FACULTY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA (PULAU PINANG)

PROGRAM : BACHELOR OF MECHANICAL ENIGINEERING (MANUFACTURING)(HONS.)
PROGRAM CODE : EM241
COURSE : THERMALFLUIDS LAB II
COURSE CODE : MEC554
LECTURER/INSTRUCTOR : DR. MOHD MAHADZIR MOHAMMUD @MAHMOOD
LABORATORY REPORT
EXPERIMENT TITLE : HEAT CONDUCTION- SIMPLE BAR
Assigned Experiment
: GROUP 12
Group
This report is jointly prepared by

NO. STUDENT NAME STUDENT NUMBER

1 MUHAMAD AMIRUL HAFIZ BIN JAILAN 2018468796

2 MUHAMMAD SUFFIAN BIN OSMAN 2018834296

GRADING
SECTION A (CO2) Weightage SCORE (1 – 10)

Experiment Title ×1

Experiment Objective(s) ×1

Methodology (Experimental equipment, setup and method) ×3

Raw Data ×1

Data Analysis (relevant performance calculation, theoretical ×4

calculation, graphs and tables)
Experiment Discussion ×4

Conclusion ×2

SECTION B (CO3) Weightage SCORE (1 – 10)

Report Formatting ×1

English Language Writing Skill ×1

Lab session: 24 OCTOBER 2019

(Date)

Report submission: 7 NOVEMBER 2019 Instructor verification:

(Date) (Signature)
 TITLE:
HEAT CONDUCTION
(SIMPLE BAR)
TABLE OF CONTENTS

NO. CONTENTS PAGES

1 INTRODUCTION 1

2 OBJECTIVES 1

3 THEORY 2-3

4 EQUIPMENT & APPARATUS 4

5 RESULTS 5-11

6 DISCUSSION 12

7 CONCLUSION 13

8 REFERENCES 13

LIST OF FIGURES:

Figure 1: Schematic diagram

Figure 2: Schematic of a long cylindrical insulated bar
Figure 3: UNIT ASSEMBLY FOR HEAT CONDUCTION STUDY BENCH
Figure 4: TEST UNIT
Figure 5: TEST SAMPLE
Figure 6: Graph Temperature Vs Distance at Q=10 W
Figure 7: Graph Temperature Vs Distance at Q=15W
Figure 8: Graph Temperature Vs Distance at Q=20W
Figure 9: Graph Temperature Vs Distance at Q=25W
Figure 10: Graph Temperature Vs Distance at Q=30W
Figure 11: : Overall Graph Temperature Vs Distance
INTRODUCTION

Conduction is defined as the transfer of energy from more energetic particles to adjacent less energetics
particles as a result of interactions between particles. In solids, conduction is a combined result of
molecular vibrations and free electron mobility. Metals typically have high free electron mobility,
which explains why they are good at heat conductors. Conduction can be easily understood if we
imagine two blocks, one hot and the other cold. If we put these blocks in contact with one another but
insulate them from the surroundings, thermal energy will be transfer from the hot to the cold block as
evidenced by the increase in temperature of the cold block.

In this experiment, sample test brass material which have dimension 0f 25 mm diameter will be
tested and placed at the middle between the heater and cooler. 9 temperature sensors point will be
recorded by increase the heater power control 𝑄̇ . The distance between the temperature sensors is
10mm. A control panel supplies electrical power to the heaters and shows readings for all relevant
measurements. A small flow of cooling water provides a heat sink at the end of the conducting path in
each specimen.

OBJECTIVES

The objectives from this experiment is to investigate Fourier’s Law for linear conduction of heat
along a simple bar.

1
BACKGROUND & THEORY

Figure 1: Schematic diagram

If a plane of wall thickness (∆𝑥) and area (A) and thermal conductivity (K) supports a temperature
differences (∆𝑇) then the heat transfer rate by conduction is given by the equation
̇ 𝑑𝑇
𝑄̇ = −𝑘𝐴
𝑑𝑥
Assuming a constant thermal conductivity throughout the material and linear temperature distribution,
this is

̇ ∆𝑇
𝑄̇ = −𝑘𝐴
∆𝑥

The negative sign indicates that heat is transferred in the direction of decreasing temperature. more
generally, Fourier’s Law is a vector relationship which includes all directions of heat transfer.

Where,
Q= heat flux (W)
K= thermal conductivity (W/(m.K))
A= cross sectional area (𝑚2 )
dT/dx= temperature gradient in x-direction (K/m)

Conduction is mode of heat transfer, which the heat transfer by microscopic collisions of particles
within a body

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 Figure 2: Schematic of a long cylindrical insulated bar

We will assume that length of bar, L a uniform hot temperature Th is imposed on one end, a cold
temperature Tc is imposed on the other. We will also assume, because the bar is insulated in the
peripheral direction, that all the flow in the axial direction due to an imposed temperature differential
along a bar.

The equation that governs the heat flow is known as Fourier’s Law and the axial direction is written
as
𝑑𝑇
𝑞𝑥 = −𝑘𝐴𝑥 … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (1)
𝑑𝑥

The negative sign indicates that heat is transferred in the direction of decreasing temperature. More
generally, Fourier’s Law is a vector relationship which includes all directions of heat transfer.

𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇
𝑞⃑ = 𝑞𝑥 𝑖⃑ + 𝑞𝑦 𝑗⃑ +𝑞𝑧 𝑘⃑⃑ = −𝑘(𝐴𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑖⃑ + 𝐴𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑗⃑ + 𝐴𝑧 𝑑𝑧 𝑘⃑⃑ )……………. (2)

The thermal conductivity k varies between different materials and can be a function of temperature,
but it can be treated as a constant over small temperature ranges. Because of enhancement of heat
transfer by free electrons., thermal conductivity is analogous to electrical conductivity and as a result
metals that are good conductors of electricity are also good conductors of heat.

In this experiment, we will investigate Fourier’s Law by finding the thermal conductivity k for brass .
to do so we will calculate the cross sectional area A of the bar and slope dT/dx from a plot of
measured temperatures vs length. We can use these values in a rearranged version of Fourier’s Law to
find the thermal conductivity k.

𝑞𝑥 𝑑𝑇
𝑘=− …………………………..(3)
𝐴𝑥 𝑑𝑥

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EQUIPMENT & APPARATUS

Heater Power
Indicator (W)

Main Switch
Heater Power
Control

Temperature
Indicator (℃) Thermocouple

Temperature
Selector

Figure 3: UNIT ASSEMBLY FOR HEAT CONDUCTION STUDY BENCH

Test Sample

Heater

Cooler

Cooling water

Clamp

Figure 4: TEST UNIT

Figure 5: TEST SAMPLE

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PROCEDURE

General start-up procedure (Linear Module)

1) The main switch was switched off. Intermediate section was inserted into the linear module and
clamp together.
2) The cooling water was connected to the water supply and the other to drain.
3) The heater supply lead for the linear conduction module was connected into the power supply
socket on the control panel.
4) Nine sensors lead to the nine plugs was connected on top of linear conduction module. Left
hand sensor lead was connected to the to the marked TT1 on the control panel. This procedure
was repeated for the remaining eight sensor leads, connecting them from left to right on the
module and in numerical order on the control panel.
5) Water supply was turned on and ensure that water was flowing from the free end of the water
pipe to drain. This should be checked at intervals.
6) Turn the heater power control knob on the control panel to 0- Watt position by turning the knob
fully anti clockwise.
7) The main switch was switched on and the digital readouts was illuminated.
8) Heater power control was set to give a reading of 20 Watts on the digital indicator.
9) Make sure that the temperature reading decreases towards the water-cooled end for the entire
temperature sensor.
10) The equipment was ready for experiment.

Experiment Guideline

1) Sample size and material was picked and mounted it to the testing apparatus to be tested.
2) The distance was measured between each temperature sensor probes.
3) Water faucet was turned on to allow cooling water to flow over cooling side of the apparatus.
4) Intermediate position for the heater power control (e.g. 10W) was selected to allow sufficient
time for a steady state to be achieved before recording the temperature (T) for all 9 temperature
sensor points (T1 to T9) with the input power reading on the wattmeter (Q̇).
5) Different input powers such as 10W, 15W,20W, 25W and 30W was tested.

5
RESULTS

Experiment ID Heat Conduction -Simple Bar

Date 24 October 2019

Time 8:00 am-10:00 am
HEATER SAMPLE REGION COOLER
Material : BRASS

x(mm) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

x(m) 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08

Test 𝑸̇ 𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐 𝑻𝟑 𝑻𝟒 𝑻𝟓 𝑻𝟔 𝑻𝟕 𝑻𝟖 𝑻𝟗
# (W) (℃) (℃) (℃) (℃) (℃) (℃) (℃) (℃) (℃)

1
10 29.8 29.4 28.5 26.4 26.4 26.4 25.7 25.0 24.8

2
15 39.4 38.5 37.5 31.4 31.3 31.2 26.2 25.9 25.7
3
20 50.7 49.1 48.0 37.7 37.3 37.0 27.8 27.1 26.4
4
25 63.3 61.3 60.7 45.6 45.2 44.6 30.0 28.9 27.7
5
30 76.1 73.7 72.4 52.7 52.6 51.4 32.0 30.6 28.9

All data shown below ( the unit temperature is Kelvin)

Test 𝑸̇ 𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐 𝑻𝟑 𝑻𝟒 𝑻𝟓 𝑻𝟔 𝑻𝟕 𝑻𝟖 𝑻𝟗
# (W) (𝑲) (𝑲) (𝑲) (𝑲) (𝑲) (𝑲) (𝑲) (𝑲) (𝑲)

1
10 302.8 302.4 301.5 299.4 299.4 299.4 298.7 298.0 297.8

2
15 312.4 311.5 310.5 304.4 304.3 304.2 299.2 298.9 298.7
3
20 323.7 322.1 321.0 310.7 310.3 310.0 300.8 300.1 299.4
4
25 336.3 334.3 333.7 318.6 318.2 317.6 303.0 301.9 300.7
5
30 349.1 346.7 345.4 325.7 325.6 324.4 305.0 303.6 301.9

6
Graph

Temperature Vs Distance
Temperature(k)
304
303
302 y = -64.66x + 303.17
301 R² = 0.915
300
299
298 Series1
297 Linear (Series1)
296
295
294
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08

Distace(m)

Figure 6: Graph Temperature Vs Distance at Q=10 W

Temperature (k)

Chart Title
315
y = -192.33x + 312.59
310
R² = 0.9279
305

300
Series1
295
Linear (Series1)
290

285
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08

Distance(m)
Figure 7: Graph Temperature Vs Distance at Q=15W
Temperature(K)

Temperature Vs Distance
330
325 y = -340.5x + 324.52
320 R² = 0.9358
315
310
305
300 Series1
295 Linear (Series1)
290
285
280
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08

Distance (m)

Figure 8; Graph Temperature Vs Distance at Q=20W

7
 Temperature Vs Distance

Temperature(k)
350
340 y = -503.33x + 338.38
330 R² = 0.9322
320
310
Series1
300
290 Linear (Series1)
280
270
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08

Distance (m)

Figure 9: Graph Temperature Vs Distance at Q=25W

Temperature Vs Distance
Temperature(k)

360
350 y = -667x + 351.95
340 R² = 0.9333
330
320
310 Series1
300
Linear (Series1)
290
280
270
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08

Distance(m)

Figure 10: Graph Temperature Vs Distance at Q=30W

Temperature VS Distance
Temperature (k)

Series1
360 y = -64.66x + 303.17 Series2
350
340 Series3
y = -192.33x + 312.59
330 Series4
y = -340.5x + 324.52
320
y = -503.33x + 338.38 Series5
310
300 Linear
y = -667x+351.95 (Series1)
290 Linear
280 (Series2)
270
260
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08
Distance(m)

Figure 11: Overall Graph Temperature Vs Distance

8
Sample Calculation:

Material sample test: Brass

Diameter: 25mm
𝜋
Area of the sample test (brass): 𝐷 2
4
𝜋
= (0.0252 )
4
= 4.908𝑥10−4 𝑚2

𝑑𝑇
From the equation 𝑄̇ = −𝑘𝐴 𝑑𝑥 , we can find the thermal conductivity of the brass material. So, the
𝑄 ∆𝑥
thermal conductivity, k equation is 𝑘 = 𝐴 (∆𝑇)
𝑑𝑇
can be obtained from the slope of the graph.
𝑑𝑥

When Q=10W, then dT/dx= -64.67

When Q=15W, then dT/dx= -192.33
When Q=20W, then dT/dx= -340.5
When Q=25W, then dT/dx= -503.33
When Q=30W, then dT/dx= -667

𝑑𝑇
To find thermal conductivity k, simplify the equation 𝑄̇ = −𝑘𝐴 𝑑𝑥

At 10W
𝑄̇ ∆𝑥
𝑘=−
𝐴 ∆𝑇
10𝑊
𝑘=−
(4.908𝑥10−4 )(−64.67)
𝑊
𝑘 = 315.03
𝑚. 𝐾

At 15W
15𝑊
𝑘=−
(4.908𝑥10−4 )(−192.33)
𝑊
𝑘 = 158.91
𝑚. 𝐾

At 20W
20𝑊
𝑘=−
(4.908𝑥10−4 )(−340.5)
𝑊
𝑘 = 119.51
𝑚. 𝐾

9
At 25W
25𝑊
𝑘=−
(4.908𝑥10−4 )(−503.33)
𝑊
𝑘 = 101.2
𝑚. 𝐾

At 30W
30𝑊
𝑘=−
(4.908𝑥10−4 )(−667)
𝑊
𝑘 = 91.31
𝑚. 𝐾

The average thermal conductivity, k of the brass

𝑘1 + 𝑘2 + 𝑘3 + 𝑘4 + 𝑘5
𝑘𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
5
315.03 + 158.91 + 119.51 + 101.2 + 91.31
𝑘𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
5
𝑊
𝑘𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 157.19 𝑚.𝐾

𝑊
So, the thermal conductivity, k for brass in this experiment is 157.19 while for the theoretical
𝑚.𝐾
𝑊
thermal conductivity brass is 109 .
𝑚.𝐾

Percentage of error experimental thermal conductivity and theoretical thermal conductivity;

𝑘𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 − 𝑘𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑦
Percentage of error = | | × 100%
𝑘𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑦

157.19 − 109
Percentage of error = | | × 100%
109

Percentage of error = 44.21%

10
Discussion

From this experiment, there were slightly different between the experimental and theoretical value in
terms of thermal conductivity. The experimental thermal conductivity value of brass is 177.19 W/m.K
while the theoretical thermal conductivity of brass is 109 W/m.K. The percentage of error is 44.21 %
where it totally huge value due to the error that happen during carried out this experiment. The human
error happened when taken reading of temperatures for thermocouples because the temperature keep
dropping and rising (fluctuate) when changing the location of thermocouples along the heater, brass
and cooler region. Others, the heater power supply was not steady to setup the power and the
thermocouple were not place accurately.

Generally, we can see from all the graph of different heater power that are the temperature will
decrease when the distance from heater end is increase along the insulated bar. As the distance increase
from the starting point temperature, the heat travel drops. The bar is insulated in the peripheral direction
that all heat flows in axial direction due to an imposed temperature different along the bar. dT/dx can
be obtained from the slope of the graph which can be using to calculate the thermal conductivity. We
had identified that there are several factors that affect the rate of heat conduction such as temperature
difference, cross sectional area and length that heat must travel. The thermal conductivity of an object
dependent on its cross-sectional area and length. The higher the temperature drop, the lower the thermal
conductivity. By increasing the ∆𝑥, the thermal conductivity increase. The advantage of cooling water
is to make the difference between temperature and to cold the end region.

11
Conclusion

The objective of this experiment to investigate the Fourier’s law for linear conduction of heat
along a simple bar had been achieved. There were slightly different theoretical and experimental value
due to the error that happened during carried out this experiment. When the input power, Q increase the
thermal conductivity decreases. As the distance increase from the starting point temperature, the heat
travels along the insulated bar decrease. From the graph, we can identify the slope dT/dx of temperature
profile along the entire length of bar and the thermal conductivity of the brass. Thus, the heat travels
from hot region (heater) to cold region (cooler).

References

Kenneth E. Wilkes, Ralph B. Dinwiddie, Ronald S. Graves.(1996). Thermal Conductivity.

Technomic Publishing Co. Inc. ISBN: 1566764777

John H. Lienhard (2001). Heat Transfer Textbook. Phlogiston Press. ISBN: 0971383502,

9780971383500.

Robert W. Serth. (2007). Process Heat Transfer: Principle and Applications. Elsevier Book And

International Sabre Foundation. ISBN: 9780123735881

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