Chapter 11 Fluids

Chapter 11

FLUIDS

PREVIEW

A fluid is any substance that flows, typically a liquid or a gas. Hydrostatics is the study of
fluids at rest, such as the pressure of a fluid at a particular depth, or the buoyant force
acting on an object in a fluid. Archimedes principle states that the buoyant force acting on
an object in a fluid is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object
Hydrodynamics is the study of fluids in motion. As a fluid flows through a pipe, the flow
rate through the cross section is the same at any point in the pipe. Bernoulli’s equation
relates static pressure of a fluid to its dynamic (moving) pressure.

The content contained in sections 1 – 4, 6 – 10, and 12 of chapter 11 of the textbook is

included on the AP Physics B exam.

QUICK REFERENCE

Important Terms

absolute pressure
the total static pressure at a certain depth in a fluid, including the pressure at the
surface of the fluid
Archimedes principle
the buoyant force acting on an object in a fluid is equal to the weight of the fluid
displaced by the object
Bernoulli’s principle
the sum of the pressures exerted by a fluid in a closed system is constant
density
the ratio of the mass to the volume of a substance
flow rate continuity
the volume or mass entering any point must also exit that point
fluid
any substance that flows, typically a liquid or a gas
gauge pressure
the difference between the static pressure at a certain depth in a fluid and the
pressure at the surface of the fluid
hydrodynamics
the study of fluids in motion
hydrostatics
the study of fluids at rest

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ideal fluid
a noncompressible, nonviscous fluid which exhibits steady flow, that is, the
velocity of the fluid particles is constant
liquid
substance which has a fixed volume, but retains the shape of its container
pressure
force per unit area
the SI unit for pressure equal to one newton of force per square meter of area

Equations and Symbols

F
P
A where
m

V P = pressure
Pdepth  P0  gh F = force perpendicular to a surface
FB  W fluid  gV fluid A = area
ρ = density
1 A1v1   2 A2 v 2 (mass flow rate) m = mass
A1v1  A2 v 2 (volume flow rate) V = volume
1 2 1 2 FB = buoyant force
P1  v1  gy1  P2  v 2  gy 2
2 2 W = weight
g = acceleration due to gravity
v = speed or velocity
y = height above some reference level
Ten Homework Problems

Chapter 11 Problems 21, 36, 39, 50, 52, 59, 61, 65, 77, 87

DISCUSSION OF SELECTED SECTIONS

11.1 - 11.2 Mass Density, and Pressure

The mass density  of a substance is the mass of the substance divided by the volume it
occupies:
m

V

A fluid is any substance that flows and conforms to the boundaries of its container. A
fluid could be a gas or a liquid; however on the AP Physics B exam fluids are typically
liquids which are constant in density. An ideal fluid is assumed

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 to be incompressible (so that its density does not change),

 to flow at a steady rate,
 to be non-viscous (no friction between the fluid and the container through which
it is flowing), and
 flows irrotationally (no swirls or eddies).

Any fluid can exert a force perpendicular to its surface on the walls of its container. The
force is described in terms of the pressure it exerts, or force per unit area:

F
p
A

11.3 Pressure and Depth in a Static Fluid

The SI unit for pressure is the Newton per meter squared, or the Pascal. Sometimes
pressure is measured in atmospheres (atm). One atmosphere is the pressure exerted on us
every day by the earth’s atmosphere. The relationship between one atmosphere and
Pascals is

1 atm = 1.013 x 105 Pa

This is approximately equal to 15 lbs/in2. In mechanics, it is often convenient to speak in

terms of mass and force, whereas in fluids we often speak of density and pressure.

A static (non-moving) fluid produces a pressure within itself due to its own weight. This
pressure increases with depth below the surface of the fluid. Consider the containers of
water with the surface exposed to the earth’s atmosphere.

p1 p1 p1

h h h
p2 p2 p2

The pressure p1 on the surface of the water is 1 atm, or 1.013 x 105 Pa. If we go down to a
depth h below the surface, the pressure becomes greater by the product of the density of
the water , the acceleration due to gravity g, and the depth h. Thus the pressure p2 at this
depth is

p 2  p1  gh

In this case, p2 is called the absolute pressure. The difference in pressure between the
surface and the depth h is
p 2  p1  gh

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This difference in pressure is called the gauge pressure. Note that the pressure at any
depth does not depend of the shape of the container, only the pressure at some reference
level (like the surface) and the vertical distance below that level.

11.6 Archimedes Principle

Archimedes principle allows us to calculate the buoyant force acting on an object in a

fluid. The buoyant force is the upward force exerted by the fluid on the object in the fluid,
and is equal to the weight of the fluid which is displaced by the object. For example, if a
floating object displaces one liter of water, the buoyant force acting on the object is equal
to the weight of one liter of water, which is about 10 N.
The buoyant force acting on an object in a fluid can be found by the equation

Fbuoyant   gV fluid displaced

where  is the density of the fluid, g is the acceleration due to gravity, and V is the
volume of the displaced fluid. If the buoyant force acting on an object in a fluid is equal
to the weight of the object, the object will float.

Example 1

3m

A large container of water (ρ = 1000 kg/m3 ) contains a thin, light plate at a depth of 3 m
below the surface of the water. Neglect the mass and volume of the thin plate. The plate
can be elevated by a jack without disturbing the water in the container.
(a) What is the gauge pressure at the depth of the plate?
(b) What is the absolute pressure at the depth of the plate?

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A solid aluminum cylinder (ρ = 2700 kg/m3 )

of radius 0.25 m and height 1 m is lowered by
a cable in the water until half the cylinder is
beneath the surface of the water where it 3m
remains at rest.
(c) What is the tension in the cable?

(d) The cylinder is then lowered onto the light plate, and the cable is removed. Find the
force exerted by the plate on the cylinder if the jack lifts the plate upward at

i. a constant speed of 2 m/s

ii. an acceleration of 1 m/s2.

3m

Solution
(a) p gauge  gh  1000 kg / m 10 m / s  3 m   3x10 Pa
3 2 4

  
(b) p 2  p1  gh  1.013x10 5 Pa  1000 kg / m 3 10 m / s 2  3 m   1.313x10 5 Pa

(c) The tension in the cable is equal to the weight of the cylinder minus the buoyant force
acting on the cylinder.
FT  m Al g  gVdisplaced water
FT    Al V Al  g  gVdisplaced water
The volume of the aluminum is
V Al  r 2 h    0.25 m  1 m   0.20 m 3
2

The volume of the displaced water is half of the volume of the aluminum, or 0.10 m3 .
Substituting the known values into the equation for the tension, we get
FT  4400 N

(d) i. For the jack to lift the aluminum cylinder it must apply a force equal to the apparent
weight of the cylinder.
F  mg  FBuoyant    AlV Al  g  gVdisplaced water  gV   Al   water 
F  10 m / s 2  0.20 m 3  2700 kg / m 3  1000 kg / m 3 
F  3400 N

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ii. Drawing the free-body diagram for the cylinder:

FB FP
FP  FB  mg  ma
FP   FB  mg  ma
a
where the mass of the aluminum cylinder is ρAl VAl = 540 kg.
Then
FP   gVdisplaced water  mg  ma
mg

Substituting, we get
FP  3940 N

11.8 The Equation of Continuity

Consider a fluid flowing through a tapered pipe:

A1
A2

v1 v2

The area of the pipe on the left side is A1, and the speed of the fluid passing through A1 is
v1. As the pipe tapers to a smaller area A2, the speed changes to v2. Since mass must be
conserved, the mass of the fluid passing through A1 must be the same as the mass of the
fluid passing through A2. If the density of the fluid is 1, and the density of the fluid at A2
is 2, the mass flow rate through A1 is 1A1v1, and the mass flow rate through A2 is 2A2v2.
Thus, by conservation of mass,

1 A1 v1 = 2 A2 v2

This relationship is called the equation of continuity. If the density of the fluid is the same
at all points in the pipe, the equation becomes

A1 v1 = A2 v2

The product of area and the velocity of the fluid through the area is called the volume
flow rate.

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11.9 and 11.10 Bernoulli’s Equation and Applications of Bernoulli’s

Equation
Recall that in the absence of friction or other nonconservative forces, the total mechanical
energy of a system remains constant, that is,

U1 + K1 = U2 + K2

mgy1 + ½ mv12 = mgy2 + ½ mv22

Bernoulli’s principle states that the total pressure of a fluid along any tube of flow
remains constant. Consider a tube in which one end is at a height y1 and the other end is
at a height y2:

v2
v1
y1
y2

Let the pressure at y1 be p1 and the speed of the fluid be v1. Similarly, let the pressure at
y2 be p2 and the speed of the fluid be v2. If the density of the fluid is , Bernoulli’s
equation is

1 1
p1  v1 2  gy1  p 2  v 2 2  gy 2
2 2

This equation states that the sum of the pressure at the surface of the tube, the dynamic
pressure caused by the flow of the fluid, and the static pressure of the fluid due to its
height above a reference level remains constant. Note that if we multiply Bernoulli’s
equation by volume, it becomes a statement of conservation of energy.

If a fluid moves through a horizontal pipe (y1 = y2), the equation becomes
1 1
p1  v1 2  p 2  v 2 2

2 2

This equation implies that the higher the pressure at a point in a fluid, the slower the
speed, and vice-versa. The equation of continuity and Bernoulli’s principle are often used
together to solve for the pressure and speed of a fluid, as the following review questions
illustrate.

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CHAPTER 11 REVIEW QUESTIONS

For each of the multiple choice questions below, choose the best answer.
Unless otherwise noted, use g = 10 m/s2.

1. Gauge pressure at a certain depth 4. If the beaker, water, and the ball in the
below the surface of a fluid is equal to water are placed on a Newton scale, the
(A) the pressure at the surface of the scale will read
fluid (A) 16 N
(B) the difference between the absolute (B) 15 N
pressure and the pressure at the (C) 11 N
surface of the fluid (D) 10 N
(C) the sum of the absolute pressure and (E) 6 N
the pressure at the surface of the fluid
(D) the absolute pressure A2
A1
(E) the density of the fluid A3

2. The pressure at the surface of the

ocean is 1 atm (1 x 105 Pa). At what
approximate depth in the ocean water v3
(ρ = 1025 kg/m3) would the absolute v1
v2
pressure be 2 atm?
(A) 1 m Questions 5-6: The three sections of the
(B) 5 m pipe shown above have areas A1, A2, and
(C) 10 m A3. The speeds of the fluid passing
(D) 100 m through each section of the pipe are v1,
(E) 1000 m v2, and v3, respectively. The areas are
related by A2 = 4A1 = 8A3. Assume the
Questions 3 – 4: A ball weighing 6 N in fluid flows horizontally.
air and having a volume of 5 x 10-4 m3 is
fully immersed in a beaker of water and 5. Which of the following is true of the
rests on the bottom. The combined speeds of the fluid in each section in the
weight of the beaker and water without pipe?
the ball is 10 N. (A) v3 = 2v1
(B) v3 = 8v2
3. The buoyant force acting on the ball is (C) v2 = ½ v1
most nearly (D) v2 = 16v1
(A) 1 N (E) v3 = 64v2
(B) 2 N
(C) 3 N 6. Which of the following is true of the
(D) 4 N pressures in each section of the pipe?
(E) 5 N (A) p1 > p2 > p3
(B) p2 > p1 > p3
(C) p3 > p2 > p1
(D) p2 > p3 > p1
(E) p1 > p3 > p2

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Questions 8-9:

v1=2m/s v2=6m/s

7. The large container above is filled A glass pipe containing two vertical
with water. Three small spouts near the tubes of equal size is filled with water so
bottom of the container are of equal size that the level of the water is the same in
and are initially corked. If the corks are the two pipes. Air (ρ = 1.3 kg/m3) is
removed from the spouts, which of the blown across the end of the left tube
following best represents the path of the with a speed of 2 m/s and air is blown
water stream from each spout? across the right tube with a speed of 6
(A) m/s.

8. Which of the following statements is

true of the water in the pipe as the air is
blown across the vertical tubes?
(A) The water level in each pipe does
(B)
not change.
(B) The water level on the left rises and
the water level on the right is lowered.
(C) The water level on the left is lowered
and the water level on the right rises.
(C)
(D) The water level on both sides rises.
(E) The water level on both sides is
lowered.

9. The magnitude of the difference in

(D)
pressure between the two ends of the
pipe is most nearly
(A) 40 Pa
(B) 32 Pa
(C) 24 Pa
(E)
(D) 21 Pa
(E) 16 Pa

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Free Response Question

Directions: Show all work in working the following question. The question is worth 15
points, and the suggested time for answering the question is about 15 minutes. The parts
within a question may not have equal weight.

1. (15 points)

y1
b
c
a

y2

h
d

Note: Figure not drawn to scale.

A cylindrical-shaped pipe can carry water from a very large elevated container on the left
to a lower container on the right. The area of the wider portion of the pipe containing the
point b has a cross-sectional area Ab = 7.80 x 10-3 m2 , and the narrower section of the
pipe containing both points c and d has a cross-sectional area of Ac = 3.14 x 10-4 m2.
Point C is at a height of y2 = 2 m above point d. A water valve closes the elevated
container at point a, and thus there is initially only water in the upper container, and none
in the pipe. The rectangular block in the lower container above has dimensions 10 cm x 3
cm x 3 cm and mass 0.075 kg, and it rests on the bottom of the lower container before
any water enters the lower container.

(a) If the pressure at the surface of the water is 1 atm, what is the absolute pressure at
point a which is at a depth of y1 = 2 meters below the surface of the water in the
tank?

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The valve at point a is opened to create an opening equal to the area of the pipe
containing the point b so that water flows from the elevated container through the pipe,
and into the lower container.

(b) Consider the pressure at points band c. At which of these points is the pressure the
least? Justify your answer.

(c) If the speed of the water at point b is vb = 6 m/s, what is the speed of the water at
point c?

(d) Determine vd, the speed at which the water initially enters the lower container.

(e) As the water level rises in the lower container, the block eventually begins to
float. What is the height h of the water level at the instant the block is lifted off
the bottom of the container, that is, the block just begins to float?

y1
b
c
a

y2

h
d

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ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS TO CHAPTER 11 REVIEW QUESTIONS

Multiple Choice

1. B
p gauge  p absolute  p surface  gh

2. C
The gauge pressure is the difference between the absolute pressure and the pressure at the
surface of the water:
p gauge  p absolute  p surface  2atm  1atm  1 atm  1 x 10 5 Pa
p gauge  gh
p gauge 1 x 10 5 Pa
h   10 m
g  
1025 kg / m 3 10 m / s 2 
3. E
  
FB  gVdisp fluid  1000 kg / m 3 10 m / s 2 5 x 10 4 m 3  5 N 
4. A
The scale will read the actual weight of the beaker, the water, and the ball, since the
buoyant force is an internal force as far as the scale is concerned.
Weight on scale = 10 N + 6 N = 16 N

5. A
According to the equation of continuity, the speed of a fluid through a pipe is inversely
proportional to the area of the pipe. Since 4A1 = 8A3, 8v1 = 4v3, or v3 = 2v1.

6. B
According to Bernoulli’s principle, the higher the speed in a pipe, the lower the pressure
of the fluid. Since v3 > v1 > v2, then p2 > p1 > p3.

7. D
The lowest spout has the highest pressure since it is at the greatest depth. Thus, the lowest
spout will project the water the farthest.

8. C
The higher the speed of the air across the opening of a vertical pipe, the lower the
pressure in the pipe. Thus, the water in the pipe on the right will rise to fill the space and
the water in the pipe on the left will be lowered.

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9. D
If we neglect the small difference water level between the pipes, the Bernoulli equation
1 1
becomes p1  v1  p 2  v 2 . Solving for the pressure difference, we get
2 2

2 2

1 1
p1  p 2  v 2 2  v1 2  21 Pa
2 2

Free Response Question Solution

(a) 3 points
p a  p surface  gh  1.013x10 5 Pa  1000 kg / m 3 10 m / s 2  2 m   1.213x10 5 Pa

(b) 3 points
The equation of continuity states that the speed in a pipe is inversely proportional to the
area of the pipe:
Ab vb = Ac vc
Since the area at b is greater than the area at c, the speed at c is greater than the speed at
b. According to the Bernoulli equation, a higher speed at a point indicates a lower
pressure at that point. Thus, the pressure at point c is a lower than at point b.

(c) 3 points
Ab vb  Ac vc
 7.80 x10 3
  
m 2  6 m / s   3.14 x 10  4 m 2 v c
v c  149 m / s

(d) 2 points
As the water enters the lower container at point d it must have the same speed as the
water at point c. The water does not separate and is not compressed as it flows through
the pipe from point c to point d, and thus keeps a constant speed between the two points.

(e) 4 points
As the lower container fills with water, there is a height h at which the water will cause
the rectangular block to float. When the water reaches this height, the buoyant force
acting on the block is just equal to the weight of the block:
FB  mg
gVdisp water  mg
g  lwh   mg
m 0.075 kg
h   0.083 m  8.3 cm
lw 1000 kg / m 3  0.03 m  0.03 m 

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