide. In study
significant reduction in yield [3]. Wheat grown under late evaluated the role of seed priming with inorganic salts (CaCl 2,
sown conditions is exposed to very low temperature up to KNO3, KCl, plant water extracts (sorghum, moringa) and
booting stage, but the later stages face higher temperature that organic molecules (ascorbate, salicylicate, proline) in
inhibits grain development, resulting into poor grain yield. improving the wheat performance under heat and drought
stresses [15]. For stress treatments, there were four sets in the
Upon exposure to heat stress, development of various growth experiment viz., optimal conditions, drought stress (at 50 % of
stages is accelerated to such a degree that the environment the field capacity), heat stress (40C) higher than the ambient
cannot supply necessary inputs (radiation, water and nutrient) temperature and both drought and heat stress. For priming
fast enough [4]. In wheat, period from onset of spike ignition wheat seeds were soaked in aerated solutions of respective
to flowering is very sensitive to temperature acceleration in osmotic/plant water extract while water soaked and dry seeds
this phase seems to be the main reason for reduction in sink were taken as control. Each of the stresses substantially
size under high temperature conditions. Heat stress affects the reduced the wheat performance and the effects were more
production of wheat by causing reduction in duration of grain severe when both the plants were exposed simultaneously to
filling phase, kernel size, biomass, tiller number, etc. heat both the stresses. Priming treatments substantially improved
stress adversely affected days to appearance of first node, tiller the tissue water status, membrane stability, gas exchange,
per plant and spikelet’s per plant, thereby resulting in water productivity and plant was better than the other
reduction of sink capacity and future sources capability of the inorganic salts, however, priming with moringa water extract
plant [5]. An increase in 10C can cause decrease of 4 mg in and ascorbate was better than other treatments in the respective
grain weight [6]. group. Seed priming techniques may therefore be employed to
improve the wheat performance in changing climate.
Many investigators have established the effects of temperature
at the later stage of the development of wheat crop particularly 2.2. Effect of dates of planting
after the heading stage. Average temperature of 150C during
grain filling is optimum for maximum grain weight [7, 8]. Time of planting is one of the most important non-monetary
High temperature during grain filling period of wheat affects inputs for optimizing the growth according to prevailing agro-
the kernel weight and grain yield through reduction in grain climatic conditions and genotypes. The performance of wheat
filling [9]. However, an increase of 0.50C temperature resulted varies with different dates of planting.
in decrease in the duration of wheat crop by seven days, which
reduced the yield by 0.5 t ha-1 in north India [10]. In another 2.2.1. Growth parameters
studies, the effect of high temperature on grain development in
wheat and rice studied [11]. It was found that wheat yield Conducted an experiment at Punjab Agricultural University,
decreased by 5 per cent for each 10C rise in post anthesis daily

SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE
Ludhiana on loamy sand soil [16] and reported that plant
mean temperature in the range between 17.70C and 32.70C. In height was maximum of the crop sown on 25 October (81cm),
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another investigation was observed that a 20C increase in which was at par with crop sown on 4 November (76 cm) and
temperature in wheat and rice resulted in 15-17 per cent 14 November. It was significantly superior to the crop sown on
decrease in grain yield of both crops but beyond that the 24 November (72 cm). Another experiment was conducted at
decrease was very high in wheat [12]. High temperature has Palampur on silty clay loam soil [17] and noted that wheat
many detrimental effects on wheat. High temperatures after crop sown in the 1st week of November had significantly
anthesis hastens the leaf senescence shorten the period of grain higher plant height (98.1 cm) as compared to crop sown on 1st
growth and decrease the grain yield [13]. Under high week of December (82.8 cm) and 1st week of January (75.5
temperature conditions, tillering and root growth are reduced cm). In another studies, the similar findings were reported
but heading and maturity are accelerated. High temperature from Gurdaspur, Punjab [18]. However, other experiments
and drought reduced the duration of grain development period, were conducted [19, 20] [Table–2] at Punjab Agricultural
thus reducing the grain size [14]. In this review paper are

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University, Ludhiana on loamy sand soil and reported that noted that the plant height of timely sown wheat was 11.47,
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plant height was significantly higher of crop sown at 29.25 and 54.06 per cent higher in the first year [31], while
November 15 (78.5 cm) as compared to December 20 (71.6 15.08, 33.44 and 44.06 per cent higher in second year
cm). Similar results were reported from Chiplima [21], and compared to moderately late, late and very late sown wheat,
from Gurdaspur [22]. However, it was reported that plant respectively. Dry matter accumulation was decreased with
height was not significantly affected by the date of sowing [23, delay in sowing from timely (21 November) to very late (7
24]. From HAU, Hisar, reported that crop sown on 20 January).
November produced significantly more leaf area index (4.4)
than that of 20 December (3.9) sown crop [25]. However, at In conclusion, delayed sowing caused marked reduction in
Ranchi, Bihar conducted an experiment on sandy loam soil growth parameters like plant height, dry matter accumulation
[26] and reported that timely sown crop (24 November) and leaf area index through the reduction in duration of
produced significantly more leaf area index (4.31) as compared maturity. There are many factors responsible for reduction in
to late sown crop (3.01). Dry-matter accumulation was also growth factors but high temperature is one of the major factors
significantly higher with timely sown crop (879.9 gm-2) than which play vital role in the reduction of growth parameter.
late sown crop (662.6 gm-2). However, plant height, dry
matter accumulation and tillers per meter row length were 2.2.2. Grain yield
significantly higher in early sown crop of 25 November than
late sown crop of 10 December. So that early sown wheat crop Conducted an experiment at Gurdaspur (Punjab) on loamy
was superior to late sown crop in various growth parameters sand soil and found that crop sown on 15 October was
[27] [Table-1]. Another investigation was conducted at produced higher grain yield as compared to crop sown on 25
Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar on sandy loam soil and October, 4 and 14 November. The increase in yield was due to
noted that planting dates did not affect the dry-matter increase in effective tillers and 1000-grain weight of early
accumulation significantly. Plant height was significantly sown crop [18]. However, from Ludhiana (Punjab), reported
higher of 30 November (81.9 cm) sown crop than 1 November that grain yield was significantly higher of crop sown on 25
(76.5 cm) and 15 November sown crop [28]. However, October as compared to crop sown in November and 5
conducted an another experiment on sandy loam soil and December on loamy sand soil [19,20] [Table–2] . Another
observed that plant height was maximum of crop sown on 1 studies conducted on silty clay loam [17], loamy sand [35],
December as compared to crop sown in December and sandy loam [28, 36, 37, 38] [Table–3] and loamy [39] soils
January at Umerkote [69] and Bathinda [29], respectively. found that grain yield was significantly higher of crop sown in
the 1st week of November as compared to crop sown in
Conducted an experiment at Pantnagar on silty loam soil and December and January, respectively.
found that a significant reduction in plant height was recorded
in late sowing wheat crop [30]. However, from Jharkhand
Table: 2. Effect of sowing dates on the grain yield and yield attributes of wheat

Treatments Grain yield Straw Yield Tiller per meter 1000-grain Plant height
-1 -1
(qha ) (qha ) row length weight (g) (cm)
Dates of sowing
November 15 45.3 69.9 89.4 38.3 78.5
December 20 31.6 49.2 75.1 37.6 71.6
CD (p=0.05) 2.2 3.0 3.2 0.5 0.8
Source: [20]

Table: 3. Effect of sowing dates on the grain yield and yellow berry However, maximum grain yield was recorded from the crop
incidence in wheat
sown on 15 November and significantly differed from crop

SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE
sown in December and January on silty loam, sandy loam and
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Treatments Grain yield Yellow berry (%)*

-1
(qha ) loamy sand soils of Pantnagar, Kanpur and Ludhiana,
Dates of sowing respectively [20, 32, 33] [Table–2]. Similar results were
November 3 43.2 33.1 (31.0) reported from Chiplima [21]. From Jamalpur, Bangladesh [34]
November 15 41.0 30.7 (26.5) reported that higher grain yield was obtained from the crop
December 15 28.7 18.7 (10.8) sown on 20 November (1795.4 kg ha-1) than 20 October
CV (%) 9.4 15.4
(653.8 kg ha-1), 5 November (895.5 kg ha-1), 5 December
CD (p=0.05) 2.0 7.3
Source: [37]
(1358.9 kg ha-1) and 20 October (771.2 kg ha-1). However,
• arc-sine transformed values from Jharkhand [31] noted that grain and straw yield of wheat
• figures in parenthesis are the original values were significantly affected by the time of sowing. Delay in
sowing beyond timely sowing (21 November) reduced the
grain yield by 16.2, 37.4 and 59.9 per cent under moderately

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late (7 December), late (21 December) and very late (7 area, number of grains/ear, 1000-grain weight, ear length,
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January) sown condition, respectively. The similar findings straw yield and also utilized higher growing degree days and
were reported from Ludhiana, Punjab [20] [Table–2]. Timely photo-thermal units. Similarly, straw yield was significantly
seeded crop produced maximum spike-bearing tillers m-2, higher in early crop sown might be due to higher growth and
grains per spike and 1000-grain weight. Similar results were development contributing characters such as plant height, dry
reported from Hisar (Haryana and Ludhiana (Punjab) [20,25] matter accumulation, tillers per meter row length and number
[Table–2]. The wheat crop sown early consumed more photo- of effective tillers per unit area. However, conducted an
thermal units and helio-thermal units in comparison with late experiment on sandy-loam soil and observed that highest grain
sown crop at physiological maturity. This could be explained yield was obtained from the crop sown on 1 December than
by the fact that delayed sowing resulted in forced maturity of November, December and January sown crop [29, 41]. Sowing
wheat because of high temperature prevailed during time is one of the most important management factors involved
reproductive phase of the late sown crop. Due to that in obtaining higher yield [44]. Timely sowing of wheat crop
maximum grain yield was recorded in early sown wheat crop generally gives higher yield as compared to late sown crop.
in comparison with late sown crop. Late-sown wheat crop faces high temperature stress during
ripening phase. Late planting reduces the tillering period and
Conducted an experiment at Pantnagar on silty loam soil [30] hot weather during critical period of grain filling lead to forced
and found that crop sown on 27 November produced maturity thereby reduces the grain yield. The rate of dry-matter
significantly higher yield (36.6 q ha-1) as compared to crop accumulation remains faster at higher temperature than at
sown on 27 December (33.7 q ha-1). The grain yield was lower temperature. Spike dry weight increases due to the
higher due to significantly higher number of seedlings and deposition of grain protein and carbohydrates, which are
effective tillers per unit area and more grain weight per spike partially on the expense of, assimilate transfer from stem and
and 1000- grain weight. Similar findings were reported from root. Whereas, from Udaipur noted that grain yield was
Ranchi, Bihar [26], Niphad, Maharashtra [40] and Ludhiana, significantly higher of normal sown crop (37.7 q ha-1) as
Punjab [27] [Figure–1], respectively. The grain yield of wheat compared to early (33.6 q ha-1) and late sown crop (28.2 q ha-
under early sown crop could be attributed to better basic 1). The grain yield was higher due to increase in effective
infrastructural frame work of plants in early sowing as tillers per meter row and grain weight/ear in normal sown crop
supported by higher taller plants, dry matter accumulation, [42].
tillers per meter row length, number of effective tillers per unit

60 44.7
Grain yield

40 30

20

0
Date of planting

25-Nov 10-Dec

Fig: 1. Effect of dates of planting on grain yield of wheat. Source: [26]

In the end, it can be concluded that late sowing caused [28, 43]. However, another an experiment conducted at
substantial reduction in biological and economic yield of Gurdaspur (Punjab) on sandy loam soil and reported that the
wheat through the reduction in number of seedlings and incidence of yellow berry decreased significantly with

SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE
effective tillers per unit area, more grain weight per spike, successive delay in sowing from 3 November to 15 December
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number of grains per ear head and 1000- grain weight [37] [Table–3]. Whereas, other experiment conducted at
irrespective of location and variety. It may be occurred due to Jobner (Rajasthan) on loamy soil [39] and reported that sowing
the adverse climate change particularly high temperature dates had no significant effect on grain appearance, test weight
during the reproductive stage and low temperature effect on and sedimentation value during both the years of study.
germination. However ß-Carotene was higher in early sown crop (4.91 ppm)
as compared to late sown crop (4.65 ppm). The yellow berry
2.2.3. Quality parameters incidence was higher in late sown crop (6.49 %) as compared
to early sown crop (5.74 %).
The late sown crop had maximum protein, ß-Carotene, gluten
content, sedimentation value as compared to normal and early In general, it has been observed that the quality parameters
sown crop [28, 36, 38, 42, 43]. The lowest incidence of yellow such as protein, ß-Carotene content, gluten content,
berry was reported in wheat grains of 30 November sown crop

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sedimentation value were higher in late sown crop; however, or shallow cultivation was about 10 and 7 per cent less,
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the incidence of yellow berry was lowest. respectively, than after ploughing [56]. While from Bukua
(Nigeria) reported that wheat grain yield was lower in zero
2.3. Effect of methods of planting tillage (1.5 t ha-1) than conventional tillage (1.83 t ha-1) sown
crop on a sandy soil [57] probably due to low fertility and low
The selection of suitable method of planting plays an important water holding capacity of soil. Similarly, two year study
role in the placement of seed at proper depth, which ensures conducted at Birsa Agricultural University, Ranchi during
better emergence and subsequent crop growth. Wheat is 1982-83 and 1983-84 on silty loam soil showed that wheat
planted using different planting methods depending upon the sown with conventional tillage after puddle transplanted rice
available soil water, time of planting, amount of residue in the gave 7 percent more grain yield than no-tillage [58].
field and availability of planting machine.
Table: 4. Effect of planting system on grain yield of wheat
2.3.1. Growth parameters
Planting system Grain yield (tha-1)
Conducted an experiment at Punjab Agricultural University, Conventional 5.085
Ludhiana on loamy sand soil and observed that plant height 3 wheat rows per bed 5.306
and dry matter accumulation was significantly higher with bed 2 wheat rows per bed 4.223
planting method as compared to conventional method [45].
CD (p=0.05) 0.269
The similar findings were reported from Modipuram, U.P. [46]
and Hisar [47, 48]. However, the leaf area index and dry Source: [88]
matter accumulation was significantly more in wheat sown
The lower yield of wheat following rice under no-tillage was
with bed planted method with 3 rows as compared to flat
observed as compared to conventional tillage [15]. In another
planting method [47]. The crop growth rate in bed planting
study found that no-tillage technique gives more grain yield
was significantly maximum as compared to flat planting
(12.93%) and straw yield (15.84%) than conventionally tilled
throughout the crop season. In another study from Hisar [49]
wheat [107]. This is because no-till planting allows the timely
reported that plant height was significantly higher in bed
planting of wheat and so, reduce the estimated 1 per cent loss
planted wheat (92.11 cm) in comparison to conventionally
day-1 ha-1 of wheat yield due to late planting. However, 1 per
sown crop (83.23 cm). However, in another investigation from
cent increase in wheat yield with reduced tillage was recorded
Hisar, it was observed that furrow irrigated raised bed sowing
compared to conventional method [3]. Whereas, when early
(FIRBS) resulted in less LAI as compared to conventional flat
sowing was made more than 30 days before conventional
sowing during both the years [25]. Whereas, from Ludhiana
sowing it increased yield by an average of 11 per cent. So, the
reported that numbers of tillers, effective tillers per square
objective behind introduction of wheat sowing without
meter and ear length were found to be highest in conventional
seedbed preparation was to improve wheat productivity by
tillage with mulching which was at par in crop sown with
sowing wheat in time. This technology improves the grain
conventional tillage without mulching but significantly higher
yield by about 20 per cent over farmers practice entirely under
than zero tillage in standing stubbles after removal of loose
farmers’ conditions [2].
straw [27].
Zero, reduced and conventional tillage recorded statistically
It can be concluded that growth parameters such as plant
similar grain yield [92, 57, 20, 103]. In rice-wheat system, no-
height, dry matter accumulation and leaf area index were
tillage increased wheat yield by 10 per cent over conventional
found higher in wheat sown with bed planting than
tillage because of better number of tillers, better establishment
conventional method. It shows modification in planting
and lesser weeds [4]. Similarly, recorded significantly higher
method could alleviate the adverse impact of high temperature
grain yield under zero tillage [22, 67, 89, 104, 111] as
during the reproduction stage of wheat.
compared with the yield obtained under conventional tillage.
This increase was due to significantly higher effective ear head

SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE
2.3.2. Grain yield
m-2 , grains spike-1 and spikes m-2 in zero tilled wheat crop.
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Conducted field experiment on sandy-loam soil at New Delhi The higher yield and its attributes under zero tillage were due
and noted that grain yield was maximum of wheat sown with to advancement in sowing time offered by zero tillage [95}. In
bed planted method with 3 rows (53.06 q ha-1), which was at another study planting of wheat with zero tillage in standing
par with conventional planting method (50.85 q ha-1) and stubbles after removal of loose straw, conventional tillage with
significantly superior to bed planted method with 2 rows mulching and conventional tillage without mulching produced
(42.23 q ha-1) [54] [Table–4]. Yield of no-tilled sown wheat the statistically similar grain yield. It might be due to the
was poorer than conventional method of sowing, mainly due to similar straw as well as biological yield under different
failure of herbicide to control perennial and moisture stress planting methods [26] [Figure-2].
[55]. The mean yield of winter wheat sown with direct drilling

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38.2 38.1
38
37.8
37.6
Grain yield

37.4 37.2
37.2
37 36.9
36.8
36.6
36.4
36.2
Method of planting
Zero tillage in standing stubbles after removal of loose straw
Conventional tillage with mulching
Conventional. tillage without mulching
Source: [27]

Fig 2: Effect of methods of planting on grain yield of wheat

In the end it can be concluded that planting of wheat with zero efficiencies [75]. Mulching, when catch crop residues are
tillage, bed planting and conventional tillage with mulching spread and left on the soil surface between successive crops, is
produced higher grain yield by proving these alternative well-known and recommended practice for conserving soil and
methods of planting proved to mitigate the effect of high water [76, 77]. The main advantages of mulching are organic
temperature during the reproductive stage of wheat. matter and nutrient supply.The slow release of nitrogen (N)
from decomposing mulch residues is better synchronized with
2.3.3. Quality parameters plant uptake than sources of inorganic N, increase N uptake
efficiency and crop yield while reducing N leaching losses [78,
Conducted an experiment at Haryana Agricultural University, 79, 80]. Mulched catch crops approach also long-term
Hisar on sandy loam soil and reported significantly higher increases of soil organic matter and microbial biomass [81, 82,
protein yield in bed planted wheat in comparison to 83], further improving nutrient retention and N uptake
conventionally sown crop [49]. However, the protein content efficiency. These favorable changes are the main reasons for
was not influenced significantly due to planting methods. In increase in plant yields [84, 85, 86]. The other benefits are
another study from Hisar, noted that planting system did not favorable changes in micro-climate within the crop fields and
affect significantly on protein content of wheat. Also the reduction in soil temperatures [87]. Plant residue protects the
nitrogen uptake was not significantly affected by the planting soil surface against the splash effect of raindrops, crusting and
methods [48]. increases aggregate stability measured by wet-sieving. It was
confirmed by observing the increase in the soil organic matter
From these studies it could be concluded that method of content, increased its stability and decreased soil surface
sowing of wheat could reduce the impact of climate change sealing [88]. Organic matter addition increased macro porosity

SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE
and improve the quality parameters of wheat. and water infiltration rates [89]. Much research has shown that
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use of surface mulch can result in storing more precipitation

2.4. Mulching water in soil by reducing runoff, increasing infiltration and
decreasing evaporation [71, 90, 91] [Table–6]. Mulched cover
Mulching has been proved to be useful in conserving moisture crops also may provide favorable microhabitats for useful
and increasing productivity in wheat [70, 71, 72, 73, 74] insects [92]. Application of plant mulch combined with
[Table–5, 6]. Organic mulches provided better soil water minimum tillage is known to be effective in reducing soil
status and improved plant canopy in terms of biomass, root erosion, maintaining soil structure and conserving soil water in
growth, leaf area index and grain yield, which subsequently temperate as well as tropical regions.
resulted in higher water and nitrogen uptake and their use

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Table: 5. Effect of different treatments on biomass yield and grain yield of wheat

Year Yield Treatments

-1
(qha ) No straw Straw mulch No straw No straw mulch No straw mulch
mulch and no and no mulch and and irrigation and irrigation
irrigation irrigation irrigation 15 30 mm 45mm
mm
1997 Biomass 3356+390 4584 + 350** 4500 + 364** 4903 + 510*** 5556 + 493***
Grain 818 + 125 1240 + 84** 1250 + 104** 1384 + 156*** 1650 + 131***
1998 Biomass 7120 + 310 8563 + 439** 9546 + 480*** 10970 + 570*** 12580 + 520***
Grain 2061 + 199 2601 + 203** 2520 + 195** 2883 + 228*** 3230 + 213***

Source: [71]
** statistical significance at p< 0.01 level, when compared to the t1 treatment within the same row and same year
*** statistical significance at p< 0.001 level, when compared to the t1 treatment within the same row and same year

Table: 6. Effect of straw mulch and irrigation on evapotranspiration and soil water depletion

Year Factor Treatments

No straw Straw No straw No straw No straw
mulch and mulch and mulch and mulch and mulch and
no irrigation no irrigation 15 irrigation 30 irrigation
irrigation mm mm 45mm
1997 Evapotranspiration 239.2 219.5** 250.6 NSa 260.8** 271.1***
soil water depletion 58.1 38.4*** 54.5 NSa 49.7*** 45.0***
1998 Evapotranspiration 369.6 355.3* 349.9** 338.8*** 364.4 NSa
soil water depletion 91.2 76.9*** 71.5*** 60.4*** 85.7 NSa

Source: [71]
a statistical significance at p> 0.05 level, when compared to the t1 treatment within the same row and same year
* statistical significance at p< 0.05 level, when compared to the t1 treatment within the same row and same year
** statistical significance at p< 0.01 level, when compared to the t1 treatment within the same row and same year
*** statistical significance at p< 0.001 level, when compared to the t1 treatment within the same row and same year

In conclusion, use of organic mulches provided better soil sown on 25 November with zero tillage in standing stubbles
water status and improved plant canopy in terms of biomass, after removal of loose straw and one foliar spray of KNO 3
root growth, leaf area index and grain yield, which (1%) during anthesis was at par in grain yield than those
subsequently resulted in higher water and nitrogen uptake and obtained with conventional tillage without mulching + two
their use efficiencies and may reduce expected reduction of foliar spray of KNO3 (1%) during anthesis produced the
economic yield under adverse climate during reproductive statistically similar grain yield [27, 100]. However, one foliar
stage of wheat. spray of KNO3 (1%) during anthesis gave the highest grain
yield followed by two foliar spray of KNO3 (1%) during
2.4.1. Foliar spray of chemical anthesis as compared to one extra irrigation during post
anthesis and recommended irrigation [Figure–3]. A study was
In recent past some encouraging results were obtained with designed to explore the role of arginine (0.0, 2.5 and 5.0 mM)
post flowering foliar application of various nutrients on yield in increasing the tolerance of wheat cultivar (Sids-93) to two

SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE
of wheat. The higher grain and straw yield of wheat by late sowing (23/12 and 23/1) besides the normal sowing date
www.iioab.webs.com

spraying 0.5 per cent KNO3 at 50 per cent flowering stage of (23/11) in Egypt [101]. Foliar application of arginine with 2.5
the crop was reported [93], a number of studies have been and 5.0 mM on normal or delayed sowing wheat exhibited
conducted [94, 95] confirming the results . The beneficial significant increment in yield and its components in
effect of NO3- in delaying synthesis of abscisic acid and comparison to untreated plants. The magnitude of increments
promoting cytokinin activity [96] and of K+ on was much more pronounced in response to 2.5 mM of arginine
photosynthesis, carbohydrate redistribution and starch which induce 19.23, 20.53 and 25.51 per cent increases in
synthesis in storage organs [97, 98] were presumed to be economic yield per feddan at normally, 30 and 60 days delay,
responsible for higher grain yield. It has been revealed that respectively. As well as results show that 2.5 mM arginine
NO3- and its counter ions, both K+ and Ca 2+ gave beneficial treatment induce 8.0 per cent increase in grain yield over the
effect on grain filling and yield of wheat when applied as foliar plants sowing late at 23/12 and could reduce the reduction per
spray at 50 per cent flowering stage of the crop [99]. Crop cent in grain yield from 41.22 to 26.22 per cent at 23/1 sowing

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date. associated with higher harvest index and a tendency for higher
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1000-grain weight relative to the control. With extra irrigation

2.4.2. Foliar spray of micronutrient in Mexico, yield increases of 13 per cent were associated with
similar increases in grains per unit area and biomass at
One of the reasons of reduction of crop yield is insufficient maturity, as well as 2 days delay in maturity [103]. The effects
supply of micronutrients. Zinc is one of those micronutrients of irrigation on crop production are usually quantified using
which have an important role in metabolic activities of the crop water production functions which relate crop yield to
most plants. On the other hand, its mobility is low under amounts of water applied [104, 105]. The rational irrigation
drought stress conditions, so this element can be sprayed to can considerably increase the grain yield [71, 106, 107]. It was
increase its intake in the plant. It showed that the highest grain also asserted that excessive irrigation delays the maturity,
and biological yield during the conditions of normal irrigation harvesting and decreased grain yield [107]. However, it was
and spraying with the zinc is 62.40 and 143.00 qha-1, also reported that excessive irrigation led to a decrease of crop
respectively and the lowest of 38.00 and 122.00 qha-in the WUE and that effective deficit irrigation may result in higher
conditions of discontinuation of irrigation at flowering stage production and WUE [108]. On the contrary, it showed that the
and lack of spraying zinc [102]. On the other hand, application effect of irrigation on wheat yield was almost solely due to
of zinc spraying in drought conditions causes the increase in increased transpiration, while WUE and harvest index
number of grains per spike, grain weight and harvest index, remained unaffected [109]. It is also indicated that the
comparing with the lack of spraying. The spraying the zinc in responses of grain yield and WUE to irrigation varied
normal irrigation conditions, especially in drought stress considerably due to differences in soil water contents and
conditions have significant positive effects on yield and yield irrigation schedules [110]. It concluded that the impact of
components of wheat. limited irrigation and soil water deficit on crop yield or WUE
depend on the particular growth stage of the crop [111].
2.4.3. Use of extra irrigation water However, the crop sown on 25 November with conventional
tillage without mulching with one additional irrigation during
Additional irrigation over recommended frequencies resulted post anthesis, conventional tillage with mulching + one
in increased yields in Sudan and Mexico. In Sudan, increasing additional irrigation during post anthesis and conventional
irrigation frequency from 14 days to 10 days were increased tillage with mulching + recommended irrigation gave the
yields 10 percent, while frequencies of 7 days resulted in an similar grain yield of wheat [27,100] [Figure–3].
increase of 29 per cent. In Mexico, application of 600 mm of
water gave control yields of 3.1 t ha-1, while an extra 150 mm 2.4.4. Use of potassium fertilizers with
during grain filling gave a 13 per cent yield increase (3.5 t ha- municipal waste water
1). Although an extra irrigation did not have any main effect in
Bangladesh, extra irrigation with a deep tillage treatment A cadmium level is significant in most urban and industrial
increased yield by 11 per cent. Extra irrigation had no waste waters. Hence its accumulation in crops which are
significant effect on plant traits or yield in Bangladesh. In irrigated by the urban waste waters is investigable. On the
Sudan, increased grain yield in response to extra irrigation was
39.5 39.1
39 38.4
38.5
38
Grain yield

37.5
37
36.5 36.1 36
36
35.5

SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE
35
www.iioab.webs.com

34.5
34
Agronomic practices
KNO3 (1%) foliar spray during anthesis
KNO3(1%) foliar spray two times during anthesis
One additional irrigation during post anthesis
Recommended irrigation during post anthesis
Source: [27]
Fig 3: Effect of agronomic practices on grain yield of wheat
application of potassium fertilizer reduce cadmium uptake in
plants. Conducted an experiment with three levels of

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potassium fertilizer (0, 200 and 400 kgha-1 potassium sulfate) [8] Fisher RA. [1985] Physiology limitation to producing wheat in
www.iioab.org

[112]. The results showed that application of potassium semitropical and tropical environment and possible selection
fertilizer on wheat grains has decreased cadmium uptake of criteria in wheat for more tropical environments. Proc Int Symp,
0.57 to 0.18 mgkg-1 and also after using potassium fertilizer CIMMYT. Pp 209–230.
[9] Sayad, HI, Gadallah AM. [1983] Variation in dry matter and
on wheat straw, the amount of cadmium was decreased from grain filling characteristics in wheat cultivars. Field Crop Res 7:
0.91 to 0.54 mgkg-1. On the other hand after potassium 61–71.
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[III] CONCLUSION [15] Farooq Muhammad, Wahid Abdul, Jinlee Dong. et al. [2011]
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ABOUT AUTHORS

Dr. Avtar Singh is working as Sr. Agronomist in the Department of Agronomy, Punjab Agricultural
University, Ludhiana, Punjab, India. He has joined as Assistant Professor of Agronomy in April 1986 and
served as Agronomist for 8 years from 1992 to 2000. He has promoted as Sr. Agronomist in 2000. He
has done research work on medicinal aromatic plants, sugarcane, fodder and forage crops and presently
working on resource conservation technologies. He is going to retire from the service of the University in
June 2014.

Dr. J. S. Kang is also workingDr. as Sr. Agronomist

Chaitanya G. Joshiinisthe Department
currently of Agronomy,
working Punjab
as Professor Agricultural
and Head at
University, Ludhiana, Punjab, Department
India. He hasof also served
Animal as Assistant College
Biotechnology, Agronomist and Agronomist.
of Veterinary ScienceHe is
and
recently promoted as Sr. Agronomist. He is also working on resource conservation technologies with
Animal Husbandry, Anand Agricultural University, Anand- 388001, Gujarat, Dr.
Avtar Singh, Sr. Agronomist. India. For the past 10 years, his research team has been working on
livestock genome to explore genes involved in milk production and disease
resistance through routine molecular techniques and high throughput
Navneet Aggarwal is Ph.D sequencer
student in (GSFLX, based on
the Department of454 technology).
Agronomy, Punjab Agricultural University,
Ludhiana, Punjab, India. He is working with Dr. Avtar Singh, Sr. Agronomist for Ph.D research work. His
research problem on mechanical transplanting of rice to develop the technologies for its adoption to
problem associated with mechanical transplanting of rice.

SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE
www.iioab.webs.com

Davinder Singh was a post graduate student in the Department of Agronomy, Punjab Agricultural
University, Ludhiana, Punjab, India. He has done his M.Sc. Agronomy with Dr. Avtar Singh, Sr.
Agronomist. His research problem in the M.Sc. was to mitigate the high temperature stress effects on
wheat with the modification of management practices

© IIOAB-India Singh et al. IIOABJ; Vol. 2; Issue 7; 2011:11–22 22