Workshop Technology Notes B.E
Workshop Technology Notes B.E
Workshop Technology Notes B.E
PRECAUTION IN WORKSHOP
1.1 Introduction
Workshop practice is a very vast one and it is very difficult for anyone to claim a
mastery over it. It provides the basic working knowledge of the production and
properties of different materials used in the industry. It also explains the use of
different tools, equipments, machinery and techniques of manufacturing, which
ultimately facilitate shaping of these materials into various usable forms. In general,
various mechanical workshops know by long training how to use workshop tools,
machine tools and equipment. Trained and competent persons should be admitted
to this type of mechanical works and permitted to operate equipment.
Processes:
1. Primary shaping processes
2. Machining processes
3. Joining processes
4. Surface finishing processes
5. Processes effecting change in properties.
1.1.1 Primary shaping processes
Some of these finish the product to its usable form whereas others do not and it
requires further working to finish the component to the desired shape and size.
Wire drawing lead to the directly usable articles, which do not need further
processing before use.
Casting,forging, bending, rolling, drawing, power metal forging, etc
1.1.2 Machining processes
Large number of components need further processing after primary processes
known as secondary operation to obtain desired shape and dimensional accuracy.
These operations require the use of one or more machine tools, various types of
cutting tools and cutters, job holding devices, marking and measuring instruments,
testing devices and gauges etc.
Common machining operations are:
Turning,Threading. Drilling, Boring, Planning, Shaping, Sawing, Milling,
Grinding,Slotting, etc.
1.1.3 Joining processes
These processes are used for joining metal parts and in general fabrication work.
Such requirement usually occur when larger lengths of standard sections are
required or several pieces are to be joined together to fabricate a desired structure.
Common processes are Welding, Soldering, Brazing, Riveting, Screwing, Pressing,
etc.
1.1.4 Surface finishing processes
These processes should not be misunderstood as metal removing processes in any
case as they are primarily intended to provide a good surface finish or a decorative
and/or protective coating on to the metal surface, although a very negligible amount
of metal removal or addition may take place. Thus, any appreciable variation in
dimensions will not be effected by these processes. The common processes
employed for obtaining desired surface finish are the following:
1. Buffing 2. Polishing
3. Lapping 4. Belt grinding
5. Metal spraying 6. Painting
1.1.5 Processes effecting change in properties
These processes are employed to impart certain specific properties to the metal
parts so as to make them suitable for particular operations. Most physical properties
like hardening, softening and grain refinement etc., call for particular heat
treatment. Heat treatments not only effect the physical properties, but in most cases
also make a marked change in the internal structure of the metal. So is the case
with cold and hot working of metals.
1. Heat treatment 2. Cold working
3. Hot working
Workshop safety
The safety in Workshops has been written not only to provide appropriate safety
procedures but also to assist trained workshop personnel with the provision of a
reference document outlining the general principles of safe working practices
relevant to the mechanical engineering aspects. It relates to specific are as where
definite safety measures are required for workshop operations
Factories Act and Accident
Various acts relating to accidents are spelt out in workmen’s compensation Act-1923,
The factories act-1948 and Fatal Accidents Act-1855. These acts describe the
regulations for fencing and guarding the dangerous machinery, items and employer’s
liabilities.
1.1.6 Concept of accident
It is very difficult to give a definition of the word‘Accident’. However, a generally
accepted conception that an accident is a mishap, a disaster that results in some
sort of injury, to men, machines or tools and equipments and in general loss to the
organization.
The said injury or loss may be of minor or major nature and the accident is termed
as non-reportable or reportable. For example, a small cut on the body will be
reportable accident in a training workshop. It can be treated by first aid and does
not involve any appreciable loss of time, and will not be considered a reportable
accident in a production unit.
1.1.7 Causes of accidents
The 98% accidents could be easily avoided provided due precautions are taken well
in time. A very familiar slogan goes on to say that accidents do not just happen but
are caused due to the failure of one element or the other, and the most unfortunate
factor is that the human element is the most pronounced of all which fail.
The common causes which lead to accidents are the following:
1. Unsafe working position.
2. Improper or defective tools or their improper use.
3. Improper acts- which result in violation of safety rules and non-observance
of safety precautions.
1.1.8 Common sources of accidents
The large number of machines in use and an even larger number of parts. This can
be regarded as sources of danger and require guarding for protection against
accidents.
Some common sources of accident are listed below :
Projecting nips between sets of revolving parts, viz., gears, rolls and friction wheels,
etc.
1. Projecting fasteners on revolving parts.
2. Revolving cutting tools, circular saw blades.
3. Revolving drums, crushers, spiked cylinder and armed mixers, etc.
4. Revolving shafts, spindles, bars and tools like drills,reamers, boring bars and
chucks, etc.
5. Projecting sharp edges or nips of belt and chain drives viz., belt, pulleys,
chains, sprockets and belt fasteners.
6. Reciprocating tools and dies of power presses, drop hammers, and revolving
presses, etc.
7. Grinding wheels and stones.
8. Reciprocating knives and saw blades such as cutting and trimming machines
and power hack-saws, etc.
9. Revolving drums and cylinders without casing, such as concrete and other
mixers.
10. Intermittent feed mechanisms.
11. Projecting nips between various links and mechanisms, like cranks
connecting rods, piston rods, rotating wheels and discs, etc.
1.2. Common Methods of Protection
The common methods of protection against accidents are the following:
1. Safety by position.
2. Safety by construction.
3. Safety by using interlock guards.
4. Safety by using fixed guards.
5. Safety by using automatic guards.
6. Safety by using distance guards.
1.2.1 Safety by construction
When a new machine is designed, it should be ensured that all its dangerous parts
are either enclosed in suitable housings or provided with suitable safety guards. For
example, the belt drive and motor in a lathe or milling machine are enclosed, the
back gears in a lathe are either enclosed or provided with cast iron guards or covers.
Lubricating points are provided on the outer surfaces so that the interior parts are
not required to be opened every time.
1.2.2 Safety by position
The machine design is in such a way that the dangerous parts are located such that
they are always beyond the reach of the operator. The dangerous parts of all the
machines should invariably be guarded and undertaking should be made to make
them enclosed in the body or housing of the machines.
1.2.3 Safety by using interlock guards
It is a very efficient and sound method of guarding in that the guard cannot be
removed and dangerous parts exposed until and unless the machine is totally
stopped. Similarly, the machine cannot be started to work unless the guard returns
in position and protects the dangerous parts.
An interlocking guard may be mechanical,electrical or some sort of a combination of
these. It is essential that it should:
1. Prevent the starting and operation of the machine in case the interlocking
device fails.
2. Always acquire its position to guard the dangerous part before the machine
can be started.
3. Remain closed in position until the dangerous part is completely at rest.
1.2.4 Safety by using fixed guards
These guards either for man integral part of the machine or are tightly secured to
them. They should be made to have rigid construction and should be so placed that
any access to the dangerous parts of the machine is totally prevented in the running
condition of the machines.
Steel sheets can be advantageously used and they facilitate an easy fabrication of
guards and are lighter in weight.
In some cases the fixed guards are made adjustable in order to accommodate
different kinds of works or sets of tools. In some cases the fixed guards are provided
at a distance from the danger point.
1.2.5 Safety by using distance guards
The principle of a distance guards is that a fencing, enough high, is made of bars,at
a suitable distance from the machine such that even if the operative, by chance,
extends his hands over it, his fingers, clothes or any part of the body does not reach
within the area of dangerous parts. An additional measure of safety, some sort of
tripping device is also usually incorporated to stop the machine quickly in case of an
accident.
1.2.6 Safety by using automatic guards
The principle of an automatic guard is that its operation is actuated by some moving
part of the machine.
It may linked that the part will automatically bring the guard in protecting position
before the operation of the machine starts. The design of the guard is such that it
automatically forces the operative away from the dangerous area of work before the
operation starts and does not permit his access to the area again until and unless
the machine stops. It may be noted that due to enough time being required for their
operation, this type of guards are not suitable for quick-acting and fast-running
machines. Their use is largely favoured for heavy and slow acting machines like
heavy power presses.
4. Electrode
It is filler metal in the form of a wire or rod used as a terminal in an electric current
for the purpose of producing an electric arc. The electrodes are classified as
consumable electrode and non-consumable electrode. A consumable electrode is
similar in composition to the metal being welded and it melts to become a part of
weld.
Anon-consumable electrode may be made of carbon, graphite or tungsten, which do
not consume during the welding operation. When the core of the bare metallic wire
is provided with a covering or coating of some fluxing materials it is known as
coated electrode. The slag forming constituents are silicate;manganese oxide and
iron oxide are used for coating. The advantages are to facilitate the establishment
and maintenance of arc, to protect the molten metal from the oxygen and nitrogen
of the air by producing a shield of gas around the arc and welding pool, to provide
the formation of a slag so as to protect the welding seam from rapid cooling and to
provide a means of introducing alloying elements. The coated electrode may be light
coated or heavy coated. Both bare and coated electrods for hand arc welding
are made up to 12mm in diameter and 450mm long.
5.Chipping Hammer
A chipping hammer is used for removing slag and spatter. It is advisable to wear
chipping goggles while using chipping hammer so that particles of slag may not
strike the eyes .
GAS WELDING
1. Introduction
In gas welding the heat required for heating and melting the parent and filler metals
is obtained by the combustion of a fuel gas with oxygen. Fuel gases used in
commercial gas welding practice are acetylene, hydrogen and natural gas.
Acetylene is the most widely used because the temperatures obtained by
combustion of acetylene are much higher than those obtained by combustion of
hydrogen or natural gas. Oxy-hydrogen flame may be used for welding thin sheets
of steel and low temperature melting materials and alloys.
2. Supply of Oxygen and Acetylene
Oxygen is industrially produced by electrolysis of water or by liquidation of air and
separating oxygen. The gas produced is compressed and charged into cylinder with
40 liter capacity to a pressure of about 15.4MPa at 21ºC temperature.
Commercial acetylene is produced by the action of water on calcium carbide. High
pressure storing and distribution of acetylene in cylinder is done by dissolving the
gas in acetone. The steel cylinder used for storing acetylene is first packed with 80%
porous material such as asbestos, or charcoal. Acetylene cylinders contain 1.7 to 9
cubic metres of free acetylene at a pressure of 1.7 MPa and a temperature of 20 oC.
3. Oxyacetylene Flame
The oxyacetylene flame, like all other flames, is produced when the two gases meet
and undergo combustion with the evolution of heat and light. With commercially
pure oxygen and acetylene the hottest known flame is produced with an estimated
temperature around 3500 oC.
The flame temperature obtained depends on the relative proportion of the fuel gas
and oxygen drawn in the pure form. Since temperature is not the only requirement
in commercial application of the oxyacetylene flame varying ratios of oxygen and
acetylene have been found suitable for different applications.
Types of flames:
Flames can be classified into three categories:
1. Balanced or neutral flame.
2. Reducing or carburizing flame.
3. Oxidising flame.
Balanced or neutral flame: The balanced or neutral flame is produced by
burning a one-to-one mixture of oxygen and acetylene at the tip of the torch
nozzle. This flame is characterized by a well defined luminous cone gradually
rounding off towards the tip.
Fig. 5 Soldering
Advantages of soldering
•Low power is required;
• Low process temperature;
• No thermal distortions and residual stresses in the joint parts;
• Microstructure is not affected by heat;
• Easily automated process;
• Dissimilar materials may be joined;
• High variety of materials may be joined;
• Thin wall parts may be joined;
• Moderate skill of the operator is required.
c) Brazing
The joining of two metal pieces by means of heat and a special filler metal having a
melting point above 400ºC but lower than the melting point of the parts of be
joined, is called brazing. The copper base and silver alloys are commonly used as
filler metals for brazing. In brazing, the two metal pieces to be joined are, first of all,
cleaned to remove all grease and oxide. The parts are fitted together along the line
of joint and held in that position by some clamp. Borax is widely used flux. Many
other proprietary brands are also available. The filler metal used for brazing is
known as spelter. The actual heating may be done in different ways and accordingly
the brazing methods are classified as torch brazing, furnace brazing, resistance
brazing, immersion brazing etc.
Fig. 1 Anvil
2.3 Hammer
The classification of hammers is largely according to the size and weight of
the hammers used in forging.
A smith’s hand hammer is a small sized hammer used by the smith himself
and the sledge hammer is comparatively larger in size, heavier in weight and
is used by the smith’s helper, known as hammer man.
The smith’s hand hammer is normally a small sized ball peen hammer.
Fig. 5 Tongs
Tongs are usually named after the inside shapes of the jaws.
Flat tongs are used for gripping thin section and small flat pieces.
Round hollow tongs, with curved surface inside, are used for holding round
work.
Hollow tongs with square jaws are used to hold square or hexagonal work.
Pick up tongs have their jaws so shaped that even small sections can be
easily picked up. They are not used for holding the work.
2.6 Chisels
Chisels are used to cut metals in hot or cold state.
Those which are used for cutting the metal in hot state are termed as hot
chisels and the others used for cutting in cold state are known as cold chisels.
The main difference between these chisels is in the included angle at the
cutting edge.
A cold chisel carries an included angle of 60 0 at the cutting edge and the
latter is well hardened and tempered. It is made of high carbon steel.
A hot chisel can be made of medium carbon steel as there is no need of
hardening. It is used to cut the metal in plastic state. The included angle of its
cutting edge is 300.
2.7 Punches
Punches are tapered tools made in various shapes and sizes. They are used for
producing holes in red hot jobs. A larger tapered punch is called a drift.
The job is placed on the anvil and the punch is hammered through it up to about
half its depth. In is then turned over and the punch made to pass through it.
Completion of this operation in two stages prevents the job from splitting and full to
bursting.
2.8 Flatters
These are also known as smoothers. They are made of high carbon steel and consist
of a square body, fitted with a handle, and a flat square bottom. They are used for
leveling and finishing a flat surface after drawing out or any other forging operation.
Fig. 6 Flatter
2.9 Set hammer
It is made of tool steel and hardened. It is not used for striking purpose. Its
construction is also similar to that of a flatter but is smaller in size and it does not
carry an enlarged bottom face. It is used for finishing corners, formed by two
adjacent surfaces at right angles. The job is supported on the anvil and the tool is
hammered from the top.
Fig. 8 Fullers
2.12 Swages
Like fullers, they are also made of high carbon steel in two parts called the
top and bottom swages.
Their working faces carry circular grooves to suit the size of the work. They
are available in various sizes.
The top swage carries is a handle and the bottom swage a square shank to fit
the hardie hole of the anvil during the operation.
They are used for increasing the length of a circular rod or for finishing the circular
surface of a job after forging.
Fig. 9 Swages
4. Forging Operations
For giving desired shapes to the products the following operations are
used in a smithy shop.
1. Upsetting
2. Drawing out or drawing down.
3. Cutting
4. Bending.
5. Punching and drifting.
6. Setting down and finishing.
4.1 Upsetting or Jumping
Upsetting is the process through which the cross-section of a metal piece is
increased with a corresponding reduction in its length.
When a metal is sufficiently heated, so that it acquires the plastic stage, it
becomes soft.
If some pressure is applied to it the metal tends to increase in its dimensions
at right angles to the direction of application of force with a corresponding
reduction in its dimensions parallel to the line of action of the said force.
The particular aprt in the bar shape, where said increase in the cross-section
is desired, is heated till it acquires a fully plastic state.The hot portion of the
bar is then kept on the anvil face and the bar hammered at the top.
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Hammering in this operation is done either by the smith himself, if the job is small,
by means of a hand hammer or by his helper in case of big jobs, when heavy blows
are needed, by means of a sledge hammer.
4.2 Drawing out
This process is also known as drawing down. It is exactly a reverse process to that
of upsetting in the sense, it is employed when a reduction in thickness, width or
both of a bar is desired with a corresponding increase in its length. The desired
effect is possible to be obtained by the use of either the peen of a cross peen
hammer, a set of fullers or a pair of swages (for round bars only).
The process of heating and cooling the length, not required to be drawn, is the same
as in case of upsetting, but the selection of the above tools is governed by the shape
of the cross-section of the stock, the amount by which the increase in length is
desired and also the required finished shape of the job.
4.3 Cutting
Cutting of metals in hot or cold state is done by means of hot or cold chisels
respectively.
This operation is required in removing extra metal from the job before
finishing it, cutting required lengths of pieces from a stock, splitting a metal
piece into two at a desired location and similar other requirements.
Enough care should be taken while cutting cold steel, since there is every
likelihood of the chips flying off in different directions and cause injuries.
Also, more power and time is taken in cold cutting as compared to hot
chiseling.
If very thick section is being cut, even cracks may sometimes occur. Cold
cutting is, therefore, preferred for the thin sections only, such as rods of thin
sections and sheets, etc., (usually below 20 mm thickness).
Especially alloy steels should never be cut cold.
For hot cutting of steel, it should be heated to red heat in the furnace and
then cut. The usual temperature for hot cutting is 850 0C to 950 0C.
4.4Bending
Bending of bars, flats and other similar stock material is usually done in a smithy
shop. This can be done to produce different types of bent shapes such as angles,
ovals and circles, etc.
Any desired angle can be made through this operation. For making a right angle
bend that particular portion of the stock, which is to be subjected to bending, is
heated and jumped on the outer surface.
This operation is carried out on the edge of the anvil or on the perfectly square edge
of a rectangular block. After bending, the outside bulging is finished by means of a
flatter and the inside one by means of a set hammer.
Curved shapes of bends are formed on the horn of the anvil. For mass production of
articles made through bending, particularly when dimensional accuracy is a must,
jigs and fixtures are designed to help in performing this operation quickly and
efficiently. This results in a considerable saving of time and labour.
4.5 Punching and drifting
Punching and drifting are used for producing and finishing holes and preparatory for
producing other shapes. Punching should be done in two stages. In the first stage
the work piece is kept flat on the anvil and holes performed half way through. Then
job is turned upside down. The application of punching, producing the slot a number
of holes are punched and the remaining excess material is cut out using a chisel.
The slot may then be finished hot drifting or may be finished by filing when cold.
4.6 Setting down
It is a localized drawing down or swaging operation. Usually the work is fullered at
the place where the setting down is effected by the set hammer.
5. Forging Processes
The processes of reducing a metal billet between flat dies or in closed impression
dies to obtain a part of predetermine size and shape are smith forging and
impression die forging respectively. Depending on the equipments utilized they are
further sub-divided as under.
5.1 Smith die forging
It is also known as flat die or open die forging. It is simple, relatively inexpensive
and allows the production of large verities of shapes. The final shape of the forging
depends largely on the skill of the smith.
A. Hand forging: Hand forging is employed only to shape a small number of light
forgings mainly in repair shops. This is done by hammering the piece of metal, when
it is heated to proper temperature, on an anvil. A hand hammer or a sledge hammer
is used for striking.
B. Power forging: Large machine parts which cannot be forged by hand forging, use
of power hammers and presses is employed to do the job.
Hammer forging: machines which work on forging by blow are called hammers.
The heavy falling part of the hammer is called the ram and the rigid support is in the
form of anvil block. The power hammer may be a gravity fall type or a higher
striking velocity type such as mechanical hammer, air and steam hammer etc. these
hammers are available with different ram weight and different blows rate per
minute.
Press forging: Forging presses for smithy work are usually of the hydraulic type. In
press forging, pressure or squeeze is applied to the raw material and intensity of this
pressure increase as the plastic metal resists deformation. As the pressure applied
squeezes the metal slowly compared to blow hammer, more time is available for the
flow of metal being forged.
5.2 Impression die forging
It is employed for more complex shapes of greater accuracy, large quantities of
identical forgings as well as for special items with quality and economy reasons.
a) Drop forging: Three types of drop hammers are used in making drop
forgings. They are board or gravity type, air lift hammer and power drop
hammer also, called steam hammer.
b) Press forging: It is done in presses rather than with hammers. The action is
relatively slow squeezing instead of delivering heavy blows. This allows the
gases to escape from the forging.
Machine or upset forging: Forging of the ring or rod types with all kinds of heads
and shoulder, such as bolts, nuts, washers, collers, pinions gear, blanks etc can be
conveniently produced in forging machines. Large number of small identical items
can be machine forged.
3. Gauges
Gauges are very important carpentry tools used for marking and for cutting. A gauge
essentially consists of a small square or rectangular wooden stem sliding in a
wooden stock. The stem carries one or more steel marking points or a cutting knife.
The gauge is then held firmly against a planed surface and pushed along to get the
required markings.
The three commonly used gauges are marking gauge, mortise gauge and cutting
gauge.
The marking gauge has one marking point. It gives an accurate cut line parallel to a
true edge, usually along the grain. The mortise gauge has two marking points one
fixed near the end of the stem and the other attached to a sliding bar. The two teeth
cut two parallel lines, called mortise lines needed for joints etc.
The cutting gauge is similar to a marking gauge but instead of a marking pin it
consists of a steel cutting knife held in position by a wedge. The wedge enables the
depth of cut to be varied. This gauge is used for cutting parallel strips of thin sheets
of wood up to 3 mm thick, for gauging fine deep lines and cutting small rebates.
Fig. 1 Gauges
4. Cutting Tools
Saws:
All the saws used in wood working essentially consist of two main parts-the blade
and the handle. The blade carries the cutting teeth and is made of steel. The handle
is made of wood and is used for holding the blade and applying pressure. The teeth
of the saw are given a set to prevent the saw from binding during the sawing
operation.
The saws are classified as push cut saws or pull cut saws depending upon whether
they cut in the forward stroke or in the return stroke. Push cut saws are in more
common use than pull cut saws.
Saws are generally specified by the length of the blade measured along the toothed
edge and pitch of teeth expressed in millimetres.
The common types of saws used in wood working are the following:
1. Rip Saw: Rip saws are used for cutting along the grains in thick wood. The
blade is about 120 to 200 mm wide near the handle and about 60 to 100 mm
near the tip. The cutting action starts from near the tip and gradually the whole
length is involved. The length of the blade is about 700 mm and the tooth pitch
5 to 8 mm.
Hand Saw: The cross cut or hand saw is designed primarily for cutting across the
grains but is used as a general purpose saw in wood working. Its blade is 500 to 700
mm long. A blade with finer pitch is preferred for hard wood and that having coarse
pitch for soft wood. This saw can be used for cutting along the grains but is slow
compared to rip saw.
Miscellaneous tools:
Rasps and files : there are used for cleaning by some curved surface.
Pincelr: It is making used for pulling out nails, tacks etc.
Screw drivers : They are used for screwing or unscrewing screw used in wood.
Screw drivers used for carpentry work are available with long handles and strong
nose.
4.4 Boring
Boring is the process of enlarging a hole produced by drilling, casting, punching or
forging with the help of a single point tool. Boring cannot originate a hole. In boring
the job is held in a chuck or face plate and a boring tool held on the tool post are
fed into it. The operation is similar to external turning in that the feed and depth of
cut are given by the longitudinal and cross motions of the tool respectively. Since
the enlarged hole is being generated with a motion of the work piece about an axial
motion of the tool.
Thread cutting
Difficult forms of threads can be cut on a lathe by making certain adjustments
and/or proving some attachments for the purpose.
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