PACKAGING ASPECTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 115

Chapter
6
PACKAGING ASPECTS OF
FRUITS AND VEGETABLES

R S Matche

Food Packaging Technology Department

Central Food Technological Research Institute
Mysore 570 020 (INDIA)

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116 Chapter 6

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PACKAGING ASPECTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 117

Chapter 6

PACKAGING ASPECTS OF
FRUITS AND VEGETABLES

PRODUCT CHARACTERISTICS fruits and vegetables is that caused by

Fruits and vegetables are living organisms microorganisms such as yeasts, molds, and
even after harvesting; they can remain fresh bacteria. These organisms can cause
only as long as normal metabolism continues. destruction by growing on the exterior of
Metabolism involves absorption of oxygen the product or they may invade the interior
which breaks down the carbohydrates in the through a surface bruise or cut and cause
product to water and carbon dioxide. If the internal decay. Therefore careful handling
availability of oxygen is restricted, the and packaging are very important in
chemical reaction changes and small preservation of freshness and quality.
quantities of alcohol are produced. This Normal ripening of fruits and vegetables
results in off-odours and flavours and causes alterations in colour, texture, odour
breakdown of plant cells. This series of and flavour. At some point, for each type,
events is called anaerobic decay and can ideal ripeness is achieved. Beyond that
spoil fruits or vegetables within a few hours. point, the product becomes overripe and
Fruits and vegetables have very high moisture quality deteriorates. The primary goal of
content, ranging from 75-95%. Their fresh produce merchandising is to deliver
equilibrium relative humidites are as high as the product to the consumer at such a point
98%. Under any normal atmospheric in the ripening scale, that it will achieve
condition, they will dry rapidly. This causes perfect ripeness at time of eating. This of
wilting and shriveling due to loss of rigidity course is extremely difficult to do. In
and shrinkage of the cells. Proper packaging practice, the produce is delivered somewhat
can prolong the storage life of fresh fruits underripe at the time of purchase and the
and vegetables by preventing moisture loss consumer delays consumption until
and thereby wilting. The rate of moisture loss ripening is completed. Since all these
varies with the product and water vapour processes are highly sensitive to
permeability of the packaging film. The use temperature, they can be slowed down by
of small perforations for oxygen permeation storing the produce under refrigeration.
has an insignificant effect upon moisture Each fruit or vegetable has an ideal
loss. A type of spoilage much prevalent in temperature for storage. If this temperature

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is not used, deleterious result occurs—for damage, sustained during harvesting, will
example, tomatoes will not ripen if chilled appear as visual defects several hours later
below 4°C, bananas will turn black below and can be detected. Storing field-warm
11°C and potatoes develop a sweet flavour produce for few hours in a cool place, such
below 4°C. An additional reason for the as cold storage corridors, whereby produce
necessity of refrigeration for fresh produce temperature is reduced by several degrees
is the heat generated due to metabolism or before processing will help reducing
respiration. For example, green beans, sweet subsequent spoilage and damage in the
corn, broccoli, green peas, spinach, and packaging line.
strawberries generate from 15,000 to 50,000
The most important process in fresh
Btu of energy per ton per 24 hours of storage
produce is respiration, a biochemical
at 15°C. Even when chilled to 00 - 40C, they
oxidation of all living cells. Respiration rate
still evolve 2,500-17,000 Btu per ton per 24
is proportional to temperature, approxi-
hours. This heat must be taken into
mately doubling every 10°C. Due to high
consideration in the design of refrigeration
respiration, heat build up will be more,
equipment. Some types of fresh produce
which in turn increases the temperature
give off volatile compounds during ripening
and respiration of produce. This reduces
which will impart unacceptable odour and
shelf-life of the produce. The heat produced
flavour if not allowed to escape, or they
may be calculated by
may prematurely ripen the fruit.
1 mg CO2/kg hr. = 61.2 k.cal/ton. day =
PACKAGING REQUIREMENTS 220 BTU/ton.day.
For the most part, packaging cannot The term, precooling, refers to several
delay or prevent fresh fruits and vegetables practices whereby the temperature of the
from spoilage. Incorrect packaging can freshly harvested produce is quickly
accelerate spoilage. However, packaging lowered to shorten the period of initial high
can serve to protect against contamination, respiration rate as well as to reduce the
damage and, most importantly, against loads on the long-term cold storage facilities.
excess moisture loss. Too much of a moisture Success of efficient precooling depends
barrier will cause an excessively high upon fast removal of field heat from all
relative humidity in the package and result fruits, preferably within 2 to 3 hours.
in accelerated spoilage due to micro- Regular cold storage room with about 150
organisms or in skin splitting on some fruits. air changes per hour gives best result, but
PACKING HOUSE OPERATIONS with danger of excess moisture loss.
Hydrocooling consist of drenching field-
The packaging line begins with warm produce with a stream of cold water
unloading of harvested produce. Bulk bins taking care of chilling injury caused
of 200-500 kg capacity are used for big especially to leafy vegetables. There are
packaging houses but in India, reusable three types of hydrocoolers: immersion,
plastic crates are used. Freshly harvested flooding and spraying. Another precooling
produce is stacked up for interim storage. method is vacuum cooling. This system
Interim storage may serve several purposes, uses hermetically sealed vacuum chambers
depending on the type of produce. Latest whereby the pressure is reduced until the

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PACKAGING ASPECTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 119

vaporising temperature of water is achieved, The packaging operation usually

which removes moisture uniformly from all includes setting up of container, before
tissues, not just from the surfaces. quantitizing of produce, filling and
container closure. Quantitizing may be by
The produce is subjected to a cleaning
count or by weight or a combination of the
process, which begins with soaking tank,
two. Accurate sizing provides proportional
where dirt clods and pesticide residues are
link between count and weight whereby
softened and diluted by warm or cold
only ‘check-weighing’ is required after
solution of water detergents and
filling by count. Container fill may be
disinfectants. The fruit is thoroughly
random or pattern packed. Pattern packing
washed by piece of cloth or soft brushes
increases protection to produce by
with water spray. The produce is then
minimising contact pressure by increasing
treated with fungicide treatment, if any.
number of contact points to a maximum of
Before processing further, produce is dried
12 and maximises volume utilisation.
by air streams from overhead fans.
Sometimes, the produce is pre-packed in
In the next stage, the undersized produce packaging house in consumer packs, mostly
called as culls is eliminated, which can be different types of plastic bags or
sent for converting, called as presizer stage. overwrapped trays. The final packaging
The grading process follows next to operation is container closing which may
segregate the produce into quality groups, be performed by gluing, stapling and
such as ripe fruits which must be marketed strapping. Unitization and palletization
immediately, grade A,B,C, export grade or may be done according to the container
culls. Before or after grading, high quality requirement and market need.
fresh produce processing may include
waxing operation, especially when long SPECIFIC APPLICATIONS
shelf-life is desired. Most produce has a
natural wax layer on its rind or skin which The particular type of package used
protects it from excessive moisture loss depends upon the shape and perishability
while allowing free metabolic gas exchange. of the product. There are five main classi-
This wax is largely removed by the cleaning fications—soft fruit, hard fruit; stem
operation. By applying an artificial wax, products; root vegetables; and green
the keeping quality of produce is restored vegetables.
or even improved, by including chemical Soft fruits are highly perishable and easily
additives to inhibit spoilage or to add gloss subject to anaerobic spoilage. They bruise
to colour for sales appeal. and crush easily which leads to rotting.
Sizing is an additional sorting operation They are packaged in semi-rigid containers
whereby sorting is done according to size. with a cover of cellophane, cellulose acetate,
Now uniformly sized and graded produce polystyrene or other suitable film cover.
is ready to be packaged. Depending upon Sometimes, polyethylene bags with venti-
produce type and grade, distance to lation holes are used. Adequate ventilation
markets, cost and availability of packaging is a must to avoid fogging. Handling must
materials, the produce may be packed in a be gentle and avoided as much as possible.
large variety of shipping containers. Shelf-life is limited due to individual damage

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120 Chapter 6

and decay. Some berries under ideal

conditions only retain top quality for 2 or 3
days. Typical soft fruits are cherries, grapes,
blueberries, strawberries, raspberries and
plums.

Fig. 6.2. Apple with individual

cushioning of expanded PS net

it is desirable to protect them against moisture

losses. They are washed, graded and sized
prior to packaging, which is usually in
durable polyethylene bags with perforations.
Typical root vegetables include carrots,
turnips, radishes, onions, beets, yams and
potatoes.
Fig. 6.1. Transparent trays Types of packaging: Packaging can be
classified in a number of ways; the most
Hard fruits are better able to resist damage important one is by stages of distribution
from handling. They are also less perishable system for which it is primarily intended.
and have lower respiratory rates. Shelf-life
is weeks rather than days. The most common • Consumer or unit packaging,
package is an open tray, a plastic film
• Transport packaging;
overwrap or sleeve. Hard fruits may also be
bagged in perforated polyethylene film or in • Unit load packaging.
nets. Examples of hard fruits are apples,
bananas, citrus fruits, peaches, pears and
tomatoes.

Stem products are highly perishable as

they rapidly lose moisture. They should be
bagged or wrapped in moisture proof
cellophane or polyethylene with ventilation,
or they should be banded or sleeved with
shrink film. Typical stem products are celery,
rhubarb, and asparagus.
Root vegetables are not highly peri-shable.
They can be stored for long periods; however, Fig. 6.3. Root vegetables in pouch

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PACKAGING ASPECTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 121

CONSUMER PACKAGING
The package in which consumer receives
the produce is called consumer packaging.
The term prepackaging of produce refers to
consumer units prior to its presentation to
the final consumer. Prepackaging may be
undertaken at any stage throughout the
distribution chain from the field to the
retailer's premises, depending upon the
need of produce for protection, expected
transport and storage time, required shelf-
life, packaging material costs and costs of
packaging and sorting at different points,
transport and storage cost and latest
knowledge of the market requirements.
Types of Consumer Package
Bags

Fig. 6.4. Frozen fresh peas in bags

Fig. 6.6. Net bags; perforated bags

Bags are the most common and favoured
retail packs because of their low material
and packaging cost. In terms of cost to
strength ratio, 25-40 mm low density
Fig. 6.5. Grapes in ventilated pouch polyethylene or 12.5 mm high density

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polyethylene bags are most suited. Net bags Sleeve Packs

are used to provide desired ventilation and
These combine the low cost of bags and
allow free air movement for the produce
protective qualities and sales appeal of tray
such as citrus fruits, onions, potatoes, etc.
packs. Wraps of plastic film such as
The bags can be made of paper, perforated
polyethylene or PVC, in the form of shrink-
polyethylene or polypropylene film, plastic wrap, stretch film or cling film and regular
or cotton nets. net stocking or expanded plastic netting
Tray can also be used. The traditional fruits and
Tray packs made of foamed polystyrene vegetable retail trader packs the produce in
or PVC or PP are overwapped with heat the presence of consumers in the qualities
shrinkable or stretch films. A tight wrap and quantities required by them. The
immobilizes the fruits and keeps them apart. package normally used is a simple wrap of
Trays of moulded pulp, card board, paper or a paper or polyethylene bag. Sleeve
thermoformed plastic or expanded packs can be fabricated to contain from one
polystyrene are also used. to as many as ten fruits. The main advantage
in sleeve packs is that they immobilize the
produce at a fraction of cost of tray packs
and the produce can be seen from all sides
without damage to the fruit.
Carton with
transparent TRANSPORT PACKAGING
window Transport packaging for fresh produce
may be divided into two size groups:
i) The predominant size group, suitable
for carrying by man, is in the range of 15
to 25 kg.

ii) The other group, recently becoming

increasingly popular in 200-500 kg range
suitable for fork lift handling is referred
as pallet container.
Tray with stretch wrap
Wooden Boxes
Includes natural wood and industrially
manufactured wood-based sheet materials.
Timber used must be inexpensive and easily
worked. All wood that is used for the
production of the packaging should be well
dried in order to prevent cracks and mould
Tray with shrink wrap growth later. Manufactured wood based
sheet materials include ply wood, hard board
Fig. 6.7. Trays and cartons and particle board. Plywood is usually made

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PACKAGING ASPECTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 123

from birch. It is rigid and strong, though Plastic Corrugated Boxes

perhaps somewhat less resistant to The most commonly used material for
splintering than poplar, but is smoother and plastic corrugated box is polypropylene and
flatter to be suitable for direct printing. Hard HDPE. Its advantage over CFB is low weight
board is dark in colour but its appearance to strength ratio and its reusability. The
can be improved with decorative printing, printability is also excellent when compared
but deforms after long storage in high relative to CFB boxes. But CFB box has an edge over
humidity. Particle board is thicker and rigid plastic fibreboard boxes when cushioning
but relatively brittle. properties are taken into consideration. The
disadvantages are ultraviolet degradation
Corrugated Fibreboard Boxes and temperature resistant, which can be
taken care by use of additives.
Corrugated fibreboard (CFB) boxes are
the most commonly used shipping Plastic Crates
containers where cartons, glass, cans and Plastic crates, usually made up of HDPE
pouches are the unit containers. The or polypropylene by injection moulding
popularity of CFB box as a container in food have been replacing wooden and wire
industry as well as in other industrial crates. These crates must have good
packaging is for the following reasons: resistant properties to ultraviolet degra-
dation and shock damages.
1. Low cost to strength and weight ratio.

2. Smooth and non-abrasive surface.

3. Good cushioning characteristics.

4. Excellent printability.

5. Easy to set up and collapsible for storage,

6. Reusable and recyclable market.

Fig. 6.9. Plastic crates

Sacks
These are flexible shipping containers
which are generally used in food industries
to transport raw materials viz. fruits and
vegetables from the field. If the weight of
content is more than 10 kg then it is called
sack otherwise bag. The commonly used
Fig. 6.8. Corrugated fibreboard boxes materials for sacks are cotton, jute, flan,

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woven plastics (HDPE, Polypropylene). • A reduction in mechanical strains and

These sacks are advantageous to use as they damages.
cost less, have high strength, reusable and
require little space for the empties. • A reduction in total distribution time.
Disadvantage of plastic woven sack is poor • Better maintenance of product quality.
stackability due to low coefficient of friction,
whcih can be overcome by making anti- Two principles are used in the assembly
slip bags. of pallet loads.
1. The modular principle, in which all
Palletization
packages are oriented in the same
Pallets have been standardised keeping direction.
in view of the standard package sizes and
sea containers. The sizes of the pallets are of 2. The two-way principle, in which the
strategic importance since they correspond packages in each tier form a pattern
directly to the sizes of various types of such that some packages are oriented
containers, ship cargo compartments, lengthwise and others cross-wise on the
trucks, fork trucks, etc. Most commonly pallet.
used pallet sizes are 120x80 cm (Euro pallet)
and 120x100 cm (Sea pallet). Sea pallets are Unitization
most commonly used outside Europe.
Corner posts made of plastic or wood or
Reusable plastic pallets are in use. They are
moulded paper boards are generally used as
made up of HDPE or polypropylene. They
columns for unitization. The boxes are held
are easy to clean and light in weight as
together by means of strapping or stretch
compared to wooden pallets.
wrapping around the boxes as shown in Fig.
Palletized loads are used in order to 10. The strapping is of polypropylene.
reduce handling costs by allowing
substitution of mechanical handling for
manual methods with the following
advantages:
70-80 cm
• A decrease in sorting operations.
• Reduced labelling requirement.
50-70 cm
• Better utilization of storage space.
10-815 cm

Sea pallet
Europallet
Fig.6.11. Unitization of pallets using corner
Fig. 6.10. Pallet types posts and straps

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PACKAGING ASPECTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 125

NEW TRENDS Permeability Regulation via

Thermally Sensitive Packaging
Several new technologies offer the Materials
packer opportunities to modify the atmos-
phere inside the shipping package during A significant development is that of side-
distribution even though such control chain-crystallizable (SCC) polymers with the
traditionally finishes with the sealing of ability to effectively and reversibly melt as
the package. the temperature increases and thus foster
increased gas transmission through them.
Packaging is termed as “active” when it SCC polymers are acrylics with side-chains
performs some desired role other than to independent of the main chain. By varying
provide an inert barrier to the external the side-chain length, the melting point can
environment. The goal of developing such be altered. By making the appropriate
packaging is the achievement of a more ideal copolymers, it is possible to produce any
match of the properties of the package to the melting point from 0 to 68°C., well within the
requirements of the food. Hence, it addresses extreme distribution temperature range of
one or more specific needs of the food without minimally processed foods. When elevated
necessarily having any impact on other food to the switch temperature, SCC polymers
properties. become molten fluids which are inherently
high in gas permeability. The permeation
SOME TECHNOLOGICAL properties may be modified by inclusion of
INNOVATIONS other polymers to change the carbon dioxide
to oxygen permeability ratios. The resulting
Most applications of active packaging materials can permit the packaging
involve the use of polymers. The role played technologist to achieve the lowest oxygen
by the polymer may be that of a conventional concentration without going anaerobic
packaging material as in the fabrication of within the package. Thus, optimum gas
sachets that are used commercially to concentration may be employed with
scavenge oxygen or carbon dioxide, or to minimum concern for elevated distribution
release ethanol or carbon dioxide. When the temperatures. In addition to the reversible
active agent is dispersed in a packaging film temperature sensitivities, the materials are
or sheet, as in OXYGUARD™ thermoformed generally capable of 100 times greater oxygen
trays (Toyo Seikan Kaisha, Japan), the permeability than mainstream polyethylene
polymer acts as a somewhat permeable films without compromising the carbon
carrier. The polymer can play an even more dioxide to oxygen permeability ratio. This is
active role when it interacts physically or accomplished by coating a porous substrate
chemically with the components of the with a proprietary SCC polymer and applying
headspace of the package. Such interactions the membrane as a package label over an
include absorption as in the case of humidity aperture on an otherwise reasonably well
buffering linings for produce cartons, or sealed package. These SCC materials are
reactions as in the case of oxygen scavenging manufactured by Landec Corp., Menlo Park,
plastics. California.

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Ethylene Scavengers broccoli. Other C2H4 adsorbing technologies

are based on inclusion of finely dispersed
Ethylene (C2H4) acts as a plant hormone
that has different physiological effects on minerals such as zeolites, clays and Japanese
fresh fruit and vegetables. It accelerates oya into packaging films. Most of these
respiration, leading to maturity and packaging films, however, are opaque and
senescence, and also softening and ripening not capable of adsorbing C2H4 sufficiently.
of many kinds of fruits. Furthermore, ethylene Although the incorporated minerals may
accumulation can cause yellowing of green adsorb ethylene, they also alter the
vegetables and may be responsible for a permeability of the films: C2H4 and CO2 will
number of specific postharvest disorders in diffuse much more rapidly and O2 will enter
fresh fruits and vegetables. Although some more readily than through pure PE. These
effects of ethylene are positive such as effects can improve shelf life and reduce
degreening of citrus fruit, ethylene is often headspace C 2H 4 concentrations
detrimental to the quality and shelf life of independently of any C2H4 adsorption. In
fruits and vegetables. To prolong shelf life fact, any powdered material can be used to
and maintain an acceptable visual and reach such effects.
organoleptic quality, accumulation of
Furthermore, the adsorbing capacity is
ethylene in the packaging should be avoided.
often lost when incorporating these minerals
Most of these ethylene absorbers are supplied
into a polymer matrix. Commer-cially
as sachets or integrated into films. Potassium
available examples of these mineral
permanganate (KMnO4), which oxidizes
containing materials are the Orega plastic
ethylene to acetate and ethanol and in this
process, colour changes from purple to film (Cho Yang Heung San Co., Korea), Evert-
brown indicating the remaining C2H4 Fresh (Evert-Fresh Co., USA), Peak-fresh TM
scavenging capacity. Products based on (Peakfresh Products, Australia), BO film
KMnO4 cannot be integrated into food- (Odja Shoji Co., Japan) and ProfreshTM
contact materials, but are only supplied in (Europe). C2H4 scavengers are not yet very
the form of sachets because KMnO4 is toxic successful, probably because of insufficient
and has a purple colour. Rengo Co. (Japan) adsorbing capacity. A large proportion of
developed ‘Green Pack’, a sachet of KMnO4 the fresh fruits and vegetables harvested
embedded in silica. The silica adsorbs the each year are lost due to fungal
ethylene and the permanganate oxidizes it contamination and physiological damage.
to acetate and ethanol. The C2H4 adsorbing packaging concepts
could possibly contribute to an increase in
Another type of C2H4 scavenging concept the internal trade as well as export of fresh
is based on the adsorption and subsequent produce.
breakdown of ethylene on activated carbon.
Charcoal containing PdCl as a metal catalyst CO2 Scavengers
was effective at 200C in preventing the
accumulation of ethylene, in reducing the CO2 is formed in some foods due to
rate of softening in mini-mally processed deterioration and respiration reactions. The
kiwifruits and bananas and in reducing CO2 produced has to be removed from the
chlorophyll loss in spinach leaves but not in package to avoid food deterioration and/or

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package destruction. CO2 absorbers might Two widely different approaches have
therefore be useful. The active compound been used to buffer the humidity in the cartons
Ca(OH)2 of FreshLock® reacts at sufficiently in order to prevent condensation while not
high humidity with the CO2 to produce concurrently causing desiccation of the
CaCO3. Multiform Desiccants have patented produce. One is to include micro-porous
(US 5322701) a CO 2 absorbent sachet bags or pads of inorganic salts and the other
including a porous envelope containing CaO is to line the carton with a protected layer of
and a hydrating agent such as silica gel on a solid polymeric humectant.
which water is adsorbed. The main purpose of moisture control is
to lower water activity (aw), thereby reducing
Humidity Regulators the growth of moulds, yeast and spoilage
bacteria on foods with high aw. The shelf life
This approach allows the food packer to of packaged tomatoes at 200C was extended
reduce the surface concentration of water in from 5 to 15-17 days with a pouch containing
a food by reducing the in-pack relative NaCl, mainly by retardation of surface mould
humidity. This can be done by placing one or growth. Another application is in the removal
more humectants between two layers of a of melting water from frozen foods. A third
plastic film which is highly permeable to reason for moisture control is to prevent
water vapour. An example of this type of condensation when fresh horticultural
product is “Pitchit” manufactured by Showa produce respires. Drip-absorbent sheets such
Denko in Japan. The film duplex is described as Thermarite® (Australia), Toppan TM
as containing an alcohol, as propylene glycol (Japan) or Peaksorb® (Peakfresh Products,
and a carbohydrate, both of which are Australia) for liquid water control in high aw
humectants. foods such as meat, fish, poultry, fruits and
vegetables, basically consist of a super
A different approach to humidity absorbent polymer in between two layers.
buffering is being developed for use in the The preferred polymers for absorbing water
distribution of horticultural produce which are polyacrylate salts and graft copolymers
is normally distributed in fibreboard cartons, of starch.
usually with a polyethylene liner or made
Oxygen Scavenging
from very expensive waxed fibreboard
without a liner. A recent development has Oxygen is such a broadly effective agent
been the water-barrier coating of the inside of of deterioration in foods that a substantial
fibreboard cartons to allow moist produce to industry has been established to provide a
be placed directly into the carton. Besides the wide range of alternative means of oxygen
introduction of liquid water with the produce, removal from package headspace to reduce
packing into closed spaces allows the build- chemical deterioration.
up of water vapour. Since temperature cycling Technologies for thin films typically used
is very difficult to avoid during handling in MAP systems need an additional feature
there is every likelihood of condensation to prevent premature reaction, if they are to
and with this the growth of microorganisms provide maximum scavenging capacity. The
on fruits and vegetables. transition-metal-catalyzed (optionally light-

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128 Chapter 6

activated) process patented by W.R. Grace, in outer layers of laminates by use of modified
Inc. approaches this by pre-planned printing presses.
activation involving generation of full
capacity by consumption of antioxidants. Release of antimicrobial agents will be
This type of film, involving side-chain restricted by regulatory approval as
oxidation of a polydiene, appears to be intended food additives. The concept has
designed as a permeation barrier for chilled, been advanced in the case of an edible
short shelf life processed meats. Amoco coating. An alternative approach which
Chemicals have reported some has been developed in Japan by Mitsubishi
performance data for their Amosorb®, is based on the inclusion of zeolite particles
water-activated masterbatch for blending on the surface of the food-contact layer in
into a variety of plastics. laminates. The zeolite has some of its surface
atoms replaced by silver which appears to
Examples of light-activated scavengers, release silver ions as aqueous solution from
incorporated in the packaging film, are the food enters the exposed cavities of the
Zero2 TM developed by CSIRO and marketed porous zeolite structure. The water then
by Southcorp Packaging (Australia) and appears to leach traces of silver from the
OS1000 developed by Cryovac Sealed Air. particles giving the highly efficient
Oxygen scavengers can be used alone antimicrobial activity of this ion. The use of
or in combination with MAP. Their use edible coatings to apply relatively constant
alone eliminates the need for MAP machi- concentrations of permitted antimicrobial
nery and can increase packaging speeds. agents at the food surface has been
However, it is usually more common in developed. The relative rates of diffusion
commercial applications to remove most of within the coating and within the food
the atmospheric O2 by MAP and then use a itself are very important. Such a process
relatively small and inexpensive scavenger could be important where antimicrobials,
to remove the residual O2 within the food such as sorbate, are lost by degradation.
package. For an O2 absorber to be effec- Application of antimicrobial via edible
tive, the packaging material needs to have coatings is likely to gain importance with
an O2 barrier of intermediate performance minimally processed foods distributed
(20 ml/m2.d.atm), otherwise the scavenger under MAP conditions.
will rapidly become saturated and lose its
To control undesirable microorganisms
ability to trap O2.
on foods, antimicrobial substances can be
Antimicrobial Packaging incorporated in or coated onto food
packaging materials. The principle action of
Substantial recent research has been antimicrobial films is based on the release of
directed at determining how the surfaces antimicrobial entities, some of which could
of plastics can be made not only sterile but pose a safety risk to consumers if the release
also capable of having an antimicrobial is not tightly controlled by some mechanisms
effect on the packaged food or beverage. within the packaging material. The major
This type of effect has already been achieved potential food applications for antimicrobial

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PACKAGING ASPECTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 129

films include meat, fish, poultry, bread, CONCLUSION

cheese, fruits and vegetables.
In recent days, entrepreneurs in India are
Several other compounds have been showing greater interest in internal
proposed and/or tested for antimicrobial marketing as well as export of fresh produce.
activity in food packaging including organic The trade is attractive but is not an easy
acids such as sorbate, propionate and enterprise; a high degree of organisation and
benzoate or their respective acid anhydri- professionalism is necessary to export fresh
des, bacteriocins e.g. nisin and pediocin, produce successfully, especially to the
enzymes such as lysozyme, metals and sophisticated markets of Europe. It can make
fungicides such as benomyl and imazalil. A good use of indigenous horticultural skills.
film contains a natural antimicrobial The combined requirements of fresh produce
compound derived from grape-fruit seed. and of its transport environment often impose
Many of the incorporated antimicrobials are unusually severe conditions on the
not yet permitted for food use. The choice of packaging employed. As a result, higher
the antimicrobial is often limited by the package quantity is usually needed for fresh
incompatibility of the component with the fruits and vegetables when compared to
packaging material or by the heat unstability manufactured goods of the same weight. For
of the component during extrusion. Two designing of a package for a specific product
commercial biocidal films are currently and particular target market, a clear picture
marketed. One is composed of a chlorinated of distribution system should be drawn up,
phenoxy compound and the other consists as hazards involved in transportation are
of chlorine dioxide. A commercial antifungal
different for different modes (i.e., packaging
coating containing chitosan is also sold as a
requirements for ship transportation are
shelf-life extender for fresh fruit.
totally different than that by air transpor-
CSIRO (Australia) is developing systems tation). Models may be used depending
which gradually release SO2 to control mould upon the characteristics of the produce and
growth in some fruits. However, excessive the market.
release of SO 2 from pads of sodium
Active packaging is an emerging and
metabisulphite incorporated microporous
material has been shown to cause partial exciting area of food preservation technique,
bleaching problems in grapes. The which can confer many preservation benefits
accumulation or absorption of the excess on a wide range of foods. The aim of active
SO2 by foods could cause toxicological packaging is to match the properties of the
problems. Knowledge about the diffusion package to the more critical requirements of
rate of SO2 into the food is essential to the food. Adoption of some of these methods
address toxicological issues and ensure will require changes in attitude to packaging
safety in SO2 releasing active packaging and a willingness to address regulatory
systems. In contrast to conventional issues where chemical effects are used.
antimicrobial films, some functional Application of these and other emerging
groups that have anti-microbial activity have technologies offers the prospect of greater
been immobilized on the surface of polymer satisfaction in India as these are relatively
films. new concepts that maximise the benefits

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130 Chapter 6

from some of our traditional agricultural Edible films and coatings as active
industries. layers. In: Active Food Packaging, ed:
Rooney ML, Blackie, Glasgow, pp 111-
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