6& you BE o4 RELIABILITY ENGINEERING (n accordance with New Syllabus 2012-13 (2? {for B.Tech, Engineering Students of any GBTU-Luckrow, MTU-Noida and UTU-Dehradun For Vi Semester (Code: EME-O14) = Mechanical Engineering ‘Manufacturing Technology lustrial & Production Engineering "= Mechanical & Industrial Engineering For VIII Semester (Code: EEE-053) Electrical Engineering "Electrical & Electronics Engineering fee 7 CBRN si a . wna )) Cee, Onttal-N. Pandey Bhupesh AnejaSYLLABUS (As per GBTU-Lucknow, hifi ea RELIA BILITY ee aca ENGINEERING (For Engineering and Management Students) 1 Introduction Definition of Rel siablity, Types cf Failures, Definition and Factors Influencing. System Effectiveness, Various ‘Parameters of System Effectiven Onkar N. Pandey sprovement, Component Redundancy, System Spires ara Redundaney, Types of Redundancies-series, Parallel, Series-parallel, Stand Bhupesh Aneja (Aas, Profesor, JSSATE, Noida) “2 S.K. KATARIA & SONS” neering and Computer Books .d, Darya Ganj, New Delhi-110002 23269824, Fax: 011-23243489 ‘E-mail: katariabooks@yahoo.com kkatson_sanjeev@yahoo.co.in website: skkatariaandsons.complished by. Pee KAT Showroom: 108, Par Hot Ck Tower, Liana Phone: 2726401 ¢ ALLRIGHTS STRICTLY RESERVED ‘ete he asstunce ofan aporopri proessona! shoud be sought Mis SX. Kaui & Sons, Now Oats Erma ataiabooks yahoo.com First Biitio: January, 012 Price: Rs, 165/- ler Tye Sig —————————___ ting Plus ‘COMPUTERS, ‘Shahdara, Delhi-93 Printed at New AS Pri AS Printing Press, Dethi-110006 PREFACE inginoering field due to sellers market conditions Manufacturers have been able to sell ‘The quality and product by the involvement of all the departments of ‘anagement. In view of this, working knowledge of reliability Tt also covers Relatives and Friends, New Delhi Onkar N. Pandey January, Bhupesh AnejaDedicated to the Parents of Onkar N. Pandey namely Smt. Kalavati Devi and Shri Deo Murti Pandey and Dedicated to the Parents of Bhupesh Aneja namely Smt. Neelam Aneja and Shri D.R, Aneja Who have given so much to the authors.26 Expectation se 27 Useof Permutation and Combi Selection of Samples Reliability Data Usage Series System Perallel Systera Series Pa 85 sxeiem Configuration (Parallel Series Systcma) te Level or petems or Systems that “Share the Load System... 32 tts Tine Between Failure iti Der yPes of Stand by Redundarces Logic Developmen Ctthods of Reliability Bvaiustion OutSet and TieSet method p24 _Koutotm Sse ti seen stat Sytem Frakes tion Method Unit Redundancy 14 by Redundancy ty of Electronic Components reas Effects WweratreseElectrostatic Damage (BOS/ESD) mmgration Ed) eendent Die Brcakown GDB) anette patibility EMUEMG), Eectromagnete Interference and Comp Redundancy “Hletemagnlcntarfereac and Gompaiisy165, 166 ‘Measuring and Test equipment ee 167 167 130 9000 vs Ti. 99° Kaizen 167 168 168 169 169 169 170 m am 172-482 12 a2 15 10.10.1 First Party internal16.1 Introduction 162 Swot Analysis 16.3 1 165 166 167 Introduction Pareto Principle 16.2.1 Strengths 1622 Weaknes 162.3 Opportunities 1624 Threat jwot Analysis Benefits oF swot analysis Dos and Dont for Swot Anais 167.1 Kaizen Concept 16.7.2 Implementation 167.3 Critil introduction i Worth | Appendix: Appendix-B: Appendix-C: ‘Appendix D: Electronics Reliability Test Standards. Appendix-E: ASTM International. = Appendix-F: Normal Distribution a Appendix-G: Cumulative Poisson Probabilities a Appendix-H: Reliability and Survival es fodel Question Papers... Appendix: Model Question Pape - References INDEX...Reliability: Quality; Maintainail Designing for Optimum Maintainabilty: Measure of Falures; Modes ofFalures; Measure of Refabity, ; Advantages ofa Reliability Engineering Program. 1.1, INTRODUCTION Home appliances are made of few components, automobiles are made of several hundred components and aerospace vehicles are made of several thousand wre makes the equipment or machinery non- ‘agine during a critical war a missile fails due to a component failure, s. In short, ‘component can lead to loss of time, money, inconvenience. cated components which are connected intricately. Even breakdown of a component, may bring down complete ‘be seen that reliility of any equipment or system is inversely proportional to its complexity. wn whether @ system will accomplish "essential that an evaluation of system reliability is done. Bs safety factors were used which added tremendously to weight cauipment, Another approach followed was, to lesra from filures of previons vine However, these approaches ae impractical for thenew types of atborne tronic equipments. mission successf dec ifferent from the previous one within. a short span of time, thereby, not ellowing enough time to Jearm from past mistakes, The re-design with institutive approach, gave & TO approach to inined, calculated and designed into pieces of‘bation of probabilities of failure-free of switch on to the first fa the component i) Component o ys on not fail for a time ¢. ‘probability that a device friod of time under given operating condition. Intended Function ‘Time Operating Conditions ‘These are being considered one-by-one. (0 Probability ‘Some items may have very short life, some very long items may have a certain average life. Frequency distribut life of each item. Suppose the probability of survival of an 15 hours is 0.80, it indicates that we could expect the item wor only 80 times out of 100 after a 15 hour operating period. and a group of be operating sions where in one component failure does affect the ‘main function considerably. But there are cases where a component failure may or equipment or machinery and st example can be an automobile Incase, engine where in if@ spark plug fal fails, automobile becomes non-functional. Time depending on the system or machinery. (iv) Operating Conditions It can be temperature, humidity these parameters have to be in a spé gravity, All range for normal functioning. funetion When serious deterioration has made it unreliable or unsafe for continued use jure frequency is high, res have many aspects of the product namely design, tion, fabrication and processing, assembly, ‘Guality control, storage and shipment, servie conditi ‘ipated exposure to overload or mechanically chemi service, ete, The causes of failure are as follows: Jencies in Design, (@) Engineering efforts and changes in desi is is due to making very little engineering efforts to avoid design features ‘to be conductive to failure for example. tion of two mechanical notches. When changes in design are made juetion of stress raisers Inte thout adequate consideration of possible int Upgrading of a Part Anew application in which a part must withstand service conditions more sever than its former use, sometimes may result in early failure. Insufficient Design Criteria in design may result from impossibility of ions for complex parts. ‘making reliable stress Deficiencies in Material Many failure originate due to imperfection in material as given under: Material imperfection reduces the overall strength of the material. It provide preferential path for propagation of cracks. [Act as notches or provide paths for intergranular corrosion. Defic Processing Few of processes that contribute to failure srinding, identification marking, improper electroplating, welding, re-working, ete (iv) Errors in Assembly Failure in service sometimes result from error in detected in inspection by the manufacturer or purchase diue to an operator's negligence. are cold forming, machining and Theat treatment, acid picking, assembly, that were not s.Failure may also occurio speed, loeding temperature and chemicg) () Improper Service Con sribution to occurrence of service failures, ‘Abnormal severe conditions cenvironment is often a major con = be thoroughly revaluated when failures equate Mi sntrane procedures sould ecu emit scheduled maintenance. 13.2 TypesofFallres aay mam which s wel desi’, propery maintained shoulda maine engineered, thoroughly tested and See There are thres files {thas been observed that in practice, failure, But improper operation by the user or change in ope 1.8.21 Early Failures of system operation, In electronics and software based systems, early failures ‘may be eliminated by debugging or burn in-process. Debugging is done before releasing the system for actual use. The system is run continuously for number of hours under stimulated operating conditions and corrections are made to overcome the failures ‘Normally, the production units test the system f and release the aystem make necessary modifi with a understanding that of system failures estimated time, The warranty period estimation is dor distribution re-determined period, 2, release the system be under warranty for an the basis of statistical During the actual working of the system, the chance fa dominant. These failures are random, irregular ions beyond the desi their occurrence during sufi of the system is the phase di techniques like dupl in design, etc. reduce the occurrence of chance failures. he safety mar 1.3.2.8 Wear Out Failures Aging or wearing out of components cause wear out failures, Such failures -e became are due to improper maintenance or no maintenance, and the frequent. These failures can be arrested for sometime by preventive maintenance of the system at particular intervals The period between two preventive maintenance should be shorter than the mean wear out life ofthe system, Introduction 3.24 Life Cycle Curve ‘The studies by manufacturers, rosearch institutes and other agencies have rovided reliability h high ‘The past data from exper service operation are used in esta become pos of each type of failure from the sample data 1.4 MODES OF FAILURES CatastrophicFalures Sytem becomes ingpertve suddenly due to catastrophic failures. I canbe ikea iseovingin aca afer soveal hundred brs oeratn, Such fale tre random, tthe probability of occurrence ue change of some parameter with time, Si Geerense in the vale of humour frequency sift a ofthe resistance of «resistor. and subsequent eiminated. Proper inspection can detect such. 1.43 Independent Failures renerated by other failures. It can be catastrophic, 0 Sich fires ae nt at v f a fan belt of an automobile degradation or wear out type. Say, failure of way related to the puncturing of the tyre of the wheel 1.444 Secondary Failures Say, a tye burst can ‘Some primary failure can cause secondary failure. Say, a tyre cause booting ihe spokes in a motorcycle travelling at high speed. Thus,= ehoesiiars ee y failure. If a resist ane ier one itinre a semadary far. ro FINTION OF SYSTEM EFFECTIVENESS Hct han been P ES DEMATON CL PE 1 aspects of a product Fjetem of production or service Shieve desired standards of eysiem effectiveness are: Reliability 116 QUALITY 16.1 Definition ofa product may have greater o requirement of the user. Th significance depending define quali efforts to manage qual of product or service. Ther idea about determining and maintaining that qual which will satisfy the customer by its performan« ven if produced toa level of quality higher than t ‘Total maintenance action time in hours ~ ~Number of maintenance actions = hhave accepted these s authorised agencies, 1.6.2 Variable Parameters ito ofthe fast evolution of quality requirements, the business of industry are facing a severe challenge, which sd with confidence, ‘The challenges are identified as Increasing demand by the customer for q ‘More stringent demand for quality (Very strict that must be obeyed). Increasing competition in the market, squeezing profit margins. v) Changes in technology and materials used, Increasing wages and labour costs. More vigorous laws for environment control.17.1 Factors Affecting Maintainability ‘the acre which afect maintainability may be grouped under two majoy headings: nt the down time due to preventive and nee. The mean down time Bf, is given bythe relation relate to the human being who wit the equipment, as well as with the associated environmeoce's maybe listed asthe ining, skill and supervision of personnel, as well as techniques used for maintenance schedule avail 1.7.2 Designing for Optimum Maintainability ind corrective maintenance tasks per vely Factors which can be provided in the desi ‘maintainability are: ‘Mp,= Mean corrective and preventive maintenance down time, respectively ign of a system achieve optimum operating satisfactorily ty is concerned with the system's capability of survival, inability is related to the system capability of repair by ‘of parameters is obtained which indicates, ated and identified. Use colour coding for wires to familitate tracing faults, load in shted fuse, Make parts and components easily accessible, Design for safety use interlocks, safety covers and guarded switches, ight have been failures of some switches in the system, the switches take over and complete the call, jover redundancy without affecting the system's nd, the subscriber's suecess in completing his call a reduced probability of is to define its constituent actually consists of two components. by correspondingly improved maintain action rate, the better is the resulting a ‘erval during whieh the systems is not in an acceptable operating Down time is divided Given below various definitions of availability according to their applicability. (Inherent Avail qe Operating time Active repair time ‘Operation time + Active down time MTBF +Mean needed to effect a repair placement. + Mean adi c. This time is 7 MTBF Logistic time is VFS awaiting parts or components aereE Tre(4) Bauipment Ava exp (ty) exp AD) here ty =Maintenance action tim 2 =Paiture rate 4,= 1—exp [-WMTTR] 11 ~exp (MTBF where MITR = Mean time to repair MTBF = Mean time between failures, ion Twill iit) Mission Availability icted percentage of operation of durati ainability ‘The probability that a othe subject to any malfunction which cannot corrected through maint to provide for normal working in time f,, is mission availability In =D AT oD Up Time Ratio: tis denoted by UTR. The ratio of up time tothe sum of up time down time and down time is up time ratio, Up time (is the mean time to failure ofa system and the down time (a is ‘mean time to repair. Then where Down Time Ratio: It is denoted by DTR. ‘The ratio of down time to the sum of up time and down time is down time a Dien Also UTR+DTR=1 (io) Instantaneous Availability Itis denoted by A(). It is also called system availability. The avai ‘system at some random instant of time is called instantaneous av It is given by Monte cp [- +2) ¢) EXAMPLE 1.1 For an four stroke car, MTBF = 600 hr. Mean time waiting for spares = 10 hr. Mean time for repair = 50 hr. acai ete ae the following data was obtained _____ __ Introduction of the automobile __ (ea on Failures) MTBF MTBF + Mean time waiting for + Mean administrative time _ 800 00 * Bo0FI0 90.22% is the ava 1.9 MEASURE OF RELIABILITY ating conditions and the failure distribution help in ty. Hence, the first step in reliability prediction is lity of the car Life characteristics items are taken fro or given environmental or operating conditions. The life represented by the data so obtained, Repairability or non-repe life ofa repairable item can be measured by moasurability of life length. Thi failure rate or Mean Time Between Failures (MTBF), Failures per unit time isthe failure rate, It can be expressed in failures per hours or failures per 100 or 1000 hours. I s defined ne £ Failure rate, a= £ where = Number of failures during the test interval T= Total test time = is almost constant ifthe design is stabilised. The reliability of the Fe system is higher ifthe failure rate is smaller 1.9.2 Mean Time Between Failures (MTBF) When failure rate is almost constant, MTBF is reciprocal of the failure rate or the ratio ofthe total test time T and the number of failures. 17. MIBR,m= 5 =F MTBF is also known as the average time of satisfactory operations of the system, Reliability of the system is higher if the MTBF is larger. Tey, ty ty. fare failure times ofn items ina life test, then the mean time failure is given as: mrrr= + > Ifthe item is non-repairable, MTTF is used.jury BATHTUB CURVE_~ mans) exhibit failure characteristics a8 shoyy, 1.40 THE RELIABILITY! 12 1 “ae af Fig. 12. An idealised rat ‘This curve is plot tions or any er than right of the production line; thus preventing thee {zperincing early failures. Ths practice is what ie com and is frequently performed for elects ination of the correct burn-in time requires the use of ecabineg gatdolosien, as well ae optimisation of costs involved (ie, cost ot gies 0 the cot of burn-in), t9 determine the optimus fattee soar, shipme : : 1.11. MINIMUSING THE MANUFACTURER'S Cost Figure 1.3 shows the product reliability on the x-axis and the producer's cost on the y-axis, eliabiy Fig. 1.3, Total product cost vs. product ably, If the producer increases the duct cost can be the optimum reliability for such ‘The total product cost is the sum the other post-shipment cost. It level, the total product cost is at a is the one that coincides with the ime of the product. Advantages of a Reliability Engineering: (a) Optimum burn-in-time or breaking-in period, (©) Optimum warranty period and estimated warranty costs, (©) Evaluation of the amount of redundancy present in the design (q) Help provide guidelines for quality control praetices (©) Promotion of positive image and company reputation, (P A basis for comparing two or more designs and choosing the best desing from the reliability point of view. SUMMARY ty of an item perform fer a given period of time under the operating condi 2. Availability: lability of a system is the probability that it is ly at any point in time when used under stated pes of availabilities are (a) Intrinsic availability, Equipment availability, (e) Mission availabilitygiven period of time when the maintenanes 114 Compare the ance with prescribed procedure. the propertos of an item from the prescribe a (©) Deficiencies Types of Failures: (a) Early fire, () Chance fikres,) Wear out fares ore 2s, (b) Degradation oF ereepin, ry failures, * Failure Rate: where f= Number of failures during the T= Total test time ‘Mean Time between Failures (MTBF): iz MIBR, m= 5° ‘Mean Time to Failure (MTF): an example ters of the system effectiveness Pts of failure modes? Explain Explain the difference between MTTR and MTTF. What is a bathtub curve? Desc liability curve. Explain in detail ty in everyday life 118. Explain various causes of poor reliability ofa system —__s Introduction _—____ lity of produt.defined as an experiment whose result when repeatedly I conditions is not the same a ‘ofa random experiment are; ll defined set of ruller are used to perform such experiments experiment is repetitive in nature, dom selection counting the number of defective articles in a batch 100. ements of the life-time of 10 bulbs randomly selected from @ imeter recording of a component produced by an indus ie Performed experiment is not certain a priori in each of possible outcomes of a | by S. or @ say, and we shall be using the 16 In case, we consider two bube sample points ‘applications ican be categorised in three type of a i) Finite Sample Spac ‘Sample Space: It isa sample of real numbers as possible outcomes. For ring the strength ofa rod, measuring the life ofa device, oft *d discrete sample spaces and the third type continuous sample space as the sample points ofthe first two types Events may not be so much of ‘outcomes. The kind of group or set of outcomes that is of interest is described as an event subset of ©. EXAMPLE 2.1 D> (ddady . dydaidy Oday Fi rdy dy Gedy 4,= Diode iis operative, i= 1,28 4 = Diode iis not operative Also, if we are interested in the E,= At least one ofthe diodes is operative least two of the diodes are operative, y= All three diodes are operative By= (Dydasd dhda.dy » Qyidysdy» Td, Giu.dy.d,)) usd)than a ‘thick are of terest. Union Ep, Byeovens Ove Saye © fpr ovnt Bin For 5 ‘a bjand the event E, are equivalent. vents E, and Bunion is a third event A. Event A bas all the sample pointe which are either in E, or in By or in both B and E, symbol A=, UE, = YR we take the events B=lab.d B,= (bed) In that case A= a, 8 6c] is another event B whose sample points pertains to 2 B=B0B= [VB Be BrentsB, and are taken a8 mutually exclusive (or disjoint) event in cate thera no sample points common to E, and Ey ie, their int xcurence inimpooible Tt is clear that, and E, cannot occur etmultaneouly 1s dened Bo B,=o | where ¢ denote the event consisting of no sample points. Such an event is, | known as impossible or empty event. Individual sample points are mutually exclusive all the time. Event F is considered as the complement of the event Fin case the point of E pertains to Q but not to E. Law of Random Events {entities given below always hold true for random events, —SBelnbity Matbomatcn © Tdentity laws: ane =a auE=a ank=E Complementary Relations: BUB=a0 EoE=¢ Idempotency Laws: BUEZE ENE=E Commutative Laws: ,UE=BUB, B,nE,=Ey8, UE) = E, UB) UE, 0B) = EE) 0B, 2 UE) = (B, 0B) UBB) eq) =8U Venn Diagrams ‘Venn diagrams illustrate all the event relations very conveniently, as shown in figures 2.1 below: Or‘The defi Failure occurs 23:2 Statistical Probat ‘Suppose we denote by m the number of oovurrences of an event E inn See Riau YM YZ 23. PROBABILITY In case we perform a random experimen probability tool, It gives a quantitative estimation ofthe po ofan event. 23.1 Classical or a Priori Definition , mutually exclusive and equall Suppose there are n exhat and mofthem are favourable to an event, F, then the definition of proba occurrence of the event For exampl ple toss of a die. The com exclusive and equally probable outcomes are 1 Suppose e represents an event that consists of an ev: y of oceurrence is given as: ‘number of points, (4) Complementation Rule For any event E P(E)=1-P(B) where @ is the complement of E with respect to 2. Proof: EUB=a Then Pu B)=P,@)=1 But P(Bu B)= PAB) +P, ) axiom (3)a a Retinbility Engineering giz es ‘Therefore, P(6) + PE)=1 or P(B)=3-P. uy Additional Rue for Arbitrary Even’ Byand also E, 0B, and E ,- B, are mutually exc PAB, U By B) = PAB) + P(E) + P(E) - PAB, ED pasee erent BOP ually exsing Diet By AB oy? PAB, OBOE) : UR) =P) +PLE,n. steven By By By are mutually exclusive all posible intersections are FE) = BE) PAB By terms extept the n terms in the first set are identically ero. P(E) = PAE, OB) + PLE 0 By) . the addition rule for mutually exclusive events. Blomentary P,(E 7B), we got and .5 Conditional or Dependent Probability P45, 0B) FAB) +P) PB ED) 2 eam Band Eyre ores an ifthe cree een on ‘Thus for arbitrary events, we have the following inequality Ep then the definition ofthe conditional probability of the event given that P(E, U By) PAE) + PE) {heevent By has occurred as follows , B, are any events, then (B)_ PGOB) pps is PB) = rey Peo » (Us = P(E, U Bu... UE) From this it leads to: (B) _ Rink , RAED nm’ + ie (n' \B,)° Bue) Pla) (") term— J PEE OE) () terms: ‘This gives the probability of intersection of two events as: oe one (4) +y 2in5,0%(’) term PAB OB) = PAE) Pile) Bee ‘Thisis known as the theorem on compound events or multiplication theorem, Insimilar way, the conditional probability of, given that event E, has occurred ia defined as follows: Forn=3 0) P(E, 0 By By) = P(B,) + P,(E) + P(E.) ~ PE, 0 E) Pe) >0 = P(E, 0 Ey) ~ (Ey By) + PE, BED Proof: Cae a : ) (B) and hence (6) P(E \=Pe9 ne | ~ PE, 0 (Ev Ey) “The multiplication theorem can be made general in the following manner: 2 ‘Suppose E,, Ey, .. B, are n eventa, then the conditional probability of the PE) + PB) + PB) Pl By BPE, EYED) oyent given that events By, Ey» Ey, have ecard i even B, 0 (Bu Ey) = (E, 9 E) U(E, 0. E,) Distributive law :. P(E, 0 (EU Ey) = P(E 0820-0 En) PE, 0.B,) + P,(By7 By) — P(E, 0 By) 0 (Ey 0E9) PAE gf By Byy on Ey) By P(E, 0 Ey By) = PE) + P(Eyu Bs) in B, 0B, O Eq)ty Engineering ___ Reliability Ene a= Pibide) PAB) E,OE |) de 1B OE) PAE, 0B 0) =P PLE IE: nt Events 4 assed ents and By ch thatthe knowledge of ocureng m whether ot not Ey also has occurred. Tere oc es nal inepenens ae vets are own 4 a pei probebiliies are related as . eer By) = PAE) PE) ring th moliplieation theorem, we gt eS i) PB) = PAB) PEE) = Pb) PB, efllows that PB IE,) = PAE) PUBJE,) = PAB) 115, and E, are two independent events. Also if we assume that P 11 P(E) 20, then itimplies that: PB, 0 By) = PLE.) PE) #0 I can bo soon that they are not mutually exclusive. Now if, and E, any mutually exclusive, then ° BNE PAE, B= 0 P(E) #0 and PE) #0, P(B) PAB) 2 0 and therefore, P,(B, 0 B,) # P(E) P(E) Hence, £, and £, are not independent Three events E, By and E, are said to be independ PAE, 0 Eg E,) = PE) PBs) PE and But since 2.3.7.Random Variables Random variable is a random experiment. It is Consider xbe. random variable associated with a ra ie that has been observed at an actual performance of the experiment, then we take that in this trial the random variable x has assumed the value a. In that case the probability of the event that the variable x assumes the value @ is denoted as follows: riable qua +h denotes the result ofa given 0 called the stochastic variable or variate. experiment. Itis Pie=a) In similar way, the probability of the event that x assumes a value in the interval aaare mutually exclusive events and therefore Pes a) + Px>a)=P(-wa) ‘There are two types of random variables, “discrete or continuous” Ifits et ) set of real numbers then random variable x ts range forms a continuous (uncountable) set of real numbers. as, The probability of x equalling any single range is ero. istribution Functions \uppose-xis a random variable, then for any real number x, the probability than or equal tox, is known as the probability random variable x and is denoted by as follows =Plasx),-a ol ER | Relationship between fi), Ft, R(O) and Mt: 1 ar _ £0 (@ Density Function fit) RO ae” RO For continuous random variable the density function fis given by é Since 10=- Ge Now examination of relation between R(® and Z() gives: _ far uation (3.12) isa genes up canbe variable. How 1p = Man), then reli free 8) i one Function F (0) Ro © at RO) serena Fabian aan equation (9.22) i integrated Oto, then: ; _ aR) dt) ss ros [fou pe Ear Ai) is known as unreliability function j (iii) Reliability, R(e) z | Tis given as: i ae = [eo FOMh dE 1-Fa)a Retinbility Engineering # 4 = oe RO, ener) nowee [fen [ RO) =I; 10g, RCO) = 9) ] | port-no>r-ov f204 ong Failure rate and hazard rate re analogous Forexample, Cart tance of 10min 4 Stop = 25k eagerness any ah fe singe a bear at aa il ene ar poe defini exons St em casceanton canbe wien safe WO= Ro = € sthisimplothatiffaure rats constant then hazardateis alto constant 1 equal failure eat .” probability density Mean ine betwen ares MTB died mene == [ta y= Oa) where 7,dRto, no f Oa f a Sian sett Dt earn Ani Faaerating by parte yle: m= 1 fry as + FROae so RO) futon ape eli bal 626) Rw = exp |-f 08] Le upper mit (8.26) can be written a m= J Row fan item has constant failure rat, then: me fod = feta ‘This equation is same as equation 8.18, +38, HAZARD MODELS ‘three type of hazard models are considered (@) Constant Hazard Model: Mode of the constant hazard form is as follows: Z0)=h whore his constant and is independent of ime, Miooy producer, particularly, electronic components etc. exhibits this characteristics tnitem having constant hazard rate wil have the relihilty and associated function given as 1 x f= re Rowe Fo=1-e# werte= fe (© Linear Hazard Mode: Mechanical stresses causes components which are subject Snerease with time for such components. time dependent model has the form as given below 2) = bt, 0 ay =e [oa = x0 a8 Lo fit) = bt exp (Distribution function: rox foi () Non-tinear Hazard Model: uu (©) Noretin and RW) =1-FO Non-linear hazard mol i) 20 where aand bare constants: ‘The above gives: niente ech = lim [R= RUt+h)) iy = exp -at ] 219 tin| BO=REeH) oat expat 1 * DI Pe nasal a pdicteantnadeen seat eure etre eet] in ed Moe ebvanincserea a et ee th oe ons et a a eer LenS What is an exponential hazard model? ty Data Usage: information regarding the re inability, avalabity and me on any btn sine el tents un Be found ot using (© Botimation of the degradation and wear out characteristics of components can done using reliability data, 2. Data sources: Some of sources are: (@) Report on raw material (©) Report of standard part supplies (©) Market research (@ Records of maintenance (© Experience of customers 8. Reliability: el A= 91a 4. Density function: 4 f0.= roa‘42. BASIC CONFIGURATION ge no, of components connected in mponent connected in series should smponent in series eystem fails, the aystem fais. eepawl” glow bulb, even if one bull fils, the whole ts shown in figure wHE Fig. 44. Series system comprising fm components. Basic Assumptions of the reliability of ‘n-component series system ‘omponent Failures of independent nature and jood of successful operation of all components which is given as: Rg= R, Ry -Ry= WR where R, = Rel i # component series system, diagrams or circuit diagram for and Rg =Rel ‘of system having n components in series. ‘ Suppose Ry = Ry = Ry = By = R is the average rlibility of each Functioning components ar@] component. Hence the ‘of system can be written as: TEAMPLE 4) ——— There isa series connection in aircraft electronic system of the componson, There ie a er subeystem (fy) guidance sub-system (Rg) computer sub-s¥sem ,) and fire control sub-system (R,). ‘The respective reliabilities are given as: R= 0.80, R= 0.90, Re= 0.95: Ry= 065 raft electronic system. Solution: s of aircraft electronic system. = RgX Rg* Ro* Re10.09 (0.99 x 16 times) Bs = (099) cogs or ssh ANS. indent Situation ment ofthe sy onan nected in series. Tel 4.2.2. Time Depet ‘Suppose each com ise density, Mase components reo at time ris given as aya time be oe jonentialtime-to-fail an exp are ity ofsuch system R= [: ix] component iret. 4212, Mean Time Between Failure [MTBF] “eatem has n components connected in series, MTBF of such system, mee [Renee exp, Hg + A, MG} +~*(e) =1,=2. The MTBF in translators, loon diodes 10 on resistors and 2 ceramic capacitors. feted in arid seston an Pacitors, These are connected in series Each components has hourly failure rate as: Silicon transistor, = 4 10-* Silicon diode, y= 3 10 Composition resistor, A= 2x 104 Ceramic Capacitor 2, = 2 19-4 The components follow exponent and ‘Shluen of voltage, current and temmperature: Find one. Solution: Add he individual fare rte ofeach spe of components for age Eh, 6 aay 101,=20, = 20% 105 +9105 +20% 104 +410 = 0.0269 As this sumis expected hourly failure rate.) of whale iui, the estimated reliability of circuit for 10 hrs is given as R20) = exp (- 0.00269» 10) = 09735 10 brs, the ciruitis expected to operate on an ‘and 265 times it wil fal. Hence the unreliability 1a In 10,000 oper ave 9735 times without = 10.9735 = 0.0265 and MTBF, mg= ag 2 STTS he. x * Wooz69) ‘Thus, circuit is expected to operate without failure for 372 hes 1 Suppose operating time for the exponential function is ¢= 3; =m, In this case the device has probability of only 36.8% to survive. ‘components of some type, are operated, after time 1s, only 87 would operate properly, and 68 would have failed by the end of time oh ah — Tw — Fig. 42, Exponential relay |, 4.2.2 Parallel System Parallel configuration has more than one component functionally connected in parallel to achieve a higher reliability. Parallel configuration is also called hol Redundancy. Its generally used when an individual component does not have the necessary reliability Redundancy is mostly the inerease in cost due to additional components is‘This aystem has, two possible paths for successful operation of system i. 1 time internal is R, wer specifi ang J.aystem (R,) can be A parallel system operates ifany one ofthe paral Asboth the compon component fal is the product oftheir respective w ‘R,= 1 unreliability of system, t= 1-(1-R) 1-Ry) 3) ‘System With n Components of a aystem having n components connected in parallel redundancy is given as: Rea 4.2.24. Binomial Distribution Binomial Distribution easily expl sly expl fp is the reliability and q is the =1 ‘There are throe possibilities @ If bot Y=p.p (i) IE 1*is operating and 2 fj robal — 1 1 (4.30) as ptq=t, g=1-p ‘The RH. of equation (44) can alaobe derived from binomial distribution Itisknow that @+q?=1 B+ q?+ 2pq= 1 (aab) (4.30). The RS. stem which has twocomponents as obtained ng considerations, parallel redundancy is generally the mission when component isnot sufficiently reliable Minimisation of chance failure effect. When even possible (iv) Brom operational point of view when attachment of component is not possible c The strategic use of system docs not allow failure of component. EXAMPLE 44 An equipment of three components X, ¥, Z are connected in par respective reliabilities are given ax: Ry = 0.92, Ry= 0.95, Ry = 0.96. Find equipment reliability, Ry. Solution: By using the formula Re=1-T] 0-R) 10.95) (1-096) = 0.99984 = 99.98%, Ans. EXAMPLE 45 Take the reliability of each component on an average to be the same, R=0.95 and calculate the reliability of system. Ry= 1-(0-R) =1-(0-095? = ~0.490875 = 99.90%, Ans. .6. Time Dependent Situation In this case, reliability of each component is i each component is such that it follows, exponential time failure distribution In that case the reliability of system having n-components in parallel Solution:for by = flare rate of component Take a cae en only Ev9 components _rclabiigy ofa eyatem which has two compon Tor} and J are constant a w__ ‘and Rare connec redundangy and 4'= 0.008% re exp (2% 0.001 x 1 = 0,99990 = 99.99%. Ans, 4227, Mean Time Between Failure (MTBF) ‘Mean Time Between Failure (MTBF) ofa s connected in parallel, can be calculated by integrs ‘over the range oft from 0 to =. + Jooe ina Jestea,« ty of communication channel in given as R=040 Find the number of channels placed in parallel redundancy for achieving ty of receiving the informat ability of a system having n components connected in parallel redundancy is given as: R= is reliabil if we take n sets in paral ach set having m componentsies and parallel connections, are inter a necessary th Series aystem end is ma 7 F swesysion $F awaystem Fig. 48. Schematic lustation of a paralle-sries system. t there aren sub-systems and the subsystem i has M, elements ‘connected in par lel Also denote by probability of failure of the jth | clement of sub-system i. In the simple case of independent element failures, the probability of failure ofthe system is Suppose P foystem failure] = 1- F [PL sub-ystem survives] ““Tit-fia) J ity analysis for a mode lex ‘ludes series anc Sates ata id id paral connections, as well as m-out-of- —___ 1g the connection given im the given, sees PEHEHEHE | a a - ty of the system ha at what level should the components be dupl level, z 2 (©) Paro ores system Fig. 47. system of figure 4.7(a) there are n components in series, and there + n components in parallel with another set. In the system of figure 7(b), the components are first put in parallel, connected in series. This known as parallel series system, gives better reliability. Inother ymponents are duplicated at component level or at the sub-system Say the reliability of each component is r. The reliability of the systemsg paity iinedrine © exponent operates sequent when put asastand by Fi iby Le, notin operation. Further, Gieomponents cannot 100% reliable. Suppove a stand by the switching and se “4 COMPLEX SYSTEMS OR SYSTEMS THAT “SHARE THE LOAD" er Many physi and non-physical stems Many a eeidered above rather than just having the strength the behaviour of the system is of same type as ‘company in the previous example. However, if the (¢é. they are made of glass) then each bundle wi ity ig reached, The load must then be carried bundles, In this case the strength of the ro the strengths ofthe individual For a system ofthe first typo, the prodal demand and C, in the course rand y ap given in igure 4.8, a) Lt | im ~ Fig. 48, A standby yitem, aa term of equation ime 12° term ‘Take 2,=2, = ie., both components have some: exp In the case of n components of equal failure rate, the re as,rl ——— me 4.5.1 Mean Time Betwee” ‘MTBF fora standby is placed in stand by allure (MTBF syst ert he 2 prt he 0B : et gnome ‘ar snd by redundant systeq gle component. of the ponents which have equal failug net{yeomponents are standi ‘TBP is expressed on: mand te mate mer er at standby edundandes asarypese Standby edu el yet artnet big Pre oi sens a cry componets sd nn ibe mary compet ‘placed in stand by the stand by mode this ease, fails without being Fit Stand by: The stand by component in this case fail: ‘ sett because ofthe shell life, batteries; or due to some chemicy ‘eactions components fil even in stand by. WH ouput | Consider the system consisting of NV components connected in series. To this system a sliding stand by component is attached which will function when any ofthe component ofthe system fa | x6. LOGIC DEVELOPMENT INVERSION, AND and OR are the three basi operators used in Boolean algebra. ‘Bar is placed over the quantity under consideration to indicate the operation. afinversion. The operation is defined as: T=0, 0=1 for avariable A, the inversion is A ‘The AND operation connects eo or more variables, The ‘used for multiplication in Boolean algebra. This symbol is used here for AND operation. ome examples of the AND operation are: 00=0, 1020 O1=0, 11=1 norder to distinguish between the English conjunction and from the Boolean poration, capital letters are used to indicate the later shows three inputs and operperator indicated by a rectangular block, The AND operation is indicated bya dot Ouput=0 Out =ABC Fig. 411. AND (.) Operation of Boolean algebra. Output 1 Ousput=A+B+C | \ 0 Fig. 4.12. OR (+) Operation of Boolean algobra jement can be in a functional or in a non-function state, The functional state will be indicated by 1 and the non-functional state by 0. De Morgan's Theorem: ‘ AvB= AB AVB+O0+~* ABC @ FB = At BtCt 4.7. METHODS OF RELIABILITY EVALUATION Each element ofa physical system can be in a functioning state or ina now: functioning state. Hence, every element can be assigned a Boolean variable ‘which ean assumea valve lift is functioning and a value Oifitis notfunctioningconnected in series and Dat are connect’ by a Boolean Variable be represent Fig. 4.13. Block dlagram as an example. ‘Te failure of, or x, causes the failure of subsystem 1. In the language of ‘Boolean algebra the occurrence of A, ot A, causes event F, to ovcur. Tus | y= (+4) Similarly, the oocurence of Ay or A, causes event F, to occur. Thus, Fy (A+ A) ‘The occurrence the final event F takes place when events F, and F, occur ie BFF, By substituting the expressions corresponding to F, and F., the following can be written: Be (Ay +A) (dy) Pe AyAyt AyAy+ yds AGA, tA, Ay+ Ap Ay + Ay Ay Failure of the system, ie, the event F occurs when A, 1e event Foceurs when A, Ay or Ay Ay or Ay A, ar A,A, occurs. The probability of failure ofthe system is given by: teed FO)= Pay Ay +4, Aq+ Ags + Ay) FO) = PUA,(Ay + Ay) + Ay (Ay +A) Fe) = PUA, +45) (A, + AY Fo)= Ma, +4. +A) + PA.) PA) Play) (PLA) + PA) ~ PUA) PA) ~R)+(-R)-G-R) A-Ry) ecurrel Fe) 1B, Ry+ Ry RyRy Ry ) = 1 Fe) = R, Ry+ Ry RR, RyRy Ry successful paths between input and output ‘and in case element x or x fails. The ind occurrence of F(B) due to Plz) oF * results in the oceurrenc FA) FO) Fl) FO) Find Fig. 415. EXAMPLE 4.12 Consider a heavy current special machine demands continuous DC Pouce me ucced pome ante mae vale a partials period. Toe ny senruredby use oo converter x Leepuieee wrovide the necessary current. ee cssan which reir the sytem: ive their power suppl Both the converters re connected to the main grid. Construct the faul Solution: Main Ged Fig. 416.oe ae he aiablity ofthe ystem a ven a Ris) = PUA,A, or AyAg or AyAgA, oF Ag gA). 2, Cat-set:Aroup of elements which if they are removed from the lack sind dconnee the npn rom he outro dined we we | vont eun cmanga nimam unter eng ti nial case hetapies that all eslmesteine minimatcursrhavetfuncion cate gptem to operate saw atte cutee are | D,= Ay Diz A | ryan Dear ot | | = ApAy Dy= AAeAy Dy= ArAahy 6 = Ag As. ‘since D, is contained in D, and Dgis contained J, and D, are the minimal cut-sets, The system fait "therefore D,. D, or RG) = 1-PCD, oF By or B, oF Dy) wwnere D, indicates the failure of eut-st Dy SET METHOD Ser nian ee eoanpagt nk erica eonpston reliability 7 RG)= 1-PA, A+ AA + AAA * AA) : The length of calculations reduces by the use of minimals ity of different systems » reliability of a system keeps on decreasing with the passage of time. ‘The reliability ofa system with two components connected in series is fess than a system with a single component. lity of the system is better, if the components are put redundancy. (iv) The reliability of stand by system is all the time higher ‘than the parallel sevcadant system, considering that the sensing and switehing over device is 100% reliable. c Fig. A18, A system bockciagram. suet ab ee ‘Tie-Set: A group of elements (branches), which forms a conn {ven below shows a system: input and output when traversed in the arrow direction is know ng the tieset and cut-set methods: ersed more than once in tracing out a Solution: out Fig a8, nd 198, As the tie-set 123 ea fp Tie-set Method: The tiewets aro 19 and 125, 0 1 ee Bae ee utils 'e= Arta catained in oe enaure compat beta nga ap oe elem ze minimal as no element Se ng ta ties js traversed. ie, include 218 not requiredini Roz D JOP AA) {1 — exp (20-7 Sera ei ee Ekjculate the reliability ofa 2 out of 4 configuration ‘identi oer Seema eeaaal Cae aaa cama eae we (e olution: RO = 2p) orcaxoorx exp (001 10)" = Gexp 0.02) 8 exp(- 0.08) + Bexp (-0.04)= 99.99% EXAMPLE 4.16 ‘One generator is placed in stand by redundancy to the main generator. Ghe failure rate of each genrator is v= 0.05/hr. Compute the reliability iming that the senning and switching over device is 100% ble. mn: We have R(t) = (1+ Mt) exp (1) = (1.+.0.05 x 10) exp (0.05 * 10) = 0.9098 i.e, Reliability is 90.98%. 4.9, FAULT-TREE ANALYSIS Fig. 420. 49.1, Fault-tree Method ‘mally analysed using fault-tree analysis. The logic ‘Acomplex system is diageam constructed for fault-tree analysis consists of nodes and branches Ro)= PT, +7, +T,+T) (|= Plab + cb + d+ ef Peingsy-, .9 ° soa Fig. 421, Faltivoe Consrucion 1d Buwhich are connected in series. tof m System (km) 2 Figure 4.21 shows two sub-system A an sired m components wherein Kor them components) The Hare constructing a fault tee is to identify the orcurters en Rae ret czamnle,« battery wit seceohaea undesirable event. The non-operation of te 5x00 oF aut be in operation for the required. Undesirable event. For the system shown in the figure 4.21, the failure ol ay fit be possible to bring ate tor Ine gabaystem Bresults inthe occurence ofthe fal senting (4, 8) system. of system Sas shown in figure 4.22. “Cone sure ofthe system. The logic diagram Teliability fora rout of n-confi sil of n- figur shown in figure 4.23. Consider that Fla) represents the fi for this undesirable event F(6) to occur is a8Retin Table 4a, Name ofSymbol Meaning ie a ; O Circle ‘Bane Fate tthe of aubayeama A an 7 Dios" aa as scrum when clea! {a ray ceca when Fo acai’ Renan Het ; Double diamond Represents an event whose cause is specified latter DDD OTS House Represent a basic event AND gate The output occur if all input occurs OR gate ‘The output oceur if'any one input occur Evaluation by Fault-Tree Method sure 4.24, consider the probs 7, and F,. From the fault: of failure of the various elements, sub-system A occurs. robebility of failure PCR) + PH) PF) 2 bun A AND sub-system B together Ry~(1-R) -Ry) 2 Fyn y 1, RY A-RY = RyRy + RyRy RyRQRRyie the random behaviour Of ayaa pled teatime and space. This dy ‘i Saastie process. The saline in he Dal a no ttoeayotems whose Debavour cay bution ht ieharec a St reliability of compone Lr nun consider thatthe is fai hazard rate of the component as shown in ‘state Oat time f, then the probal jure 4.24 and t "e component. prob that the component will fi ty ofthe component to stay in state O Paft +s) = P(t) 2b Bt Pd) the probability ofits remaining in failed state ‘ofthe component bei n (he probabil aod gpa inaate! (ned sate) a fap ERO At ty aPy(t) _ 9 Fat - 20 Pio, itar +0 Me log Py) = fern +4, stant of integration. 1 Reliability © —SBetebitye a {em when t= 0, the coms : ate 0 a8 PO) = cy R= P= exp [2s| ‘4:11. FREQUENCY DURATION METHOD ‘The Markov techniques permit the probability of r aluated. The knowledge of the prob (ate) ‘The probability of residing in the operable state or availability is given by ods ; Po= Fan mar Ai) ‘The prbability of residing inthe failed state or unavailability i given by pk’ Pi- han mer Ai) Where, ‘2. failure rate of the component = repair rate of the component m= mean operating time of the component r= mean repair time of the component Let, T= system cycle time = MITTF( mean time to failure) + MTTR (mean time to repair) Now, T=MIBF=m+r= 5ineering @ «e Reiiability Be ~ wl Fe regener of system consists of three elements a,b and c. The configuration ofthe system abilities of the elements are shown in Figure 4.81. Determine the Ye 'R(a or b) = R(a) + R(b)— RCo) * RCO) = 08 +0.7-0.56=0.94 08) Fig. 4.29, Solution: The reliability for series combination d-e is rate= 0.98 0.98 = 0.9604 for parallel combination b-cis: Ty + 1e— yf = 092+ 0.92 ~0.92 x 0.92 = 0.9936EXAMPLE 430 Gateatace he oyster figure $38. igure 4 and o)= RO) * ROO) i Fig. 433. «system has now been modified t that d= RY) + R@)— Rand dD = Ri) + Rid) - RD * PD = 0.72 + 0.7 ~(0.72) (0.7) = 0.886, Say, 0.89. duced to one formed by shown in figure 4.34 Solution: Th Ror ‘The system has now been eg Fig. 434, ‘as shown in figure 4.34, and the system reliability is given by only series elemeni fea} | RG) = Rig and) = RG) * Rl = (91) (0.9)= 0819, Say, 082 m has now been modified to that shown in figure 4.36. ee Fig. 436. in parallel ean be replaced by K ‘The systen Element j and d which are Such that: R(K) = RG or d) = RG) +R) ~ = RG) + R@)—R * RA = 082 = 0,964 RG ondd +0,80- 0.656 ‘The system rel RS) = RUk and ) = RE) * RD = (0.964) (0.9)= 0.868. EXAMPLE 4.32 sar atate the reliabilities ofthe systems sbown 12 ‘igure 437. 4= Reliability Engineering = (0.1 0.1 * 0.9) = 0.9901 Bos Solution: By the rules for Series/Parallel and their combinations, we have, for the system in igure 4.38 [8+ (0.90.9) (08x = 0.9831, x(09+0.7- (0.9% 0.7) rellabilites ofthe systems shown in figure 4.39 8+0.8- (0.8% 0.8)) x0.9= 0.864 (0.864 + 0.7 -(0.864 x 0.7) = 0.9592 Leading to 0.9592 x [0.8 + 0.7- (0.8 x 0.7] = 0.9016. EXAMPLE 4.35 a A critical measuring instrument series. Sub-systems. ll and their combinations, We haye 10.92 boul be Breater than equal to 0917. Theron, 0922 0.917 or 10.1)" 0.9967 For two B's in parallel, Ry= 092+ 0.92 (0,920.92) = 0.9936 ‘Therefore, R= 0.99 x 0.9936 = 0.9887 EXAMPLE 4.37 Write down the minimal cutset for the figure given below in figure 440, SS RK Input ouput Fig. 440 Solution: Cutsets are AC, BD, ADE and BCE. EXAMPLE 4.38 a how igure 4h ts dove te nil et tnd minima etaeta From these obtain the ela of the tem ase the elements to be independent. Aso, draw the equivalent block diagrams bined from the tie-sets and the cut ses.a Retihilty Engineering & _— ‘solution: the cute For the diagram inf are ed, abd, ef a Fig. 41 Solutio: The east ao ob, cand the cut ats a8 OS be ‘From the tie-st “RiS) = PY(a and 6) 4] = Rhy + Re Rohe EXAMPLE 4.89 Write down the cutsets 442 below: Fy iesote forthe block diagrams shown in Fgag Solution: For the diagram 4.42, the ti : the eut sets are ab, ¢, def: EXAMPLE 449 Han acrare the cul seta and tie-aets for the block diagrams shown in fguny 443 below. Forth gram infu the testa ae ad bed, be ‘cut sets are ab, ac, de, = is oe a ite down the cut sets and tiesets for i bites tiesets for the block diagrams shown in figurt Fore Fea min xine iy atthe sytem sermon: Th iat ae be, bo ee Seat beds Ao ses ec andthe ct seta are ccf. abed. IS)= Rooter beret eeter Tineke ener Mer aney or Plede + g—edeg) nt Fig. 448. EXAMPLE 4.69, —————_—_—_$_$_$—__________ ‘One generator is placed in stand by redundancy to the main generator. The vive of exch generator is estimated to be 2 = 0.051 hr. Compute the 9 ty of the system for 10 hrs. fand switching device is 100% r 10%, how are the results modifi Solution: When sensing and switching device is 100% reliable, Rg= (1+) exp = (1+ (0.05) (10) exp. ( (0.05) 10) = 0,9098 MTBF= 1\h=2|0.05 = 40 hrs. When sensing and switching device is 60% reliable, ‘Rg= (1+ 0.8%) exp -™) = 0.8491 and, MTBF= (1+ 0.80)" = 1,8010.05 = 36 hrsa inte large numberof compo sa Systems Series system ns + Seca ries. In case any of pre the component in series system 24 fhe syatem can be written ag: Sl connected {er apster falls The rl R= = (BY guration has more than one compon 2. Parallel System: Parle rT reve a higher reliability, Pan unctionally "That is, we are interested in finding, ‘<1, depend on r and P. The plot ofthe following equations = 1, Ithas been seen that fis the ratio of di 2 elements and the other with only ‘use 2 elements ‘Take the first equation having the reliabilities of two systems, one one element. Incase ofa given set of values for Rand r- One can so ele one uses only one element. For all pairs (Rr) which ‘below the line f, 1 as per figure 5.10. One should use only one element: TE(R,) lies between f,= Land t,=1 iti best to use two elements. For say, Ge one should use one component when risless than 0.87, and the twoa t= Rolabity Engineering @ ae in give similar interpretatio, fomPonents when is between 0.87 and 0.98002 an Pretation, Racor and ¥ Redundancy: ha for other values of P andr. a 57, + tne 7, RELIABILTY-COSTTRADE-O of parameters oe of ‘uch as electrical ‘operation ofthe syste large. The design of the system carry on is as per a log. and a coefficient of variation 0 By utilising a higher quality materi reduced, but one would bave bad to pay a higher cost for it. One could have determined the load carrying capacity of the column with a smaller variance but this improvement at such higher cost there is a trade-off between reliability and cost. The several protective devices, iser, vibration isolation system, and ing system, each device are as per the probability laws it and its own variability factors. Reduction of for being the ll be accompanied by increased cost. Improvement: One can have superior component and parts sas.a first approach to improving reliability. But the component of high ty needs more time and money for development. 2 Redundancy: It is not possible to produce highly reliable components or {be cost of manufacturing such component is very high, one can improve the system rel sments withopine and non-destructi fing and non-destructive tein testi duct unit for further wee REUABILITY TESTING largest share of manpower and funds because test program is considered as ‘program. The designer bases, inputs provided by the test cted hardware failure, tasks of ion of stress beyond the capabilities. intergrade, planned and document ‘These troubles are precluded by a complete, test program, ‘may be done at component, circuit board, (6.2, TESTING REQUIREMENTS tem levels. Testing is done during each ng, and operational c js and the estimate of failure 7 failure mode or effect needs. Evidence can be generated with some level of confidence by testing. Reliability engineering is used to design a reais and affordable test program. The combination of r and confidence level greatly affect the development ments, Some systems are, _‘ustomers and producers, 38 to observe, Some complex A subjection to conditions which show the real character of the item is le test cases. Thus, different) Known as testing. Testing is a continuing operation to provide information 8 accelerated testing, ete. A key aspect ‘hYOughout the complete evolution of the system and is no unique operation, wo". Although this may seem obvious there _-Petformed at a specific point in the development of a complex system. are many situations where it isnot clear whether a failure is the fault There are several reasons of testing, Testing gives information at various ty test stages of an item. Various stages where “tests” can be performed are given a8 follows: (@ Initial Stage: Tos configuration or item. Development Stage: Testing is done to determine the optimal configuration out of several configurations aval able. Optional configuration is with respect to performance, reliability, cost and modes of behaviour under varying conditions of certain is done to find out the feasibilParts, ete. comparisons are made, ) Performance Stage: Adequacy of 2! requirements of performance and reli 6.3, TESTING METHODS A test program includes many kinds of tests covering Non-destructive testing 6.3.1, Marginal Testing Tis a method of predicting the probal degradation. Periodic te letronic equipment testing may in’ resulting symptoms are observed ris and replacementof the same is feasible of degraded components or Pa before the cecurrance actual failure. 63.2. Non-Destructive Testing ‘Radiation ultrasound, magnetic field or liquid penetrants type of probing ‘agents aro used in a non-destructive testing, Observation ofthe relative response ofthe porting agent helps in detection ofa plan whose Pe noted that response may not always be directly related to the relative severi ofthe plan, lied that the failure is initiated by an alternating stress. The alternating stores may part of the load. However, in many eases it arises from within the unit itselt ‘There must be out of balance forces associated with any machine having moving parts as perfect balance ean never be achieved. These unbalances can be generated by load fit due to poor design, manufacture, wear or poor installation, Irrespective of the cause, such an alternating stress mill lead to a vibration. ‘a measure of the alternating stress in a unit. DestructiveTesting n of potential failures are done by a destructive test stresses are put on the component. If component survives this stress, than the component is very reliable. A beam or truss will definitely withstand a Joad than that which was used destructive testing. Thus, destractive testing very effective for static situations. Ifthe destructive tests data are ti the weabest part fails first in time, the second weabest part fa s0 on. The life of ball bearings the life or an electric bulb are examples of such trends. Progressively consored samples are progressively added samples ar? oro aye the desir once ‘umber of sample ‘approach if tet and prolonged tests 8 such very Are inexpensive, ed Testing 33.8 Accelerat hy compressod schedule exists for releasing shough research and development process of the erated testing is a must. where item failure occurance is accelerated by subjecting accelerated testing. lie than normal conditions of operation. Accelerated test establishes @ rdationship between an items failure behaviour, stresses and time. This ‘eationship helps in prediction of behaviour ofthe item under various test or cperating condition. This saves time and expenditure as compared with testing in normal conditions, However, some products have such a shor life that sccelerated testing in such a short cases is meaningless. ‘These are oceasions when information on the ie of tems over a range of conditions that they encounter in use. Testing over range of conditions CoS tr over more severe conditions give such informations which are extol et tothe desired range of conditions. The conditions can be temperstare Toe, combination of these. SUPPOSE Pessure, vibration, eyclic rate, load, ete oF , ev sod vesting some standard model temperature is the only variable inan acceera ary y Jerated test canbe conduct ‘equations, An accel Properly ifsty Engineering © 1 Reliability Ene 4 ige should be used in designing toy, ( Through engineering ken ich are commensurate with ‘The factors must be kept constant £0 in the ten to achieve Prope oni Variations due to materials or other conditi nena usage, must be kept minimal (iv) The model chosen fo various parameters (©) Failure conditions must be operations before failure. 6.3.4, Reliability Tester n Inspite of all esting contributes daa for ra could be considered in a larger sense to tests which are performed for no other purpose are the tests referred to in this se bon roped int peripheral aa ecalation texting and survellance ‘variable of interest re vargg should have sufficient flexibility to very ined properly for example number calculations and hence ee ee ee 6.3.4.1. Peripheral Testing In testing the parts are done stimulates testis one in whi environments and input conditions which cessful he part has not been stressed ofa population from data gathered on a limited sample to test the parts to environments and input conditions which are more rigorous than the expected service conditions by a substantial enough margin that failures can clearly attributed to the peripheral conditions. This margin should be at least 10 to 15 per cent of the spread from ambient tothe limit ofthe service envionment of the item. 63.42. Life Testing Reliability prediction and reliability assessment are generally concerned with the determination of the mean time for cycles to ai bate failures as this number is basic in reliability calculations. The number can be calculated directly from the data collected from the life test program, where tests are conducted not only on samples of completed assemblies but on spare parts anid pal jee Pa ne at dae Mae onally tests oF non snd fone g been any deter spere et peration. Normally geet on and samples are uti re chow Ss tae toknow whether the part with time or imo experiments help of disassembly. The object ofthe er evidence of failure or incipient failure in the hardware, y shifts in v. functional hardware but tion of materials fatique cracks, corrosion, whiskers, hardening and any other unantic ‘pemical dete tfrings and seal tation of testing to ambient examinations and the te disassembly of the specimen of the parts, 64, ACCELERATION MODELS (@) Arrhenius Model Acommon approach is based on the arrhenius model, when failures are accelerated primarily as a result of an increase in Temperature ys Ae-Bt Here 7 is the reaction or process rate, A and B are temperature measured in Kelvins. Its acceleration factor m from the following equation: constants, and T is ay be determined Ach reece esting at two different stress Value of B can be approximate oy en te basis ofthe Sted ‘ermperature and calculating the accel distributions. Thus,__ a Retabitcy Bineesne * AE °° Ya Pac AP = Bi mines stroslvlcoresponding 17 (b) Eyering lel ee Mote ax are allowed in he model and cane Ste rg ; ee en gen a quanta mechan A nae See beet ernst dy, se and exe me ee Ee he epee rinvevesa send he cml damage m "bythe tr tn ere Eo en ina actor Ie eset aearwane) led as part of ith the arrhenius mod: why the empirical model. Theoret "The constants must be estimated from test data ‘model will requires the four constants in Fig. 6.1, Estimati points at two different temperature levels and two different model acceleration factor is given by are (3 wl of-2 Jee oe Steam t ee 5] nla 2-2 arma leto predict the time to failure by extrapolating degradation model. These models are more complex than the constant stress models. in performance overtime, ifa product has an descrvable performance measure that changes with time. Performance may be measured at either SS. TEST.RLANIING 7 ie ‘The sequence of tests, and at which stage they will be applied. analysis can be us¢ develop empirical models that ‘The test specifications and operating conditions the product will be performance to time. Relationship in the simplest form to m J ertormane measure (or frequently the log of the performance ie amount of tme the product is exposed at a constant stress Z as F. evel, a and 6 are constant to be determined experimentally. Hey damn etn fat a =e ited in production. This time to failure is treated as a ‘typical’ value; Therefi be ity monitoring tel wil bs implemen interpreted asthe mean or median ofthe fle diehatinn Aleernatieey,« "2 Stmpling plans for manufacturing testing _Enits may be tested, performance measured several times for each unit and Reliability test plan adds value to the product development cycle by eoparet yeressin) es fitted toeach unit. Then a sample of n predicted failure °™¥¥ing clear information is provided in order to show 6 (9 How the product will be functionally tested. ear with y=a~bh subjected to improvement tol will be used in development,ja known as cera ind to have @ shorter lity Engineering ee Qe ais What test equipment is required, How many samples are required. iv) Identifying budgetary requirements. (©) Providing a basis for manufacturing 6.6. DATA REPORTING, REDUCTION AND ANALYSIS: toboth development and manufactory sete tr ne er mas 2 angina a bass Oe mot be orously processed or analysed. Us iia simply informa Septic no special technical know how to category. Most ofthe important ce moed ‘to develop standard’ accurate informat ‘and reported asp namely non-parametric anal eas int nh 8 tenga pnt _ gpeapsieaine bier Pepa destructive ting Att re promenade apa Mint co you undersand by and ae tories soup for that ape purpose ther Wt i peripheral ning Sone enced tribe cata ete han wits ST Wiking nw scccdag up ageol progam fetiacrodta| tat earvlanetang? i iso tn Bald ata clced, but genera)‘, Wines wry veers mot oda te data collected in house ting 1. Reliability Testing: A subjection to conditions which show the ral character ofthe item is known as testing. Testing is @ continuing operatia to provide information throughout. The complete evolution of the systex and is no unique operation performed at a specific point inthe developme of a complex system, 2, Non-destructive Testing: Radiation ultrasound, magnetic field or liga penetrants type of probing agents are used in non-destructive test Observation of the relative response of the perting agent help in detectie of a plan where size is measured. Isolation of potential failures are done by! destructive test. Abnormal stresses are put on the component. If compose survives this stress, than the component is very reliable. Destructive testi is very effective for stati situation, 4. Accerlated Testing: A test technique where item accerlerated by subjecting items to stresses in excess of their use or no occurrence # nd air asELECTRONIC SYSTEM RELIABILITY. Raby of Electronic Component tfets;Faiture Mechanismsin Cs: Other rons yao Oo ae Congr Eee compar rt sn pion eS 74. RELIAB Some mechanisms like fatigue, components to fail. Common cause fon surface mounted components a supported components suchas transformers capacitors, Corrosion an have attack on alu rit, connectors and other components. sures that are unique to electronics. Current, voltage and power sae he main electrical stresses that. can cause failures of electrical and electronic are ponents and systems. There are strong interactions between the electrical ce current flow generates heat for all. ty of manufacture is so high that {in any purchased quantity are typically m for complex components like ICs, and wver for simpler components. Therefore well designed, well manufactured cleetronic systems potenti lity is extremely high and there are 20 limits to the which can be achieved with reasonable ease | seal it ich can be achieved with reasonable eas 7.2. STRESS EFFECTS 7.2.1, Current The tem) 8 of temperatures of conductors rise due to electrical currents. The 6 rie material between cpa plate and the or) between conductors ane very commON ent earring capacity isnot sulent the hhis situation cause might be thatthe voltage is too high, but the failure is current. Ror example, if 240 spy sient 8 10V it may fail 7.23. Temperature Figure 7.2 below shows the true relationship between temperature and failure. Feature Rate ‘Wax Palate | Tempore Operating Teperair® ic components. Fig. 72. Refaity vs Temperature of ero compone rra nelaiity Bneinering © con cm jue to high temperature mq sre elreult can occu in wirg 24 Transformers and motors igh temperature, th ~ failures are usually Fe 7.2.4, Power eat (21 = PR) Degradation of light output from Light. 744, Solder By for the most common material used for attaching electronic components to cireuit boards is Tin-lead solder. However, because of thi ot Sifrts are being made to develop lead free soldering, using al silver and other metals, Component reliability are m points, upto 235°C, af pastel tae tting Diodes (LEDs). * Bete ae esto Sytem Ba The mot COMMON rosa yg (p Solder ry ore utce No be joined due to surface Te ceca ‘Vibration or conduction ne Caused creep thermally as. Cables Connectors maja contibutors to. and fetors if they are The copper wires in indivi {gibbon}. Damage during manufacture use or Ciratin of movement th cable as Ptarminations sich as connections ta tren a goints where damage is applied, such a by repens PE ‘Connectors types are circular mul ont miductor cables are the mont ‘ables can be round or fat contamination or corrosion, 74s. culation tn cable all conductor and eomcisan on dest ara mst bo snaatd fro one snather, Depeatn sod ee atc a sowing main reson ) Damage due to echnical ing ape aed te ) Temperstare tn exo rag tare a meso abi sens Roden attack. Some insulator materials are damaged by mice and rats. 75. RELIABILITY IN ELECTRONIC SYSTEM DESIGN 752 Introduction ‘The designer of an electron system must be considered by the following main aspects in order to ereate on inherently reliable designs. ‘The designer must ensue thatthe streses due to lectrcal and others fe thermal, on components that no component can be overstres juring operation or testing ' ; and variations of component Designer must ensure that tolerances on Pasig ma orp wil fancion cd win he range of likely parameter values. a pass! aves Designer must save from the effects of ene or, sch a electrical interference, timing, and parasiis Pre frequency and high gain circuits these a Psenabiy Bneneoring # — aus se nen rt aasaga enon SRE voice sac nd 75.2. ‘Teansient Voltage Protection component ean ne sent 7 rage protection are needed by IOC devices which interfacy peer enes ne ‘This can be given by a capacitor ng), diode protect voltages from rising beyong ts (otjamping), and series resistance wat Fig, 73. Lage device protection tn tho figure 7.3, diode D, prevents the input voltage from Tsing atone Cn ary wlage High requoncy power suply transients are absorbed, by capacitor 7.53. Thermal Design Ferre thet maximum rated operating temperture are not exceeded inde smear ase of environment and load, it is important to control the "Ksjenf electronic systems. Ths should ensure that the temperature serie n the oystem are not severe. Some failure modes in marginally we components can be accelerated by high temperatures. “The electrical load and local ambient temperature, as well as the thermal tance between the active part ofthe device and the external environment to generation of the maximum temperature within a device "The formula used to calculate the temperature at the active area of a devi the formula 1,=4,+0W. where 7, the local temperature atthe active region. 7) the ambient temperature around thecompoent. th power dination and Qis the thermal resistance jetween the active region and the ambient measured in °C per watt. In the case of devices which consume significance power levels itis necess8" to provide additional thermal protection. For sp reorle aden ‘example to cool micro proces 1 Bie ——* Flettoni yee Raaiiy tection can be pry a control Gon ie by heat flow path qa ttieh a by providing fan o create .sDerating —___ ete cut-off are ex a pressed by derating H Gahamces reliability by reducing, © =Prewenthe thermal deratiog likelihood that margin ‘The likelihood that marginal components wil fil during the ie of the aystem. ‘The effects of parameter variations, Long-term ues, Provision of allowance for uncertainly in stress calculations; and ‘Some protection against transient stresses, suchas voltage spike. auch as voltage spl 3. ELECTROMAGNETIC INTERFERENCE AND COMPATIBILITY (emvemc) ut modern electronic system design must provide circuit des Sieetromagnetie Interference ae — design techniques which provide prevention from EME are given couple of noise by the use of Provision of grounding, conductive boxes or incase of cables, grounded conductive screens provide shilding in circuits and conductors. tuwisted pair arrangements makes cable less susceptible to mtse cuit impedance should be balanced. 1) All ground connections must provide a Tow impedance path back vo the current source so that all ciruit grounds are at the same electric} potential during circuit operation. In high frequency digital systems it is quite important. (uy Blectromagneti effect donot distr the opi bres wee for data transmission. (vi) Coding methods can be used to provide Electronic Magnetic Tnterference protection in software ment of all aspect sage ofthe a Sallis dent ox meting SE ony and thn ent cu fein dad pouch Hel defined through, 1S0-documentation, 150, ments of system 870, ‘nis universally recognized. ISO offers » ed, hia ystem which will improve @ building block for moving towards TOM, ford for “Improvement” or “Change for the better. ent. Kei “involves all employees from the CEO to the assembly line 9.1. What is TQM? Explain in detail 9.2. Discuss on some principles of TQM gurus, 9.3. Explain objectives of TQM. in benchmarking, 8.7. Discuss Deming approach of TQM. 9.8. Describe TQM system and its model 9.9. What is 180-9000? 9.10, What are the differences between TQM anc ” Explain Kaizen concept Fatt es ot 9.12, Deseribe implementation techniques of Kaizen. QUALITY MANAGme SYSTEM = omen cen coe wep etn Son Seubeneaon de Sree nreneoncen From the very beginning of production, all efforts to manage quality and maintain assurance of continued high quality of producto service Quality control to be systematically introduced and contro roduct has been put-into performance. Such @ monly known as total quality control or TOC. section of defective item to be produced is the 10.2, RESPONSIBILITY FOR QUALITY CONTROL directly contribute | ‘towards the quality of saben te sweeper has ome thing. rust be kept i ‘the customer's must design for simplicity, Every employee has to directly or in everybody busines inal quality of the company # abities of the plant 2 oy the designer. He 3 view by the designer. The cal Tequirements must be considered!. Manufacturing must provide a erators and plan rig te achieved and au wry a eae ean unity are inked Higher the Guay oft Tr con rote woul be tot of Pod Prec beer quality of material uted in prota ail required and greater cost ine lements which affect te a toe grouped together a costo 104, QUALITY COSTS due to ever higher este Costs ‘and indirect costs incurred on those products or services which tn their preseribed specifications are the failure costs, Suck costs may be internal or external 104.1. Internal Failure Costs 1. Cost of rejections or scrap produced wi ‘customer and which will become a power and various inprocess mi rejections. 2. Cost of corrective operations, or rework : This is case of such items which have not been passed during inspection but can be mi acceptable after certain rework or repair. For example, brazing, welding, straightening, pressing, filling, re-heat treatment ete 3. Cost incurred in fault investigation, trouble-shooting, defect-analysis ete. ot be accepted by the lose. It ineludes the cost of js spent in producing the 4. Cost incurred in affecting design modification, if necessary, in order to overcome defects in future. 5. Loss in capacity of production due to the rejections produced. 10.4.1.2 External Failure Costs 1. Loss of future orders due to poor performance in service, 2. Cost incurred in attendi customer service, includi tansport, loss of taxes ig to customer complaints and providing ing cost of returned material processing ve desired qual of R & D efforts put.into continuous work for developing better saterials, processes and techniques, soso maintain high quality of 10.5. QUALITY AND COST RELATIONSHIP osts and failure costs decreases asthe quality improves, whereas, jon costs increase with improvement in quality as shown in figure 10.1 of failure costs, both internal and external corte obviously have the same trend. When f need for repairs and s is reverse incase of prevention costs because quality will improve and it will be maintaind only when sufficient efforts are putin and concepts of total quality ‘management and human resource development are introduce. ost Tran acorn ole "soso Fig. 103. Cost (Rs) oteria, performance in service S4 Pas sat sin’ require reat mechanical properties and any other compestconomy and ense of manufacting, op vand manufacturing methods. otter stance to prevention of defect rather than dep re due importance to pre 3 a eee dun rher oecurency, attempting to produce ‘ight firs inet her stages of manufacturing, review of the product qu performance costemers sme forthe custome timely deliveries, continuous product improvemet, and reliability of iy product performance. 10.7. QUALITY ASSURANCE Definition is as follows: All the planned and systematic actions necessary to provide adequat: lence such that a product or service will satisfy given requirements ir ‘Similar to 1067: 1971 described quality assurance in some what fewer wordt such is progress using the defination as follows: The Provision of evidence or proof that requirement for Both definitions focus on the need for evidence. Qu not only be achieved but must be seen to be achieved, “s -Right first time” 2 lan ad ata rote « "Communicate and coopersase development and operation ot ett etiely anion documented quality, 12.0 1072. vrity system is the atone Sinan ent Eten, ep, ‘8 Rood quality system areas 32 cust Aree: tomer expectation, t the re low procedures to take care of product or service and compl + Documantation to such an extent cause can be identified and the protien ‘changing the documentation, + Monitor quality levels and should ideally monitor quality cost 108, QUALITY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM, or achieving the requirements of qual mer and also to protection of etetive raw material, defective the event of failure the rot Drevented from recurring by the expectations of the interest of the company in terms of every company should develop and ity management system. Such a system should be designed to Se en tee he a Sete mie Miowbcnaie ee () Balding cuniomers exe nth gay ind ratio pote canard Trang eforenes pie fr lmao dertad ai malo cm voponnifas Ensuring complete understanding with the suppliers of materials and services and the process to be used for its adop ‘ducating all employees in order to develop a clear understanding about the role and working of the quality assurance department. determining the exact mar! compositions required, competitors,ty Engineering # = — coment wap serene manufactured yo, it) Material Procurement: eae He. roca may a hea 1 Control Proper records m ase yoo production prensa {ooling wed duction should also be documented a8 ap 10.10, QUALITY AUDIT tis conducted to compare the given aspects of quality performance standard for that performance Its one of the important tool objective set out by the organisation. It is an information gs sufficient and ichieving stated q audit has to ‘out in a systematic and org audite are being given here the process of jsed manner. Types ried out by a company on its own system, ey are independent of the function being audited. by an outride agency on behalf of the company. 10.10.2. Second arty External also be carried ‘This is an audit carried out by one organisation on another, with whom they either have or intend to have, a contract to purchase good or services. provide the purchasing organisation with a level of confidence it 8 ability to provide goods or services to an agreed quality level Parchasin eekly eee business which dren at cog sea in omni ope conducted by such SHA), Environmental Heal Energy Authority, ton wheil should be tutory bodies a8 the ith Departments (EDA sy dont result in any certificates i bad! But evidence of success in team involved in certification, ity. DIFFICULTIES IN IMPLEMENTING TOM, in dfficulties are given below: Lack of commitment on the parts of top management, Lack of employee involvement, Lack of team work. Without Team work TQM cannot be successful Lack of customer oriented approach. (o) Lack of attention paid to customer feedbacks and complaints, The supplier must. Care for the requirements of his customer and must oop him satisfied, (0) Supplier control. This control includes vendor rating, vendor inspection id evaluation, training of vendors, materials inspection before dispatch and technical suppout for quality improvement. Reviw of quality Procedures. 10.12. NEED FOR QUALITY IMPROVEMENT AND CONTROL ae ‘The need for quality control and quality assurance in fee Oe me acini seinen rater ey ano ee te ‘eee a every stage. Qaly snomenon, implementing that [msagement should be taken a a confinims Denon ot Shere is no end to improvement itis an unensa Retnbity gineering Deming’circe, enueated by proets as chow in gure 102. the specified ‘Manufacture right the first Inspect and report any quality shortcomings. ry out corrections in process, controls, toolings ete. plan for long term quality control ining and development pW. awards Deming explain thei, rh down warriers bety ss tween a customers Spaents and alo with open and effective hey © 90 help in solving problema Standards that p Est a rogram to ‘ew development ORFaM to keep iy Top management mst acest he stove print QUALITY SYSTEM STANDARDS Process planning process documentation and product introduction + To specify the au Set up and first piece control, Process capability determination. ‘process inspection and test. ‘process audits and finished goods audits (62 Quality data system and documentation. (aii) Corrective action program. ’utgoing quality level improvement. ‘There are two types of quality system standards: andards, * Industry related standards, General standards are those issued by national bodies for use in quality system development, guidance or evaluation, Regardless of the cot produced as an aid to Government procurement or used Deaming hae evolved fourteen major points for improving quality whit "Here there are important and over ridings eines are summarised below: 1014. 180. 9000, Establish the objective of working towards continuous innovation ané improvement. ‘Adopt a new '9000 is a series of International qu suppliers and sm. They are basically Purchasers what is required of quality management system. Th JURE # new philosophy that we eannot accept the old mistakes a! a a (Gi) Cease dependence on ‘common sense set down on paper and can be used by all types of industrial or of company, fom 5 to 5000. mass ‘service operation. Equally they apply to any sizeof company, ality has been built in dhe ee nor eduite statistical evidence tit in the process. (0) End the practice of awarding business on the basis of price. the procedures and The standards identify the basic disciplines nd ST earats criteria to ensure that products or services meet the cuthrough soundly based ang fe By building in qualty at every stage, through soni Dated and ety, By bung in guy wr 8 ung ntsc vetnctanc ne gone yon ender: Sc ameantnan a 10.15 DEFINITIONS OF IMPORTANT TERMS AS USED IN 150 9000 PUBLICATIONS 180 9002 150 9008 150 9004, necessary to provide adequate confidence that a product or serv satisfy given requirements of quality. Ine of the functions of managemer determines and implements the quality policy. It covers st planning of quality allocation of resources for achievin 5 to be introduced for prodi /hich form an intogral element ofthe an apex manual or main guiding document tht nains the company’s policies and procedures which describe tt {ualty management eystom established hy the company’s managemes And servis as a permanent reference for Implementation ald nance of that system. It tells ‘what you de ty Plans: The ma Y Plans: The management should prepare its quality plans management system. It sho rise a attained, allocation of resp. procedures, methods and work tobe adopted, objectives. manual or code ow the policies and ‘be achieved tells gi) @* at? pacing es nae en 9) Tranagements, 4, supervingy ida cake aaeol se are the various types or ee ane ws denn an are xo by ep rinse ee katie as en iat your have done. IMPORTANT CLAUSES Wiso:stosrecreenn tibacacest Pasi ‘The main eleme "To state the quali ements of this clause are Policy of the company, Brevent secures of nonconfrtes, ems comin sla adequate resources to operate the quality system, iechanism of review its effectiveness and ensure effective (© To appoint a ‘management repre ensure implementation and should have defined resposni autho esa s major elements are: lity engineering and quality planning and prepare a quality manual ‘To identify and prepare quality records. Contract View: This clause enables to build and maintain procedures toreview all the supply orders and order amendments before they are accepted ‘omake sure that the orders will be satisfactorily fulfilled. 4. Design Control: The obj "maintain procedures to control and verify the design of the product in ons ensure that the design outputs meets the design input requires conforms to the appropriate regulatory controls, consists of mn issue to the concer that documen th is permitted ications lish and 5. Document Cont (@) Document approval sections, Tt must be ensured tat competent, authority before thei issue (b Review of document for any changes oF mol (© Re-issue of amended documents and reeling ‘any confusion or misuse. mned departments and ts are approved by & the older ones to avoidsinerng 8 yBagineeiog vides forthe fUOWiNE Provision, pre formance of Hl, "hay enn com mablsh nin procedures for verification and gy" (Toca nt me spel ems Sr ce a co Pon pel fae “i Term pete et (o) Product ent xs contro refers tothe functions oF identity, Te proces of production oF service by lying ‘mad rose ef racic Yo dhe ee chieved and maintained. he Stentor enema Teron and Fang Tr cue Pro te eee ee ont army, proce ad Bal sage wa ie of the product qual he specified requirements, Ines Faerie abate ity of service offered, bl Tapco of Teng and Mensring Eipment This dau, pois sane etaton an cnt tll cee re taal eminent pion nde we ect pei ot spon Kies an asap say uid ost ghteqspment taboo The se ‘accuracy for the inspection, measurement and testing. 1, Conta ef Nnsaorming Product: Prope cede a sinned the roppor rnin. Pte om conforming a ‘rate ocd equtenet ond wich ae dared dope tearepenne eminteet eo eats The tems coer a terry spree dcr mara nonfrnng 1. Corrective Action: Tila ois the supe ope trangoment ovate ary Tecate) ronton te ds ie soa prev Throwers nearqen batches taining rd atone anand roa sche Storage, Handling, Presevation, Packaging and Delives Proper procedures have to be dev follo Place in such a manner, that they are not damaged and can be easily identified at the time of despatch © Packaging 374 felivery to destination such that the items are mt ion ani paeed: mutilated, broken or piffered durist erred nh ran oar, sense sing and nally dof quality must nd must be sroal Quality Audi pee ts: 38 Jandexocuted onthe quality nan slants ity activities comply with me mine, control and report effectvengas ‘Training and Human Deve 14-qtion to lookafter the developmene and retrai feo identi ing needs at various levels san 1 Pros fequirement and the comer is saifed wih theses ea 16, Statistical Techniques: Is provided inthe standera tha wherever ate, statistical methods shall be adore snproprat, statistical methods hal be adopted and precedes Wet paentiticati zt ese techniques, particularly forthe purpose of (a) Verifying acceptability ofthe process capa Control of material, in-process and pode cheat and ection plans and sampling schemes 1017, ELEMENTS OF A QUALITY sySTEM 9 varios clauses inthe thee standards are indicated below dance, These clauses fe tothe numbering shows e150 a0 ‘pidlines on elements of quality managemect entect, Table 10.1 Quality System Elements Applicable to Different Standards [som [somes Clause in Title 180: 9004 ty system principles Quality euait Economies quality cots Contract review Quality in design and speci. Quality in procurement Quality in production Control of production Material control | Control of verification status _|_Reliability Engineering = * Ter sngent requirement than in 1S0: 8001 Management: It woul certification, and Orientation of Staff: Staff has to be oriented about total qual and x SWOT analysis, tical process conrol just in time technique ete. sp sto be organised for lead assessors and cials and staff who are connected with quality management ani implementation, or also various line managers and union officials have to be sven suitable training inputs, (iv) Implementation: This step involves been planned are to be carried out. In gener Il those functions which have (@) Creation of q it may consist of: ‘manual onto contin nd practices introd vertng taal ‘and maintained, Simplest way to define quality would be ‘meets the requirements ofa customer” and maintain of product or service comes under qu troducing the quality system, the first step for the top management should be be announce its quality policy. The management should then ensure this policy is correctly understood and ly adopted by all concerned. Quality Assurance: This is defined as “All those planned and systematic sssary to provide adequate confidence that a product or service fy given requirements for quality’ . Quality System and its Activities: The major activities in a quality system are Marketing, Design and Development, Material Procurement, Production and Process Control, Inspection, Post-production operations. on gathering activity s hat the need oe ‘ ‘Types of Audit: (a) . Quality System Standards: Quality system standards specify te minimum requirements of quality systems for application to specify Products or services. ality Standards which 180 9000: 1S0 9000 is a series of International Quality Stand Tequired of a quality management‘The standards ident requirements. rure that products oF & (©) 180 9002 specify the p Tow he Stn 150 9000: Quauty MANAGEMENT system erent Fens: Guay Sper Cine, aetent an Osta Conta, Putas: Consors eve, Onsen Cont Derdentication and Trace Abi; Process Contet, Conrorsa gone PS spa eat Equpmont Inepocton and Tet Sats Conta of sanoon re Ziecive and Preventive Actor, Heng Sap tone se aly Recor, rang, Sr ng Presa red caer Marval Staal Tec Corte ae =e lity management system has been explained here by taking plementation of the same in a company, All the discussions are to this company and commitment to quality are officer as policy statement. The and the means of implementation are advised to all personnel by the n of the Documented Quality system, communication on quality tatters by the president of Quality and by the induction routines to employes ‘nd as introduction to new employees. jement organisation chart, defines the ines of eponsiity of all personnel. The schedule of responsibilities and authorities vend level of authority. Additionally procedures clearly ties for their implementation 159Management Review ‘The effectiveness ofthe qual chaired by the President and year and non- ato tomers comp i fs presented for the ds compared by ty for earlier periods. As appropriate, the master determiat any changes of policy course oF Level 2 Procedure References: MP-01 Review of the Quality system (MP-02 Corrective Action MP.20 Analysis of Review UP data 9 aassiad ai wnt pancetta MP.23 Preventive Action 11.2, QUALITY SYSTEM (150 9001 CLAUSE 42) le, ‘he Quality Assurance manual defines policy, demonstrates seope Schedule of Key Personne! Responst nd Authot vent; and governs the implementation of the level 2 Procedures The company’s management lies in the hands of the Directors, who ee shareholders. Inview of the fact that the company is rela ‘and authority are shared. System Procedures content of the level 2 procedures manual isthe company’s guide for Bolementati 1s, In the event that # customer stipulates fering from the company’s standards, ig the requirements, standards, and criteria; and tests and inspections to ke precedence over the company’s Definitions used throughout the documented av the atest edition ISO 8402.comprehensive and covers all apg system ie urements ofS0 9001 a = i cedure References Level 2 Prot he quality system ‘MP-01 Review oft MP.02 Corrective Action [MP-03 Conteol of eompany documentation MP-29 Quality planni 11.3 CONTRACT REVIEW (150. 19001 CLAUSE 4.3) Gent jural instructions to govern contract Reviey, ‘The company procedural Review: ived market opportunityis Bach inaui accepted, acknowledge and executed. ld seek to vary the ‘Amendment to Contract ade to the det in the event that the company or the customer shi contract ‘or requirements , reversions shall be m above to statue Records: Formal Records ofa Level 2 Procedure References: MP-04 Contract Review 114, DESIGN CONTROL (ISO 9001 CLAUSE 4.4) reement with the cust tract Review activities are maintained, General ‘The company maintains procedural documentation to control the dest and development functions. Design and Development Planning don ety contract accepted by the company which involves desiga 2% levelopment activity results in a plan being created outl a — ing created outlining the acti satis emi staf assigned to each activity and the estimated resou™ oth personnel and equipment reflect progress. is pasign Output “The output fr se dosign review activity and is stated interme of measurable requremonta which are formation is regul ed in yp input ‘information is docu ot mented with regulatory requir wow pty nd regulatory requirements. Revign per tty: eluding relevant ofa Press ennures that rack DBroeas. Any incomplete that parts before sidered to bean essential Feet fo te enue a eenmeetrlbeaen activity proceeds. Contract reve es activity evelopm Sheeting are maintained bythe design tere ane teach stage ofthe design plants is documented as part of aated for CCampliance with the design input requirements ‘The appropriateness of the acceptance cviteria either cota referenced within the documentation ee (6) The proper and completes identification of any or performance critical as peets of the design as : No design documentation is permitted tobe released prior othe successful completion of the necessary design view activity, Design Verification Each stage of the development activity is subject to verification activities, ‘hich form parts of the design review. These can take several forms, including (@) The used of alternative methods to validate design calculation (©) Comparison ofthe new design with a existing proven design suficient\y similar in nature to provide a degree of assurance thatthe new design is adequates for the purpose for which it is intended. (0 The performance of alpha and beta testing of prototypes. Design Validation At the conclusion of the des td releases to production design, ¥ ion which replicate aa! use ved. The results of this validation proces ‘esign UP requirements to ensure thet an OYP from the design P ‘he original intent of the customers prior tothe final design view ation is performed on design with ‘as closely as feasible for product ‘ are compounded tothe original activity and i=__ Design Change rect why ees the design to gine it a the review, approval and rele cnredual design engineers Maintain get orto auc rele mignennceptor realisation are ye Pr Shange tothe de rem re References: ontrl euirements documents Seok in which ‘MP.09 Design chan. 11, DOCUMENT AND DATA CONTROL (10 9007 CLAUSE 4.5) General ‘Quality Manuals. Proced services manuals and spec procedure. The president Pee convey, Obsolete documents age removed from circulation on a bass aa earns retrieval under issue. All personnel have access to pertine and outdated documents are retained for reference purpose. Document Changes : (Only the vice president of quality make change to documents. The natured changes identified by means of vertical bar inthe right-hand margin oppsie the change Level 2 Procedure Reference: MP-03 Control of company Documentation [MP-10 Reference Standards control [MP-20 Document Transmitals, 11.6, PURCHASING (ISO 9001 CLAUSE 4..6) General The Company maintain procedures to ensure that purchased prolut conforms to specified requirements, Evaluation of Sub-contractors itoring and cont Mg and cONTElNg is done a pe vords are mainte et lid down procedure etuding ref ire Feviewed for compl | \ \ | \ tangent et ing documents, 7 YeriGeatlon of Subcontract Pra se ct ified a onl Review Sg the cere, sty prof ath abecmeuser ee oust whe se it #09 vit Procedure References "r-12 Goods Receipt Routine p-13 Purchasing upd Maintenance of the Approved Supplies List 417, CONTROL OF CUSTOMER SUPPLIED PRODUCT (Iso 9001 CLAUSE: 4.7) this context, the receipt and handling of customers owned equipment together Mik the free issue of any component, shall be viewed as customer supplied w oduct not purchased by the company and atthe property of the company stall be subject to Goods Receipt Inspection. Company purchases shall also be identified by label or tag identifying ownership. Any discrepancy or damage stall be reported to the customer. lavel 2 Procedure References MP.11 Inspection Policy MP-12 Goods Receipt Routine MP.28 Control of Customer Supplied Product 11.8, PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION AND TRACE ABILITY ISO 9001 CLAUSE: 4.8) entification and Trace ability of product in progres Maintained by goods Receipt Routines accompany! ‘aspection records respectively 1s and stored profuet is ing documentation and Aub contactor and supplies are assessed in accordance with documesi’ l4vel 2 Procedure Reference: crite teria and if acceptable are placed on the Approved suppliers list. The compa" MP-11 Inspection Poliey MP-12 Goods Receipt Routine >T Pacaging Preevation and Delivery y. Stora ‘conTROL (150 9001 CLAU ee by documented procedures 1° the yg ® I mn and records of work eargert 8 controled by Srl, fre maintained. ly vera Level 2 Procedure Ré 1MP.24 MP.25.C MP.27 Overhaul Inspection and Tes se4.9) ferences tomer is Equipment ns of ‘astomers Equipment 1d Repair ng (350 9001 Clause: 4.10) General ‘The company and testing and fu Receiving Inspection and Testing veiving inspection and testing is carried out on all hased or customers ty has beon completed. When applicable in-process inspection and testing is mpl to procedures or quality plan. Final Inspection and Testing Final Inspection is implemented Inspection and Test Records “Inspection and Test Records are maintained fr all form of ins Level 2 Procedure References [MP-L1 Inspection Policy MP-12 Goods Receipt Routine 11.10 CONTROL OF INSPECTION, MEASURING AND TEST EQUIPMENT (150 9001 CLAUSE 4.11) General ‘The company main nd calibration standans is in accordance with the re sin acordance with he requirements of 0 10012 with tolerances amene {othe practical ungeoftheemnipmet.Al sch equipments un ely identi! ndench tems supported by a ecard documents treating item dentity oft calbatin o remedial actions and state of accuracy prior #0 implemented andthe eutomer, eeavised in w iscrepa EY May have alected the meruracy be aed to the customer. a PP 1 Procedure References sqp-02 Corrective Action ration o Inspection ection Measuring and Test Hyp-17 Non-compliances MP5 Calibration of Customers Eavipment urs INSPECTION AND TEST STATUS (50 001 cLaUs 12) Vy dh inspostion status stages recodedwithen soaattequipmentsabelled accordingly Shendocremvent by Uheinapector quel 2 Procedure References: ‘sgp-11 Inspection Policy MP-12 Goods Receipt Routine 1112. CONTROL OF NON-CONFORMING PRODUCT {50 9001 CLAUSE 4.13) pany maintains procedures for the contol of nonconforming product. site ces where any failure to provide service in accordance th agreed condition is abserved Non-conforming Product Review and Disposition Product which is identified as nonconforming shal be reported tothe vice resident of quality for determination of disposition. Customer complaints are wratt with according to procedure and observed non-compliances are similarly reqularised by procedures. Level 2 Procedures Reference: “MP.02 Corrective Action MP-15 Customer Complaints MP.17 Non-compliances. 1113, CORRECTIVE AND PREVENTIVE ACTION (ISO 9001 CLAUSE 4.19) General ‘The company maintains procedures ofimplene preventive action changes in the documented gh these actions are implemented and sting for both corretive and rity system resulting from a recorded. ee me Atlan all eases of failure factors. Corrective action shall be instituted in180 9000: Quatity ‘ality Manageme, sagem System aor work in progress. tery fandates of the quality ‘aopecrve the mandates of the Quality eyatey repancies. authority diserepancies. corrective Action Register and are sub identify trends and re-currense® is applied tothe wala Procedures Reference: "ap.02 Corrective Acton jyp-21 Internal Quality Audit Level 2 Procedure Referens 1SO 9001 CLAUSES 4.18) Decembers ofeach year using requirements for the coming year. 11.14, HANDLING STORAGE, PACKAGING, PRESERVATION AND ditionally Movements and is subject to periodic review and update as necessary. ‘DELIVERY (1SO 9001 CLAUSE 4.15) All new employees receive Induction Training and Quality Awareness ine procedures for this subject. year intervals. Level 2 Procedure References: MP.22 Training, cording to the nature of the product to ensure absence of damage in transist. SERVICING (ISO 9001 CLAUSE 4.19) Then deliver or services of the company engages in servicing activities, these ‘me viewed as the company's named process. Preservation Preservation is applied as required by the nature ofthe product. level? Procedure References: in by the customers or by company MP-24 Servicing MP.25 Calibration of Customers Equipment transport MP-2 Overhaul and Repair of Customers Equipment JSES 4.20) Level 2 Procedures Reference MP-18 Handling Storage Packaging and Deli ing and Delivery. . STE ES (150.9001 CLAU! TATISTICAL TECHNIQU! does not employ statistical is as specified by or oo 11.15. QUALITY RECORDS (ISO 9001 CLAUSE. All job related records are main contract foros cea aitained in dedicated los by customer name7) Level 2 Procedure References: None 119, CONTENT [feterenee] POT MP0? | sp-os MPos pos MP0s Mpor OF LEVEL 2 PROCEDURE MANUAL Contract Review Goods Receipt Routine | Purchasing compliances ‘Storage, Packaging, Preservation ny Proparation and Mai Records | analysis of Review UP data, | Internal Quality Au | Training | Preventive Action | Serisog | Calibration of Customer's Equipment | Document Transmittals | ome and Preparing Customer's Equipment | Control of Customer Supplies Product [p29 [Quality Planing 416 418 44 419 41 EXERCISES. 84. Deseribe design control as per ISO 9001 5 Explain document and data control as por system clause 42 180 9001 clause 4.3 we A. a8 per 190 9001 cause 45. te ascertain that 180 9000 serie mae nee tothe standard chedule is prepared and notification tothe area x's management with executive ty system at defined ity and effectiveness in as per 1909001 cause 4 9001 clause 46. 180.9001 clause 49. por 180 9001 clause 410QUALITY SYSTEM ASSESSMENT _ the Audit; Ault Formally: Aut Nota mance Report; Closing Meeting Irtroduction; Aust Planing: Performing mang Meeting; Te Avdt, Non renin Mester cjn, Aris of rng: Management Review. 12:1, INTRODUCTION + syatem assessment comprises ofa number of key elements which ae i) Follow-up and closeout of non-conformances. 12.2. AUDIT PLANNING When is necessary to identify the er ed first. jorizontal and representative as poss processes and departments and ensure that these are au aAimtrs fo planing purposes is used for re ‘adi islewhich an then be sed to determine thehest use ofthe aud See eprina suse thistaningprgram son the conduct ssi extremely common sense for thse to take place with ol premium carl ac att when imeand resources are at masiae emi ing is of even greater importance than when there #* lee tem fsa rable weet ena ocumentation satbware Material 123, PERFORMING THE AUDIT audit is primarily to ascertain that the documented ‘The objective of th cedures are being adhered. The ISO 9000 seris make it very clear that the is primarily a management funct sak of assuring compliance to the stané 3 tates that the management representat have defined authority for: “ensuring that the que implemented and maintai standard” system requirements are established, ‘in accordance with this international concern with issue of system adequae ‘compliance. In eality, particularly the internal auditor becomes the ‘with system adequacy to the ™anagement.against the stan cond The ator pet ae practices against the Pre 1 compliance auait of the actual yo ovedtes, ing ccompliances. The customer interested in hearing about ‘auditor “thinks” about ‘Objective evidence that ‘Objective evidence was identified in section sea eet aets andthe information cont stam shat more worthy definition ro fe em ard which ays down a fora es interaton ner Sutin in 150 10011 ~ 1 a8 lls, oa er santtative information, records OF salaMent fay uniting oF out af aa tem oF service oF to the exateee se oy sytem clement ava based oo beara’ vt gat Ta about thingy now a te they want to hear a thing. W that th Taplemenaton of ‘Elrimento ts and which an be verified” ‘Objective evidence is be collected throu document and obervation of activities and eon $e Unto should even acept as gospel any information gathered ti met ules canbe verted by ees checking the same information fou aeigjendent sour, toch as records or observation. Tho internal a tren mae than te seen and third party ior, needs oe aware lt [ak hate or abe might got used as pawn in managerial "ur war” cther manifestations af company pols. The nex ime that an employee id calleague by tying to plant evidence of non conforms not be fiat time that situation has bs to “score one ove through an audit interview encountered sos Pi ist ofthe type of problems which will be found most regula ~ procedure not being followed; ~ tnauthorised handwritten changes to documents and drawings ~ operation performed with no work instruction; ~ obsolete documents and drawings at place of work; ~ measuring and test equipment out of ealibration; — reraatne eaipment used by support departments, eg, maintnet® ineering not included in calibration system; te te smeeation sytem: 2 asing FO Unaproved = PURENFIFO and shelf lie con = Petes. we of satel netrmal cOntECt review, follow up of corrective action, ie Findings not closed out cords of management review a tionship which exists between the ing introduce a degree of formality into the proces, and behave more lke an external 125 AUDIT NOTIFICATION activity is to make the arrangement Wi ‘obe audited for the audit to proceed 8s Prepared and published well in advance o ‘othe area concerned is little more than 8 72% ynned. When the Bann Th formal otieston finder. None the Tess it @ te =76) worth taking. The auditee ‘Most frequently the contact date and time umber ofa cope of the audit (d) number of guides needed, if ny rganisation, the more import jides ean be almost esse they will nearly a arrangements. ‘Both this notfiation letter and the reply should be placed in the a 126. OPENING MEETING ‘When the audit isa team effort, it is important that auditors arrive inthe ay ‘or department as a united team: there is nothing worse than the team arivg inones twos . As soon a all the auditors and all the management personal assembled, the lead auditor should take control ofthe situation and get str into opening meeting. There should be a written agenda in front of him or hi. ‘The key points of which are as follows: (@) When necessary introduce the members ofthe audit team to the audi: and have the auditee introduce his or her staff; (©) Pass round attendance record; (6 Review the scope and objectives of the audit; (@) provide a short summary of the methods and procedures to be used» conduct the audi () detail how non-conformance will be recorded. Remi the use of the report form and of witnessing findings; ifnecesary arrange for escorts; confirm the approximate time for the closing meeting; if necessary ask for a quick four of the area, ‘The team leader acts as the chai zie as the chairman during this meeting which shouldte atively short and lst no longer than 10-15 minutes establish if there # any questions then close the meet sy ast eeting. Each auditor will then leave with the Pective guides or escorts and stars the audit. ne N° ea jie out the engineering itor question ion, the evidence With the requ 128 NON-CONFORMANCE REPORT cal non-conformance report is figure 1.1, The report is sp Part 1: Identi the report number. ‘This part ofthe report is completed by the auditor the non-conformance found and the objective evidencs sho carries signatures from the auditor and the audits. ‘This partis completed by the auditor ether during the audit Th finding shouldbe witnessed by the auditee or the guide or when other observation have lated, the auditors should seeks signature on the formof the auditee at ing meeting. tthe corrective ation agreed by the responsible manage. It ate andis signed and datedby the responsible manager. jould be completed by the manager or supervisor responsible for ed. Sometimes thi will happen at the closing meeting ‘and returned tothe audit manager within an ‘ofthe audit and submission of the eudt report e form should address two aspects of Wve action-primary action to conned the immediate problem identfed, ondary action to ensure that te problem dees not recur. Often fas, Ibe one and the same action. ave been implemented are Part 4: Records that the corrective actions have been im stlective and are signed of. This part of the form will be signe Corrective and preventive action identified in an ST "ay in the form of a review of modified documen'> her audit. he the audit manger one een Venn ae ‘take the form of a _..cor action from the quality -—~ management review “Guonty System Non-conformance Report Pears ated ‘peecompied by ate Bespensit maraper Sore ‘vie ‘aragimen Revew Cannes aragenent Approval 1p report on the overall av¢ form makes provision for such further review and for Fausement review team to annotate the finding when so required ale eacanformance report should be fully completed by the various als responsible for each part of eareh a ‘an eas!) Wyn 8 a sinifeant impact The report should port tially result in an argument in the Re cat Pipe action in the second, as production reciemance being Withdrawn. So next tne ee the audit and eport to the department manager, ance might be found even through a complete rms of reporting. Iti straightforward ‘a change in working practice ra rewrite of he procedure current toes not degenerated int judgement in minor non-conformance. Its of vital importance than the auditor 1 nitpicking exercise. The auditor must try and went of those being audited and treat minor finding sccordingly. A sensible | but merely an audit observation. vnities The audithas already been described asa means fidentying opportunites fx improvement. This positive atitude, andthe way in which the auditor rnucts will have a great deal to do with the sacs ofthe message of improvement canbe put across. Under no drcumstanss should aut bosom 4 ‘ete paper machine devalued by careless use, and regarded tached to ISO: 9000, auditors use all their senses tothe full to observe, listen, speak, ‘use common sense. - CLOSING MEETING with the managers “'theend of audit the audit team wil hold closing estingJ, This takes place immedigyg, servos le sity and prioe to tho reparation of” % revert er tive ofthe d Vat ‘The objective of mi such panera te managers ite the epening eet agenda, This agenda i as fellows a anny thank you t everzoe for co-operating vance sheet agnin and get everyone og pn a 3 (© mike tuition which may be needed. big reports atthe closing meeting. The lead auditor may ask each indivi personally. In order € keep the meeting under control, all question Placed and answered through the team leader. ‘The written audit report usually with NCR's attached should be presen within ten working days. The managers can then respond to the repert ay detail the corrective action they intend to implement. 12:10, AUDIT REPORTING Theteam leaders responsible for the preparation ofthe audit report, tsasany snd eompleteness, The audit report should reflect both the tone and conten the audit and be signed and dated by the team leader. A typical format forthe audit report would be ‘Summary sheet Summarices the audit and lists the audit Report Sheet: ~ Opening meeting, atendees and outcome. ~ Overviews ofthe audit, with details of findings and observ ~ Closing meeting attendees and outeome, low up of previous audit findings. Audit findings: ~ Originals of any non-conformance reports. Covering memo: a Include the. safe by which a response to the audit finding is requir for any reason the audit report cannot be issued within the ten work! eee the closing meeting, the reasons for the delay must be #™™ uditee together with a revised issue date v __* Qusity yatom _, | Atonament ——_ i hich the must by LZ GonmECTIVE ACTION 1241 part of Operation with the Corrective action dior ould not get involved soinutfam is under threat ear othe vote ate ay owners 1d of time. Ownership op ti? Will be rogue tHe perio hat? system coneenee oat a of the system and they are the fen coe ne owt internal audits the audites wits tobe taken by taping: geet has reveal. ey There fhe doignated alee ans eee) ini rot pou, fer funeti ng we Sind pe eee spd signed off ‘rth reponaible manaper 12.12. ANALYSIS OF FINDINGS Analysis take two forms. The firs the collation and reporting ofall deficiencies ientfied in anyone audit. That isthe activity addresed bythe audit report. ‘Theother form of analysis is the global review of all audit results for the benefit, ofmanagement review meotings. The latte is only an extension ofthe former, but ofcourse carries policy implication. ‘The most important aspect of any analysis is to provide data which will enable the management to drive the continual process of system review end improvement, This being the case, ike anyother such activity tis important to ienify the key areas to address. The application of the Pareto approach is tften as good a method of analysis as any. It has the advantage of being Simp tnd easy to understand it to force simply classification within data lest Movides clearly identifiable improvement targets and best of al hich feedback into the system are usuelly quite speetiy seen for 1213, MANAGEMENT REVIEW ality shall review “The supplie’s management with executive responsi fr qu Ssmanagement review ac 180 9001: 1994 Paragraph 8.17 ‘The purpose of management re’ management objectives, assignment (@) achieving the desired re ( ‘possible improveme (a) effectively monitoring management at ering potential weak sports and ‘management review as well as being mi snonconformance report and signed off byt By following these simple procedures, the system audit activity can be into the single most powerful driver of continuous improvement w ‘management can implement 43.1. BREAKDOWN MAINTENANCE ‘The required repair, replacement, o restore ac can be of two types namely emerges Emergency maintenance is carried failed machine or fac Breakdown maintenane cmsidered failure for which advanced pro repair method, spares, maintenance and breakdown as fast. asp thas been made in the form of ‘equipment. Whenever, some they are replaced are block or predictable. The cost of performing un 9 sn perrning er activites ther pes nance: and the equipment flue prnnityistolow in order to inclu C100 he activites of preventing it within the planed mntnane budget ireakdown maintenance stivitis are expensive in terms of both direct thd indirect cost. Using this type of maintenance the cesurrence of failure ‘ina component ean cause failures in other components in the same equipment, hich leads to low production availability. Breakdown activities are very ‘iicult to plan and schedule in advance 183 —=—=————‘corrective maintenance, pr tenance scheduling and poet, enance planning, maint riODIC REPLACEMENT yan equipment which is n mn through Use result ids following en iss generally Bo Bree to redi y reducing the total expected cost of replacement py oe n be carried out at specific intervals. Ifthe period of cone the equipment or machinery has to be operated is much high igs obtained ty ek money’ the interval between preventive replacements, then one may consider inca cycle of operation as shown in figure 13.1 eee eee eerie — eee u 8 g g neti i i Accordingly model for the total expected cost of replacement 85 8 ‘is developed. * | 13.3. AGE REPLACEMENT POLICY T Time TRepiacerertrequencyipenoa Mating prever placerat fxd nara lends fo Re nceniaone eee carrying out a preventive replacement shortly after a fa maintenance cost This preventive replacement depends upon the age ofthe equipment/machiney which is the elapsed time from the previous replacement, see figure 132, 13.8. CORRECTIVE MAINTENANCE (CM) (Mis composed of repair, replacement, or restore activites after the occurence «fa failure to eliminate the source ofthis failure or reduce the frequency of orcurrence. British Standard 3811 : 1998 defines the corrective maintenance 48"The maintenance carried out after recognition and intended to put an item into a state in which it can perform a required function". Corrective . ‘aintenance are of three types i" (® Remedial maintenance: These activities age eee hout interruping the continuity ofthe pra n one momocted is taken out of the production line and Fig, 12.2. Age replacement poli to be cr oad is transferred to its Thus, the a replaced with reconditioned item or its won ated ts the aR replacement policy isto perform a pre ier the equpment has reached a specific age () Also fi is performed whenever necessary. The opt determined to minimise the total expecto Faiure Preventive Proventve eplacemenet Replacement Replacomenet Replacement redundancy. ge of the ed cost of replacement per unit tin?a rective ‘hudown correct 2 in total stoppage situt "es proper repair proced repair, and verification of repair. 13.6. PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE (PM) PM activities are performed on equipment, machinery and systems befe yy failure. PM presents or eliminates any degradation in operating con, the equipment, machinery and system, British standard 3811 : 199, preventive maintenance as: “The maintenance carried out at predetermined intervals or ac prescribed criteria and intended to reduce the probability of fai degradation of the functioning and the effects limite: ‘The efficiency of preventive maintenance are affected by the fi factors: ( In order to perform this type of maintenance, there is the need fora, adequate number of staff in the maintenance department, ‘The production equipment and machinery should be chosen which at suitable for the working environment, skills requirements are gained through training Executive management support and commitment to the PM progr is essential, Breakdowns and emergency rep ments, adjustments, major overhauls, inspect ities of PM. The preventive maintenance ar the nature of its activities, These are: brications are the different kinds according to include the mai auipme nae ati ona man ae activites when hine during the planed window maintenance: Machine is not required own preventive mai 7, MAINTENANCE PLANNING nuous process indutries suchas thermal power plan its, oil refineries and integrated iron and gto snning and scheduling of improvement of effiiencys of the ahinvenance function. It may be noted that ee preventive maintenance is used to cover only periodic preventive maintenance activities and preventive maintenance inpecton of the stop-job type. che systems are formalised job orders to detail the work to be formed by the maintenance personnel. 1 procedures, requires a procedure jut for preventive ‘maintenance activities and the need for analysis of recurrent failures, ive maintenance activities. An integrated system includes the reporting of failures, analysis of failures, scheduling of corrective maintenance jobs, scheduling of peridie preventive ‘iaintenance jobs and scheduling of preventive maintenance inpections. SCHEDULED MAINTENANCE Seluled maintenance or planned maintenance ia vein caret by Campetient and suitable personnel to ensures that an item of equip ‘ting corety to avoid any nse baker snd downing lanned maintenance comprises condition based mai ive maintenane. The maintenance event i preplanned and al fare 2utintenanco is preprogrammed. Planned maintenance is created for every Som ‘earately according manufactures recommendation. Plan can be oe Ssuipment running hours, date base ot for veils distance oval Fa ®tample, maintenance planning is done for cara ¥lomoters oil should be changed, pats renew rsintennres. The costs ATE ng ements for SUPE consanooens cecarTpment oF machinery after failure than before, Th increasing. ‘The replacement of an oper maintenance and running cos ‘maintenance and running costs with age. is considered from the engineering economies viewpoint. The capital, runs and maintenance costs and the salvage values are considered. There kinds of decisions, which need to be taken. First, decision with regar of a capital equipment. This requires to determine equipment so as to minimise the total cost. Ths mat include capital cost, maintenance cost and the salvage v with regard to replacement alternatives wl asset which the organisat considered as its replacement. Replacement of large sums of fina: ‘maintenance costs and the beneis accuring from the investment in the form of revenues earned from the produ and services produced continue for a number of years. As money can ee interest at a certain rate through its investment for a period of time, important to recognize that a sum of money received at some future dateis hot worth as much as money in hand at the present. ing plant or equipments made o rede 10 most eavipment require inecy replacement of capit a Under the patterns of maintenance costs, there are three possible of maintenance cost over the useful constant and increasing. tivalent annual cost of maintens the equivalent annual cost of capitary recovery and return and the = The annual maintenance cost, the e — —* ener Maintenany ‘annual cost figures are we 135. ‘ mnt “00 js recovered atthe end. ap {tis also noticed that the valent annual coxt curye 0 inthe PYjinearly increasing tenes ttt t cot ae, wtyen, we can conclude that capital equpment e ments 6 years, This tes the method used for the ev i replacement interval, of eapit — INSPECTION ty. Once the prespecified indicator ‘alues are determined through equipment inspection, they areca standards, or other acceptance criteria. Com adjustment, preventive replacement of components, is are if necessary. The inspection frequency should be on the basis of i) ton of the level of inspection and the i carried 04 the cast of inspection which is a f ‘expected benefits from such insper Inspection intervals The state or condition of an equipment in continuous use i always known needed frequents whit are sure emergeny military equipments or weapons. Other examples are hers ete Some kinds of equipments may be ently in process plant or manuatring rasan. In ch te, the equipment mst bein an operating cnn Whenee 8 regu tobe used. Such equipments are inspected after certain interval of time, Consider that the inspection interval t, and the time required to carr) ovt inspection is 7, as shown in figure 136, whith i fora eyle when eau isfund wo be forking ‘The second cycle shown is for the equipme inspection. rt which bas failed during the3.7. As the ing jaded area, Inspection * ete 2 aes) a se eed Fig. 13.8. Good cycle and faled cycle T Fig. 13.7. Failed cyte density function 13.10.2. Inspection Reports Inepecton Report personnel who works as per the details o inspector. 13.103. Card History System An equipment history card is shown in figure 13.9. The details inclue emergency repair, corrective maintenance, work actually done, item replace, cost of spares and labour ete Deserp.ot Date commissioned tmp. access Location Feb, Department (here installed) rapecion ntl 8 ‘ovg0od Fa Fig. 13.8. From for inspection Equpt No. Eqpt. Nomenelture Deserp: toms to be Inepected> Eegency Pepa Form Ne, > Camecive Matonance Fig. 13. Card history system and the equipment feilure priority i preventing it within the planned maintenance budget 2 Time based maintenance is done to avoid breakdown f tenance can be replacement of complete block of ensures that an unscheduled breakdown ‘maintenance cost over the use and increasing. Inspection is carried out to determine the state of for d srmine the state of equipment for de conditions which may subsequently develop equipment breakdown, ‘major faults and restPREDICTIVE MAINTENANCE (PDM) Inredueton: Computerized Maintenance Total Productive Maintenance py, ing: Liquid Penge Magrti Parles;Utrasonic Testing: Ol Analysis; Radiographic Testy based on statistical data from the recording of the stoppages of the ina items and component Disadvantage of predictive maintenance is that it has too much dependeos on information and the correct interpretation of the information. The preicie maintenance monitors the condition of machines or equipment to determizt the actual mean time to failure whereas preventive maintenance depends industrial average life statistics. Predictive maintenance techniques help in determining the condition ¢ cauipment to predict when maintenance should be done. This helps cost saving over routine or time-based preventive maintenance as these are perform when necessary. Predictive maintenance leads to less maintenance Kaporiant to know that the right information in the right time is the ke nowledge of equipment needing maintenance, the maintenance work c0™ better planned. 194 een inereased quip mens ove et ng hare Vibration analysin se utilise measurements on the online testa, 1 actual wement of Process performance, measure] rete combination wit sestuesnce conditions, * meaauret by other devices, to tiger cost expensive. Sd avoid failures. Acoust in the upper ultrasonic range. Any c wicate deteriorating conditions. Ultrasonic measurement end analy eles tudiferentiate normal wear from abnormal wear physical damage, imbelance ns, and lubrication problems, ing equipment is less expensive but are Limited as compared lrasonic technologies. Sonie technology is useful only on mechanical ment can detect electrical problems and is more w mechancel problems nge of application is that of infrared monitoring used for detecting both me ost cost-effective technology Oil analysis technique can bed ind Wear particle an: analysis determines rieant. The quality ofthe lubricant, and a ‘se. Wear particle analysis determine the mechanical Ghfonents which are lubricated Wear peril analss helps oi Se Potition of the solid material present and evaluate patil “reentration, distribution and morphology ies es inte of cen! cont? eauipment or machinery wear recor Jements which deteriorate “mponents such as bearings, machine sides oF identify the pe, size, aewipment, Records are Taina equipment ory mats are ie nana ming ad exeCUINg pe ard for condition mon eo The wanda J afannunance, The ogee iy equpmentst pve mans toed for condition wer of vibration, noise, wear, ete ‘These can be vibra 142. COMPUTERISED MAINTENANCE ainenance software package is used t0 maintain a compyy, Computer bout an organisation's maintenance ope to better allocation of resources ‘omputerised maintenance management system (CMMS) cay reports and documents giving details or ies of main ‘activities. Many CMMS can be e1 preventive mai fechniques are used for repairing when a job should be performes, be: spection: CMMS track preventive by-step instructions or checklists, jintenance jobs including sep. of materials required, et, tasks are generally undertaken during breakdown repair as fe maintence requires rescheduling, in recording data about equipment and property including rations, purchase date, expected tracts, service history, spare parts, ete, maintenance warranty informa CMMS may al management. nn of materials for particular are stored, determining when more materials should te purchased, tracking shipment receipts, and taking inventory. CMMS also helps in management of permits and other documentatian ied forthe processing of safety requirements, These safety requireme i safety, and others. The advantage of a computerité system are the following: Faster data processing and information retrieval with accuracy AAs soon as feedback is processed, line data is available. Reporting can be selective and ranked, ‘tn tore time TOTAL PRODUCTIVE may ductive maintenance i may for maintaining plants ang ect@™80¢e which, tion, INCFEASE Employey. co PMENY. Th ee mora ance into focus, Down time fr rode alow ‘rods sent to the customer a8 follows: ‘made oinvelv in the maintenance Tse ldo nk at ‘To form different teams to reduce defects and do self maintenance. direct benefits are Increase productivity Manufacturing cost reduction Reduce accidents Customer satisfaction. Follow pollution control measures (@ TEM indirect benefits are: 1, neat and alternative workplace. eve goals by working as team, Jher confidence level (iv) Machine ownership feeling of the wo Steps in introduction of TPM in a organisation are as follows: Step A: Prepatory Stage Step 1: Proper underandng, commitment nd ave invlement of the top management is needed. Step 2: Training is to be done Step 3: Setting up TPM and depart ‘stonomous maintenance, quality mae ep 4: Establishing the TPM working 5 sucha and fing up gtr aires 1 based on the need. ment committes for improvement,n Stage 1p C: Implementation Ta this stage eight acti Step D: I mnal Stage ‘Now, TPM is applied to all c ies aro carried "suppliers as they should know that there 12 companies who can be customers, s >ments, eibilty for operators inating the defect fagh active employee partici 14.1. TPM Organisation. ws of TPM are shown in discussion of the ery large number organisational environment are ie ue. Unnecessary things are reduc Kaizen policy is to practice concepts of zero every spre a relentless pursuit in all resources, relentless pursuit to improve ove ining ‘Autonomous maintenance Katzen Planned maintenance Quality maintenance Otce TPM ‘auipment effectiveness and focus of ensy handing of operators ‘Tre objectives of TPM is to maximise equipment efectvees. sims to ‘aximize machine utilisation and also machine avabiity maximisation for uses for eficeny of operator and material and energy on. Kaizen activities try to thoroughly eliminate ssteen major losses, ajuatmnt loses, cating ade ce revort as, scheduled downtime gement loss, operating line organisation loss logistic loss, Salety, Heath & Envconment (i) Planned Maintenance Fig. 14.2. Eight pilars of TPM | It achieves trouble free machines and equipments producing ‘ate fe Product The maintenance is broken down into four groups namely prevents Maintenance, breakdown maintenance, corrective maintenance, Maintained prevention. ; geePlanned m method and one trained m ain their equipment. ry reduce spares invent of machines. () Quality Maintenance Ie is for customer satisfactio First and defects and rejection process. Target (ei) Training mn through highest i to gain understanding of equipment a ‘current quality concerns leading te Tassurance. Quality defects are classified as customs vine defect For customer end, defects are customer gxy ld complaints. In-house defects are related to prod {to achieve and sustain customer compla Inprocess defects by 0%, and reduce cost of qt It creates multi-skilled employees whose eager to perform all required functions effectively are upgraded by sufficient “Know-How” and also learn “ experience they solve the problems. The skills. A factory full of experts is the go Stee of training activites are seting policies and priorities and chet traning th employees for upgrade preparation of training calender, ng ‘which provides an assessment. evaluation of activities and study of future approach. compared which ment of the extent of machine deterioration. present status of education and trait the operation and maintenance ski (vit) Office TEM Office TPM must improve productivity, ef function and identify and eliminate losses, The processes and procedars must move towards increased office automai senior person from one of the support production and quality should be of all people in support functions for foc better utilized work area, reduced inventory of files, reduced man power, Office TPM are for eliminating production output, loss due to va “elt nutput loss due to varias | Experienced workers develop a knock of ‘sources, mistakes in preparation of cheques, delays in delivery due ts | of sgund by thelr ears close fo the equipment or by ostew diver Sate apport functions, delays in payment to suppliers, and delys it | Yberophones are used for noise monitoring in pace: Decibel (@B) is used as the unit of measure of sound pressure level (citi) Safety, Health and Environment rod Tepresentative of officers safety in the plant. Ta no fire ing pa i tua sae workplace and a surrounding area without alexi Wear debris monitoring is used for the a *. A committee is constituted which compris | ebris is generated by the wear of git well as workers. Utmost importance is ge | eel of degradation of the ol it © achieve zero accident, zero health damage®™ | ar rate of components. Various me et og 8 at zero, ag ey ney in the adminis mn. Office TPM should be ich as head of finan purchase, ete. Members representing all support functions and people vn | —enerator committee. Office TPM has invol carrying cost, re lean and pleasant work environment, etc. f fr bet ‘chine relate performance deterioratior in ited fara ‘Te parameters selected can be primary parameters such as pressure, fore, cletri charge, etc. It can be secondary parameters such as impulse, torque, rate af fuel flow, ete. alee, torque, Vibration and Noise Monitoring Vibration and noise monitoring have become important techniques of n monitoring. Rotating machines such as engines, turbines, and turbo dustrial fans, etc, produce a sound or vibration pattern. These ‘repeat periodically with a certain time interval. This pattern is a signature which is analyzed for condition monitoring The bearings of a machine, or an ‘equipment are used for measuring vibration because the bearings take the basi: dmamic loads and forces of the machine. otctng defects of sudden changes (io) Wear Debris Monitoring i : alysis of lubricating cis. The ments, It helps to assess the sTrand to evaluat the degree of wear and hods are used for wear measuremen se spectromelt, 0 Such as infra-red and ultra-violet spectroscoPY: ma pect ‘hromatography and thermal analysis. ) ‘machine compo!# Predict one rap agen _ ‘may be detected and 8 80hi gg, j- L208] STRUCTIVE TESTING f vechnique also tsed Yan Z2 in pe Max 145 NONDESTRUCTIVE i tn i tran Non-desrutivfsting 5 component or system without causing gy ‘manuf ie the ibe ropren ga mati Sno Nonntre Beamtg cate Sect a enane baceo a Sk di eb eta ) a a Mt el 7 : ned upon one of electromagnetic radiation, san, ted examine sample Mlcroncopy pina faces detail: However, samme pres? etd ography. opal mircrsopy and electron mirere hn ett nace are nade south ‘ough polishing’ testing uses dyes uorescont oF non furest eejatc materils normally metals. Use of a ae voto part while its in an exterdal parar commonly used method for magnet ae elcelecee eet or use ofthe secback eect. 145.1. Appiations of NOT ia el pen ea mn Ses at nates ot rear eee NELpent tok aed piesa sled eee ae forensic se ‘NDT methods a gsed (0 asting, and wel ustface porosities, and leaks in new we ‘component fluorescent. (ii) Structural Mechanics Complex structures undergo different loads during their lifetime, For i example, the turbo-machinery ina liquid-fuel oeket. The structure undergo I @ dynamic input in NDT, similar to a controlled impulse. Displacement & acceleration at different points of the structure are measured. This output is recorded and compared with ki ves sown input. Differences may indicate a2 propriate model, failed components or an inadequate control system es etrant nck ; Surplus wiped off leaving pt a Radiography in Medicine D: Developer powder applied, de ksi Pw Elements ofthe body such as b Buy orscentndeations 4 € such as bones or molecules have a known respons? Jesup shows up fee netrant inspect {0 certain radiographic inputs such ae K-rays, A known element sich Fig. 14:2, tage Ham | ‘ography can be used to image parts or function of the body by measurins 1 ,AY lamp. The most commonly used systems ter washable, These systems are often used to ch cleared and fee of Sorc free ian The excreta ny aged over the sed mcr. The snpension erly trained and foe ped The magnet ba iso be used on conrete, wood ad Jes which are used for magnetic a lays, vty | wl Stel nd composites form the indication that alert the inspector to defects. Particle *| An ein of mr gmected to diagnostic machine. tis passed ice of iron or iron oxide. A pain grt object being ins transducer ia seperated lee sve on such aa olor by water separated bom then tet permeability ras 1 methods of receiving the ultrasound lds from discon xm, The transducer performs both the sending and the receiving of the ed waves as the sound is reflected back to the device in ase of reflection Tie, Reflection ultrasound comes from an interface or an imperfection within tie object. ‘The diagnostic machine displays these result in the form of a signal. The amplitude represents the intensity ofthe reflection and the distance e of the refletion. jon mode."A transmitter sends ultrasound through particles diameters around 0.1 jum. (@ Dry Part os de 2 Ultrasonic waves have high penetrating power per detection of flaws deep le Inspection ‘ic waves have high per = “dt part. T has high sensitivity forthe dtsin of extremely sal Das orientation, shape and nature of defects can also be es ‘and also useful in highly automated operation. Experienced techniques are required for man ed onto tl current cracks a pulsating magnetic force that provides mobility to the wal operation. The Tho dry powders are used for unground welds and rough as cast xtensivetechnial knowledge subsurface cracks, en nt of inspection procedures rewires ae Tromogeneous parts Ze ‘The part surface is cleaned. The surface must bef coil Jeaning and removing aned. The surface must be free of grease ie essential by ee: ‘moisture. The magnetizing force is established for the ‘ary magnet? loge. 10 inspect. Surface prepar is properly boonded to a sur Magnetic dust particles are applied. The cacees per necessary Tyved THE) "Le, paint, te, However, the pa that =P a eee ee,analysis of a lubricant’s properties, suspended con ‘The laboratory known as oil analysis (OA). OA is conducted di and wear detTintenance which gives meaningful and accurate inforne alysis provides the samples drawn in sm: ratory for an: detecting increases in the analysis of the adi may be used. helps to determine the remaining useful depleted. 14.10, RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING (RT) RTis @ non-destructive Testing (NDI). It involve use of penetrating X-rays or gamma radia examine parts and products for imperfections. The source of radiation used is an X-ray machine or radioactive isotope. Radiation is directed through a part and on or other media as shown in figure 14.4. The internal soundness of the part is seen in the res shadowgraph. Density changes in the film the possible imperfections. The radiographic applications evaluate the ion, density Iso evaluates the manufacturing and assembly properties such as voids, cracks, bond integrity of welds, el! addition verification of proper assembly of component pieces can als0 bY static ponent pieces It can also produced 2-D and 3-D cross-sectional images of an object leading to the details of dimensions, shape, internal defects and density of the test pie Testing (RT) ck® eo 7 ce cons mise ruption wbstantal net savings and higher marused Management, make decisions ating breakdown repr versus preventive astra eh 8 maintenance which involves a nemy defined nd equipment. The gual of TPM isto increase le ofthe condition monitoring is to moniter, either continuously 1 periodically, a selected parameter ofthe component to assess machine condition. sn monitoring techniques may be broadly assed unde four basic heads ing, performance monitoring vibration and nose monitoring ysis teehniqus used to evaluate tem without esusing damage. tale ge ener Liq one aa Pst " ‘Tet (PD, tis low cost inspection method orto de Tike pigment is bonded to their surfs reson use nares ih eter re ogo Mii UT waves ae quencies ranging launched into mater provides (OA can be divides luding those ofthe base ol ‘nd snalysis of wear debris from ™ inate eqntaminantsjpment wear records and stand: a. Beplain period enanee. Explai rents used lain in 142, What are the “naintenance with a diagram. seuss in det Explain with soge 147, Write short notes on the folowit Pens Radiographic Testing. _ PARETO PRINCIPLE Pareto Principe, Pareto Aras a aon Making, Paired Comparson Analyse 7 St? MEPS, Pareto Anais, INTRODUCTION ‘man who frst discovered and descr ‘0; 20° phenomenon, Vilfredo Pareto (1848-1923. 20 per erat he ee cwmed perce mn this he also noted that this Prefab malas could strate that, for example, 10 per een wold hav 8 per cent ite wealth, and 5 per cent of people would own 30 per cet a the wealth. these other ratios are what Pateto ot scientific absolutes that ean Pardo then tested his 80-20 princi nother countries, and all sorts of other dst sis able to confirm that the 80: 20 Princip a model to predict and measure ‘nd manage all kinds of effeets and situations 182. PARETO PRINCIPLE wt areto principle suggests that where two related data sets oF rouP os 'scause and effector input and ouput the “20 per cent of output is produced by 0 per con ohnP or 3 “ causes 80 per cont of outcomes are from 20 percent of or cngA Pet cent of contribution eames from 20 P2 “bution available” 1 cent of the Pol 209ity Rogineering = ene an rth tle ave ace ony ate! or theory, and an extremely ° nein managements tcial-stugy bation analy ae ye gos not quay that the 80:20 g ear hat the wo figures must add to map'e 2a re 20 coelation ther ration might be Pon important such 190: 20 signifies top end. - 40 indicates an enormous amount of ineffectual activity or conten ome the ‘standard’? ras the first to be discovered. Some examples of Py ins. As per Pareto principle the following jt of the difficulty in achieving something lies in 20 per et the challenge. This ratio remains the most striking and com 's ratio has always been used as the name and by come from 20 per cent of efforts. 80 per cent of usage is by 20 per cent of users. {@) 80 per cent of problems come from 20 per cent of causes, 10 per cent of work absence is due to 20 per cent of staff (i 80 per cent of corporate pollution comes from 20 per cent of corporations. £80 per cent of sales will come from 20 per cent of sales people, £80 per cent of complaints come from 20 per cent of customers. '80 per cent of profit comes from 20 per cent of the product range. (xi) 80 per cent of revenue comes from 20 per cent of customers, (xii) 80 per cent of road traffic accidents are cause by 20 per cent of 80 per cent of a restaurant's turnover comes from 20 per cent of is (ziv) 80 per cent of your time spent on this website will be spent on 20 cent of this website. (20) and so on Ina given si 80: 20, but in mam ion, the precise ratio can and probably will be differnt” ases the actual ratio will not be far away from the 80:2 analysis, planning, problem-solving, detisi troubleshooting and change management, particularly when bet intial judgements have to be made, and when propositions need che fany complex business disasters could easily have been averaged if th instigators hed thought to refer tothe Pareto Principle asa ‘sanity check —8 Pareto Prin vg law i8 8 VEFY Powerful model Ant i Fa model wig a Hstvean sor example of 88 Organisation w csi entre product range} Pian dy ope of the Products, andl yee cei set tran. Tis ijt ofits Phyais’ and getting these statics wt EY ‘and possibly find a lot of progr 1g in FeSOUFCES, Product conten mm where an ‘output: i LYS *, PARETO ANALYSIS STEP BY STEP METHOD 3 orm a table Bstng the causes and > rvange the rows in the decreasing or Mrmighe most important cause first. (on the same graph) abar graph with causes on xxi and perce frequency on Y-axis vi pecan Draw a 5 y-ans parle aa, Then drop the inet point of intersection with the curve on axis, This pit onthe x Separates the important eauses onthe let and les important g cumpotacvs onset gee ao 3 Fig. 15: Pareo Diagam Exane onwobste POE Figure 15.1 gives an example ofa! Pareto diagram es fone to 808 the relative frogney’ of eases for ears om WEDSIES Hea TN utabe ‘hat 20% of cases ae causing 80% ofthe problems sn freussed to achieve the greatest improvemen ‘The value of the Pareto principle for 8PM seri hv itreinds yo8 ‘ gs one does during ‘the: vs chat mater. OF the thing sige one ose 20% proce S% YO rst, but don't totally 3eROFSthod i le, if one is trying tO of th ch change relates the the lowest scores ‘The following comments received from the customers ‘seem distracted and under pressure. 2. Staff members do not always seem to know what they are doing 8, Phones are only answered after many rings. 4. Engineers do not appear to be well organised. They need second vss bring extra parts. This means that customers have to take me 1 to be there a second time. If the Pareto analysis is done, one can see that the vast majority of probless (70%) can be solved by improving staff skills. Now it may be worth considering toincrease the number of staff members, Alternatively, as staff members become improve capabi over the phone, only new staff members may be needed. As poor organisation and prepara caused by problems beyond the one's co an issue, instead of efforts, hiring new staff members, and possi ‘new computer system. 10 solve problems le technique which helps to identi important problem. For application: som a teh use tl sep 2 kn ee eh paste gives 8 8OTCS 0 identity ghee T COMPARES Anatene ison analysis helps to ive to each other, torent the protege to be sclve, the option anda ‘These comparisons his technique a options are listed. A there will never be a iybe on the diagonal running orm to the bottom right. kof cells on the table where a comparison is duplicated ¢ will be the cells below the diagonal, tion in the row with the one in the \ ‘importance is decided. A letter of } ion is written in the cel. The difference of ; (no difference) to 3 (major difference) is ‘are consolidated by adding up the total . values for each of the options. You may want to convert these values may be converted into a percentage ofthe total sore. Note that, Generally, Paired Comparison Analysis is a good way of weigh: ing up the relative importance of different courses of action. Its useful where clear, or are competing in importance, This provides a frame ‘ork for comparing each course of action against al others, and helps to show the difference in importance between factors. oooINTRODUCTION curve a sustainable niche in the market. Tt helps tod ‘a way that takes best advantage of talents, al ‘SWOT Analysis is a scan of external and internal environm: important part of strategie self-planning smal fa classified as Strength (S) or Weak ‘opportunities and threats is SWOT. STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES THREATS Fig. 16.1. SWOT, SWOT is an acronym that stands for strengths, weaknesses, oppott inds for strengths, weaknesses, opport an threats. SWOT analysis is a basic, straight forward model that pt lirection and serves as a basis for the development and 1anagement urpose of SWOT analysis is togeth lyse and ev: ies ly jer, analyse and e formation and identify strategic options facing a community, organisa 2u4 *Etrongths and Weaknesses teat eat a a he eer ye ly pried a oe nt ne ee se ae a it easier to avi jourses and training are needed in order to remain competit own in this figure 16.2. a epnkae Internal Analysis (G000 STRATEGIES + Expl epporeies and staat “Nouns oreo res ‘hvod ornce wanes {nw erate Fig. 162. SWOT Analysé i ry out: = aueror to the following questions are writen 0 cary aswoT 1621, Strengths z What advantages does company have = What one does to do better than anyone ©kely to #00 as weaknesses? i comideration ie one in hin cana Local events Changes in social Changes in governmes iseful approach to look: What are competitors doing? Are the required specifica! changing? Is changing technology threatening the position? Does one have bad debt or cash flow problems? ns for t two people come up with the same SWOT is to be used as guide and not 0 erey are in relation att ob aided comp he competition, be kept short and ided, 10 Heme per lit ensures ony important factors ae (Sac ane a ry teh : Piattin snl wae on win eae ‘Tebulate the analysis as follows: thaps one does not have a direct ‘competes for money 9 competition pportunities eee oe canbenetterisgeow | Te peanarttal aking the rng, wennsss, recall ac of thee ators neds can ea jn in orda to considered as it applies tthe persona) rengtht tnd a Thetis the best path in le. By making 9 M0 ess and refine Weaknesses and if possible, a frend may be fet te plore other “Xslist. They may see something more or may beReliability Bogineering 8 _ etn ne. Opin qui tt om had vt feat can also be very pos ‘the worl, OpporWiearer picture exists of what posei mee ve strengths of a positive attitude , re BWOT analysis is to make a worksheet by dre cross erating Fig, 163, SWOT Anais, 1. Strengths ( Where one ext i) What unusual skills one possess? i) What experience provides the depeh of understanding for the wu, needs of the organisation is to be met? (o) What standards are followed to benefit the company? (o) What advantages one has? What one does well? if) What relevant resources one has access to? hat do other people see as one's strengths? is to be considered from one’s point ple one has to deal with. Modesty 2, Weaknesses (@ Where on falls short? (id) What types of tasks one fails to get done (Gi) In what ways one does not work well with fellow companions? (jv) What skills one lacks that would help you one do job more effectively! (o) Is one suffering from procrastination bug? (0) What one can improve? (i) What one does badly? (iti) What one should avoid? Again an internal and external basis consideration is to be given for Dv ther people seem to perceive weaknesses that one has not seen? It is best? be realistic now, and face any unpleasant truths as soon as possible. 3. Opportunities (0 How does one's work contribute to the bottom line ofthe organistie! time? ‘going on in th can benefit? rere are the 800d oppor wiht are the interesting what et © market, MS, the county, nities facing ue ends one ee : pos aa NE mc ee omtare to be looked into gry Y °Pportuni eo gt O's strengths £04 9k onset whernes eE™atively the one can open up is the organisation cha How ging, and wi what one does Ise imprtant % andl any of hone changes mate oes one perform a particular task Does one that noone has realised What obstacles does one face? What is one’s competition doing? AG) Are the required specifications for the 0 are ne 7 he job, products or services Is changing technology threatening the potion? (ci) Doos one has bad debtor cash‘tow protien (ai Could any of One's weaknesses sercay threaten the endaip? bslute, Cnsier the following factors when reviewing the esac = How can strengths be used to counteract threats? me 165. BENEFITS OF SWOT ANALYSIS ‘The benefits are: ( A framework for identifying and analysing strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats ) An impetus to analyse a situation and develop suitable strategies and tactics, A basis for assessing core capabilities and competencies. ) The evidence for, and cultural key to change. (A stimulus to participation in a group experience. eth and addresses one's weakmeases 166, Do's AND Don't FOR SWOT ANALYSIS Dos (0 Be analytical and specif : ') Be selective in the final evaluation. Choose a suitable SWOT leader or facilitator iEXAMPLE 161 ‘Giudent in considered here. The analyais Arenample of one BiTech stud Ismay ay f work experience 2, Weaknesses Impati Lack of confidence when dealing with people way to peer pressure 3. Opportui Work in a abo Dusiness jin experience of dealing with people Get experience of the world of work (© Earn money 4. Threats ‘ing into the company ing unsupported at work "lacement not loop Iture liable Go offsite, away from ringing phones and other distractions, for doing SWOT the group to anywhere from two to 10 people who setting bogged down ood analysis ean be com) days, formation, lp toa procedural issues. Speed is basic of SWOT appeal. leted in anywhere from several hours to two or thre spreading meetings over a week or two may give time together in A SWOT analysis is actually comprised of brainstorming about the key variables that affect the company. Strengths may include special skills, moti ‘ations, technology, or the distribution or financial capacities that one posses es CunpFOveR producty I te a ai sito They May tr ca ss oot the ning customer ude not only il probe, uch SWOT analysis sh ths match re market ould na bef the opportuni il wink ace Seogmvcats. For instance, if there's ery ka make one x ce busines han an age ee ‘il SWOT analysis isn't supposed to be a lat of ch ist. Ate doing ones When preparing a SWOT one should conse sch s “Being the largest competitor inthis niche” or the precdent enchey sarement age in June, Being concise and specific will help one make the met tithe analysis. ‘One should not restrict, to analy. his suggested devoting an nme for the analysis. Another meeting should be s wer to allow time for the necessary research. u top competitors. Wi sis of one's own company in the market. 3th entre strategy, onan do SHOT ana nts or functions, For example, you may do a SWOT analysis service, product development or dstrbutin fusions steve one analyse, keep th writen done fe libe kept looking at last year's SWOT can give ane «base ne for Pre ‘ting the current anal ting out area je or lacked adequate data. {in addition to point ‘optimistic, too pessiSelf Analysis 1. ASteady Person 4. As happy as others Seem to Be [Almost never 5. A failure [Almost never lida 6. AState of Tension and Turmoil as Seem from Recent Concerns and Interests 1. Secure | Cat 1 1 [Almost never 8, Self Confidence 9, Inadequate Imost never 1 ‘Almost never |” Sometimes 4 Amostalvaye | Sie [eet | | Aimost never] Sometimes dene sient [Almost never Sometimes 2 Sometimes 2 ‘Often | Often sogths {p Xis a profitable organisation. In 2005 prof June dipped 32 x Ua ‘experiencing large losses, due to its huge initial sp ensts, The recent dip is due to promotions that have ofered reduced delivery ewe to (@ Customer Relationship Management (CRM) and Information ‘Technology (IT) support X's busines strategy. The company carefully records data on customer buyer behaviour. This enables them to offer to an indivi al specific items, or bundles of items, based upon preferences demonstrated through purchases or items visited. (ii) X ie a huge global brand. It is recognizable for two main reasons. It was one of the original dotcoms and over the last decade it has developed a customer bese of round 0 milion people Ttwasan ery exploiter of online technologies for e-commerce, which made it one o the first online retailers, It has built on nits early successes with books, and now has product categories that ineude electronics toys and ames, DIY and more Weaknesses X adais new categories to its business it risks damaging its brand, tis aay USiste number one hy Imagine if Toys R- US began to sell: 3 np auloraive, the same way, many ofthe new categories fF exe ‘ sg customers. may prove to be too confusing fre ser ts strategy of The ingly may at some peint need € resteHowever, igh figure would range of products. Otherwise, price cor business, International competitors may also intrude upon x as it expands, domestic rivals unable to compete with x, may entrench overae atogic ing its top position in some markets, i) The products that x sells tend to be bought as fe such seasonality may not be enduring, EXAMPLE 16.3 SWOT Analysing YOUTUBE, 1 Strengths * Yoo Tube! overture isa tremendously pr focuses on affiliate advertising for large adver Jn the same way as Google's adsense program. This i come stream for Yoo Tube! be! has over 350 milion users ofits services and sol makes ita very powerful marketing company, with « very wel MBN and Googe te fom Hotmail (48%) or Gms BB, However, as technology develope future is uncertain for weakness for You Tube! and its competitors + Another income stream that hasbeen kay to You Tbe! derived fom its partnerships with telecommunicates providers E uy an cramp you met connection package om yur bal leh ludes a fee-based Yoo Tube! - = package including e-m: support and other added value services. If ever this s changed or removed, the income stream would he affected. ‘The international market is a huge opportunity for You Tube. You Tube ! Microsoft and Google are busy carving niches and taking over businesses in are around the Greater China Region. China has over 100,000, 10 citizens. Other economics, such as India, also offer growth potential. sams, Two thirds of organisations in Ohmac’s SME's are potential directory advertisers, Mobile technologies offer another opportanty for You Tube! Today we nd computers will personal organisers, must players and computers wil ‘merge and morph. The mobile devices ofthe fut ‘many of them. ‘and solutions, You Tube ! would be well placed to provide Threats competition Huge profits ‘The biggest for all web-based organisation is compet8. Dotcom fever ators Tocusced on profit delivery of Vogt ha et oogle and mang" has Aol Gov and many could aft YouToo! nag: China has developed ts own search quo Tord ue USA nol companies eg in as an international bang’! industry, or electroniee neo ua nat has been learned from the glob 16.7. KAIZEN 16371. Kaizen Concept ‘Kaizen isa Japanese word for “Improvement” or the betty eophy ot practice that focus upon continuous femurs ortng business processes, and may improve all functions, 0 tothe ascombly line workers. Kaizen sims ty 8 and process. Kaizen ia es besides just business and produ ien Iis also a process that humanises the es overly hard work. It teaches people how to pe ‘work using the scientifie rasteinb vrorkers Kaizen are employees fom the waste by improving st implemented in many tions for improvement veges P . is. The participation of workers is requires staff, as well as external stockholders when apy irge results in the form of compound pro ;provement. This differs from the “command and c includes changes and results m and extensive project schedul 16.7.2. implement Kaizen activity eyele i ( Operatie be as follows: is standardised. ‘Standardised operation cycle time is measured. In-process i determined. (ii) Gauge measurements are done as per requirements, (io) Innovations are done to meet re (©) Improved operations are standardis ‘ontinued. le is continued, {tis also known as PDCA cycle. In addition to business a into personal developme (© Teamwork ements and increase productivity ed, ( plications of the method, principles. The five mai has been popularised elements of kaizen are:ec oo ne mo aa ee es ee INTRODUCTION itsolfas a non-governmental organisation, its a become law, either through treaties or national ISO is a voluntary organisation whose members are recognised standard author ich one representing one country. The Specifications, Pul Guides, 17.2. 180 14000 ISO 14000 standar Standardisation (Si world, Itis a series Te provides a frame cls are developed by the Internatio 30), which has representation from com: of international standards on environmental managemét "work forthe development of an environmental managemé® 228 | satan and improve an environmental management sy Je supporting ay a0 tne mise how these t, tam, one elective Prt more ellective ne de wef efor ns i aytems based on theo OS an 0 9000 series on guaity man pa ents 8 clog EE en practices In structure ea fae pen goment and oth cane 000 wn smmjo01 standard rep meted sid by si ordi oat svete Seen maagemen fem and more | Specie aspect of eovironmeral mana tified by ment System document i 3004, the ISO 14001 standard was u in environmental consciusnes cost of waste management lower distribution cost, mers and the pub rienmental performa the a can control and thse wh It does not itself state specific environme licable to any organisation that wishes to est ‘fonformity with its stated environmental policy '80 14001:1996 has been introduced which provides framework for ‘lution prevention and waste reduction and compliance with legislative and "latory requirements with: () Reduction in Competi e advantage for ‘Green’ products Global Creation of an improved community gol, Improved environmental performance. Improved Industry Government relations Helps in conservation of raw materials and enerty Reduces incidents that results in lability a17a 1301008 180 isto provides pple tan oa on ene guidelines in ISO 14004" sno Sexi ee ofthe requirements of ISO 14001:200. ie toe environmental manageme 17 toot aanaarde provide tools for aconesing and 5up ting Breenhous, a sve the following benefits: 180 14064 comprises three standards: They can be used independently gy as an integrated set of tools do meet the varied needs of GHG accounting fog verification, They are: ( ISO 14084-1:2006, Greenhouse gases - Part-I; Specification wi guidance at the organisation level for the quantification and repo of greenhouse gas emissions and removals. (ii) 150 14064-2:2006, Greenhouse, gases-Part 2: Specification with sguidances at the project level for the quantification, monitoring and reporting of greenhouse gas emission reductions and removel enhancements, (iid) IS 14064-3:2006, Greenhouse gases. guidance for the validation and ver assertions, 176. OTHER ISO 14000 SERIES STANDARDS Other standards in the series are actually guidelines, many to help to achieve registration to ISO 14001. These include the following: (9 180 14010 provides general principles of environmental auditing. Gi) 180 14011 provides specifi ‘management system. (Gi) 180 14012 provides guidance on qualification criteria for environmentsl auditors and lead auditors, (iv) TSO 14013 provides audit () 180 14015 provides guide and organisations, rt 3: Specification with tion of greenhouse gas ic guidance on audit an environmental rogram review and assessment material: lines on environmental assessment of sites an 04 ZG aiid Provides pan Fe many similaitics bee int systems, whet 000 ment SY ether focused og anise 4180 1499, certain core elements safety rresponsibi ee includes pole : iM, record ERENCES BETWEEN 150 9000 AND 50 14009 Hee seuon total Customer sath tion, 180 Tanne oe Detain ad ning Serves as tol or defi qunets. An environmental system wil teivamental impacts and systems for repens ty system, the maj io meet oF exceed customer re rus customers are the only com compl system, mental systems is not so straight forward. Customers in a company’s environmental impacts, but there are ‘uy additional stakeholders to consider as well. Regulatory bodies, local munities, and environmental activist groups all have en intrest in a {tes environmental performance. Additional system requirements may also ‘from international treaties, industry-speciic programs, and codes of Peete, This all adds upto very complex and constantly changing set of “ritements from a wide variety of stakeholder. oooIntroduction; Lost and Worth; Ojective and Definition of Value Engineering: Vag Engineering Terms; Function; Effect of Funcion and Coston Value; Life Gye ors Product and Value Engineering; Steps in Value Engineering: Approaches Engineering; Methodology in Value Engineering; Matrix Method Engineering: Fast Diagram ing unnecessary costs in products, processes or systems, ‘and expectations from the product to perform a particular din value engineering. Val ep-by- step techniques to ‘The required or needed performance performance is what the custom: Performance, one should focus on overdesign, such as costly material, high factor of safety in de in general is defined as the ratio of function and cost. This is given by Function Value = “OS expressed as units of performance and cost is expressed ‘has € related to expenditure of resources. Hence, value is expressed as a relationship of what a product or servicelsystem achieves and at what cost For exampl between these re is need to travel between two cities, The distance 1000 km. The air ticket costs € 4000, the train ticket 232 1 Velue Eoginen rand the r086-bUS coats g 9p eee Lage Sa ei a rth orn wort, then Value = 0 ot atnded unan ost Cots jective of cost worth anal Me! ras are the areas of higher on =< 143 OBJECTIVE AND DEFINITION OF VALUE ENGINEERING tive -as related to value engineeri 7 after World War Il ing were developed by LawreneeD, ts, which comprise its st overall cost consistent. All the requirements le, 810 such as performance, reli aintainebility appearance, ‘ip intact. Figure 18.1 deseribes the value engineeringFig. 18.1. Vatie Engineering 184, VALUE ENGINEERING TERMS analysis, value management, value Performan e. are the many terms used for same erm: value engineering or VE, “T OF FUNCTION AND Cost oy, and cost the value is is same and with de and properties needed ty tions are compromised, a VALUE more than les in funetion ty Serap value: It is the money whi is not needed. It is the scrap Table 18.2, Method to ncaa Vane (Go) Cost value: Tt is the total cost of material, labour, overhead and services to produce an item (or to deliver a service), Function (F) the property and qualities which enable t product (or service) for something else, which ie Value can change with time and place. bbe computed performance wise. Value is a relationship b willingness to pay for it E. tion. For every product or services, there must Same Inoeasg Increase ee Same. ‘“S ‘example, pen makes a mark where ion. Other examples are shown in pen is a product and mark is a functi P-UFE CYCLE OF A PRODUCT AND VALUEENGINEERING ack salts Dhases from idea covering to birth of product, growth alue engineering is mo ery hase are involved in product life ee a tyes pe, Compared to maturity phase upto gr flected. Ice incomost while retaining the funct sn declini Trcomes later products which are wg cost alternative product a to profit margin reason seri the SHAQeey of competi, a F spPROACHES IN VALUE ENGINEERING 5s: M vided or exchange drasrest rae ir 0 Mange. mgullininate to halp Exchangoleliminate tee T {i DARSIRE: Data collection, analysis, record idea, speculate, innovate 7 eee ot review and implement. ee _ D_ | wa clean Fig. 182 Ue Oye of «Prout ane of Vl Oreted Prot pee | 11.8 STEPS IN VALUE ENGINEERING R | cords VE focuses to reduce cost and/or increase the functional property of an item, 3 | peulate | ‘This may be achieved by using. cheaper material and/or processes. ‘ tet Simple rule of thumb to judge the pc ial area of improvements are used, I — | If answer is yes to these questions, they go for them: R | evew | low to reduce cost of materi | ) How to reduce cost of operation? [1 | sleet i) How to reduce manpower needed in the production? ) Profit: Product return, opportunities by funeton investigation How to reduce time of operation/set-up of tools, jigs, ete?” techniques, (v) If automation or advanced manufacturing system cost effective, if yes, then sh it be adopted now? re ‘i M0, METHODOLOGY IN VALUE ENGINEERING items isthe starting point Thee are alio many questions reatd to product performance starting wi withthe identifiaton and classifi of eit What, Why, When, Where, What else, How, Doe: ‘alae 1 f the items ar Vhat, Why, When, Where, ise, How, Does, Do, Is, If ete. These questions engineering. Then function o cost reduction a faneion give answer to the VE strategies. Some of the questions are: Gssted and compared. Alternative strateny det ae What is the item? “provement is adopted. Figure 183 shows (i) What does it do? SanFig. 183, Methodology of VE 48.11. MATRIX METHOD IN VALUE ENGINEERING y ‘The most suitable alter technique in matrix met ve is related by using a numerical evaluation if funetion of a row is mn. For example, FY is, then F4 as shown in Table 18.3, “et 8 fe alternatives (A) to satisfy the ove ist cost (C) for each A, or each alternative (A) ire Al has Gale os 6; fr example, ; nak axoised wor = 498 ative as one of the flowing erie Step 8: Sum all rows, me? J ‘sum in last column Paige te ati ns. For example, the relative rank is F2, Step 5: Create a weigh 2 ‘relght factor (W) for each factor ® the bass ofthe impact of Fone crc ae gram is an effective graphical Ngee vlidate the pure led the function that i served fa parton BAST dag aaa parts to serve the function at lowest cost to validate the function of a component.eed (gS Soe wane ofthe analy. 1 includes ig Ses Saft art and te nec is needed yy rt Totrace may not serve the basic objecyn ed tte ee se of tion and cot. This given by Aefined Het of fst foreach par, 9, ray, nctions oa product, servic ot ns atthe lowest overall prise value sucha performance, satisfied by process continues, Step 6: Determine critical path of functi connection of all the eross referen ions. Critical p ed functions listed in the fast is | when query. Show these by d : ‘hes query function are nog fiazam, Remaining function tre unneceaary a FA functions. List these functions, a Sten 9: Pace conponent ear tothe repetve function diagram. One fast diagram is shown in figure 0 ey engineering ‘matrix method in value engineering plain FAST, sree ‘Scape o FAST cagrama APPENDICES Appendix-A: Reliability Terms Appendix-B: Maintenance Terms Appendix-C: Mechanical Reliability Standards Appendix-D: Electronics Reliability Test Standards Appendix-E: ASTM International Appendix-F: Normal Distribution Appendix-G: Cumulative Poisson Probabilities Appendix-H: Reliability and Survival Appendix-I: Model Question Papers Se ee ee ha 243,Cartesion (rectiineas) tal axis of graph. The test’. A test oF testing process es by operating equipment under ‘would be Is, or duty eyeles beyond accelerated testing is intended to dete 3 failure modes faster, ne ure modes that would not occur in normal operation. Acceptable quality level: The maximum pereentage or proportion of dese sms in a batch, tested by sampling, which can be accepted as 1 process average. Acceptance number: The maximum number of defective items in a batch, tested by acceptance sampling, that will allow the batch to be accepted without f jon number. Acceptance number is alwa ber: if, for a particular sample, acceptance jection number, then further inspection ig batches to determine whether ing plan, See also acceptance Acceptance sampling: Sampling for to accept the, according to a samy "The ease with which operators and service personnel can access components, ez, required to keep a unt operational or repat it after a failure. Normally applied to physical accessibility, but could also al issues such as the ease-of-use of a computerizedom Bar — cet wen nt ne a iacrete oe Some examples include integrated cir in hypothesis tes ASCIL: American Stan‘ Oe format tof system is operational when called poy ue of availability is expreset leulaton take into account boty, Butielerated olse mortality failures. eo CAGE: Commercial and Gov ‘A reliability stands models for a wi jive model similar to ernment Entity Code. Normally a 5 digit code ind developed by France Telecom? ide range of components. CNI "MIL-HDBK-217, which provides a detailed stare Group: An event or mechaniam that can erm | on is called a common cause. The failures are referred to as common caus ‘2 common cause failure group o : ‘ause. Tt also enables you to create a common caus organize our common cause failure information. Correlation File: A file which store ‘part numbers to part numbers in ang the ot of « producto a . cd 1, development, and replacement cost. Relex Life | ‘users to perform cost analyses, using @ 3S) tree, factoring in alternatives time inte and other variables. Criticality: A relative measure of the consequence of mode and ita frequency of occurrence. The criticality va failure modes when performing of FMECA. Criticality Matrix: A graphical representation ofthe failure mode and efi usually graphed as probability of occurrence vs. Severity level. The Bt FMEA Wizard enables users to configure the X and Y axes of the c ‘matrix when setting up Project files to receive FMEA information. ticular fe toes used ra ___2i] Dea eoMea: ‘A failure modes ffects analysis that studies how a system si fects to various failure modes, The Relex FMEA safes Sones Device design FMEA ee ince Di lower Duty Cyc’ SPP" bound, among others le Uo settings, Thang When computing failure rates based on active and dormant is in the naga eis equal to the percentage of total time or ayatem st whieh evens co to Failure Data Anal is used to study a variety sechanical, chemical, (PME): ‘An ince, Ntiome up and perio core ota OF the eof various types of fares on such as SAE J1739, AIAG Potential Faure ‘ell as documents from Ford, Chl, rato on performing FMEA Analysis (FMECA): An inductive, ‘system. Various standards ‘Mode and Effects An core of a FMECA is the determination ofthe effects of various typee failures on a system. A critical oie kota allows ranking the most severe failure modes andthe ons moct likely to aceur. The analyst may then target these failure modes in order to reduce their probability of oocurrence. MIL-STD-1629 provides instructions and formats for performing FMECAs. Failure Rate: The number of failures experienced or expected for a device divide by the total equipment operating ime or constant flue rate items, ‘umerical inverse of the Mean Time Between Failures (MTBF).ductive, top-down, 208 890g fa top event £0 analyse ‘Tree Analysis: A de ‘and perform hte, et ly using « lope structure of sc certain elements, ‘event to oceur. In alan AND gate, meaning : fre top event. If the basic ov tend ct EE eb grouped ander an OR gah per in ey tons oul be sete ven as faikures in time). Describes the failure rate when «per billion hours, ‘s A oa ee failures by performing a failure analysis, dec evimplementing those corrective actions back icturing process, A good FRACAS system |, improvement. to the Weibul since Gumbel dower). Gumbel* (Upper): An extreme maximum value failure dist (Upper) ia Type I upper extreme value. H.. HRDS: A reliability standard developed by British Tele that also provides models for a wide range of components. In gener HRDS is similar to CNET 93, but provides simpler models and fewer data parameters for analysis. Hybrid: A component in a relatively large package tt mounted on a substrate. 8 ‘Junetion: An object used in reliability block diagrams to join multiple connectors together such as in parallel or redundant configurations Junctions can be set in series, parallel operating, or standby operatits ben Lambda-Tau Caleulation: A caleuation method used to deters availabilty or short-term reliability when the age of a component OF unknown or indeterminate, ee hat contains other pats Crore oti ie tg ‘Sete repel cmt, aod ‘Store t'perform con an Lognormal Distributio, istibation except ther es them bus all value se po father that wed to the nor tribution is skewed to port for macro, rate. IF Rate for seo the failure = 1,000,000/Failure 8 Techni ms, but MTBF is ‘repairable items, nee to repairable items, while MTTF should be used for items, but MTBF is common! items, but MTBF ly used for both repairable Nean Time to Repair (MTR): The total amount time spent prormin allcrestive maintenance repairs divided by the atl number of hose ae of Reliability: When performing a reliability prediction analysis, ite, te several calculated values that provide measures of reli ‘hese values include failure rate, mean time between failure (MTBF), lability and availability. non-rep: andReliability Enginesring = pat | ty prediction standard originally developed for fr adopted By many to simply . sr dissipation, and environmental fact 15 MEOH en Tne Ber set tem 3tainability prediction long recognised standard that describes on ' 1d Cri ity Analyses. It Froid ela epenent on severity tnodale supports theca = Contains the asec at cach mode of FMAE/FMECA software STD-1629. percentage of time provides co Net Prent Value: (Aso known as NPV) The cat of «prod “sla tn pe yur. ue aCe Cot LC tina eterna parle eb would be eter inca Sie ee ear a costs may be lower. field of statistics and probability. Al and the mean and standard deviation values are used as its two distributi parameters 0... Operating Environment: Environment of the selected item in the Relex hhierarchical display (treo). When the operating environment is selected for the top level ofthe tree, it serves as the environment for below it. If an environment is selected in the Properties of a lower level item, that selection overrides the environment at the higher level. OrCAD: Provides digital and analog design, circuit simulation, board layout and other engineering software tool redundancy of several tems oF compone which could pertorns are used to help in Redunday ity oF ebay from Oto and 'Y of mission success, Reliability operating at time zero, tha known as the probal the syste operate until time 1 | Tepes wait tin aay} | | A method of anal -telated issues. The goal isto imere he ae eatuaing ‘to improve the field reliability of the ty Block Diagram (RBI *ntains redundancy in its that ‘ritical funetions A visual representation of a system ie lements. Redundancy is used for miston ere a single-point failure is not acceptable and y needs to be improved. Generally represented in a graphical} a _mple RBD model may be calculated using analytical solutions, | more complex RBD may be calculated using a Monte Carlo anner, WhileStandby Nonoperating: A type of redundancy recognized by Relex ity, availability, failure rate, any simulation. Res an formed in order to quantify the r Calculations: Pe ae dere atily o¢ g Rare prior t and during development gf Ee dari mem ala es Scere ng what mange Rel Used in FMEA analysis to rank the i failure, RPN = Severity * Occurrence © CX reanzaion tha developed he SAB 1 Sexi of Automotive Eniner. Or SAB, Soviet of Aulomti Ootorl approw for FMEA analysis The Role ARES) tet outing ene Pupp the SAB. ARP. 5580 FMEA Pech wanda enstvty Angas Ure in a tara ean ete Series Serie doves tsi but al reduntnt Ses and are roquied fr suena Tr Une to depron item that, aur of te sytem ‘tnthed of analyzing and predicting the fe eyele cost (LCC) analysis to determine tive is, and how sensitive the overall cost items performing the same operational at all, lity of software. Software compared to hardware relia own as Simulation Program with Integrated C ion technology from Berkeley, Calif SPICE has been developed into software products for sale from software manufacturers such as Intusoft and OrCAD among others. the Relex RBD software module. Standby Nonoperating describes a redundancy of several items performing the same task, but all redundant systems, 0 components are not fully operational at all times. Only those that ® ied are in an “on” state. In a Standby Nonoperating environment, I units are required for successful operation, 7 w" Fe her oe eeedure. When ty ction, they gener Of the gh other ede pe ‘Tasks, Super: (Also 4 tasks which have en con ort tee pe Seto a ka le "erating, and § mOpeaaton The Simple oan ine hat the anda wary tteuon. can be Sea pest 2 Me od a Unit: An assembly of devices iat the Able can only exist in the © interval engin’ PPIly of ocutrenee (©, drei pak, Module, plug-in, ra UierDefined Values Files: Allows ed nalty levels, eatogoriew an file is enabledin a Project fie, a and subcategories defined 4h within the Project file Wa se 6 cate et pris One «Vane a aments, quality levels, eat . Use Dein Sa WeiBayes: A special case of the Weib pe) vall tire iain wh ined by the user. ee failure distribution dhatis ery wef can be used to model many other life u adjusting the beta factor, or shape cee a the Weibull ae aa it can be made to model a dec or increasing mard#te. The Weibull distribution pr accurate failure “lysis and failure forecasts with extremely small ‘samples. ies because reliability onarts required to perform as ndard cra Standard Jo for Ro radesperson (or eraftsperst Asset ance this is commonly ‘ken to be any item of physical plant or equipmet : ity: The proportion of total time that an item of equipment is capahi expressed as a percent lable hours by the ‘given period. One of the major sources of disagreement over the definition of availablity is whether downtime should be divided by total hours, or by Scheduled Operating Time. For example, 3] number of hours i ifyour plant is only scheduled to operate 5 days a week, should downtime incurred over the weekend be included in the calculation of availabil ‘The view I take is that one of the prime goals of any organization should bbe to maximize its Return on Assets. This can only be achieved by redu the total downtime, regardless of whet cor not. For capable of performing its specified functions. It is equal to in any given period, less the downtime hours ‘Average Life: How long, on average, a component will last before it suffers a failure. Commonly measured by Mean Time Between Failures, Backlog: Work which has not beon completed by the nominated ‘required by 254 all of particular asset Parts and components that mae ved with an Applications Parte Lig 6, where an item of plant or equipment with other, standard eomponente ement Sytem hoeptrina poem and efficient managemer ata on of computer fchly. eee computerized Werk Order stones wel eh fenance: An equipment maintenance strategy based ‘on measuring the condition of equipment in order to assess whether it will fail during some future period, and then taking appropriate ation to he consequences ofthat failure. The condition of equipment could fored using Condition Monitoring, Statistical Procese techniques, by monitoring equipment performance, or through the use of Contract Acceptance Sheet: A ea me Lion correct a failure that has occurred or is in ‘the process of core isspprenticent? sree Ant Set op eons af allure! Ao tem feign capable ol enh ot included in the ites The total length ae is expected nt as suffered failure when ofits intended function, Ney tn ons No Maintenance termine ‘Would you elas requirements for efficiency inment e Centered rovide the same quality and quant re efficiently * Functional Failure of outpu n20 ten the cause of fale eq ack tlre, eal tose mitlcinee reach of any Known environ Failure Consequences: A term used in Reliability Center ‘The consequences of Safety, Envir isn't very useful, Twas to tell you that my Aunt has chopping firewood, and in the last 40 years it Mainteane Turn can be cafe as bing ether Hien rmntal, Operntinal, or Non Operon pment Life: This term often nm practical sna, Fr op mane hat abo ie for thas had 2 new accra hpi remeas ow would you define the hfe of the axe? Perhaps wre Effect: A description of the events that oovur aller a failure has ‘ocurred as a result ofa spocitic Failure Mode. Used in Reliability Centered intenance, FMEA and FMECA analyses. Failure Finding Interval: The frequency with whi Life. Also see Beot ‘Task is perfor c Life ee 1 Failure Finding Equipment Maintenance Strategi od, Is determined by the frequency of failure of the Protective Device, and the desired availablity required of that Protective Device. tasks and the timing of those tasks, desi equipment o Failure Finding Task: Used in Reliability Centered Maintenance terminology. A routine maintenance task, normally an inspection oF & nues to fulfil its intended funct testing task, designed to determine, for Hidden Estimated Plant Replacement Value: The estimate or component has failed. A failure ic should not be confused required to replace all the existing assets with new ‘with an On-Condition Task, which is intended to determine whether an producing the same quantity and quality rm is about to fail. Failure Finding tasks are sometimes referred to a5 often used in ben« inctional Tests. Estimating Index: The r Failure Mos the work specified on complete the work spe Ge: A structed method of allure Modes, Effects and : A structured Fal Mod een of fares and ther fet on profusion ee cost, quality, et. Failure Modes and Effects Analysis: A str res, whether an item output, This is a key value finding tas or productivits, ting standards. A figure snired method of determiningFailure P tare att itm, ad allure gn, Research 2 : Fie Mate cn, tr het aes 2 iin a oe fl oe Th geeernining Ree a ire ol can wy, Ti ac oe oe ena saterod Maintenaice 7 aby Ct work and work which is due g wera wo bocme DaclO€ WO" nce pre-specified Future time period crete etn own a pment todo, and nto Te den ch tin wero ne eras iy of equpment can ave pan} {nang of etry Functions. Note alo thatthe nd Secontequired by the users of the ed Ahfornt to the original desig, or rth may ability forthe equipment rman caRalabity entered Maintenance trina ce oe more oft fonction lure Maustry established that there ax 14 activities showing the duration mind sequencing of activities Gorline: Used in relation to mobile eauipmen Equipment which is available, tine ing utilized i typically parked onthe Co ‘ine. This term is used puerchangeably with Ready Line. Hazop: A structured process, originally developed by ICI following the sap: A righ disaster, intended 10 proactively jdentify equipment cannoreias andlor safety devices required in ordex ‘avoid any significant oar environmental incident asa result of equipment failure. Similar, sary respects to Reliability Centered Mainiens ‘but not as rigorous in eniabity Centered Maintenance in identiing ‘underlying causes of tare and does not consider, in any depth, the Pas ty of avoiding {aia dents ehrough applying appropriate Proactive ‘Maintenance tasks. Hidden Failure: A failure which, on its own, dose 0 ‘become evident to the erating erew under normal circumstances. TYPO protective devices ner vipot fail-safe (examples could include standby plant and ‘equipment, emergency systems, ete) Infant Mortality: The relatively high conditional probability of failure during the period immediately after an its fem returns to service. Inherent Reliability: A measure ofthe reliability of an item. its present operating context, ‘assuming adherence to ideal equipment ‘maintenance strategies. Inspection: Any task undertaken to determine the condition of equipment, ojos to determine the tools, labour, materials, and equipment required to repair the item. ices ‘ey Performance re Ase se epfrmanes Talons Aa Sears ey ya sm of ea oF pure weed in compe carpets option, © TUTCNM#® optlons in order to Logistic Support Analysis (LSA); A methodology fr det Pd quaniity of lopiaie rupee: verbose ee ale cine ince jong meet eee of appropriate tol, ssentnann th ‘maintainal cesses that 9 ty requirement, allocate these requirements down to eystem nts and predict and : performance Jntenance: Any activity carried out on an asset in order to ensure tha interact continues to perform is inten 2 a hat linden ett mute eh nt they may be earried out by mai BA oe Sage m iy maintenanee personnel Maintenance Engineering: A staff fun Mai ion whose prime responsibility is Viensure that maintenance techniques are effective, that equipment is aa at modified to improve maintainability, teat otesing msi eamel pole wr kao Enema eee Maintenance Policy: A statement of pine funagoment decision making Maintenance Schedule: A sed to guide Maintenance ist of planned maintenance tasks abe esorme ae ime period, together wth te expected sat nee SOE uring oreo of these tasks. Schedles ean apply wo ferns Se rests Ge, Daily Schedule, Weekly Schedule ete) een seatugy: Along rm pan, —} Nonelectronie P © Pie doe Je This usually converted to. wok | Nonsessonic Far Bl Wont the amount of labor hours required virnance tasks — — tay of Pree, | AAT ae Seley ‘the UK 1983-1988. | Reliability Diretora ee ei T Ministry of Defense, om a ee ‘Det Norske Ventas | \ Bradford University, 1980 | [Dester and iz Data EI Do Pont de Nemours | | Perkins ei Company, USA, 1982 | | \ Lateraeee TEIREDA | ‘ta Handboo | Power Plans TENTData [E! Date Book [Book | Component | Handbook _ {Green and, [Bourne vials oe oeTEBE Sed | 00-988 ‘ponents in Swedish ear Power Plants [Ha | Rothbart Publisher and Date rational Atomic) tronic Engincer, Now York 1983 iS Department of Di. Smith | in Perspect MacMillan, London, 1985 | ‘A Survey of Defects Vessels and | Warwick | 5, report SRD R203 ‘AEA Technology Safety iy Directorate, 1981 { [WASH 1400 | Reactor Safety Study. An | Assessment of Accident Risks an US Commerical Nuclear Power Plants, [__[Fatte be US Atomic Energy Commis ELECTRONICS RELIAI BILITY’ __TEST STANDARDS BITA (Japan Electronics an ETA (Japan Electronics and Information Teehloy Inde 2, JIS Japanese Indust component parts (ML x semiconductor devices (MIL-STD-50) = (MIL-STD-885) ‘ommission) Standards € Publieation 68) semiconductor devices IEC (International Electrotechnical C + Basie environmental testing procedures + Mechanical and environmental test methods (IEC Publication 749) JEDEC (Joint Electron Ds of the US. 4 fevice Engineering Council) Standards 1 for semiconductor devices (JESD22) RCJ (Reliability Center for Blectronic Componenst of Japan) Standards Guidelines of the static electricity damé the semiconductor devices (E6-E5.0)) jon research re pith stand type vest of the devices .g of ESD-sems! age avoidance engineering of fe devices and parts 268‘Estimation Example Gener 6 ima RY 8 k= ‘al fai-| Total failure [Data | Source ~ |avoo | | lavco |aveo” Fined displace veo | eno | ment pum cast h predates other ind AFNO! 1f the mission time fot success would be: P, = 2? Seidering that much of the data ftommended that an in depth stress st component. ooo ‘Ds cost almost. USD $9000 and included 81 volumes. Fo pri on and cost was based upon usage. For 2008, vajete sat of books or CDs cost almost USD $0700 and included 82 volumes, tory ‘A group of scientists and engineers, ed by Charles Benjamin Dudley, feast the American society for Testing and Materials in 1896 to adress che frguent rail breaks plaguing the fast growing railroad industry. Te ere ‘eeloped a standard for the steel used to fabricate ‘ebrated its Centennial in 1998 with an exa cussion about thei relevance in toll STM changed its ame to ASTM Interostions! © reflect global Dripation in ASTM and worldwide we of standards 2005, ASTM in partnership wit Citation Wen anda dynamic, online we brary for Environments tn 2009, ASTM in conjunction in 2008, ASTM in eonjune ‘lenge of Federal agencies not UPd ‘str 49 CER. am i.joint effort by sta 'ANSE AST and DIN created a single, centralized Standards "The standards produced by ASTM International the w the Standard Specification, that defines the requirements tg satisfied by subject of the standard. be that defines the way a test is performe, ‘The result of the test may be used st ince with a Standard Specification, to , that defines a sequence of operations that sst Method, does not produce a rest tse. The Terminology Standard, terms used in the other standards. ‘The quality of the standards is such that they are frequently used worldwide. ‘The Annual Book of ASTM Standards covers 15 sections of interest a master index: 1, Iron and Stee! Products. 2, Non-ferrous Metal Products. 3. Metals Test Methods and Analytical Procedu 4. Construction. 5, Petroleum Products, Lubricants, 6. Paints, Related Coat 10. Blectrical Insulation and Electronics. 11, Water and Environmental Technology. 12, Nuclear, Solar, and Geothermal Energy. rrumentation, 15, General Products, Chemical Specialties, and End Use Products. 16, Index to all sections and volumes. tandards can be purchased as a digital library subscription ot from ASTM and other qualified standards providers. When maintaining a large standards library, often digital subscriptions are used ! simplify staying current on standards and to remain in compliance with all copyright laws. A technical library at a university may also have copies of standards to review. sernational presents several including the AST} "s highest award), wands fr Inter De anattasara bby an external contract, corpra 2 corporation, the United States, ASTM st incorporation or bj eg government reg ‘Advancement Act, passed in 1995, ro tse privately developed omens eet Act reflects what had long been recommenied the federal government. ae + Other governments (local and worl standards. oa) + Corporations doing internat ASTM standard.NORMAL DISTRIBUTION | eo = oss | 7019 | es ICUMULATIVE POISSON PROBABILITIES SREEEESEESEStEEeeeen BESEEEESESE eooccesooossooc€Hours of Operation Faitures Wenn tae GE Bt Ri Se Ett ge as be gk a aus aos sar | 10,000 15,000 |a Retisbility Engineering & 33 MODEL Ques7; Papers re Model Questioy n Paper RELIABILITY ENGINEERING ge sHoure a Rota sen ay ipt ALL questions we tte 7 uempt any four parts of the flowing 5 Mer tie aati elena oy yeggggggaasscs uly become a matter of interest noms se Wi asthe Breer op buawatypic bhtab car pin oop acesa88eeseg of the failure rate ofa produc asa funcional tine eee ageeeEesaecee (o Define and describe the terms, MITE, MTR, and MTBF manenceae2eagags (@) Explain, how reliability ofan equipment canbe expressed geeeeseTSsanea of working and probability of failure ee, maeeeasesesase (@) Whatis the need of quality control fa product in mas prtutn GggsE2eessse8 Dow bit diferent fom quiy wae sii ctorea cy men crsa bits Se (f Differentiate between Quality of a product and Quality of a process. SgPeFSszESSSsS 1. Attempt any four parts of the following: oo tail tn jatele rar aimia! {@) Define: Sample space, Mutually exclusive events, Dependent events geese sasssese Complementary events, and Independent events. (b) Amachine, produces attotal of 12000 bolts a day which are,on the average, wanncoersgaets 3% defective. ‘Find the probability that out of 600 bolts chosen at random, PSSSSSSESSSISS 12 willbe defective. Explain alzuatons wth logic Dnt simpli he expression. eses z) Vaud Segeagggseaeee (9 Prove that for any ofthe eres Ay Ay Ay PYAR == AD gees S8ES55S888 SPER tPA) es gggcis (@) What do you 12 dessa by Random variable, Vanabe SfeSeggeeeess data? ital SUAS SSRR RAR aS on prove tat ant (© Using exponential failure density Se a here's tne * during’? and (+ 1) is ivenbY PAY eeee8823es238s ) Differentiate between Binomie! aie distribution. 21pt ripe ,e following: 2 Astempt any eo parts of th At do you understand By seriee and Pa stordetermination of component cree Discuss, bow to find the Sidtber of erie of eompone Biithte of umber of com (@) What do you understand b Free down in the He 4. Attempt any two parts of the following: (@) () Whatis Quality Assu free” statement in (ii) Differentiate between control charts for attributes and contr of variables. 5. Attempt any two parts of the following: influence the produ 1s for improving of a product. (©) Write elaborate notes on the following: (@ New seven and old seven tools of quality control. Gi) Applications of Quality and Reliabi yy Standby system? Consider the standby snce? What are the factors influencing quali She necessity and significance of determining the softw Discuss this ity and Maintainability trade off with the help of figures. vity of a bu ‘and reliability 'o hardware and software. _——* hovena oe Appendices Model Question ¢-—— RELIABILITY se" Pavers, 281 ENGIN ya Hours TEERING H sgompt ALL question, we at any £00" PATS Of the fog, empatis the distinction between wiot ge and explain the possibig sineering systems te Gompare and constrast the flowin Reliability and availabilty y fow does human error affect the system, ‘What do you understand by Mortaltyee tempt any two parts of the following: transport of a large number of el Se : sec comment yore any cones teres eee vey 6 just 1g exactly six good components five or more of them being good (d) Acinema house gets electric power ftom a generator run bya diesel engine. On any given day, the probability thatthe generator is down charts (event A) is 0,026 and the probability that the diesel engine is down (event B) is 0.04, What is the probability thatthe cinema house will (0x2) have power on any given day? Assume that the occurence of events A and B are independent of each other. (© The working life of a certain type of electri bulb “Teeribetion with standard deviation = 50th and mean = S00 Bou horganisaton uses 1000othesbulls eterine beers numer of bulbs be replaced at or before 400 hr. 1 Attempt any two parts of the following . consists of five components connected a8 ty ofthe system. (92) shown in ig 1-Find oa958 O90 (0) Consider the emergency ligh jem. The basic components of the © Spocem are the main supply, ig and change over switch, When the main supply fils, th system operates the switch ‘battery is connected across the lamp. Assuming that the lamps the system wil fil only in the following conditi ‘i The main supply fail event E,) and the sensing device fails tooperate (event E,) (i The change over switch fails (event E, ‘and the battery also ¢ tree diagram for thi ‘yand q, repres Ey By Band By (6 Whats @ logic diagram? Explain the difference between a tie-et logic diagram and a cut-set logic diagram, Which method will you prefer to uate the reliability of a 2-out of 5 : G system when the units are not identical? Why? 4. Attempt any two parts of the following: (10%2) 1s and strategies. nprovement, ovement, ing: (10%2) (@ What are the objectives ofr testing? Explain different types of reliability tests. (©) What are the principle elements of a test? Explain with the help of example(s), the general requirements of test procedures. (© Twenty small generators were put under test for a period of 1500 h, One generator failed at 400 h and was replaced one. A second failed at 500 h and was replaced. A third and fourth failed at 550 and 600 h, respectively, and were removed from replaced. A fifth malfunctioned at 700 h, was immediately repaired, and was put back into test. A sixth malfunctioned at 800 h, but was kept in test, Later analysis showed that failure was due to governor malfunction. Extimate the failure rate of the generators. What assumptions did you make? og te clearly the assum; may missing da of 8 boloical aap of economy in the mea tf uty and ‘of qual ‘it necessary to accumulat ‘ality and oot inca any two parts of probability of (a0x2) survival. Retbich « : eand Tap. ath in reliability study. Further, show t eet a beam metionis the aio of failure rate and reliability function ofthe system, (@ Under what situations parallel redundancy is generally introduce Prove that the components if duplicated in th ssa w meet | give higher system reliability than it duplicated at the subystom yment consists of three components A, B, and C what are functionally connected in parallel and the respective reliabilities are (0.92, 0.95 and 0.96, then what will be the equipment reabiiy? | Attempt any two parts of the following: (102) (@) Classify redundancy and describe each briefly. Caleult the reliability ‘ofa 2 out of 4 configuration having an identical constant flue rae of 0.01 per hour for a mission time of 10 hour. ages (© What are the areas where the utilization and applicanee 0 Oo programme can be obtained? What are the reasons for it of the stages where the tests: ‘can be formed. 650 ours, 50 tbe A sample of 300 items was placed cates A pours, the tet as survivors were withdrawn and at the end of terminated with 95 ofthe original specimens hours was recorded for each specie) aeige computed as 1544.8. Calculate’ the expect item, Comment on your answer‘any two parts of the following aps ta for the (@) Enumerate the 9000, Show by ‘mainainabiity expressed in percentage’ om the re 5." Attempt any two parts of the (@) Define the following terms: jempt any two parts of the following: jain the cirumstanees in which, Properties of Properin of Suri following: Jelationship among reliability, failure and MTB the QC software packages. le QC software, importance. { Attempt any two parts of the following o you understand by Reliability Life Testing? Wh water heating system such that the op event isasalty Explain the following in the light of system reliabiite 4 Attempt any two parts of the following: odes that ca to system ri connections.methods for analysing the ro methods fo ryan fan leon ie eninimised tcp any tro parts of te following 5 Aste aly inked to cont of rod mi penn tht quality system implementat any to Parts of the folowing fooning and its application in RetiahiityBainerng ) Uses of probability distribution, | Aitempt any two parts of the following: co) (o) What is system reliability? How reliability ofa systemcanbeinceted? Explain. (6) Whatis Reliability Testing? How component reli anbepreticted from test data analysis, () What is ‘Accelerated Testing’ and what are the main advantages ofthis type of testing in comparison to non-eclerated test? Discus (Attempt any two parts of the following: (02) (@) Why are the thermal aspects af electronic system design important for ability? What measured are generally taken to reduce operating temperatures? What is meant by ‘thermal jaro LZ wile (Discuss various failures mechenisns of eee commen are the measures taken to reduce failure ofelesronic compte (9 Describe the ways in which electra cbs How can these failures be minimized! failures? Explain. ‘Attempt any two parts of the follow (0) What do you understand by ual Management’? How does talfest_—SAvendices — Model Question Papesyy al 150 9000 certification? How ts implen Ome eet? plemented? RELIABILITY ENGINER; m any ¢wo of the following ? jy tiour® FRING ‘axtempt all questions, Total Merk: 108 ‘questions carn PY equal marks, iow Mrtable examples re which ae responsible for alec the cot the costo any prodet? Explain giving wer any two of the followiing: a ing: in Weibull Distribution, Whereis it applied? Write notes on the fellowing seca bolas ‘Sample space Gamma Distribution (o In how many ways the word PROBABILITY’ be arranged? 1: any two of the following: 1¢ design, manufacturing and application factors that ywing failure modes of integrated crits , Answe) (a) Deseribe the influence the fol Electro migr Latch up Electrostatic damage () Write short notes on any two ofthe following Stress derating Sneak Analysis, (iii) Design for produc (0 Explain the following fa Fatigue test and maintenance fe mechanisms: Wear i) Temperature j 4. Answer any two of the following: > expan, What aby 10 Certain 180 1400 1 anit, st Col and Tol (a) What do you understan difference in 150 9000: 90) (&) Explain the differene® between Quality ‘Management.a «e Rotisbility Engineering # (o) Write notes on any tW0 ofthe fol ‘SWOT analysis merenences 5 _ © Anpenties w lowing Pareto analysis fl, Reliability Engi Quality Policy sn Tu +f, 0m :Procial Rely Begins 207 gL Ltn ——_a Oe ‘ler, System Relia Pri by nto gringo ‘Tata McGraw-Hill, ‘jola A. and Bustamante A., Reliability Enginering, Khuver Academic hers, Netherlands, 1988. is G., Garvibba S. and Volta G., Synthesis and Analysis Methods dies, Plenum Pablshing Corporation Limited, 13, Balagurusamy E.. Re Company Limited, New ‘n RN, Reliability Bualuation of Engineering Systems ; iow Yor, 1988, 15, Colombo A.G. “Modelling and Applications, del Publishing Co, Holland, 1887 “Reliability, and Engineering Design, Marcel Appl 5, 18, Dummer G.W.A. and Griffin. & Sons, Ine., New York, 1960. oma ty Engineering, Tata McGraw Publishing Comp ao 5. ana Coombs CF. Jt Gy reson WG. a janagenens ek cLivan PPM 28, Misra K.B., Reliab’ Netherlands, 1992-noe or Brginerin, compe Sense ee New Yoru, , ainted East West Press Pvt. La, and ie Testing, Wey Bastar mie Now De Tillman FA ra Desi oe aie ai RS, Proto iabiiy, Queing ond 2 Tr con Prentice ale asin Ghats Nee Sere, 102. ooo panes ery cece eon Depa Cope eS Pens Apes ents Fc, Peton ayPoci 3 ice cain Commas, 12 on 0 Gn ~ Slaten istory System, 190 x = ° Designing for Optimum Maintains, ‘8 Destructive Testing, 108 Differences Between TS0 9000 and 180 14000, 231 Difficulties in Implementing TOM, 48 Distortion and J ‘Distribution Funct Camis Syetems or Shae the Lond, 68 Dus ame s Computerised Maintenance, 196 ‘Document and Data Contr, yendent Probab Conte Cantract Review, 162 Contra of fc of Futon Oo nor Supplied Product 165, Eat ONS “inspection, Measuring and Tee age GOSFES . gan M66 Beton = Noncotring Ps 6 Soap ENC 295eer 109000, 18 Boicnon by Paul ‘Expectation 34 real Distribution 28 Method. 79 affecting Meintainabiity, 8 sm, 238 fore Forecasting, 27 Handling Storage, Packaging Preservation and Delivery, 168 L.. Latch Up, system Configuration, 8 wwe and Definition of Value Engineering, 239, si in Decision Making, 212 Step by step Meth, 208 - R.. Scheduled Maintenance, 181 ‘Second Party Eternal, 88, Servicing Similarities Between 180 901 and 180 16001 231 Sa Ere Sheae Fak Tbe Techies Mot, 8 sofware Rashi nd oem, ei, 28 rare abi Mol nk ~ aa ‘Measurement, 128(i), What are the chapters wherein the for organised or updated ? miner ti {Have you come across misprint nisaketactatnccuass specify the chapters and the page numbers (») What other books onthe same su ‘book? Please specty in