MECHANICS OF SOLIDS

BY

Mr G S D Madhav
Assistant Professor

INSTITUTE OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

(Autonomous)
Dundigal, Hyderabad - 500 043
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING
UNIT-I
Mechanics of Solids
Syllabus:- Part - A
1. Simple Stresses & Strains:-
Introduction, Stress, Strain,
Tensile, Compressive & Shear Stresses,
Elastic Limit, Hooke’s Law, Poisson’s Ratio,
Modulus of Elasticity, Modulus of Rigidity,
Bulk Modulus, Bars of Varying Sections,
Extension of Tapering Rods, Hoop Stress,
Stresses on Oblique Sections.
 2. Principle Stresses & Strains:-
State of Simple Shear,
Relation between Elastic Constants,
Compound Stresses, Principle Planes
Principle Stresses,
Mohr’s Circle of Stress, Principle Strains,
Angle of Obliquity of Resultant Stresses,
Principle Stresses in beams.
 3. Torsion:-
Torsion of Circular, Solid, Hollow Section Shafts
Shear Stress, Angle of Twist,
Torsional Moment of Resistance,
Power Transmitted by a Shaft,
Keys & Couplings,
Combined Bending & Torsion,
Close Coiled Helical Springs,
Principle Stresses in Shafts Subjected to
Bending, Torsion & Axial Force.
 Mechanics of Solids
Syllabus:- Part - B
1. Bending Moment & Shear Force:-
Bending Moment,
Shear Force in Statically Determinate Beams
Subjected to Uniformly Distributed,
Concentrated & Varying Loads,
Relation Between Bending Moment,
Shear force & Rate of Loading.
 2. Moment of Inertia:-
Concept Of Moment of Inertia,
Moment of Inertia of Plane Areas,
Polar Moment of Inertia,
Radius of Gyration of an Area,
Parallel Axis Theorem,
Moment of Inertia of Composite Areas,
Product of Inertia,
Principle Axes & Principle Moment of Inertia.
 3. Stresses in Beams:-
Theory of Simple Bending, Bending Stresses,
Moment of Resistance,
Modulus of Section,
Built up & Composite Beam Section,
Beams of Uniform Strength.

4. Shear stresses in Beams:-

Distribution of Shear Stresses in Different
Sections.
 5. Mechanical Properties of Materials:-
Ductility, Brittleness, Toughness, Malleability,
Behaviour of Ferrous & Non-Ferrous metals in
Tension & Compression, Shear & Bending tests,
Standard Test Pieces, Influence of Various
Parameters on Test Results, True & Nominal Stress,
Modes of Failure, Characteristic Stress-Strain
Curves, Izod, Charpy & Tension Impact Tests,
Fatigue, Creep, Corelation between Different
Mechanical Properties, Effect of Temperature,
Testing Machines & Special Features, Different
Types of Extensometers & Compressemeters,
Measurement of Strain by Electrical Resistance
1. Mechanics of Structures Vol.-1:-
S.B.Junarkar & H.J.
Shah

2. Strength of Materials:- S.Ramamurtham.

 MECHANICS OF SOLIDS

Introduction:-
•Structures /Machines
•Numerous Parts / Members
•Connected together
•perform useful functions/withstand applied loads
AIM OF MECHANICS OF SOLIDS:

Predicting how geometric and physical properties

of structure will influence its behaviour under
service conditions.
 Bending
Hand wheel
Axial
tension
M M

Cross
head
N N
screw
arms Torsion
S

A Axial
S
base compression
Compression Machine
•Stresses can occur isolated or in combination.
• Is structure strong enough to withstand loads
applied to it ?
• Is it stiff enough to avoid excessive
deformations and deflections?
• Engineering Mechanics----> Statics----->
deals with rigid bodies
• All materials are deformable and mechanics
of solids takes this into account.
• Strength and stiffness of structures is function of
size and shape, certain physical properties of
material.
•Properties of Material:-
• Elasticity
• Plasticity
• Ductility
• Malleability
• Brittleness
• Toughness
• Hardness
INTERNAL FORCE:- STRESS P P

=P/A m n
m n
P= A

• Axial Compression
• Shortens the bar
P P
• Crushing
• Axial tension
• Buckling
•Stretches the bars & tends
to pull it apart
• Rupture
• Resistance offered by the material per unit cross-
sectional area is called STRESS.
 = P/A
Unit of Stress:
Pascal = 1 N/m2
kN/m2 , MN/m2 , GN/m2
Permissible stress or allowable stress or working stress = yield stress
or ultimate stress /factor of safety.
1 MPa = 1 N/mm2
 • Strain
•It is defined as deformation per unit length

• it is the ratio of change in length to original length

•Tensile strain = increase in length = 
(+ Ve) () Original length L
L
Compressive strain = decrease in length = 
(- Ve) () Original length L 
P

•Strain is dimensionless quantity.

 Example : 1
A short hollow, cast iron cylinder with wall thickness
of 10 mm is to carry compressive load of 100 kN.
Compute the required outside diameter `D’ , if the
working stress in compression is 80 N/mm2. (D = 49.8
mm).
Solution:  = 80N/mm2;
P= 100 kN = 100*103 N d
A =(/4) *{D2 - (D-20)2} 10 mm
D
as  = P/A
substituting in above eq. and
solving. D = 49.8 mm
Example: 2
A Steel wire hangs vertically under its weight. What is
the greatest length it can have if the allowable tensile
stress t =200 MPa? Density of steel =80
kN/m3.(ans:-2500 m)
Solution:
t =200 MPa= 200*103 kN/m2 ;
L
=80 kN/m . 3

Wt. of wire P=(/4)*D2*L* 

c/s area of wire A=(/4)*D2
t = P/A
solving above eq. L =2500m
Stress- Strain Curve for Mild Steel (Ductile Material)

Yield stress Ultimate stress point

Point
Breaking stress point

Plastic state
Of material
Stress
Elastic State
Of material
E = modulus of
elasticity
Strain
Modulus of Elasticity:  =E 
• Stress required to produce a strain of unity.
• i.e. the stress under which the bar would be
stretched to twice its original length . If the
material remains elastic throughout , such
excessive strain.
• Represents slope of stress-strain line OA.

A Value of E is same in
Tension &
stress
E Compression.
O 
strain

A

E
O 
• Hooke’s δaw:-
Up to elastic limit, Stress is proportional to strain

 =E ; where E=Young’s modulus
=P/A and  =  / L
P/A = E ( / L)
 =PL /AE
Example:4 An aluminium bar 1.8 meters long has a
25 mm square c/s over 0.6 meters of its length and
25 mm circular c/s over other 1.2 meters . How
much will the bar elongate under a tensile load
P=17500 N, if E = 75000 Mpa.

17500 N
25 mm sq.sect 25 mm cir..sect
1.2 m
0.6 m
Solution :-  = ∑PL/AE
=17500*600 / (252*75000) +
17500*1200/(0.785*252*75000) =0.794 mm
 Example: 5 A prismatic steel bar having cross sectional area of A=300
mm2 is subjected to axial load as shown in figure . Find the net increase
 in the length of the bar. Assume E = 2 x 10 5 MPa.( Ans  = -0.17mm)

20 kN 15 kN 15 kN
C B A
1m 1m 2m

15 A 15

0 B 0

20 C 20 Solution:
 = 20000*1000/(300*2x10 5)-15000*2000/(300*2 x10 5)
= 0.33 - 0.5 = -0.17 mm (i.e.contraction)
Example: 6 A rigid bar AB, 9 m long, is supported by two vertical rods at
its end and in a horizontal position under a load P as shown in figure.
Find the position of the load P so that the bar AB remains horizontal.

5m
A = 1000 mm 2 A = 445 mm 2
9m
E = 1 x 10 5 3m E = 2 x 10 5

A B
x
P
 5m

9m
3m

P(9-x)/9 P(x)/9
A B

x
P
For the bar to be in horizontal position, Displacements
at A & B should be same,
A = B

(PL/AE)A =(PL/AE)B

{P(9-x)/9}*3 {P(x)/9}*5
=
(0.001*1*105) 0.000445*2*105

(9 - x)*3=x*5*1.1236
27-3x=5.618 x
8.618 x=27
x = 3.13 m
Extension of Bar of Tapering cross Section
from diameter d1 to d2:-

d1 dx d2
P P
X
x
L

Bar of Tapering Section:

dx = d1 + [(d2 - d1) / L] * X
 = Px / E[ /4{d1 + [(d2 - d1) / L] * X}2]
 L
  = 4 P dx /[E {d1+kx}2 ]
0
L
= - [4P/  E] x 1/k [ {1 /(d1+kx)}] dx
0

=- [4PL/  E(d2-d1)] {1/(d1+d2 -d1) - 1/d1}

 = 4PL/( E d1 d2)

Check :-
When d = d1=d2
 =PL/ [( /4)* d2E ] = PL /AE (refer -24)
 Q. Find extension of tapering circular bar under axial pull for the
following data: d1 = 20mm, d2 = 40mm, L = 600mm, E = 200GPa.
P = 40kN

d1 ``
dx d2
P P
X
x
L
L = 4PL/( E d1 d2)
= 4*40,000*600/(π* 200,000*20*40)
= 0.38mm. Ans.
Extension of Tapering bar of uniform thickness
t, width varies from b1 to b2:-

b2 bx b1
P P
X
x
P/Et ∫ x / L
[ (b1 + k*X)],

Bar of Tapering Section:

bx = b1 + [(b2 - b1) / L] * X = b1 + k*x,
 = Px / [Et(b1 + k*X)], k = (b2 - b1) / L
 L L L
  L = L = Px / [Et(b1 - k*X)],
0 0 0

= P/Et ∫ x / [ (b1 - k*X)],

L
= - P/Etk * loge [ (b1 - k*X)] ,
0

= PLloge(b1/b2) / [Et(b1 – b2)]

 Q. Calculate extension of Tapering bar of
uniform thickness t, width varies from b1 to
b2:-
b2 bx b1
P P
X
x
P/Et ∫ x / L
[ (b1 + k*X)],

Take b1 = 200mm, b2 = 100mm, L = 500mm

P = 40kN, and E = 200GPa, t = 20mm
L= PLloge(b1/b2) / [Et(b1 – b2)]
= 40000*500loge(200/100)/[200000*20 *100]

= 0.03465mm
Elongation of a Bar of circular tapering section
due to self weight:
=Wx*x/(AxE)
d
A B (from  =PL/AE )
x
L
now Wx=1/3* AxX 
X
where Wx=Wt.of the bar
so now
L so = X *x/(3E)
 L = X *x/(3E)
0 L

0
= /(3E) Xdx= [/3E ] [X2 /2]
= L2/(6E)
Let W=total weight of bar = (1/3)*(/4*d2)L 

 =12W/ (*d2L)
so,

L = [12W/ (*d2L)]*(L2/6E)

=2WL/ (*d2E)

=WL/[2*(*d2/4)*E]

=WL /2*A*E
Calculate elongation of a Bar of circular tapering
section due to self weight:Take L =10m, d =
100mm,  = 7850kg/m3
d

A B

x

L
X L = L2/(6E)

7850*9.81*10000*10000*/
[6*200000*10003]
= 0.006417mm
Extension of Uniform cross section bar subjected
to uniformly varying tension due to self weight
P + dP PX=  A x

dx
d = PX dx / A E;
L L
L P  = PX dx/AE=  A x dx/AE
X 0 0
L
 = ( /E)  x dx= ( L2/2E)
d 0

If total weight of bar W=  A L  = W/AL

=WL/2AE (compare this results with slide-26)
Q. Calculate extension of Uniform cross section bar subjected to
uniformly varying tension due to self weight

Take L = 100m, A = 100mm2 , density =

7850kg/m3
dx
L
X  = ( L2/2E)

d =
850*9.81*100000*100000/
[2*200000*10003 ]
= 1.925mm
Bar of uniform strenght:(i.e.stress is constant at all points of the bar.)

Area = A1
Force = p*(A+dA)
Down ward force of
B C dx B C
dx strip = w*A*dx,
A D
L Force = p*(A*dA)
x comparing force at BC level of strip
of thickness dx
Area = A2
P(A + dA) = Pa + w*A*dx,
where w is density of the material hence
dA/A = wdx/p, Integrating logeA = wx/p + C,
at x = 0, A = A2 and x = L, A = A1, C = A2

loge(A/A2) = wx/p OR A = ewx/p

 Area = A1
Force = p*(A+dA)

B C dx B C Down ward force of strip

dx = w*A*dx,
A D
L Force = p*(A*dA)
x

Area = A2

A = ewx/p
(where A is cross section area at any
level x of bar of uniform strenght )
Q. A bar of uniform strength has following data. Calculate cross sectional
area at top of the bar.
Area = A1
A2 = 5000mm2 , L = 20m, load at
lower end = 700kN, density of the
material = 8000kg/m 3
B C dx
A D
L
x
p = 700000/5000 = 140MPa

Area = A2 A1 =A2 ewx/p

8000*9.81*20000/[140*1000 3]
A1 = 5000*e
= 5056.31mm2
POISSONS RATIO:- = lateral contraction per Unit axial
elongation, (with in elastic limit)

D P
P
= (B/B)/(L/L);
= (B/B)/() L B

So B =  B; D-D
New breadth =
B-B
B -B = B -  B
L+L
=B(1 -   )
D(1-
Sim.,New depth= )
D(1- ) B(1-
)
L(1+)
 for isotropic materials  = ¼ for steel  = 0.3
Volume of bar before deformation V= L * B*D
new length after deformation L1=L + L = L + L = L (1+ )
new breadth B1= B - B = B -  B = B(1 -  )
new depth D1= D - D = D -  D = D(1 -  )
new cross-sectional area = A1= B(1- )*D(1- )= A(1-   )2
new volume V1= V - V = L(1+  )* A(1-   )2
 AL(1+  - 2   )
Since  is small
change in volume = V =V1-V = AL  (1-2 )
and unit volume change = V/ V = {AL  (1-2 )}/AL
V/ V =  (1-2 )
In case of uniformly varying tension, the elongation
‘’ is just half what it would be if the tension were
equal throughout the length of the bar.
 A steel bar having 40mm*40mm*3000mm
Example: 7
dimension is subjected to an axial force of 128 kN.
Taking E=2*105N/mm2 and  = 0.3,find out change in
dimensions.
40
128 kN 128 kN
3000 mm 40
Solution:
given b=40 mm,t=40mm,L=3000mm
P=128 kN=128*103 N, E=2*105 mm2,  =0.3
L=?, b=?, t=?
t = P/A = 128*103 /40*40= 80 N/mm2
 now  = t/E=80/(2*105 )=4*10-4

 = L/L ==> L=  *L=4*10-4 *3000 = 1.2 mm

(increase)

b= - *( *b)= -0.3*4*10-4*40 = 4.8*10-3 mm

(decrease)

t = - *( *t)= -0.3*4*10-4*40 = 4.8*10-3 mm

(decrease)
Change in volume = [3000 + 1.2) * (40 – 0.0048) *
(40 – 0.0048)] – 3000*40*40
= 767.608 mm3

OR by using equation (derivation is in chapter of

volumetric stresses and strains)
dv = p*(1-2µ)v/E
= (128000/40*40)*0.4*3000*40*40/200000
= 768mm3
Example: 8A strip of 20 mm*30 mm c/s and 1000mm
length is subjected to an axial push of 6 kN. It is
shorten by 0.05 mm. Calculate (1) the stress induced
in the bar. (2) strain and young's modulus & new
cross-section. Take  =0.3
Solution:given,
c/s =20 mm*30 mm, A =600mm2,L=1000 mm,
P=6 kN=6*103 N, L =0.05 mm,  = ?, =?,E =?.
1.  = P/A =6000/600 =10 N/mm2 -----(1)
2  = L /L=0.05/1000 =0.00005 -----(2)
 =E  ==>E = /  =10/0.00005 = 2*105 N/mm2
 3 Now,
New breadth B1 =B(1- )
=20(1-0.3*0.00005)
=19.9997 mm
New Depth D1 = D(1- )
=30(1-0.3*0.00005)
= 29.9995mm
 A iron bar having 200mm*10 mm c/s,and
Example: 9
5000 mm long is subjected to an axial pull of 240
kN.Find out change in dimensions of the bar. Take E
=2*105 N/mm2 and  = 0.25.
Solution: b =200 mm,t = 10mm,so A = 2000mm2
 = P/A=240*103 / 2000 =120N/mm2
now =E   = /E =120/2*105=0.0006
= L /L L =  *L=0.0006*5000=3 mm
b = -*( *b)= -0.25*6*10-4*200
= 0.03 mm(decrease)
t = -*( *t) = -0.25*6*10-4*10
Composite Sections:
Concrete
Steel
bars
• as both the materials deforms axially by same
value strain in both materials are same.
s = c = 
s /Es= c /E (=  = L /L) _____(1) & (2)
•Load is shared between the two materials.
Ps+Pc = P i.e. s *As + c *Ac = P ---(3)
(unknowns are s, c and L)
Example: 10A Concrete column of C.S. area 400 x 400
mm reinforced by 4 longitudinal 50 mm diameter
round steel bars placed at each corner of the column
carries a compressive load of 300 kN. Calculate (i)
loads carried by each material & compressive stresses
produced in each material. Take Es = 15 Ec Also
calculate change in length of the column. Assume the
column in 2m long.
Take Es = 200GPa
400 mm

4-50 bar
400 mm
 Solution:-
Gross C.S. area of column =0.16 m2
C.S. area of steel = 4*π*0.0252 = 0.00785 m2
Area of concrete =0.16 - 0.00785=0.1521m2
Steel bar and concrete shorten by same amount. So,
s = c => s /Es = c /Ec = > s= cx (Es /Ec)
= 15c
 load carried by steel +concrete=300000 N
Ws +Wc= 300000
s As + c Ac = 300000
15 c x 0.00785 + c x0.1521 = 300000
c = 1.11 x 10 6 N/ m2
s =15x c=15 x1.11x 10 6=16.65 x10 6 N/ m2
Ws =16.65x10 6 x0.00785 / 10 3 =130.7 kN
Wc = 1.11x 10 6 x 0.1521/103= 168.83 kN
(error in result is due to less no. of digits
considered in stress calculation.)
 we know that,
s /Es= c /E (=  = L /L) _____(1) & (2)

c = 1.11 MPa
s =15x c=15 x1.11x 10 6=16.65 MPa
The length of the column is 2m
Change in length
dL = 1.11*2000/[13.333*1000] = 0.1665mm
OR
dL = 16.65*2000/[200000] = 0.1665mm
Example: 10 A Concrete column of C.S. area 400 x 400 mm reinforced
by 4 longitudinal 50 mm diameter round steel bars placed at each corner
of the column. Calculate (1) maximum axial compressive load the
column can support &(ii) loads carried by each material & compressive
stresses produced in each material. Take Also calculate change in length
of the column. Assume the column in 2m long. Permissible stresses in
steel and concrete are 160 and 5MPa respectively. Take Es = 200GPa and
Ec = 14GPa.

400 mm

4-50 bar
400 mm
 Solution:-
Gross C.S. area of column =0.16 m2
C.S. area of steel = 4*π*0.0252 = 0.00785 m2
Area of concrete =0.16 - 0.00785=0.1521m2
Steel bar and concrete shorten by same amount. So,
s = c => s /Es = c /Ec = > s= cx (Es /Ec)
= 14.286 c
 Solution:-
Gross C.S. area of column =0.16 m2
C.S. area of steel = 4*π*0.0252 = 0.00785 m2
Area of concrete =0.16 - 0.00785=0.1521m2
Steel bar and concrete shorten by same amount. So,
s = c => s /Es = c /Ec = > s= cx (Es /Ec) = cx ( 200/14)
= 14.286c
So s = 14.286c
s = 160 then c = 160/14.286 = 11.2MPa > 5MPa, Not valid
c = 5MPa then s = 14.286*5 = 71.43 MPa <120MPa,Valid
 Permissible stresses in each material are
c = 5MPa & s = 71.43 MPa

We know that
s As + c Ac = W
[71.43 x 0.00785 + 5 x0.1521]*10002 / 1000 = 1321.22kN
Load in each materials are
Ws =71.43x0.00785 x1000 =560.7255 kN
Wc = 5x 0.1521x1000 = 760.5kN
 we know that,
s /Es= c /E (=  = L /L) _____(1) & (2)

c = 5 MPa
s =71.43 MPa
The length of the column is 2m
Change in length
dL = 5*2000/[14000] = 0.7143mm
OR

dL = 71.43*2000/[200000] = 0.7143mm
Example: 11 A copper rod of 40 mm diameter is surrounded tightly by
a cast iron tube of 80 mm diameter, the ends being firmly fastened
together. When it is subjected to a compressive load of 30 kN, what will
be the load shared by each? Also determine the amount by which a
compound bar shortens if it is 2 meter long. Eci=175 GN/m2,Ec= 75
GN/m2 .

Cast iron
40 mm copper 80 mm
Cast iron
2 meter
 Area of Copper Rod =Ac = (/4)* 0.042 = 0.0004 m2
Area of Cast Iron =Aci= (/4)* (0.082 - 0.042) = 0.0012 m2
ci /Eci = c /Ec or
175 x 10 9

ci / c = Eci/Ec = 75 x 10 9
= 2.33
ci = 2.33 c
 Now,
W = Wci +Wc
30 = (2.33 c ) x 0.012  + c x 0.0004 
c = 2987.5 kN/m2
ci = 2.33 x c = 6960.8kN/m2
load shared by copper rod = Wc = c Ac
= 2987.5 x 0.0004 
= 3.75 kN
Wci = 30 -3.75 = 26.25 kN
 Strain c=c / Ec = L /L
L = (c /Ec) x L = [2987.5/(75 x 10 9)] x 2
= 0.0000796 m
= 0.0796 mm
Decrease in length = 0.0796 mm
Example: 12
For the bar shown in figure, calculate
the reaction produced by the lower
R1 support on the bar. Take E= 2*108
kN/m2.Find also stresses in the bars.
L
1.2 m A1 = 110
mm2
M

2.4 m 55 A2 = 220
kN mm 2
1.2 mm

R2
 Solution:-
R1+R2 = 55
 L1 =(55-R2)*1.2 / (110*10-6)*2*108 (LM extension)
 L2 =R2*2.4 / (220*10-6)*2*108 (MN contraction)
( Given:  L1-  L2 =1.2 /1000=0.0012)
(55-R2)*1.2 / [(110*10-6)*2*108 ] -R2*2.4 /[ (220*10-6)*2*108 ]
=0.0012
so R2 = 16.5 kN Since R1+R2 = 55 kN,
R1=38.5 kN
Stress in LM = Force/area = 350000 kN/m2
Stress in MN =75000 kN/m2
Direct Shear:-- P
Fork m

Pin Pin n
P/2 P/2

P
• Connection should withstand full load P transferred through
the pin to the fork .
• Pin is primarily in shear which tends to cut it across at section m-n .
• Average shear Stress =>  =P/(2A) (where A is cross
sectional area of pin)
• Note: Shearing conditions are not as simple as that for direct stresses.
•Dealing with machines and structures an engineer
encounters members subjected to tension, compression
and shear.
•The members should be proportioned in such a
manner that they can safely & economically withstand
loads they have to carry.
Example: 3 Three pieces of wood having 37.5 x 37.5 mm square C.S.
are glued together and to the foundation as shown in figure. If the
horizontal force P=30000 N is applied to it, what is the average shear
stress in each of the glued joints.(ans=4 N/mm2)

100 mm
37.5

30000 N
37.5

Plan 30000 N
Solution:-
P=30000N;glued c.s area=37.5x100mm x2 surfaces
Shear stress  = P/c.s area = 4N/mm2
 Temperature stresses:-
Material Material
Change in temp. Constrained
Expands/ Shortens No Expansion/

no constraint is contraction
present Temperature
stresses
Induced in material
 Constraint
Bar
L
Uniform temp. increased to tº
Expansion =L t
but =PL/AE=P/A *L/E = tp L/E
so tp = *E/L = L t *E / L =  tE
tp= compressive , if temp. increases
tp= tensile, if temp. decreases

Suppose the support yield by an amount 

tp=( - )*E/L =(L t - )*E/L
Composite Section:- (Temp. stresses .)
Extension in steel = Contraction in copper
L st s 
Steel(S)
Copper(C)
c 
ct
E of Copper > steel
st =Free expansion of steel due to rise in temp.

ct =Free expansion of copper due to rise in temp.

s  =Additional extension in steel to behave as
composite section
c  =contraction in copper to behave as
composite section
 st s 
Steel(S)
Copper(C)
c 
S = C ct
st + s  = ct - c 
s + c  = ct - s t
PL(1/AsEs +1/AcEc)= Lt(c - s) ----(1)
P = t(c - s)/ (1/AsEs +1/AcEc)
Substituting in eq.(1)
s = P /As and c = P /Ac
s/Es +c/Ec = t(c - s)
 +  = t ( -  ) strain relation
Example: 13 A railway is laid so that there is no
stress in rail at 10º C. If rails are 30 m long Calculate,
1. The stress in rails at 60 º C if there is no allowance
for expansion.
2. The stress in the rails at 60 º C if there is an
expansion allowance of 10 mm per rail.
3. The expansion allowance if the stress in the rail is to
be zero when temperature is 60 º C.
4. The maximum temp. to have no stress in the rails if
the expansion allowance is 13 mm/rail.
Take  = 12 x 10 -6 per 1ºC E= 2 x 10 5 N/mm 2
 Solution:
1. Rise in temp. = 60 º - 10 º = 50 ºC
so stress =  t E =12 x 10 -6 x50x 2 x 10 5
= 120 MPa
2. tp x L/E =  = (L t -10)
= (30000 x 12 x 10 -6 x50-10)
= 18 -10 = 8 mm
tp =E /L =8x 2 x 10 5 /30000
= 53.3 MPa
 3. If stresses are zero ,
Expansion allowed =(L t )
= (30000 x 12 x 10 -6 x50)
=18 mm
4. If stresses are zero
tp =E /L*(L t -13)=0
L t=13
so t=13/ (30000 x 12 x 10 -6 )=360 C
allowable temp.=10+36=460c.
 Example: 14

A steel bolt of length L passes through a copper tube

of the same length, and the nut at the end is turned up
just snug at room temp. Subsequently the nut is turned
by 1/4 turn and the entire assembly is raised by temp
550C. Calculate the stress in bolt if L=500mm,pitch of
nut is 2mm, area of copper tube =500sq.mm,area of
steel bolt=400sq.mm
Es=2 * 105 N/mm2 ;s =12*10-6 /0C
Ec=1 * 105 N/mm2 ;c= 17.5*10-6 /0C
 Solution:-
Two effects
(i) tightening of nut
(ii)raising temp.
tensile stress in steel = compressive force in copper
[Total extension of bolt
+Total compression of tube] =Movement of Nut
[s+  c] = np ( where p = pitch of nut)
(PL/AsEs + s L t) +(PL/AcEc- c L t)=np
P (1/AsEs +1/AcEc) = t(c - s)+np/L
so P[1/(400*2*105) + 1/(500*1*105) ]
=(17.5-12)*10-6 +(1/4)*2/500
so P=40000N
so ps=40000/400 = 100 MPa(tensile)
and pc=40000/500=80 MPa(compressive)
Example: 15 A circular section tapered bar is rigidly
fixed as shown in figure. If the temperature is raised
by 300 C, calculate the maximum stress in the bar.
Take
E=2*105 N/mm2 ; =12*10-6 /0C

X dX

P P
D1=100 mm
D2=200 mm
A
B

1.0 m
 With rise in temperature compressive force P is
induced which is same at all c/s.
Free expansion = L  t = 1000*12*10-6*30
=0.36 mm
Force P induced will prevent a expansion of 0.36 mm
 = 4PL/(E*d1*d2) = L  t
Or P = (/4)*d1*d2  t E=1130400 N
Now Maximum stress = P/(least c/s area)
=1130400/(.785*1002) = 144MPa
Example: 16 A composite bar made up of aluminum and
steel is held between two supports.The bars are stress
free at 400c. What will be the stresses in the bars when
the temp. drops to 200C, if
(a) the supports are unyielding
(b)the supports come nearer to each other by 0.1 mm.
Take E al =0.7*105 N/mm2 ;al =23.4*10-6 /0C
ES=2.1*105 N/mm2 s =11.7*10-6 /0C
Aal=3 cm2 As=2 cm2
 3 cm2
2 cm2
Steel Aluminum

60cm 30cm
 Free contraction =Ls s t+ LALAlt
=600*11.7*10-6*(40-20)+300*23.4*
10-6*(40-20)=0.2808 mm.
Since contraction is checked tensile stresses will be set
up. Force being same in both
As s= Aal al
2 s= 3 al ==> s=21.5
cm2 al 3 cm2
Steel
Aluminum
60cm 30cm
 contraction of steel bar s = (s/Es)*Ls
=[600/(2.1*105)]* s
contra.of aluminum bar al = (al/Eal)*Lal
=[300/(0.7*105)]* al
(a) When supports are unyielding
s + al =  (free contraction)
=[600/(2.1*105)]* s +[300/(0.7*105)]* al
=0.2808 mm
=[600/(2.1*105)]* s +[300/(0.7*105)]* al
=0.2808; but
s=1.5 al
al =32.76 N/mm2(tensile)
s =49.14 N/mm2(tensile)
(b) Supports are yielding

s + al = ( - 0.1mm)
al =21.09 N/mm2(tensile)
 Example: 17 A copper bar 30 mm dia. Is completely
enclosed in a steel tube 30mm internal dia. and 50 mm
external dia. A pin 10 mm in dia.,is fitted transversely
to the axis of each bar near each end. To secure the bar
to the tube.Calculate the intensity of shear stress
induced in the pins when the temp of the whole
assembly is raised by 500K
Es=2 * 105 N/mm2 ;s =11*10-6 /0K
Ec=1 * 105 N/mm2 ;c= 17*10-6 /0K
Solution
10Ø Pin
steel 10
copper 30
steel 10
Copper bar Ac =0.785*302=706.9 mm2
steel bar As =0.785*(502- 302)=1257.1 mm2
[s /Es] +[ c/Ec] = (c - s)*t
[s / 2 * 105] +[ c/ 1 * 105] =(17-11)*10-6*50
s +2 c=60-----(1)
 Since no external force is present
sAs= cAc
s= cAc/As=[706.9/1257.1]*c
=0.562 c---(2)
substituting in eq.(1)
c=23.42 N/mm2
Hence force in between copper bar &steel tube
=cAc=23.42*706.9=16550N
 pin

C.S. area of pin = 0.785*102 =78.54 mm2

pin is in double shear
so shear stress in pin
=16550/(2*78.54)=105.4N/mm2
 SHRINKING ON:
d<D
d
D=diameter of wheel
d = diameter of steel tyre
D
increase in temp = toC
dia increases from d--->D
•tyre slipped on to wheel, temp. allowed to fall
•Steel tyre tries to come back to its
original position
•hoop stresses will be set up.
 Tensile strain
 = (D - d) / d =(D-d)/d
so hoop stress = = E
= E*(D - d)/d
 Example: 18

A thin steel tyre is to be shrunk onto a rigid wheel of

1m dia. If the hoop stress is to be limited to
100N/mm2, calculate the internal dia. of tyre. Find also
the least temp. to which the tyre must be heated above
that of the wheel before it could be slipped on.
Take  for the tyre = 12*10-6/oC
E =2.04 *105N/mm2
 Solution:
= E*(D - d)/d
100 = 2.04*106(D - d)/d
or
(D - d)/d =4.9*10-4
or D/d =(1+4.9*10-4)
so d =0.99951D=0.99951*1000=999.51 mm
 Now
D = d(1 + t)
or
t =(D/d)-1 = (D-d)/d =4.9*10 - 4
t =(D-d)/d *1/ 
=4.9*10-4/12*-6
=40.85 0 C
ELASTIC CONSTANTS:
Any direct stress produces a strain in its
own direction and opposite strain in every
direction at right angles to it.
Lateral strain /Longitudinal strain
= Constant
= 1/m = = Poisson’s ratio
Lateral strain = Poisson’s ratio x
Longitudinal strain
y =  x -------------(1)
Single direct stress along longitudinal axis
y
x x
d x
b
L
x= x/E (tensile)
y=  x =  [x/E] (compressive)
Volume = L b d
V=bd L - d Lb - L bd
V/ V = L/L - b/b - d/d
 y
x x
x
d
b
L
= x - y - z = x-  x- x= x- 2 x= x(1-2 )

= [x/E] x (1-2 )

Volumetric strain= v =[x/E] x (1-2 ) –

-----(2)

or v =[x/E] x (1-2/m)

v =[x/E] x (1-2/m)
 Stress x along the axis and y and z
perpendicular to it.
y
x
z
x= x/E - y/mE - z/mE-----(i) -------(3)

y= y/E - z/mE - x/mE-----(ii)

z= z/E - x/mE - y/mE-----(iii)
Note:- If some of the stresses have opposite
sign necessary changes in algebraic signs of the
 Upper limit of Poisson’s Ratio:
adding (i),(ii) and (iii)
x+ y+ z=(1 - 2/m)(x+ y + z)/ E- -------(4)

known as DILATATION
For small strains represents the change in
volume /unit volume.
 y
z

x x
z
y
x y z
x x/E - x/E - x/E

y - y/E y/E - y/E

z - z/E - z/E z/E

Sum all
 Example: 19

A steel bar of size 20 mm x 10mm is subjected to a

pull of 20 kN in direction of its length. Find the
length of sides of the C.S. and decrease in C.S.
area. Take E=2 x 10 5 N/mm2 and m=10/3.
 x= x/E= (P/Ax) x (1/E)

= (20000/(20x10)) x1/( 2 x105)=5 x 10 -4(T)

Lateral Strain =y=- x=-x/m =-1.5x10 -4(C)

side decreased by 20x1.5x10 -4=0.0030mm

side decreased by 10x1.5x10 -4=0.0015mm

new C.S=(20-0.003)(10-.0015)=199.94mm2
 Example: 20

A steel bar 200x20x20 mm C.S. is subjected to a

tensile force of 40000N in the direction of its length.
Calculate the change in volume.
Take 1/m =0.3 and E = 2.05 *105 MPa.
Solution:

x= x/E= (P/A) x (1/E)

=40000/20*20*2.05*105= 4.88*10-4

y= z=-(1/m)* x= -0.3* 4.88*10-4

 Change in volume:
V/ V= x + y+ z=(4.88 - 2*1.464)*10-4
=1.952 *10-4
V=200*20*20=80000 mm3
V=1.952*10-4*80000=15.62 mm3
YOUNG’S εODUδUS (E):--

Young’s εodulus (E) is defined as the Ratio of

Stress () to strain ().

E=/ -------------(5)
BULK MODULUS (K):--
• When a body is subjected to the identical stress  in three
mutually perpendicular directions, the body undergoes uniform changes
in three directions without the distortion of the shape.
• The ratio of change in volume to original volume has been defined
as volumetric strain(v )

•Then the bulk modulus, K is defined as K=  / v

BULK MODULUS (K):--  

 
K=  / v -------------(6) 


Where, v = V/V
= Change in volume
Original volume
= Volumetric Strain
 MODULUS OF RIGIDITY (N): OR
MODULUS OF TRANSVERSE ELASTICITY OR
SHEARING MODULUS
Up to the elastic limit,
shear stress ()  shearing strain()
=N
Expresses relation between shear stress and shear strain.
/=N;
where
Modulus of Rigidity = N =  /  -------------(7)
 ELASTIC CONSTANTS

YOUNG’S εODUδUS E=/ -------------(5)

BULK MODULUS K =  / v -------------(6)

MODULUS OF RIGIDITY N =  /  -------------(7)

COMPLEMENTRY STRESSES:“A stress in a given
direction cannot exist without a balancing shear stress
of equal intensity in a direction at right angles to it.”
’
B C 
  
A D ’
Moment of given couple=Force *Lever arm
= (.AB)*AD
Moment of balancing couple= (’.AD)*AB
so (.AB)*AD=(’.AD)*AB => = ’
Where =shear stress & ’=Complementary shear
stress
State of simple shear: Here no other stress is acting
’ - only simple shear.
B C
 

 
A D
’
Let side of square = b
length of diagonal AC =2 .b
consider unit thickness perpendicular to block.
 Equilibrium of piece ABC
the resolved sum of  perpendicular to the diagonal =
2*(*b*1)cos 450= 2 .b
if  is the tensile stress so produced on the diagonal
(AC*1)=2 .b ’
B C

(2 .b)=2 .b 
so 

= A D
’
Similarly the intensity of compressive stress on
plane BD is numerically equal to .
“Hence a state of simple shear produces pure
tensile and compressive stresses across planes
inclined at 45 0 to those of pure shear, and
intensities of these direct stresses are each equal to
pure shear stress.”
’
B C
 

 
A D
’
 SHEAR STRAIN: C’
 B B’
B C Total
change in /2 C
  corner
  angles +/- A D
 /2 D’
A D

State of simple B B” C C’’
Shear on Block F
 
Distortion with
side AD fixed A D
 Since B B” C C’’
 is extremely small, F
 
we can assume
BB” = arc with A as centre ,
D
AB as radius. A
So, =BB”/AB=CC”/CD
Elongation of diagonal AC can be nearly taken as FC”.
δinear strain of diagonal = FC”/AC
= CC”cos 4η/CDsec4η
  = CC”/2CD = (1/2) 
but = /N (we know N= / )
so
 =  /2N ------(8)
δinear strain ‘’is half the shear strain ‘’.

B B” C C’’

F


A D
 RELATION BETWEEN ELASTIC CONSTANTS
(A) RELATION BETWEEN E and K
y
x
z
Let a cube having a side L be subjected to three
mutually perpendicular stresses of intensity 
By definition of bulk modulus
K= / v

Now v = v /V = /K ---------------------------(i)

 The total linear strain for each side
 =/E -  /(mE) -  /(mE)
so L / L =  =(/E) *(1-2 /m)-------------(ii)
now V=L3
V = 3 L2 L
V/V = 3 L2 L/ L3= 3 L/L
= 3 (/E) * (1-2 /m) ------------------(iii)
 Equating (i) and (iii)
/K = 3( /E)(1-2 /m)
E = 3 K(1-2 /m) -----(9)
 (B) Relation between E and N

C 
B B” C’’
B C
F
  



A A D
D 
Linear strain of diagonal AC,
 = /2 = /2N --------------------------(i)
 State of simple shear produces tensile and
compressive stresses along diagonal planes
and
=
Strain  of diagonal AC, due to these two
mutually perpendicular direct stresses

 = /E - (- /mE) = (/E)*(1+1/m) ---(ii)

But  = 
so  = ( /E)*(1+1/m) ------------------(iii)
From equation (i) and (iii)
 /2N = ( /E)(1+1/m)
OR

E =2N(1+1/m)-------(10)
But E = 3 K (1-2 /m)------(9)
Eliminating E from --(9) & --(10)
 = 1/m = (3K - 2N) / (6K +2N)-----(11)
Eliminating m from –(9) & --(10)
E = 9KN / (N+3K) ---------(12)
(C) Relation between E ,K and N:--

E = 2N(1+1/m) -------(10)

E = 3K (1-2 /m) --------(9)

E = 9KN / (N+3K) -------(12)

(D) Relation between ,K and N:--

 =1/m=(3K-2N)/(6K+2N)------(11)
 Example: 21

(a) Determine the % change in volume of a

steel bar of size 50 x 50 mm and 1 m long,
when subjected to an axial compressive load
of 20 kN.

(b) What change in volume would a 100 mm

cube of steel suffer at a depth of 5 km in sea
water?
Take E=2.05 x 10 5N/mm2 and
N = 0.82 x 10 5N/mm2
 Solution: (a)
V/V = v = (/E)(1-2 /m)
[ = P/A = 20000/50 x 50 =8 kN/cm2]
so now
V/V=- (8 / 2.05 x 10 5 )(1 - 2/m)
= -3.902 *10 -5(1 - 2/m)----------------------(i)
Also E = 2N(1+1/m) -----------------------(10)
(1 +1/m)=E/2N =2.05 x 10 5 /(2 * 0.82 x 10 5 )
so 1/m =0.25
 Substituting in ----(i)
V/V = -3.902*10 -5(1-2(0.25))=-1.951* 10 -5

Change in volume=-1.951*10-5 *1000*50*50

V = 48.775 mm2
% Change in volume=(48.775/ 50*50*1000)*100
=0.001951 %
 Solution:(b)
Pressure in water at any depth ‘h’ is given by
p=wh taking w= 10080N/m3 for sea water
and h = 5km=5000m

p=10080*5000=50.4 *106N/m2 = 50.4N/mm2

E = 3K(1-2/m)
 We have 1/m =0.25
so E = 3K(1-0.5) or K=E/1.5 = 2/3(E)
K=2/3 * 2.05* 10 5 =1.365 * 10 5 =N/mm2
now by definition of bulk modulus
K= /v or v = /K
but v = V/V
V/V = /K
V= 50.4 /1.365 * 10 5 * 100 3 =369.23 mm3
Example: 22 A bar 30 mm in diameter was
subjected to tensile load of 54 kN and
measured extension of 300 mm gauge length
was 0.112 mm and change in diameter was
0.00366 mm. Calculate Poisson’s Ratio and the
value of three moduli.

Solution:
Stress = 54 *103/(/4*d2) = 76.43 N/mm2
=Linear strain = L/L=0.112/300
=3.733*10-4
 E=stress/strain =76.43/3.733* 10-4
=204741 N/mm2=204.7 kN/mm2
Lateral strain= d/d = 0.00366/30=1.22*10-4
But lateral strain =1/m* 
so 1.22*10-4=1/m *3.733*10-4
so 1/m=0.326

E=2N(1+1/m) or N=E/[2*(1+1/m)]
so N=204.7/[2*(1+0.326)]=77.2 kN/mm2
 E = 3 K *(1-2 /m)

so K=E/[3*(1-2/m)]=204.7/[3*(1-2*0.326)]

K=196kN/mm2
Example: 23Tensile stresses f1 and f2 act at right
angles to one another on a element of isotropic
elastic material. The strain in the direction of f1
is twice the direction of f2. If E for the material
is 120 kN/mm3, find the ratio of f1:f2. Take
1/m=0.3
f2
1 = 2 2
f1 f1
So ,f1/E –f2/mE =
f 2(f 2 /E –f 1 /mE)
2
f1/E +2f1/mE = 2f2/E +f2/mE
 So
(f1/E)(1+2/m) =(f2/E)(2+1/m)
f1(1+2*0.3) =f2(2+0.3)
1.6f1=2.3f2
So f1:f2 = 1:1.4375
 A rectangular block 250 mmx100
Example: 24
mmx80mm is subjected to axial loads as
follows.
480 kN (tensile in direction of its length)
900 kN ( tensile on 250mm x 80 mm faces)
1000kN (comp. on 250mm x100mm faces)
taking E=200 GN/m2 and 1/m=0.25 find
(1) Change in volume of the block
(2) Values of N and K for material of the block.
x =480x103/(0.1*0.08)=60 *106N/m2 (tens.)
y=1000x103/(0.25*0.1)=40*106N/m2(comp)
z=900x103/(0.25*0.08)=45*106N/m2(tens.)
x= (60 *106/E)+(0.25* 40*106/E)
- (0.25* 45*106/E)=(58.75* 106/E)
 y= -(40 *106/E)-(0.25* 45*106/E)
- (0.25* 60*106/E)=(- 66.25* 106/E)
z= (45 *106/E)-(0.25* 60*106/E)
+ (0.25* 40*106/E)=(40* 106/E)
 Volumetric strain = v = x + y + z

=(58.75* 106/E)- (66.25* 106/E)+ (40* 106/E)

=32.5*106/E

v = V/V
so V= v V
=32.5*106*[(0.25*0.10*0.08)/(200*109)]*109
=325 mm3(increase)
 Modulus of Rigidity
E = 2N(1+1/m)
so
N=E/[2*(1+1/m)]=200/[2(1+0.25)]=80GN/m2

Bulk Modulus:
E = 3K(1-2/m)
so K=E/[3(1-2/m)]=200/[3(1-2*0.25)=133.33
GN/m2
Example: 25 For a given material E=110GN/m2
and N=42 GN/M2. Find the bulk modulus and
lateral contraction of a round bar of 37.5 mm
diameter and 2.4 m long when stretched by 2.5
mm.

Solution:
E=2N(1+1/m)
110*109=2*42*109(1+1/m)
gives 1/m =0.32
 Now E = 3K(1-2/m)
110 x 109=3K(1-2*0.31)
gives K=96.77 GN/m2

Longitudinal strain =
L/L=0.0025/2.4=0.00104

Lateral strain=.00104*1/m=0.00104*0.31
=0.000323
Lateral Contraction=0.000323*37.5=0.0121mm
UNIT-II
Shear Force and Bending Moment
Diagrams
[SFD & BMD]
 Shear Force and Bending Moments
Consider a section x-x at a distance 6m from left hand support A

6m

5kN x 10kN 8kN

A B
C x D E
4m 5m 5m 1m

RA = 8.2 kN RB=14.8kN

Imagine the beam is cut into two pieces at section x-x and is separated, as
shown in figure
 4m 5kN 5m 1m
A
10kN 8kN B
6m
8.2 kN

9m 14.8 kN
To find the forces experienced by the section, consider any one portion of the
beam. Taking left hand portion
Transverse force experienced = 8.2 – 5 = 3.2 kN (upward)
Moment experienced = 8.2 × 6 – 5 × 2 = 39.2 kN-m (clockwise)
If we consider the right hand portion, we get
Transverse force experienced = 14.8 – 10 – 8 =-3.2 kN = 3.2 kN (downward)
Moment experienced = - 14.8 × 9 +8 × 8 + 10 × 3 = -39.2 kN-m = 39.2 kN-m
(anticlockwise)
 5kN 3.2 kN
A

8.2 kN 39.2 kN-m

10kN 8kN B

39.2 kN-m
3.2 kN 14.8 kN

Thus the section x-x considered is subjected to forces 3.2 kN and

moment 39.2 kN-m as shown in figure. The force is trying to shear off
the section and hence is called shear force. The moment bends the
section and hence, called bending moment.
Shear force at a section: The algebraic sum of the vertical forces
acting on the beam either to the left or right of the section is
known as the shear force at a section.
Bending moment (BM) at section: The algebraic sum of the moments
of all forces acting on the beam either to the left or right of the
section is known as the bending moment at a section

3.2 kN 39.2 kN

3.2 kN
F M

F
Shear force at x-x Bending moment at x-x
 Moment and Bending moment

Moment: It is the product of force and perpendicular

distance between line of action of the force and the point
about which moment is required to be calculated.

Bending Moment (BM): The moment which causes the

bending effect on the beam is called Bending Moment. It is
generally denoted by ‘ε’ or ‘Bε’.
 Sign Convention for shear force

F
F

F
F

+ ve shear force - ve shear force

 Sign convention for bending moments:

The bending moment is considered as Sagging Bending

Moment if it tends to bend the beam to a curvature having
convexity at the bottom as shown in the Fig. given below.
Sagging Bending Moment is considered as positive bending
moment.

Convexity

Fig. Sagging bending moment [Positive bending moment

]
 Sign convention for bending moments:
Similarly the bending moment is considered as hogging
bending moment if it tends to bend the beam to a
curvature having convexity at the top as shown in the
Fig. given below. Hogging Bending Moment is
considered as Negative Bending Moment.

Convexity

Fig. Hogging bending moment [Negative bending moment ]

 Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams
(SFD & BMD)

Shear Force Diagram (SFD):

The diagram which shows the variation of shear force
along the length of the beam is called Shear Force
Diagram (SFD).

Bending Moment Diagram (BMD):

The diagram which shows the variation of bending
moment along the length of the beam is called
Bending Moment Diagram (BMD).
Point of Contra flexure [Inflection point]:

It is the point on the bending moment diagram where

bending moment changes the sign from positive to
negative or vice versa.

It is also called ‘Inflection point’. At the point of

inflection point or contra flexure the bending moment
is zero.
 Relationship between load, shear force and
bending moment
x x1 w kN/m

x x1
dx L

Fig. A simply supported beam subjected to general type loading

The above Fig. shows a simply supported beam subjected to a general

type of loading. Consider a differential element of length ‘dx’ between
any two sections x-x and x1-x1 as shown.
 w kN/m
x x1
V+dV

M M+dM
v
x dx O x1

Fig. FBD of Differential element of the beam

Taking moments about the point ‘O’ [Bottom-Right corner of the

differential element ]
- M + (M+dM) – V.dx – w.dx.dx/2 = 0
Neglecting the small quantity of higher order
dM
V.dx = dM  v
dx It is the relation between shear force and BM
 w kN/m
x x1
V+dV

M M+dM
v
x dx O x1

Fig. FBD of Differential element of the beam

Considering the Equilibrium Equation ΣFy = 0

- V + (V+dV) – w dx = 0  dv = w.dx 

dv
w
dx It is the relation Between intensity of Load and
shear force
 Variation of Shear force and bending moments

Variation of Shear force and bending moments for various standard

loads are as shown in the following Table
Table: Variation of Shear force and bending moments

Type of load Between point Uniformly Uniformly

loads OR for no distributed load varying load
SFD/BMD load region
Shear Force Horizontal line Inclined line Two-degree curve
Diagram (Parabola)
Bending Inclined line Two-degree curve Three-degree
Moment (Parabola) curve (Cubic-
Diagram parabola)
 Sections for Shear Force and Bending Moment Calculations:
Shear force and bending moments are to be calculated at various
sections of the beam to draw shear force and bending moment diagrams.
These sections are generally considered on the beam where the
magnitude of shear force and bending moments are changing abruptly.
Therefore these sections for the calculation of shear forces include
sections on either side of point load, uniformly distributed load or
uniformly varying load where the magnitude of shear force changes
abruptly.
The sections for the calculation of bending moment include position
of point loads, either side of uniformly distributed load, uniformly
varying load and couple
Note: While calculating the shear force and bending moment, only the
portion of the udl which is on the left hand side of the section should
be converted into point load. But while calculating the reaction we
convert entire udl to point load
 Example Problem 1

1. Draw shear force and bending moment diagrams [SFD

and BMD] for a simply supported beam subjected to
three point loads as shown in the Fig. given below.

5N 10N 8N
A B
C D E
2m 2m 3m 1m
 5N 10N 8N
A B
C D E
2m 2m 3m 1m

RA RB
Solution: [Clockwise moment is Positive]
Using the condition: ΣMA = 0
- RB × 8 + 8 × 7 + 10 × 4 + 5 × 2 = 0  RB = 13.25 N
Using the condition: ΣFy = 0
RA + 13.25 = 5 + 10 + 8  RA = 9.75 N
 Shear Force Calculation:

0 1 5N 10N 8N 9
2 3 4 5 6 7 8

0 1 2 3 4 5 7 8 9
6

2m 2m 3m 1m
RA = 9.75 N RB=13.25N

Shear Force at the section 1-1 is denoted as V1-1

Shear Force at the section 2-2 is denoted as V2-2 and so on...
V0-0 = 0; V1-1 = + 9.75 N V6-6 = - 5.25 N
V2-2 = + 9.75 N V7-7 = 5.25 – 8 = -13.25 N
V3-3 = + 9.75 – 5 = 4.75 N V8-8 = -13.25
V4-4 = + 4.75 N V9-9 = -13.25 +13.25 = 0
V5-5 = +4.75 – 10 = - 5.25 N (Check)
 5N 10N 8N
A B
C D E
2m 2m 3m 1m

9.75N 9.75N
4.75N 4.75N

SFD 5.25N 5.25N

13.25N 13.25N
 5N 10N 8N
A B
C D E
2m 2m 3m 1m

9.75N 9.75N
4.75N 4.75N

SFD 5.25N 5.25N

13.25N 13.25N
 Bending Moment Calculation

Bending moment at A is denoted as MA

Bending moment at B is denoted as MB
and so on…
MA = 0 [ since it is simply supported]
MC = 9.75 × 2= 19.5 Nm
MD = 9.75 × 4 – 5 × 2 = 29 Nm
ME = 9.75 × 7 – 5 × 5 – 10 × 3 = 13.25 Nm
MB = 9.75 × 8 – 5 × 6 – 10 × 4 – 8 × 1 = 0
or MB = 0 [ since it is simply supported]
 5N 10N 8N
A B
C D E
2m 2m 3m 1m
29Nm
19.5Nm
13.25Nm

BMD
VM-34 5N 10N 8N
A B
C D E
2m 2m 3m 1m
9.75N 9.75N
Example Problem 1
4.75N 4.75N

SFD 5.25N 5.25N

13.25N 13.25N
29Nm
19.5Nm 13.25Nm

BMD
 5N 10N 8N
A B
C D E
2m 2m 3m 1m
9.75N 9.75N
4.75N 4.75N

SFD 5.25N 5.25N

13.25N 13.25N
29Nm
19.5Nm 13.25Nm

BMD
 Example Problem 2
2. Draw SFD and BMD for the double side overhanging
beam subjected to loading as shown below. Locate points
of contraflexure if any.

5kN 10kN 5kN

2kN/m

C A D B E

2m 3m 3m 2m
5kN 10kN 5kN
2kN/m

C A D B E

2m RA 3m 3m RB 2m

Solution:
Calculation of Reactions:
Due to symmetry of the beam, loading and boundary
conditions, reactions at both supports are equal.
.`. RA = RB = ½(5+10+5+2 × 6) = 16 kN
5kN 10kN 5kN
0 1 2 3 4 5 2kN/m 6 7 8 9

2 3 4 5 7 8 9
0 1 6
2m 3m 3m 2m
RA=16kN RB = 16kN
Shear Force Calculation: V0-0 = 0
V1-1 = - 5kN V6-6 = - 5 – 6 = - 11kN
V2-2 = - 5kN V7-7 = - 11 + 16 = 5kN
V3-3 = - 5 + 16 = 11 kN V8-8 = 5 kN
V4-4 = 11 – 2 × 3 = +5 kN V9-9 = 5 – 5 = 0 (Check)
V5-5 = 5 – 10 = - 5kN
 5kN 10kN 5kN
2kN/m

C A D B E

2m 3m 3m 2m

11kN
5kN 5kN 5kN
+
+

5kN 5kN 5kN

SFD 11kN
5kN 10kN 5kN
2kN/m

C A D B E

2m 3m 3m 2m
RA=16kN RB = 16kN

Bending Moment Calculation:

MC = ME = 0 [Because Bending moment at free end is zero]
MA = MB = - 5 × 2 = - 10 kNm
MD = - 5 × 5 + 16 × 3 – 2 × 3 × 1.5 = +14 kNm
5kN 10kN 5kN
2kN/m

C A D B E

2m 3m 3m 2m
14kNm

BMD
10kNm
10kNm
5kN 10kN 5kN
2kN/m

C A D B E
2m 3m 3m 2m
11kN
+ 5kN 5kN 5kN
+

5kN 5kN
SFD 14kNm 11kN

BMD
10kNm 10kNm
5kN 10kN 5kN
2kN/m
x

C Ax D B E
x
2m 3m 3m x
2m

10kNm 10kNm
Points of contra flexure

Let x be the distance of point of contra flexure from support A

Taking moments at the section x-x (Considering left portion)
2 x = 1 or 10
x
M x  x  5(2  x)  16 x  2 0
2 .`. x = 1 m
 Example Problem 3
3. Draw SFD and BMD for the single side overhanging beam
subjected to loading as shown below. Determine the
absolute maximum bending moment and shear forces and
mark them on SFD and BMD. Also locate points of contra
flexure if any.

10kN/m 2 kN 5kN

A
C B D

4m 1m 2m
 10kN/m 2 kN 5kN

A B
RA 4m 1m RB 2m

Solution : Calculation of Reactions:

ΣMA = 0
- RB × 5 + 10 × 4 × 2 + 2 × 4 + 5 × 7 = 0  RB = 24.6 kN
ΣFy = 0
RA + 24.6 – 10 x 4 – 2 + 5 = 0  RA = 22.4 kN
 10kN/m 2 kN 5kN
2 3 4 5 7
0 1 6

0 2 3 4 5 7
1 6

RA=22.4kN 4m 1m 2m
RB=24.6kN

Shear Force Calculations:

V0-0 =0; V1-1 = 22.4 kN V5-5 = - 19.6 + 24.6 = 5 kN
V2-2 = 22.4 – 10 × 4 = -17.6kN V6-6 = 5 kN
V3-3 = - 17.6 – 2 = - 19.6 kN V7-7 = 5 – 5 = 0 (Check)
V4-4 = - 19.6 kN
 10kN/m 2 kN 5kN

A
C B D
RA=22.4kN 4m 1m 2m
RB=24.6kN
22.4kN

5 kN 5 kN

x = 2.24m
17.6kN
19.6kN 19.6kN
SFD
 10kN/m 2 kN 5kN
X

A
x X C B D
RA=22.4kN
4m 1m 2m
RB=24.6kN

Max. bending moment will occur at the section where the shear force is
zero. The SFD shows that the section having zero shear force is available
in the portion AC. Let that section be X-X, considered at a distance x
from support A as shown above.
The shear force at that section can be calculated as
Vx-x = 22.4 - 10. x = 0  x = 2.24 m
 10kN/m 2 kN 5kN

A
C B D
RA=22.4kN
4m 1m 2m
RB=24.6kN
Calculations of Bending Moments:
MA = M D = 0
MC = 22.4 × 4 – 10 × 4 × 2 = 9.6 kNm
MB = 22.4 × 5 – 10 × 4 × 3 – 2 × 1 = - 10kNm (Considering Left portion
of the section)
Alternatively
MB = -5 × 2 = -10 kNm (Considering Right portion of the section)
Absolute Maximum Bending Moment is at X- X ,
Mmax = 22.4 × 2.24 – 10 × (2.24)2 / 2 = 25.1 kNm
 10kN/m 2 kN 5kN
X

A
x = 2.24m X C B D
RA=22.4kN
4m 1m 2m
RB=24.6kN
Mmax = 25.1 kNm

9.6kNm Point of
contra flexure

BMD 10kNm
 10kN/m 2 kN 5kN
X

A D
x = 2.24m X C B
RA=22.4kN
4m 1m 2m
RB=24.6kN
22.4kN
5 kN 5 kN

x = 2.24m
17.6kN
19.6kN 19.6kN
SFD
Point of
contra flexure
9.6kNm

BMD 10kNm
 10kN/m 2 kN 5kN
X

A
x X C B D
RA=22.4kN
4m 1m 2m
RB=24.6kN
Calculations of Absolute Maximum Bending Moment:
Max. bending moment will occur at the section where the shear force is
zero. The SFD shows that the section having zero shear force is available
in the portion AC. Let that section be X-X, considered at a distance x
from support A as shown above.
The shear force at that section can be calculated as
Vx-x = 22.4 - 10. x = 0  x = 2.24 m
Max. BM at X- X ,
Mmax = 22.4 × 2.24 – 10 × (2.24)2 / 2 = 25.1 kNm
 10kN/m 2 kN 5kN
X

A
x = 2.24m X C B D
RA=22.4kN
4m 1m 2m
RB=24.6kN
Mmax = 25.1 kNm

9.6kNm Point of
contra flexure

BMD 10kNm
Let a be the distance of point of contra flexure from support B
Taking moments at the section A-A (Considering left portion)

M A A  5(2  a )  24.6a  0
A
a = 0.51 m
Mmax = 25.1 kNm

9.6kNm Point of
contra flexure

BMD 10kNm
a
A
 Example Problem 4
4. Draw SFD and BMD for the single side overhanging beam
subjected to loading as shown below. Mark salient points on
SFD and BMD.

60kN/m
20kN
20kN/m

A
C B D

3m 2m 2m
 60kN/m
20kN
20kN/m

A
C B D

RA 3m 2m RB 2m

Solution: Calculation of reactions:

ΣMA = 0
-RB × 5 + ½ × 3 × 60 × (2/3) × 3 +20 × 4 × 5 + 20 × 7 = 0  RB =144kN
ΣFy = 0
RA + 144 – ½ × 3 × 60 – 20 × 4 -20 = 0  RA = 46kN
 60kN/m
20kN
20kN/m
1 2 3 4 5
0 6

1 2 3 4 5 6
0
RB = 144kN
RA = 46kN 3m 2m 2m
RA

Shear Force Calculations:

V0-0 =0 ; V1-1 = + 46 kN V4-4 = - 84 + 144 = + 60kN
V2-2 = +46 – ½ × 3 × 60 = - 44 kN V5-5 = +60 – 20 × 2 = + 20 kN
V3-3 = - 44 – 20 × 2 = - 84 kN V6-6= 20 – 20 = 0 (Check)
 Example Problem 4
60kN/m
20kN
20kN/m
1 2 3 4 5 6

1 2 3 4 5 6
RB = 144kN
RA = 46kN 3m 2m 2m
RA

46kN Parabola 60kN

20kN

44kN
SFD 84kN
 X 60kN/m
20kN
20kN/m

A x C B D
X RB=144kN
RA =46kN 3m 2m 2m

Max. bending moment will occur at the section where the shear force is
zero. The SFD shows that the section having zero shear force is available
in the portion AC. Let that section be X-X, considered at a distance ‘x’
from support A as shown above. The shear force expression at that section
should be equated to zero. i.e.,
Vx-x = 46 – ½ .x. (60/3)x = 0  x = 2.145 m
 60kN/m
20kN
20kN/m

A
C B D
RB=144kN
RA =46kN 3m 2m 2m

Calculation of bending moments:

MA = M D = 0
MC = 46 × 3 – ½ × 3 × 60 × (1/3 × 3) = 48 kNm[Considering LHS of
section]
MB = -20 × 2 – 20 × 2 × 1 = - 80 kNm [Considering RHS of section]
Absolute Maximum Bending Moment, Mmax = 46 × 2.145 – ½ × 2.145
×(2.145 × 60/3) × (1/3 × 2.145) = 65.74 kNm
 60kN/m
20kN
20kN/m

A
C B D
RB=144kN
RA =46kN 3m 2m 2m
48kNm

65.74kNm

Cubic
parabola Parabola

Point of
BMD Contra flexure Parabola
80kNm
46kN Parabola 60kN
20kN

44kN
SFD 84kN

65.74kNm

Cubic
parabola Parabola

Point of
BMD Contra flexure Parabola
80kNm
 X 60kN/m
20kN
20kN/m

A x=2.145m C B D
X RB=144kN
RA =46kN 3m 2m 2m

Calculations of Absolute Maximum Bending Moment:

Max. bending moment will occur at the section where the shear force is
zero. The SFD shows that the section having zero shear force is available
in the portion AC. Let that section be X-X, considered at a distance ‘x’
from support A as shown above. The shear force expression at that section
should be equated to zero. i.e.,
Vx-x = 46 – ½ .x. (60/3)x = 0  x = 2.145 m
BM at X- X , Mmax = 46 × 2.145 – ½ × 2.145 ×(2.145 × 60/3) × (1/3 × 2.145)=65.74
kNm
 60kN/m
20kN
20kN/m

A
C B D
RB=144kN
RA =46kN 3m 2m 2m
48kNm
65.74kNm 48kNm
Cubic
parabola Parabola

Point of
BMD Contra flexure Parabola
80kNm
Point of contra flexure:
BMD shows that point of contra flexure is existing in the
portion CB. δet ‘a’ be the distance in the portion CB from the
support B at which the bending moment is zero. And that ‘a’
can be calculated as given below.
ΣMx-x = 0

(2  a) 2
144a  20(a  2)  20 0
2

a = 1.095 m
 Example Problem 5
5. Draw SFD and BMD for the single side overhanging beam
subjected to loading as shown below. Mark salient points on
SFD and BMD.
40kN
0.5m
30kN/m
20kN/m
0.7m
A
B C D E

2m 1m 1m 2m
 40kN
0.5m
30kN/m
20kN/m
0.7m
A
B C D E

2m 1m 1m 2m

40x0.5=20kNm
40kN 30kN/m
20kN/m

A
B C D E

2m 1m 1m 2m
 40kN 30kN/m
20kN/m
20kNm
A
B C D E
RA
2m 1m 1m RD 2m

Solution: Calculation of reactions:

ΣMA = 0
-RD × 4 + 20 × 2 × 1 + 40 × 3 + 20 + ½ × 2 × 30 × (4+2/3) = 0  RD =80k
ΣFy = 0
RA + 80 – 20 × 2 - 40 - ½ × 2 × 30 = 0  RA = 30 kN
 20kNm 40kN
30kN/m
0 1 20kN/m 2 4 6 7
3 5

0 1 2 4 5 6 7
3
RD =80kN
RA =30kN
2m 1m 1m 2m

Calculation of Shear Forces: V0-0 = 0

V1-1 = 30 kN V5-5 = - 50 kN
V2-2 = 30 – 20 × 2 = - 10kN V6-6 = - 50 + 80 = + 30kN
V3-3 = - 10kN V7-7 = +30 – ½ × 2 × 30 = 0(check)
V4-4 = -10 – 40 = - 50 kN
 20kNm 40kN
30kN/m
1 20kN/m 2 4 6 7
3 5

1 2 4 5 6 7
3
RD =80kN
RA =30kN
2m 1m 1m 2m

30kN Parabola
30kN

x = 1.5 m
10kN 10kN

SFD
50kN 50kN
 40kN 30kN/m
20kN/m
X 20kNm
A
B C D E
x = 1.5 m X
RA
2m 1m 1m RD 2m

Calculation of bending moments:

MA = M E = 0
MX = 30 × 1.5 – 20 × 1.5 × 1.5/2 = 22.5 kNm
MB= 30 × 2 – 20 × 2 × 1 = 20 kNm
MC = 30 × 3 – 20 × 2 × 2 = 10 kNm (section before the couple)
MC = 10 + 20 = 30 kNm (section after the couple)
MD = - ½ × 30 × 2 × (1/3 × 2) = - 20 kNm( Considering RHS of the section
 40kN 30kN/m
20kN/m
X 20kNm
A
B C D E
x = 1.5 m X
RA
2m 1m 1m RD 2m
22.5kNm 30kNm
Parabola 20kNm
10kNm Point of contra flexure

BMD Cubic parabola

20kNm
 30kN Parabola
30kN

x = 1.5 m
10kN 10kN

SFD
50kN 50kN

Parabola 20kNm
10kNm Point of contra flexure

BMD Cubic parabola

20kNm
6. Draw SFD and BMD for the cantilever beam subjected
to loading as shown below.

40kN
0.5m
300
20kN/m
0.7m
A

3m 1m 1m
 40kN
0.5m
300
20kN/m
0.7m
A
3m 1m 1m

40Sin30 = 20kN

0.5m

20kN/m 40Cos30 =34.64kN

0.7m
A

3m 1m 1m
 40Sin30 = 20kN

0.5m

20kN/m 40Cos30 =34.64kN

0.7m

3m 1m 1m

20x0.5 – 34.64x0.7=-14.25kNm
20kN
20kN/m
34.64kN

3m 1m 1m
 20kN
20kN/m 14.25kNm

34.64kN HD
A 3m B 1m C 1m D
MD
VD
Calculation of Reactions (Here it is optional):
ΣFx = 0  HD = 34.64 kN
ΣFy = 0  VD = 20 × 3 + 20 = 80 kN
ΣMD = 0  MD - 20 × 3 × 3.5 – 20 × 1 – 14.25 = 244.25kNm
 20kN
1 20kN/m 14.25kNm 6
2 3 4 5
34.64kN HD
2 3 4
1 3m 1m 1m 5 6 MD
VD=80kN

Shear Force Calculation:

V1-1 =0
V2-2 = -20 × 3 = - 60kN
V3-3 = - 60 kN
V4-4 = - 60 – 20 = - 80 kN
V5-5 = - 80 kN
V6-6 = - 80 + 80 = 0 (Check)
 20kN
1 20kN/m 14.25kNm 6
2 3 4 5
34.64kN
HD
2 3 4
1 3m 1m 1m 5 6 MD
VD=80kN

60kN 60kN
SFD
80kN 80kN
 20kN
20kN/m 14.25kNm

34.64kN
A B
3m 1m C 1m D
MD

Bending Moment Calculations:

MA = 0
MB = - 20 × 3 × 1.5 = - 90 kNm
MC = - 20 × 3 × 2.5 = - 150 kNm (section before the couple)
MC = - 20 × 3 × 2.5 – 14.25 = -164.25 kNm (section after the couple)
MD = - 20 × 3 × 3.5 -14.25 – 20 × 1 = -244.25 kNm (section before MD)
moment)
MD = -244.25 +244.25 = 0 (section after MD)
 20kN
20kN/m 14.25kNm

34.64kN
A B
3m 1m C 1m D

90kNm
150kNm
BMD
164.25kNm

244.25kNm
 W

L/2 L/2

wkN/m

wkN/m
 Exercise Problems VM-73
1. Draw SFD and BMD for a single side overhanging beam
subjected to loading as shown below. Mark absolute
maximum bending moment on bending moment diagram and
locate point of contra flexure.
10kN 15kN/m
20kN/m
5kNm

1m 1m 3m 1m 1m 2m

[Ans: Absolute maximum BM = 60.625 kNm ]

 Exercise Problems VM-74

2. Draw shear force and bending moment diagrams [SFD

and BMD] for a simply supported beam subjected to
loading as shown in the Fig. given below. Also locate
and determine absolute maximum bending moment.
10kN 16kN
4kN/m
600 B
A

1m 1m 2m 1m 1m

[Ans: Absolute maximum bending moment = 22.034kNm

Its position is 3.15m from Left hand support ]
 Exercise Problems VM-75

3. Draw shear force and bending moment diagrams [SFD

and BMD] for a single side overhanging beam subjected
to loading as shown in the Fig. given below. Locate
points of contra flexure if any.
50kN 25kN/m
10kN/m
10kNm
A
B
1m 1m 3m 2m

[Ans : Position of point of contra flexure from RHS = 0.375m]

 Exercise Problems VM-76

4. Draw SFD and BMD for a double side overhanging beam

subjected to loading as shown in the Fig. given below.
Locate the point in the AB portion where the bending
moment is zero.
8kN 16kN
4kN/m 8kN

A B
2m 2m 2m 2m

[Ans : Bending moment is zero at mid span]

 Exercise Problems VM-77
5. A single side overhanging beam is subjected to uniformly distributed
load of 4 kN/m over AB portion of the beam in addition to its self
weight 2 kN/m acting as shown in the Fig. given below. Draw SFD
and BMD for the beam. Locate the inflection points if any. Also locate
and determine maximum negative and positive bending moments.
4kN/m
2kN/m

A
B
6m 2m

[Ans :Max. positive bending moment is located at 2.89 m from LHS.

and whose value is 37.57 kNm ]
 Exercise Problems VM-78

6. Three point loads and one uniformly distributed load are

acting on a cantilever beam as shown in the Fig. given
below. Draw SFD and BMD for the beam. Locate and
determine maximum shear force and bending moments.
10kN
5kN 2kN/m 20kN

A
1m 1m 1m B

[Ans : Both Shear force and Bending moments are maximum

at supports.]
 Exercise Problems VM-79

7. One side overhanging beam is subjected loading as

shown below. Draw shear force and bending moment
diagrams [SFD and BMD] for beam. Also determine
maximum hogging bending moment.
200N 100N
30N/m

A B
3m 4m 4m

[Ans: Max. Hogging bending moment = 735 kNm]

 Exercise Problems VM-80

8. A cantilever beam of span 6m is subjected to three point

loads at 1/3rd points as shown in the Fig. given below.
Draw SFD and BMD for the beam. Locate and determine
maximum shear force and hogging bending moment.
5kN 10kN
0.5m 8kN 5kN
300

A 2m 2m 2m B

[Ans : Max. Shear force = 20.5kN, Max BM= 71kNm

Both max. shear force and bending moments will occur
at supports.]
 Exercise Problems VM-81

9. A trapezoidal load is acting in the middle portion AB of the double

side overhanging beam as shown in the Fig. given below. A couple
of magnitude 10 kNm and a concentrated load of 14 kN acting on
the tips of overhanging sides of the beam as shown. Draw SFD and
BMD. Mark salient features like maximum positive, negative
bending moments and shear forces, inflection points if any.
14kN 40kN/m 20kN/m
10kNm
600

A B
1m 4m 2m

[Ans : Maximum positive bending moment = 49.06 kNm

 Exercise Problems VM-82

10. Draw SFD and BMD for the single side overhanging beam
subjected loading as shown below.. Mark salient features like
maximum positive, negative bending moments and shear forces,
inflection points if any.
24kN
0.5m 4kN/m
6kN/m

1m 1m 3m 2m 3m

Ans: Maximum positive bending moment = 41.0 kNm

UNIT-III
 Chapter 6
Section 3,4
Bending Deformation, Strain and
Stress in Beams
6.2 Bending Deformation and Strain

Key Points:
1. Bending moment
causes beam to
deform.
2. X = longitudinal
axis
3. Y = axis of
symmetry
4. Neutral surface –
does not undergo
a change in length
 Key Points:
1. Internal bending moment causes beam to
deform.
2. For this case, top fibers in compression,
bottom in tension.
 Key Points:
1. Neutral surface – no change in length.
2. All cross-sections remain plane and perpendicular to
 Radius of
curvature

Length
decreases

Length =
constant

s's (   y)   y

  lim  lim 
s 0 s s 0  
 y
 
Says normal strain is


linear
Maximum at outer
surface (where y = c)

 y
    max
c
6.2 Bending Stress – The Flexure Formula

What about Stress????

Recall from section 6.1:

 y
    max
c
Therefore, it follows that

 y
    max
c
 Sum moments about cut:

 y
M   ydF   y (dA)   y  max dA
A 
A A
c
 max This is the
M  y dA
2

c moment of
A
inertia, I
 The Flexure Formula:
Internal bending
moment, lb-in

Max bending stress,

psi
Distance from NA to
Mc outer fiber, in

 max 
I Moment of inertia, in4

My
Or in general: 
I
 Examples:

• Find maximum moment

• Find area properties, I and c
• Calculate stress
 WHERE IS
BENDING
STRESS
MAXIMUM???
Answer:
•Outer surface
(furthest away
from Neutral Axis)
•Value of x along
length where
moment is
maximum!!
 Example: The T-shape beam is subjected to the loading below.
1. Draw shear and moment diagram. Identify location and magnitude of Mmax.
2. Determine location and magnitude of maximum bending stress and draw stress profile. Is the
beam safe if the material is aluminum w/ y = 15 ksi?

3. What is the largest internal moment the beam can resist if allow = 2 ksi?
45K
 Statics: Example 1 - Pliers

Given: Typical
household pliers as
shown.
Find: Force applied to
wire and force in pin that
connects the two parts of
the pliers.

Do this for homework.

Side: what is the shear stress

in pin and bending stress in
See solution Link handle? SofM
Statics: Example 2 – Crane Structure

Given: Crane structure as

shown.
Find: Forces and FBD’s
for cables A-B and A-E,
boom DEF and post
AFC.

Do this for homework. Side: what is the normal stress in

cables (average normal only) and
normal stress in boom and post
(combined loading)? SofM
Example 4: Determine the resultant internal loadings
acting on the cross sections located through points D
and E of the frame. (1-114)
UNIT_IV
 Chapter 3 Torsion
Introduction

-- Analyzing the stresses and strains in machine

parts which are subjected to torque T
Circular
-- Cross-section Non-circular
Irregular shapes
-- Material (1) Elastic
(2) Elasto-plastic
-- Shaft (1) Solid
(2) Hollow
 3.1 Introduction

 T is a vector
 Two ways of expression
-- Applications:
a. Transmission of torque in shafts,
e.g. in automobiles
 Assumptions in Torque Analysis:
a. Every cross section remains plane and undistorted.
b. Shearing strain varies linearly along the axis of the shaft.
3.2 Preliminary Discussion of the Stresses in a Shaft

  dF  T
Where  = distance (torque arm)

Since dF =  dA

  ( dA)  T
The stress distribution is Statically
Free-body Diagram
Indeterminate.
-- εust rely on “deformation” to solve the problem.

Analyzing a small element:

 3.3 Deformations in a Circular Shaft

 =  (T, L) -- the angle of twist Rectangular cross section

(deformation) warps under torsion
CD  C ' D '

 A circular plane remains

circular plane
Determination of Shear Strain 

  (in radians)
L
The shear strain   
 c
 max   = c = radius of the shaft
L
 max L

c


Since  
L

   max
c
 3.4 Stresses in the Elastic Range

Hooke’s Law   G


   max
c

  G  G  max
c

  G 
max  G max


Therefore,    max (3.6)
c
 c1
 min   max
c2
 
  ( dA)  T (3.1)    max
c (3.6)

  max 2
T    dA     maxdA    dA
c c

 dA  J
 2
But

Therefore, T 
 max J Or,  max 
Tc
(3.9)
c J
Substituting Eq. (3.9) into Eq. (3.6)

Tc
 max  (3.10)
J
T
 (3.9)
J
These are elastic torsion formulas.

1 4
J  c
For a solid cylinder:
2
1
J   (c24  c14 )
For a hollow cylinder:
2
F  2( max A0 )cos 45   max A0 2 (3-13)
Eq. (3  13)
Since A  Ao 2 
A

F  max A0 2
      max
A A0 2
Mohr’s Circle (Sec. 7.4)
-- Pure Shear Condition
 Ductile materials fail Brittle materials are weaker in
in shear (90o fracture) tension (45o fracture)
 3.5 Angle of Twist in the Elastic Range

c
 max  (3.3)
L
 max Tc
 max  sin ce  max 
G J
Tc
Therefore,  max  (3.15)
JG
c Tc
Eq. (3.3) = Eq. (3.15)   max  
L JG
TL
Hence, 
JG
For Multiple-Section Shafts:

Ti J i
 
i J i Gi
Shafts with a Variable Circular Cross Section

Tdx
d 
JG
L Tdx

0 JG
 3.6 Statically Indeterminate Shafts

-- Must rely on both

(1) Torque equations andT  0
TL
(2) Deformation equation, i.e.  
JG
Example 3.05
3.7 Design of Transmission Shafts
-- Two Parameters in Transmission Shafts:
a. Power P
b. Speed of rotation

P  power  T
where  = angular velocity (radians/s) = 2
 = frequency (Hz)

P  2 f T
P
T [N.m/s = watts (W)] (3.21)
2f
 P
T (3.21)
2f
Tc
 max  (3.9)
J
J T
Therefore, 
c  max
For a Solid Circular Shaft:

1 4 1 3
J  c and J /c  c
2 2
1/ 3
1 T  2T 
c 
3
 c   
2  max 
 max 
3.8 Stress Concentrations in Circular Shafts

Tc
 max K
J
3.9 Plastic Deformation sin Circular Shafts


   max (3.4)
c
c = radius of the shaft
 d


c c
dA = 2 d
  dF  T (3.1)

Knowing dF =  dA

T    dF    dA    (2 d )
c
T  2   2 d  (3.26)
0

Where  = ()
 Tc
 max  (3.9)
J

If we can determine experimentally an Ultimate

Torque, TU,
then by means of Eq. (3.9), we have

TU c
RT 
J

RT = Modulus of Rupture in Torsion

 
 
L
3.10 Circular Shafts Made of an Elasto-Plastic Material

Case I:  < Y Hooke’s Law applies,  < max

Case I
Tc
 max 
J
Case II:  < Y Hooke’s Law applies,  = max
J
TY   Y TY = max elastic torque
c
Case II
 1
J / C   c 3 Since
2

1 3
TY   c  Y (3-29)
2

Case III: Entering Plastic Region

Y
0    Y:  
Y
Case III
Y    c:   Y
Y – region within the plastic
range
By evoking Eq. (3.26)
c
T  2    d 
2
(3.26)
0
Y  Y  c
T  Telastic  Tplastic  2      d   2   2 Y d 
2
0
 Y  Y

1 3 2 3 2 3
 Y Y   c  Y  Y Y
2 3 3
2 3 1 Y3
T   c  Y (1  3
) (3.31)
3 4c

4 1 Y3 1 3
T  TY (1  3
)  TY   c  Y
3 4c 2
Case IV -- Fully Plastic

4 1 Y3
T  TY (1  3
)
3 4c

Y  0:

4 Case IV
TP  TY = Plastic Torque (3-33)
3
 L Y
Y 


L Y
c
Y
Y Y

c 

4 1 Y3 T   A
T  TY (1  )
3 4 3
3.11 Residual Stresses in Circular Shafts

P     '
  ( dA)  0
 3.12 Torsion of Noncircular Members

A rectangular shaft does not axisymmetry.

 zx  0  zy  0
 yx  0  yz  0
 xy  0  xz  0
From Theory of Elasticity:
T
 max 
c1ab 2

TL

c2ab3G
 1
c1  c2  (1  0.630b / a ) (for b/a = 5 only) 3.45
3
 3.13 Thin-Walled Hollow Shafts

Fx  0 FA - FB = 0 FA   A ( t Ax )

 A ( t A x )   B ( t B x )  0
 At A   B t B
q   t  cons tan t
dF   dA   ( tds )  ( t )ds  qds

dM O  pdF  p(qds )  q( pds )

dM o  q( 2dA )

T  2qA
 TL ds
 2
4A G  t
T

2tA
UNIT-V
 THIN AND THICK CYLINDERS
INTRODUCTION:

In many engineering applications, cylinders are frequently

used for transporting or storing of liquids, gases or fluids.

Eg: Pipes, Boilers, storage tanks etc.

These cylinders are subjected to fluid pressures. When a

cylinder is subjected to a internal pressure, at any point on the
cylinder wall, three types of stresses are induced on three
mutually perpendicular planes.
They are,
1. Hoop or Circumferential Stress (σC) – This is directed along the
tangent to the circumference and tensile in nature. Thus, there
will be increase in diameter.

2. Longitudinal Stress (σL ) – This stress is directed along the

length of the cylinder. This is also tensile in nature and tends
to increase the length.

3. Radial pressure ( pr ) – It is compressive in nature.

Its magnitude is equal to fluid pressure on the inside wall and
zero on the outer wall if it is open to atmosphere.
 σC σC σL σL
p pr
p p

σC σC σL σL
1. Hoop Stress (C) 2. Longitudinal Stress (L) 3. Radial Stress (pr)
pr σC

Element on the cylinder σL σL

wall subjected to these
three stresses

σC pr
 THIN CYLINDERS

INTRODUCTION:
A cylinder or spherical shell is considered to be thin when the
metal thickness is small compared to internal diameter.

i. e., when the wall thickness, ‘t’ is equal to or less than

‘d/20’, where ‘d’ is the internal diameter of the cylinder or shell,
we consider the cylinder or shell to be thin, otherwise thick.

Magnitude of radial pressure is very small compared to other

two stresses in case of thin cylinders and hence neglected.
 t

Circumferential stress
Longitudin

Longitudinal stress axis

The stress acting along the circumference of the cylinder is called

circumferential stresses whereas the stress acting along the length of
the cylinder (i.e., in the longitudinal direction ) is known as
longitudinal stress
The bursting will take place if the force due to internal (fluid)
pressure (acting vertically upwards and downwards) is more than the
resisting force due to circumferential stress set up in the material.

P - internal pressure (stre

σc –circumferential stre
p
σc σc
σc t

dL P - internal pressure (stre

σc – circumferential stre
EVALUATION OF CIRCUMFERENTIAL or HOOP STRESS (σC):

p d

p
t dl
d
σc σc

Consider a thin cylinder closed at both ends and subjected to internal

pressure ‘p’ as shown in the figure.

Let d=Internal diameter, t = Thickness of the wall

L = Length of the cylinder.

 To determine the Bursting force across the diameter:
Consider a small length ‘dl’ of the cylinder and an elementary
area ‘dA’ as shown in the figure.
Force on the elementary area, dA
dF  p  dA  p  r  dl  dθ
d
 p   dl  dθ d
2 p
Horizontal component of this force dl
t
d d
dFx  p   dl  cos  dθ
2 σc σc
Vertical component of this force
d
dFy  p   dl  sin  dθ
2
The horizontal components cancel out dA
when integrated over semi-circular
portion as there will be another equal
and opposite horizontal component on
d
the other side of the vertical axis. p

t dl
d
σc σc

d
 Total diametrica l bursting force   p   dl  sin   dθ
0
2

 p   dl   cos   0  p  d  dl
d
2
 p  projected area of the curved surface.
Resisting force (due to circumfere ntial stress σ c )  2  σc  t  dl
Under equillibri um, Resisting force  Bursting force
i.e., 2  σ c  t  dl  p  d  dl

pd
Circumfere ntial stress, σ c  ........................(1)
2 t

σc t

dL
 Assumed as rectangular

Force due to fluid pressure = p × area on which p is acting = p ×(d ×L)

(bursting force)
Force due to circumferential stress = σc × area on which σc is acting
(resisting force) = σc × ( L × t + L ×t ) = σc × 2 L × t
Under equilibrium bursting force = resisting force
p ×(d ×L) = σc × 2 L × t

pd
Circumfere ntial stress, σ c  ........................(1)
2 t
 LONGITUDINAL STRESS (σL):

A
The bursting of the cylinder takes
place along the section AB
P

σL

The force, due to pressure of the fluid, acting at the ends of the
thin cylinder, tends to burst the cylinder as shown in figure
 EVALUATION OF LONGITUDINAL STRESS (σL):

σL

π 2
Longitudin al bursting force (on the end of cylinder)  p   d
4
Area of cross section resisting this force  π  d  t
Let σ L  Longitudin al stress of the material of the cylinder.
 Resisting force  σ L  π  d  t
Under equillibri um, bursting force  resisting force

π
i.e., p   d 2  σ L  π  d  t
4

pd
 Longitudin al stress, σ L  ...................( 2)
4 t

From eqs (1) & (2), σC  2  σL

Force due to fluid pressure  p  area on which p is acting
π 2
 p d
4
Re sisting force  σ L  area on which σ L is acting
 σL  π  d  t
circumference

Under equillibri um, bursting force  resisting force

π 2 pπd d  t
   σ
 Longitudin al stress, σ L L
i.e., p d ...................( 2)
4 4 t
 EVALUATION OF STRAINS

σL=(pd)/(4t)

σ C=(pd)/(2t) σ C=(pd)/(2t)

σ L=(pd)/(4t)
A point on the surface of thin cylinder is subjected to biaxial
stress system, (Hoop stress and Longitudinal stress) mutually
perpendicular to each other, as shown in the figure. The strains due
to these stresses i.e., circumferential and longitudinal are obtained
by applying Hooke’s law and Poisson’s theory for elastic materials.
Circumfere ntial strain, C :
σC σL
C  μ σ L=(pd)/(4t)
E E
σL σL
 2 μ
E E σC=(pd)/(2t) σ C=(pd)/(2
σL
  (2  μ)
E
σ L=(pd)/(4t)
d pd
i.e.,    (2  μ)................................(3)
d 4 t  E
C

Note: Let d be the change in diameter. Then

final circumfere nce  original circumfere nce

c 
original circumference
  d  d   d  d
  
 d  d
 Longitudin al strain, L :
σL σC
L  μ
E E
σL (2  σ L ) σ L
 μ   (1  2  μ)
E E E

l pd
i.e., L    (1  2  μ)................................(4)
L 4 t  E

v
VOLUMETRIC STRAIN,
V
Change in volume = V = final volume – original volume
original volume = V = area of cylindrical shell × length
 d2
 L
4
 final volume = final area of cross section × final length

 d   d  2 L   L
4


4
d 2

 ( d ) 2  2 d  d  L   L



4
d 2
L  ( d ) 2 L  2 L d  d  d 2  L  ( d ) 2  L  2 d  d  L 

neglecting the smaller quantities such as ( d ) 2 L, ( d ) 2  L and 2 d  d  L


Final volume 
4
d 2
L  2 L d  d  d 2 L 

 
change in volume V 
4
d 2

L  2 L d  d  d 2 L 
4
d  2 L

V 
4
2 L d  d  d  L 2
 dv 4
π

2 d L d  L d 2 

V π 2
d L
4
L d
  2
L d
dV
= L+ 2× C
V

pd pd
 (1  2  μ)  2  (2  μ)
4 t  E 4 t  E

dv pd
i.e.,  (5  4  μ).................(5)
V 4 t  E
Maximum Shear stress :
There are two principal stresses at any point,
viz., Circumfere ntial and longitudin al. Both
these stresses are normal and act perpendicu lar
to each other.
σC - σL
 Maximum Shear stress, 
max
2 σ L=(pd)/(4t)
pd pd

 2t 4t σC=(pd)/(2t)
2 σ C=(pd)/(2t)
pd
i.e., max  .....................(5)
8t σ L=(pd)/(4t)
Maximum Shear stress :

σC - σL
 Maximum Shear stress, max 
2
pd pd

 2t 4t
2

pd
i.e., max  .....................(5)
8t
 ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS
PROBLEM 1:
A thin cylindrical shell is 3m long and 1m in internal diameter. It is
subjected to internal pressure of 1.2 MPa. If the thickness of the sheet is
12mm, find the circumferential stress, longitudinal stress, changes in
SOLUTION:
diameter, length and volume . Take E=200 GPa and μ= 0.3.
1. Circumferential stress, σC:
σC= (p×d) / (2×t)
= (1.2×1000) / (2× 12)
2. Longitudinal stress, σL:
= 50 N/mm2 = 50 MPa (Tensile).
σL = (p×d) / (4×t)

= σC/2 = 50/2
2
 3. Circumferential strain, c:
(p  d) (2  μ)
 
(4  t)
c
E

(1.2 1000) (2  0.3)

 
(4 12) 200 103
 2.125 10-04 (Increase)
Change in diameter, d = c ×d
= 2.125×10-04×1000 = 0.2125 mm (Increase).
4. Longitudinal strain, L:
(p  d) (1  2  μ)
 
(4  t)
L
E
(1.2 1000) (1  2  0.3)
 
(4 12) 200 103
 5 10-05 (Increase)

Change in length = L ×L= 5×10-05×3000 = 0.15 mm (Increase).

 dv
Volumetric strain, :
V dv (p  d)
  (5  4  μ)
V (4  t)  E

(1.2 1000)
  (5  4  0.3)
(4 12)  200 10 3

 4.75  10-4 (Increase)

Change in volume, dv  4.75  10-4  V

π
 4.75  10  1000 2  3000
-4

4
 1.11919 106 mm 3  1.11919 10-3 m 3
 1.11919 Litres .
 A copper tube having 45mm internal diameter and 1.5mm wall
thickness is closed at its ends by plugs which are at 450mm apart. The
tube is subjected to internal pressure of 3 MPa and at the same time
pulled in axial direction with a force of 3 kN. Compute: i) the change
in length between the plugs ii) the change in internal diameter of the
SOLUTION:
tube. Take ECU = A]
100Due
GPa,toand μCUpressure
Fluid = 0.3. of 3 MPa:

Longitudinal stress, σL = (p×d) / (4×t)

= (3 ×45 )  d) 1.5)
(p/ (4×  μ ) N/mm2 = 22.50 MPa.
(1 =2 22.50
Long. strain, L  
4 t E

22.5  (1  2  0.3) 5
  9  10
100 103
Change in length, -5×450 = +0.0405 mm (increase)
L= L × L = 9 × 10
 Pd/4t = 22.5

(p  d) (2  μ )
Circumfere ntial strain  
(4  t)
C
E
22.5  (2  0.3) 4
  3.825  10
100 103
Change in diameter, d= c × d = 3.825 × 10-4×45

= + 0.0172 mm (increase)
B] Due to Pull of 3 kN (P=3kN):
Area of cross section of copper tube, Ac = π × d × t
= π × 45 × 1.5 = 212.06 mm2
Longitudinal strain, L = direct stress/E = σ/E = P/(Ac × E)
= 3 × 103/(212.06 × 100 × 103 )
= 1.415 × 10-4
Change in length, L= L× L= 1.415 × 10-4 ×450= +0.0637mm (increase)
 Lateral strain, lat= -μ × Longitudinal strain = -μ × L

= - 0.3× 1.415 × 10-4 = -4.245 × 10-5

Change in diameter, d= lat × d = -4.245 × 10-5 ×45

= - 1.91 × 10-3 mm (decrease)

C) Changes due to combined effects:

Change in length = 0.0405 + 0.0637 = + 0.1042 mm (increase)

Change in diameter = 0.01721 - 1.91 × 10-3 = + 0.0153 mm (increase)

 PROBLEM 3:

A cylindrical boiler is 800mm in diameter and 1m length. It is

required to withstand a pressure of 100m of water. If the permissible
tensile stress is 20N/mm2, permissible shear stress is 8N/mm2 and
permissible change in diameter is 0.2mm, find the minimum thickness
SOLUTION:
of the metal required. Take E = 200GPa, and μ = 0.3.
Fluid pressure, p = 100m of water = 100×9.81×103 N/m2
= 0.981N/mm2 .
1. Thickness from Hoop Stress consideration: (Hoop stress is critical
than long. Stress)

σC = (p×d)/(2×t)

20 = (0.981×800)/(2×t)
 2. Thickness from Shear Stress consideration:
(p  d)

(8  t)
max

(0.981 800)
8
(8  t)
 t  12.26mm.
3. Thickness from permissible change in diameter consideration
( d=0.2mm):

Therefore, required thickness, t = 19.62 mm.

 PROBLEM 4:
A cylindrical boiler has 450mm in internal diameter, 12mm thick and
0.9m long. It is initially filled with water at atmospheric pressure.
Determine the pressure at which an additional water of 0.187 liters
may be pumped into the cylinder by considering water to be
incompressible. Take E = 200 GPa, and μ = 0.3.
SOLUTION:
Additional volume of water, V = 0.187 liters = 0.187×10-3 m3
= 187×103 mm3
π
V  450 2  (0.9 103 )  143.14 106 mm 3
4
dV pd
 (5  4  μ)
V 4 t  E
187 103 p  450
 (5  4  0.33)
143.14 10 6
4 12  200 10 3

Solving, p=7.33 N/mm2

 JOINT EFFICIENCY

Steel plates of only particular lengths and width are available. Hence
whenever larger size cylinders (like boilers) are required, a number
of plates are to be connected. This is achieved by using riveting in
circumferential and longitudinal directions as shown in figure. Due to
the holes for rivets, the net area of cross section decreases and hence
the stresses increase.

Circumferential Longitudinal
rivets rivets
 JOINT EFFICIENCY

The cylindrical shells like boilers are having two types of joints
namely Longitudinal and Circumferential joints. Due to the holes for
rivets, the net area of cross section decreases and hence the stresses
increase. If the efficiencies of these joints are known, the stresses can
be calculated as follows.

Let L= Efficiency of Longitudinal joint

and C = Efficiency of Circumferential joint.

Circumferential stress is given by,

pd
σC  .............(1)
2 t  L
Longitudinal stress is given by,

p d
σL  .............(2)
4t C

Note: In longitudinal joint, the circumferential stress is developed

and in circumferential joint, longitudinal stress is developed.

Circumferential Longitudinal
rivets rivets
If A is the gross area and Aeff is the effective resisting area then,
Efficiency = Aeff/A
Bursting force = p L d
Resisting force = σc ×Aeff = σc × L ×A = σc × L ×2 t L

Where L=Efficiency of Longitudinal joint

Bursting force = Resisting force

p L d = σc × L ×2tL
pd
σC  .............(1)
2 t  L
 If c=Efficiency of circumferential joint
Efficiency = Aeff/A
Bursting force = (π d2/4)p
Resisting force = σL ×A′eff = σL × c ×A′ = σL × c ×π d t

Where L=Efficiency of circumferential joint

Bursting force = Resisting force

pd
σL  .............(2)
4 t  C
A cylindrical tank of 750mm internal diameter, 12mm thickness and
1.5m length is completely filled with an oil of specific weight
7.85 kN/m3 at atmospheric pressure. If the efficiency of longitudinal
joints is 75% and that of circumferential joints is 45%, find the
pressure head of oil in the tank. Also calculate the change in volume.
Take permissible tensile stress of tank plate as 120 MPa and E = 200
GPa, and μ = 0.3.
SOLUTION:
Let p = max permissible pressure in the tank.
Then we have, σL= (p×d)/(4×t) C

120 = (p×750)/(4×12) 0.45

Also, σ C= (p×d)/(2×t)
p = 3.456 MPa.
L

120 = (p×750)/(2×12) 0.75

Max permissible pressure in the tank, p = 2.88 MPa.
dv (p  d)
Vol. Strain,   (5  4  μ)
V (4  t  E)

(2.88  750)
  (5 - 4  0.3)  8.55  10 -4

(4 12  200 103 )

π
dv  8.55 10-4  V  8.55 10-4   750 2 1500  0.567 106 mm 3 .
4
 0.567 10-3 m 3  0.567 litres.
A boiler shell is to be made of 15mm thick plate having a limiting
tensile stress of 120 N/mm2. If the efficiencies of the longitudinal and
circumferential joints are 70% and 30% respectively determine;
i) The maximum permissible diameter of the shell for an
internal pressure of 2 N/mm2.
(ii) Permissible intensity of internal pressure when the shell
diameter is 1.5m.
SOLUTION:

(i) To find the maximum permissible diameter of the shell for an

internal pressure of 2 N/mm2:

a) Let limiting tensile stress = Circumferential stress = σ c =

120N/mm2.
pd
i. e., σ c 
2 t  L
2 d
120  d = 1260 mm
2 15  0.7
b) Let limiting tensile stress = Longitudinal stress = σ L = 120N/mm2.
pd
i. e., σL 
4 t  C

2 d
120  . d = 1080 mm
4 15  0.3
The maximum diameter of the cylinder in order to satisfy both the
conditions = 1080 mm.
(ii) To find the permissible pressure for an internal diameter of 1.5m:
(d=1.5m=1500mm)
a) Let limiting tensile stress = Circumferential stress = σ c =
120N/mm2.
pd
i. e., σc 
2 t  L

p 1500
120 
2 15  0.7
p  1.68 N/mm 2 .
b) Let limiting tensile stress = Longitudinal stress = σ L = 120N/mm2.
pd
i. e., σ L 
4 t  C
p 1500
120 
4 15  0.3
p  1.44 N/mm 2 .
The maximum permissible pressure = 1.44 N/mm2.
 PROBLEMS FOR PRACTICE

PROBLEM 1:
Calculate the circumferential and longitudinal strains for a boiler of
1000mm diameter when it is subjected to an internal pressure of
1MPa. The wall thickness is such that the safe maximum tensile stress
in the boiler material is 35 MPa. Take E=200GPa and μ= 0.25.
(Ans: C=0.0001531, L=0.00004375)

PROBLEM 2:
A water main 1m in diameter contains water at a pressure head of
120m. Find the thickness of the metal if the working stress in the pipe
metal is 30 MPa. Take unit weight of water = 10 kN/m3.
 THIN AND THICK
CYLINDERS
-33

PROBLEM 3:
A gravity main 2m in diameter and 15mm in thickness. It is subjected
to an internal fluid pressure of 1.5 MPa. Calculate the hoop and
longitudinal stresses induced in the pipe material. If a factor of safety
4 was used in the design, what is the ultimate tensile stress in the pipe
material?
(Ans: C=100 MPa, L=50 MPa, σU=400 MPa)
PROBLEM 4:
At a point in a thin cylinder subjected to internal fluid pressure, the
value of hoop strain is 600×10-4 (tensile). Compute hoop and
longitudinal stresses. How much is the percentage change in the
volume of the cylinder? Take E=200GPa and μ= 0.2857.
(Ans: C=140 MPa, L=70 MPa, %age change=0.135%.)
 THIN AND THICK
CYLINDERS
-34

PROBLEM 5:
A cylindrical tank of 750mm internal diameter and 1.5m long is to be
filled with an oil of specific weight 7.85 kN/m3 under a pressure head
of 365 m. If the longitudinal joint efficiency is 75% and
circumferential joint efficiency is 40%, find the thickness of the tank
required. Also calculate the error of calculation in the quantity of oil
in the tank if the volumetric strain of the tank is neglected. Take
permissible tensile stress as 120 MPa, E=200GPa and μ= 0.3 for the
tank material. (Ans: t=12 mm, error=0.085%.)
THICK CYLINDERS
INTRODUCTION:
The thickness of the cylinder is large compared to that of thin
cylinder.
i. e., in case of thick cylinders, the metal thickness ‘t’ is more
than ‘d/20’, where ‘d’ is the internal diameter of the cylinder.

Magnitude of radial stress (pr) is large and hence it cannot be

neglected. The circumferential stress is also not uniform across the
cylinder wall. The radial stress is compressive in nature and
circumferential and longitudinal stresses are tensile in nature.
Radial stress and circumferential stresses are computed by using
‘δame’s equations’.
 δAεE’S EQUATIONS (Theory) :
ASSUMPTIONS:

1. Plane sections of the cylinder normal to its axis remain plane and
normal even under pressure.
2. Longitudinal stress (σL) and longitudinal strain ( L) remain constant
throughout the thickness of the wall.
3. Since longitudinal stress (σL) and longitudinal strain ( L) are
constant, it follows that the difference in the magnitude of hoop
stress and radial stress (pr) at any point on the cylinder wall is a
constant.
4. The material is homogeneous, isotropic and obeys Hooke’s law. (The
stresses are within proportionality limit).
δAεE’S EQUATIONS FOR RADIAδ PRESSURE AND
CIRCUMFERENTIAL STRESS

r1

r2
p p

Consider a thick cylinder of external radius r1 and internal radius

r2, containing a fluid under pressure ‘p’ as shown in the fig.

δet ‘δ’ be the length of the cylinder.
 r2 r2
r r
pr pr
r1 r1

pr+δpr pr+δpr

pr+δpr External
pressure
Pr

σc r
σc r

Consider an elemental ring of radius ‘r’ and thickness ‘ r’ as shown

in the above figures. Let pr and (pr+ pr) be the intensities of radial
 Consider the longitudinal
section XX of the ring as
shown in the fig.

The bursting force is

X X
evaluated by considering r r+ r
the projected area, pr
L
‘2×r×L’ for the inner face
and ‘2×(r+ r)×L’ for the
pr+ pr
outer face .
The net bursting force, P = pr×2×r×L - (pr+ pr)×2×(r+ r)×L

=( -pr× r- r× pr - pr × r) 2L
Bursting force is resisted by the hoop tensile force developing at the

level of the strip i.e.,

 Thus, for equilibrium, P = Fr

(-pr× r- r× pr- pr × r) 2L = σ c×2× r×L

-pr× r - r× pr- pr × r = σ c× r

Neglecting products of small quantities, (i.e., pr × r)

σ c = - pr – (r × pr )/ r ...…………….(1)
σ σ p
L=
L
 μ 
Longitudinal
C
 μ  r
 constant Since Pr is compressive
E Estrain isEconstant. Hence we have,
σL μ
L =  (σ C  p r )  constant
E E
 σ c- pr = 2a,

i.e., σc = pr + 2a, ………………(2)

From (1), pr+ 2a = - pr – (r× pr ) /

p r r
i. e., 2 (p r  a)  -r 
r
r p r
 2  ...........(3)
r (p r  a)

Integrating, (-2 ×loge r) + c = loge (pr + a)

Where c is constant of integration. Let it be taken as loge b, where ‘b’

is another constant.
b
2
2 r
Thus, loge (pr+a) = -2 ×loge r + loge b = - loge r + loge b = loge
 b b
i.e., p r  a  2 or, radial stress, p r  2  a ...............(4)
r r

Substituting it in equation 2, we get

b
Hoop stress, σc  pr  2 a  2  a  2 a
r
b
i.e., σ c  2  a ...........................(5)
r

The equations (4) & (η) are known as “δame’s Equations” for radial

pressure and hoop stress at any specified point on the cylinder wall.

Thus, r1≤r ≤r2.

 ANALYSIS FOR LONGITUDINAL STRESS

σL σ L

r2 r1
p
p

σL σL
L
Consider a transverse section near the end wall as shown in the fig.
Bursting force, P =π×r22×p

Resisting force is due to longitudinal stress ‘σ L’.

i.e., FL= σ L× π ×(r12-r22)

For equilibrium, FLp=Pr 2

σL  2
(Tensile)
1 2×p
2 2
σ L× π ×(r12-r22)= π(r×r 2 r )
2
 NOTE:

1. Variations of Hoop stress and Radial stress are parabolic across

the cylinder wall.

2. At the inner edge, the stresses are maximum.

3. The value of ‘Permissible or εaximum Hoop Stress’ is to be

considered on the inner edge.

4. The maximum shear stress (σ max) and Hoop, Longitudinal and

radial strains ( c, L, r) are calculated as in thin cylinder but
separately for inner and outer edges.
 ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS

PROBLEM 1:
A thick cylindrical pipe of external diameter 300mm and internal
diameter 200mm is subjected to an internal fluid pressure of 20N/mm2
and external pressure of 5 N/mm2. Determine the maximum hoop
stress developed and draw the variation of hoop stress and radial
SOLUTION:
stress across the thickness. Show at least four points for each case.
External diameter = 300mm. External radius, r1=150mm.
Internal diameter = 200mm. Internal radius, r2=100mm.

b
σc  a
δame’s equations: r 2

b
For Hoop stress, p r  2  a .........(1)
r
 Boundary conditions:
At r =100mm (on the inner face), radial pressure = 20N/mm2
b
20  2
 a ..................(3)
100
i.e.,

b
5  a ..................(4)
Similarly, at r =150mm
150 (on
2
the outer face), radial pressure = 5N/mm2

Solving equations (3) & (4), we get a = 7, b = 2,70,000.

i.e.,
2,70,000
σc  2
 7 ............(5)
r
δame’s equations are, for2,70,000
Hoop stress,
pr  2
 7 ............(6)
r
To draw variations of Hoop stress & Radial stress :

At r =100mm (on2,70,000
the inner face),
Hoop stress, σ c  2
 7  34 MPa (Tensile)
100
2,70,000
Radial stress, p r  2
 7  20 MPa (Comp)
100
At r =120mm,
2,70,000
Hoop stress, σ c  2
 7  25.75 MPa (Tensile)
120
2,70,000
Radial stress, p r  2
 7  11.75 MPa (Comp)
120
At r =135mm,
2,70,000
Hoop stress, σ c  2
 7  21.81 MPa (Tensile)
135
2,70,000
Radial stress, p r  2
 7  7.81 MPa (Comp)
135
 At r  150mm,
2,70,000
Hoop stress, σ c  2
 7  19 MPa (Tensile)
150
2,70,000
Radial stress, p r  2
 7  5 MPa (Comp)
150

Variation of Radial Variation of Hoop

Stress –Comp Stress-Tensile

(Parabolic) (Parabolic)
Variation of Hoop stress & Radial stress
PROBLEM 2:
Find the thickness of the metal required for a thick cylindrical shell of
internal diameter 160mm to withstand an internal pressure of 8 N/mm2.
The maximum hoop stress in the section is not to exceed 35 N/mm2.
SOLUTION:
Internal radius, r2=80mm.

Lame' s equations are,

b
for Hoop Stress, σ c  2  a ....................(1)
r
b
for Radial stress, p r  2  a ................(2)
r
Boundary conditions are,
at r  80mm, radial stress p r  8 N/mm 2 ,
and Hoop stress, σ C  35 N/mm 2 . ( Hoop stress is max on inner face)
b
i.e., 8 2
 a ..................(3)
80
b
35  2  a ..................(4)
80
Solving equations (3) & (4), we get a  13.5, b  1,37,600.

1,37,600
 Lame' s equations are, σc  2
 13.5 ............(5)
r
1,37,600
and pr  2
 13.5 ............(6)
r
On the outer face, pressure  0.
i.e., p r  0 at r  r1.

1,37,600
 0 2
 13.5
r1
 r1  100.96mm.

 Thickness of the metal  r1 - r2

 20.96mm.
PROBLEM 3:
A thick cylindrical pipe of outside diameter 300mm and internal
diameter 200mm is subjected to an internal fluid pressure of 14 N/mm2.
Determine the maximum hoop stress developed in the cross section.
What is the percentage error if the maximum hoop stress is calculated
SOLUTION:
by the equations for thin cylinder?
Internal radius, r2=100mm. External radius, r1=150mm
.
b
δame’s equations: σc  2  a
r
For Hoop stress, b .........(1)
pr  2  a
r

For radial pressure, .........(2)

 Boundary conditions:
At x =100mm Pr = 14N/mm2
b
14  2
 a ..................(1)
100
i.e.,

b
0  a ..................(2)
Similarly, 150
at x2=150mm Pr = 0

Solving, equations (1) & (2), we get a =11.2, b = 2,52,000.

i.e.,

22,500
 Lame' s equation for Hoop stress, σ r  2
 11.2 ............(3)
r
Max hoop stress on the inner face (where x=100mm):

252000
σ max  2
 11.2  36.4 MPa.
100

pd
By thin cylinder formula, σ max 
2 t
wher e D  200mm, t  50mm and p  14MPa.

14  200
 σ max   28MPa.
2  50

36.4 - 28
Percentage error  ( ) 100  23.08%.
36.4
 PROBLEM 4:

The principal stresses at the inner edge of a cylindrical shell are

81.88 MPa (T) and 40MPa (C). The internal diameter of the
cylinder is 180mm and the length is 1.5m. The longitudinal
stress is 21.93 MPa (T). Find,
(i) Max shear stress at the inner edge.
(ii) Change in internal diameter.
(iii) Change in length.
SOLUTION:
(iv) Change in volume.
Take E=200 GPa and
i) Max μ=0.3.
shear stress on the inner face :
σ C - p r 81.88 - (-40)
max  
2 2
= 60.94 MPa
ii) Change in inner diameter :
d σC μ μ
 -  pr -  σL
d E E E

81.88 0.3 0.3

 -  21.93 -  (40)
200 10 200 10
3 3
200 10 3

 4.365 10 -4
 d   0.078mm.

iii) Change in Length :

l σL μ μ
 -  pr -  σC
L E E E
21.93 0.3 0.3
 -  (40) -  81.88
200 10 200 10
3 3
200 10 3

 46.83 10-6
 l   0.070mm.
iv) Change in volume :
V l d
  2
V L D

= 9.198 ×10-4

π  180 2
1500
 V  9.198 10-4  ( )
4
 35.11103 mm 3 .
PROBLEM 5:
Find the max internal pressure that can be allowed into a thick pipe of
outer diameter of 300mm and inner diameter of 200mm so that tensile
stress in the metal does not exceed 16 MPa if, (i) there is no external
fluid pressure, (ii) there is a fluid pressure of 4.2 MPa.
SOLUTION:
External radius, r1=150mm.
Internal radius, r2=100mm.
Case (i) – When there is no external fluid pressure:
Boundary conditions:
At r=100mm , σc = 16N/mm2
At r=150mm , Pr = 0
 b
i.e., 16  2
 a ..................(1)
100
b
0 2
 a ..................(2)
150
Solving we get, a = 4.92 & b=110.77×103

110.77 103
so that σc  2
 4.92 ..................(3)
r
110.77 103
pr  2
 4.92 ..................(4)
r

Fluid pressure on the inner face where r  100mm,

110.77 103
pr  2
 4.92  6.16 MPa.
100
 Case (ii) – When there is an external fluid pressure of 4.2 MPa:

Boundary conditions:
At r=100mm , σc= 16 N/mm2
At r=150mm , pr= 4.2 MPa.
b
i.e., 16  2
 a ..................(1)
100
b
4.2  2
 a ..................(2)
150
Solving we get, a = 2.01 & b=139.85×103
139.85 103
so that σr  2
 2.01 ..................(3)
r
139.85 103
pr  2
 2.01 ..................(4)
r
Fluid pressure on the inner face where r  100mm,
139.85 103
pr  2
 2.01  11.975 MPa.
100
 PROBLEMS FOR PRACTICE
PROBLEM 1:
A pipe of 150mm internal diameter with the metal thickness of 50mm
transmits water under a pressure of 6 MPa. Calculate the maximum
and minimum intensities of circumferential stresses induced.
(Ans: 12.75 MPa, 6.75 MPa)
PROBLEM 2:
Determine maximum and minimum hoop stresses across the section
of a pipe of 400mm internal diameter and 100mm thick when a fluid
under a pressure of 8N/mm2 is admitted. Sketch also the radial
pressure and hoop stress distributions across the thickness.
(Ans: max=20.8 N/mm2, min=12.8 N/mm2)
PROBLEM 3:
A thick cylinder with external diameter 240mm and internal diameter
 THIN AND THICK
CYLINDERS
-63
PROBLEM 4:
A thick cylinder of 1m inside diameter and 7m long is subjected to an
internal fluid pressure of 40 MPa. Determine the thickness of the
cylinder if the maximum shear stress in the cylinder is not to exceed
65 MPa. What will be the increase in the volume of the cylinder?
E=200 GPa, μ=0.3. (Ans: t=306.2mm, v=5.47×10-3m3)
PROBLEM 5:
A thick cylinder is subjected to both internal and external pressure.
The internal diameter of the cylinder is 150mm and the external
diameter is 200mm. If the maximum permissible stress in the cylinder
is 20 N/mm2 and external radial pressure is 4 N/mm2, determine the
intensity of internal radial pressure. (Ans: 10.72 N/mm2)