Golden rice

Golden rice (right) compared to white rice (left)

Golden rice is a variety of rice (Oryza

sativa) produced through genetic
engineering to biosynthesize beta-
carotene, a precursor of vitamin A, in the
edible parts of rice.[1] It is intended to
produce a fortified food to be grown and
consumed in areas with a shortage of
dietary vitamin A,[2] a deficiency which
each year is estimated to kill 670,000
children under the age of 5[3] and cause an
additional 500,000 cases of irreversible
childhood blindness.[4] Rice is a staple
food crop for over half of the world's
population, making up 30–72% of the
energy intake for people in Asian countries,
making it an excellent crop for targeting
vitamin deficiencies.[5]

Golden rice differs from its parental strain

by the addition of three beta-carotene
biosynthesis genes. The parental strain
can naturally produce beta-carotene in its
leaves, where it is involved in
photosynthesis. However, the plant does
not normally produce the pigment in the
endosperm, where photosynthesis does
not occur. Golden rice has met significant
opposition from environmental and anti-
globalization activists that claim that there
are sustainable, long-lasting and more
efficient ways to solve vitamin A deficiency
that do not compromise food, nutrition
and financial security, as they claim golden
rice does.[6] A study in the Philippines is
aimed to evaluate the performance of
golden rice, if it can be planted, grown and
harvested like other rice varieties, and
whether golden rice poses risk to human
health.[7] There has been little research on
how well the beta-carotene will hold up
when stored for long periods between
harvest seasons, or when cooked using
traditional methods.[8]
In 2005, Golden Rice 2 was announced,
which produces up to 23 times more beta-
carotene than the original golden rice.[9] To
receive the USDA's Recommended Dietary
Allowance (RDA), it is estimated that 144
g/day of the high-yielding strain would
have to be eaten. Bioavailability of the
carotene from golden rice has been
confirmed and found to be an effective
source of vitamin A for humans.[10][11][12]
Golden Rice was one of the seven winners
of the 2015 Patents for Humanity Awards
by the United States Patent and Trademark
Office.[13][14] In 2018 came the first
approvals as food in Australia, New
Zealand, Canada and the USA.[15]

History
The search for a golden rice started off as
a Rockefeller Foundation initiative in
1982.[16]

A simplified overview of the carotenoid biosynthesis

pathway in golden rice. The enzymes expressed in the
endosperm of golden rice, shown in red, catalyze the
biosyntheis of beta-carotene from geranylgeranyl
diphosphate. Beta-carotene is assumed to be
converted to retinal and subsequently retinol (vitamin
A) in the animal gut

Peter Bramley discovered in the 1990s that

a single phytoene desaturase gene
(bacterial CrtI) can be used to produce
lycopene from phytoene in GM tomato,
rather than having to introduce multiple
carotene desaturases that are normally
used by higher plants.[17] Lycopene is then
cyclized to beta-carotene by the
endogenous cyclase in golden rice.[18]
The scientific details of the rice were first
published in Science in 2000,[1] the product
of an eight-year project by Ingo Potrykus
of the Swiss Federal Institute of
Technology and Peter Beyer of the
University of Freiburg. At the time of
publication, golden rice was considered a
significant breakthrough in biotechnology,
as the researchers had engineered an
entire biosynthetic pathway.

The first field trials of golden rice cultivars

were conducted by Louisiana State
University Agricultural Center in 2004.[19]
Additional trials have been conducted in
the Philippines and Taiwan, and in
Bangladesh (2015).[20] Field testing
provides an accurate measurement of
nutritional value and enables feeding tests
to be performed. Preliminary results from
field tests have shown field-grown golden
rice produces 4 to 5 times more beta-
carotene than golden rice grown under
greenhouse conditions.[21]

Crossbreeding

In several countries, golden rice has been

bred with local rice cultivars.[22] or
crossbred with the American rice cultivar
'Cocodrie'.[19] As of March 2016, golden
rice has not yet been grown commercially,
and backcrossing is still ongoing in current
varieties to reduce yield drag.[23][24]

Golden Rice 2

In 2005, a team of researchers at Syngenta

produced Golden Rice 2. They combined
the phytoene synthase gene from maize
with crt1 from the original golden rice.
Golden rice 2 produces 23 times more
carotenoids than golden rice (up to
37 µg/g), and preferentially accumulates
beta-carotene (up to 31 µg/g of the
37 µg/g of carotenoids).[9]

Approvals

In 2018, Canada and the United States

approved golden rice for cultivation, with
Health Canada and the US Food and Drug
Administration declaring it safe for
consumption.[25] Health Canada declared
that golden rice would not affect allergies,
and that the nutrient contents of golden
rice were the same as in common rice
varieties, except for the intended high
levels of provitamin A.[26]
Genetics
Golden rice was created by transforming
rice with two beta-carotene biosynthesis
genes:

1. psy (phytoene synthase) from

daffodil ('Narcissus
pseudonarcissus')
2. crtI (phytoene desaturase) from the
soil bacterium Erwinia uredovora

(The insertion of a lcy (lycopene cyclase)

gene was thought to be needed, but further
research showed it is already produced in
wild-type rice endosperm.)
The psy and crtI genes were transferred
into the rice nuclear genome and placed
under the control of an endosperm-
specific promoter, so that they are only
expressed in the endosperm. The
exogenous lcy gene has a transit peptide
sequence attached, so it is targeted to the
plastid, where geranylgeranyl diphosphate
is formed. The bacterial crtI gene was an
important inclusion to complete the
pathway, since it can catalyze multiple
steps in the synthesis of carotenoids up to
lycopene, while these steps require more
than one enzyme in plants.[27] The end
product of the engineered pathway is
lycopene, but if the plant accumulated
lycopene, the rice would be red. Recent
analysis has shown the plant's
endogenous enzymes process the
lycopene to beta-carotene in the
endosperm, giving the rice the distinctive
yellow color for which it is named.[28] The
original golden rice was called SGR1, and
under greenhouse conditions it produced
1.6 µg/g of carotenoids.

Vitamin A deficiency
Prevalence of vitamin A deficiency. Red is most
severe (clinical), green least severe. Countries not
reporting data are coded blue. Data collected for a
1995 report.

The research that led to golden rice was

conducted with the goal of helping children
who suffer from vitamin A deficiency
(VAD). In 2005, 190 million children and 19
million pregnant women, in 122 countries,
were estimated to be affected by VAD.[29]
VAD is responsible for 1–2 million deaths,
500,000 cases of irreversible blindness
and millions of cases of xerophthalmia
annually.[4] Children and pregnant women
are at highest risk. Vitamin A is
supplemented orally and by injection in
areas where the diet is deficient in vitamin
A.

As of 1999, 43 countries had vitamin A

supplementation programs for children
under 5; in 10 of these countries, two high
dose supplements are available per year,
which, according to UNICEF, could
effectively eliminate VAD.[30] However,
UNICEF and a number of NGOs involved in
supplementation note more frequent low-
dose supplementation is preferable.[31]

Because many children in VAD-affected

countries rely on rice as a staple food,
genetic modification to make rice produce
the vitamin A precursor beta-carotene was
seen as a simple and less expensive
alternative to ongoing vitamin
supplements or an increase in the
consumption of green vegetables or
animal products. Initial analyses of the
potential nutritional benefits of golden rice
suggested consumption of golden rice
would not eliminate the problems of
vitamin A deficiency, but could
complement other supplementation.[32][33]
Golden Rice 2 contains sufficient
provitamin A to provide the entire dietary
requirement via daily consumption of
some 75g per day.[9]

Since carotenes are hydrophobic, sufficient

fat must be present in the diet for golden
rice (or most other vitamin A supplements)
to alleviate vitamin A deficiency. Vitamin A
deficiency is usually coupled to an
unbalanced diet (see also Vandana Shiva's
arguments below). Moreover, this claim
referred to an early cultivar of golden rice;
one bowl of the latest version provides
60% of RDA for healthy children.[34] The
RDA levels advocated in developed
countries are far in excess of the amounts
needed to prevent blindness.[9]

Research
Clinical trials/food safety and
nutrition research

In 2009, results of a clinical trial of golden

rice with adult volunteers from the US were
published in the American Journal of
Clinical Nutrition. The trial concluded that
"beta-carotene derived from golden rice is
effectively converted to vitamin A in
humans".[35] A summary for the American
Society for Nutrition suggested that
"Golden Rice could probably supply 50% of
the Recommended Dietary Allowance
(RDA) of vitamin A from a very modest
amount — perhaps a cup — of rice, if
consumed daily. This amount is well within
the consumption habits of most young
children and their mothers".[36]

It is well known that beta-carotene is

found and consumed in many nutritious
foods eaten around the world, including
fruits and vegetables. Beta-carotene in
food is a safe source of vitamin A.[37] In
August 2012, Tufts University and others
published research on golden rice in the
American Journal of Clinical Nutrition
showing that the beta-carotene produced
by golden rice is as effective as beta-
carotene in oil at providing vitamin A to
children.[38] The study stated that
"recruitment processes and protocol were
approved".[38][39] In 2015 the journal
retracted the study, claiming that the
researchers had acted unethically when
providing Chinese children golden rice
without their parents' consent.[40][41]

The Food Allergy Resource and Research

Program of the University of Nebraska
undertook research in 2006 that showed
the proteins from the new genes in Golden
Rice 2 showed no allergenic properties.[42]

Controversy
Critics of genetically engineered crops
have raised various concerns. An early
issue was that golden rice originally did
not have sufficient provitamin A content.
This problem was solved by the
development of new strains of rice.[9] The
speed at which beta-carotene degrades
once the rice is harvested, and how much
remains after cooking are contested.[43]
However, a 2009 study concluded that
beta-carotene from golden rice is
effectively converted into vitamin A in
humans[10] and a 2012 study that fed 68
children ages 6 to 8 concluded that golden
rice was as good as vitamin A
supplements and better than the natural
beta-carotene in spinach.[12]
Greenpeace opposes the use of any
patented genetically modified organisms
in agriculture and opposes the cultivation
of golden rice, claiming it will open the
door to more widespread use of
GMOs.[44][45] The International Rice
Research Institute (IRRI) has emphasised
the non-commercial nature of their project,
stating that "None of the companies listed
... are involved in carrying out the research
and development activities of IRRI or its
partners in Golden Rice, and none of them
will receive any royalty or payment from
the marketing or selling of golden rice
varieties developed by IRRI."[46]

Vandana Shiva, an Indian anti-GMO

activist, argued the problem was not the
plant per se, but potential problems with
poverty and loss of biodiversity. Shiva
claimed these problems could be
amplified by the corporate control of
agriculture. By focusing on a narrow
problem (vitamin A deficiency), Shiva
argued, golden rice proponents were
obscuring the limited availability of diverse
and nutritionally adequate food.[47] Other
groups argued that a varied diet containing
foods rich in beta-carotene such as sweet
potato, leaf vegetables and fruit would
provide children with sufficient vitamin
A.[48] Keith West of Johns Hopkins
Bloomberg School of Public Health has
stated that foodstuffs containing vitamin
A are often unavailable, only available at
certain seasons, or too expensive for poor
families in underdeveloped countries.[12]

In 2008, WHO malnutrition expert

Francesco Branca cited the lack of real-
world studies and uncertainty about how
many people will use golden rice,
concluding "giving out supplements,
fortifying existing foods with vitamin A,
and teaching people to grow carrots or
certain leafy vegetables are, for now, more
promising ways to fight the problem".[49] In
2013, author Michael Pollan, who had
critiqued the product in 2001, unimpressed
by the benefits, expressed support for the
continuation of the research.[50]

Support

The Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation

supports the use of genetically modified
organisms in agricultural development and
supports the International Rice Research
Institute in developing golden rice.[51] In
June 2016, 107 Nobel laureates signed a
letter urging Greenpeace and its
supporters to abandon their campaign
against GMOs, and against golden rice in
particular.[52][53]

In May 2018, the U.S. Food and Drug

Administration approved the use of golden
rice for human consumption, stating:
"Based on the information IRRI has
presented to FDA, we have no further
questions concerning human or animal
food derived from GR2E rice at this
time."[15] This marks the fourth national
health organisation to approve the use of
golden rice in 2018, joining Australia,
Canada and New Zealand who issued their
assessments earlier in the year.[54]

Protests

On August 8, 2013, an experimental plot of

golden rice being developed at IRRI in the
Philippines was uprooted by
protesters.[34][50][55] British author Mark
Lynas reported in Slate that the vandalism
was carried out by a group of activists led
by the extreme left-inclined Kilusang
Magbubukid ng Pilipinas (KMP) (unofficial
translation: Farmers' Movement of the
Philippines), to the dismay of other
protesters.[50][56] No local farmers
participated in the uprooting; only the
small number of activists damaged the
golden rice crops.[57]

Distribution
A recommendation was made that golden
rice to be distributed free to subsistence
farmers.[58] Free licenses for developing
countries were granted quickly due to the
positive publicity that golden rice received,
particularly in Time magazine in July
2000.[59] Monsanto Company was one of
the companies to grant free licences for
related patents owned by the company.[60]
The cutoff between humanitarian and
commercial use was set at US$10,000.
Therefore, as long as a farmer or
subsequent user of golden rice genetics
would not make more than $10,000 per
year, no royalties would need to be paid. In
addition, farmers would be permitted to
keep and replant seed.[61]

See also
Food portal
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External links

Wikimedia Commons has media

related to Golden rice.

Golden Rice Project

 The Philippines Rice Research Institute –
Golden Rice Questions and Answers
Grains of delusion: golden rice seen
from the ground: joint report by Biothai
(Thailand), Cedac (Cambodia), DRCSC
(India), Grain, Masipag (Philippines),
Pan-Indonesia and Ubinig (Bangladesh)
"Golden Rice: Fool’s gold or golden
opportunity?"

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