R 14 en

www.piarc.
org
2012R14EN
LIFE CYCLE ASPECTS

OF ELECTRICAL
ROAD TUNNEL EQUIPMENT
PIARC Technical Commitee C.4
Road Tunnel Operations
2 LIFE CYCLE ASPECTS OF ELECTRICAL ROAD TUNNEL EQUIPMENT
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The World Road Association (PIARC) is a nonprofit organisation established in 1909 to improve
international co-operation and to foster progress in the field of roads and road transport.
The study that is the subject of this report was defined in the PIARC Strategic Plan 2008 – 2011
approved by the Council of the World Road Association, whose members are representatives of
the member national governments. The members of the Technical Committee responsible for
this report were nominated by the member national governments for their special competences.
Any opinions, findings, conclusions and recommendations expressed in this publication are
those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of their parent organizations or
agencies.
This report is available from the internet site of the World Road Association (PIARC)
http://www.piarc.org
Copyright by the World Road Association. All rights reserved.
World Road Association (PIARC)

La Grande Arche, Paroi nord, Niveau 2
92055 La Défense cedex, France
International Standard Book Number 978-2-84060-272-5
Cover: Grande Mare Tunnel (France), © CETU

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This report has been prepared by the working group 1 of the Technical Committee C.4 Road
Tunnel Operations of the World Road Association (PIARC).
The contributors to the preparation of this report are:
Urs WELTE (Switzerland),

Alexander WIERER (Austria),
John BURACZYNSKI (USA).
The reviewers of this report are:
Carsten HENRIKSEN (Denmark),

Erik NORSTRØM (Norway),
Harald BUVIK (Norway),
Bernt FREIHOLTZ (Sweden), for the English version,
Pierre SCHMITZ (Belgium), for the French version.
Erik NORSTRØM (Norway) was responsible within the working group for the quality control
for the production of this report and Alexandre DEBS was responsible within the Technical
Committee for the quality control of the production of this report.
The Technical Committee was chaired by Pierre SCHMITZ (Belgium) and Alexandre DEBS
(Canada-Quebec), Robin HALL (United Kingdom), Ignacio DEL RAY (Spain) were respectively
the French, English and Spanish speaking secretaries.
The French version is published under reference 2012R14FR; ISBN: 978-2-84060-271-7.

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contents
summary...................................................................................................................................................5
Introduction........................................................................................................................................6
Purpose.....................................................................................................................................................6
Goal.............................................................................................................................................................6
Limitations of the study..............................................................................................................6
1. Terminology....................................................................................................................................8
2. International Requirements.............................................................................................11
2.1. Hierarchy of Standards and Guidelines................................................................11
2.2. The European Directive 2004/54/EC................................................................................11
2.3. The ISO-Standard “RAMS”...................................................................................................11
2.4. The ISO-standard 15686 on service life planning................................................12
2.4.1. General principles................................................................................................................12
2.4.2. Life cycle costing..................................................................................................................13
2.5. References to Maintenance and Life Cycles........................................................14
3. Maintenance and Life Cycles.............................................................................................14
3.1. Introduction into the theory of reliability and availability.................14
3.2. Life Cycles and Maintenance Strategies...............................................................18
3.2.1. Influence of Life Cycle Knowledge on Maintenance Strategies...........................................18
3.2.2. Maintenance Strategies........................................................................................................19
4. The International Life Cycle Survey...........................................................................20
4.1. Discussion of the Survey Results................................................................................22
4.2. Replacement Costs of Tunnel Systems based on Survey Data...................23
4.3. Replacement Strategy Based on Survey Data ....................................................25
4.4. Relation between Maintenance and Life Cycles...............................................26
5. Main Factors Influencing the Ageing Process......................................................27
5.1. Operating Temperature.....................................................................................................27
5.1.1. The 10 degree Celsius rule...................................................................................................28
5.2. Mechanical Stress...............................................................................................................29
5.3. Galvanic corrosion............................................................................................................30
6. typical systems and their life cycles........................................................................30
6.1. SCADA-components, computers (PC’s)........................................................................30
6.2. Illumination............................................................................................................................32
7. Conclusions AND RECOMMENDATIONS...............................................................................33
8. Abbreviations................................................................................................................................35
9. BIBLIOGRAPHY / references....................................................................................................35
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summary
Life Cycle Cost Aspects (LCC-Aspects) have become an important task for private
tunnel owners, as well as government agencies. Well-founded knowledge about
life cycles serves to optimise investment costs during the early stages of designing
a system. In addition, it is helpful in organizing the periodical maintenance of the
technical equipment.
This report describes how LCC-Aspects support the design of equipment as well
as maintenance concepts. Having in mind that investment decisions are often
technology-driven and that equipment costs have increased dramatically in the
past years, this report helps to understand the life cycle process and deals with the
impact of the ageing of material.
An international survey was conducted in order to gain an insight on how tunnel

owners behave today regarding system maintenance and component replacement.
Twenty seven (27) answers from ten countries worldwide showed that average
lifetime of equipment varies between 10 to 25 years, depending on the system.
Comparing the results, it was found that there are big differences in equipment
lifetimes, which is not surprising: electronic systems, monitoring equipment like
SCADA1-systems have a limited lifetime while mechanical and energy supply/
cabling systems have longer life expectations, which reach 20 years and more.
Surprisingly low is the life span of illumination equipment – the impact of the tunnel
atmosphere will probably deteriorate the material quicker than expected. The rest of
the typical tunnel systems like safety and signing equipment are positioned in the
middle of the scale, with average lifetime of approximately 15 years.
This report gives some theoretical background on the LCC-Aspects, which could be
of some help for further investigations. A special focus is placed on the surrounding
conditions, which have a high impact on the ageing process. As such keeping
temperatures low in technical centres is basically a “good investment”. For two
typical tunnel systems – illumination and SCADA – further details are given.
This report shows how useful it is to consider factors that influence life
expectancies of systems and components such as temperature, humidity,
mechanical stress and environment. The influence of temperature is often
underestimated. Using the Arrhenius equation, it can be shown that ageing is
highly affected by the ambient temperature. Particular attention therefore has to
be paid to environmental temperature in equipment and control rooms.
1
Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition systems
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Introduction
Purpose
In recent years, Life Cycle Cost Aspects (LCC-Aspects) have become an important
tool for private tunnel owners, as well as government agencies. On the one hand,
well-founded knowledge about life cycles serves to optimise investment costs
during the early stages of designing a system, on the other hand,it is also helpful
in organizing the periodical maintenance of the technical equipment.
This report shall outline how LCC-Aspects support the design of equipment as
well as maintenance concepts. In order to study these relationships, the following
these are tested:
• investment decisions are often technology-driven and do not take into account
life cycle aspects in a sufficient way;
• equipment costs have risen dramatically in the past years: more and more
complex systems are going to be used in tunnels;
• knowing life cycles helps to reduce maintenance costs and improves safety;
• knowing life cycles requires understanding of ageing processes;
• understanding the ageing processes of materials, devices, components helps
selecting the systems in a cost-effective way.
Goal
The report discusses a methodology how to use LCC-aspects in design and

maintenance. It is aimed to reach following goals:
• show how equipment ages,

• investigate typical life cycles of tunnel equipment,
• show influence of temperature conditions on life cycles,
• show influence of mechanical stress on life cycles,
• show importance of selection of system components on life cycles,
• show influence of maintenance strategies on life cycles,
• show influence of life cycles on replacement costs.
Limitations of the study
There is no detailed cost analysis given in the study. The report only shows in an
exemplary way how the expected lifetime of equipment influences the tunnel
operation and redesign costs.
Further, the focus is directed on some typical aspects of technical equipment used
in tunnels, whereas some findings are of a rather general nature. Because not all
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tunnel systems can be dealt with, the subject is discussed on the base of a few
typical examples.
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1. Terminology
To facilitate international communication and comparison a minimal set of terms is

desirable. Such a terminology is proposed and defined (in the following table).
For reference, the ISO 6707-1, Building and civil engineering – Vocabulary – Part 1:
General terms can be used.
DESCRIPTION DEFINITION
The third or last portion of the bathtub curve and identifies the end of the
Ageing Process
system, equipment or component end of useful life.
Formula for the temperature dependence of the rate constant, and
Arrhenius-Equation therefore, rate of chemical reaction used to model the temperature effect
on the rated life of electrical equipment.
Ability of an item to be in a state to perform a required function under
Availability given conditions at a given instant of time or during a given external
resources are provided.
A widely used reliability engineering curve to describe failure rates over
Bathtub Curve time. The curve is comprised of three parts: Early Failures – Constant
Failures – Wear-out Failures.
The process by which system components are exercised prior to being
placed in service (and often, prior to the system being completely
Burn-in-Period assembled from those components). The intent is to detect those particular
components that would fail as a result of the initial, high-failure rate
portion of the bathtub curve of component reliability.
Two or more wires running side by side and bonded, twisted or braided
Cabling/Wiring together to form a single assembly. A current carrying conductor used to
power electrical equipment or transmit data signals from point to point.
CEN European Committee for Standardization
Video surveillance equipment including automatic incident detection
(AID) cameras installed in the tunnel, centrally located video monitors
Closed Circuit located at a central location, pan/tilt/zoom equipment, video switchers,
Television Systems
(CCTV) video recording equipment (VCR), AID software, AID processing
equipment and communication network transmitting video signals
between cameras and monitors.
A location where tunnel-operating personnel monitor the Traffic Incident
Management System. Control Centre is generally staffed 24 hours per
Control Centre
day, 7 days per week. Operators observe traffic conditions and implement
required responses including coordination with outside agencies.
Corrective Maintenance performed to restore systems, equipment or components to
Maintenance proper operating conditions.
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Power distribution system including service equipment, transformers, low
voltage control systems and associated cables/wiring used to power
Energy Supply
electrical, ventilation, lighting, communication/control systems and
traffic control and surveillance systems for vehicular tunnels.
The frequency with which an engineered system or component fails. The
Failure Rate failure rate of a system usually depends on time, with the rate varying
over the life cycle of the system.
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers
IEC International Electrotechnical Commission
Normal and emergency egress (life safety) lighting systems to allow
Illumination
motorists to travel safely through vehicular tunnels.
Premature failure of systems, equipment or components. The first portion
Infant Mortality
of the bathtub curve.
ISO International Organization for Standardization
The notion that a fair, holistic assessment requires the evaluation of raw
material production, manufacture, distribution, use, environment and
Life Cycle (LC)
disposal including all intervening transportation steps necessary or
caused by the product’s existence.
Life Cycle Costs The total discounted cost of installing, operating, maintaining and
(LCC) disposing of systems, equipment or components over a period of time.
Protection, monitoring and occupancy systems installed in tunnels that
are necessary to minimize danger to life caused by vehicle incidents and
Life Safety Systems
fire, including smoke, fumes, or panic. A system whose failure or
malfunction may result in death or serious injury.
Ability of an item under given conditions of use, to be retained in, or
restored to, a state in which it can perform a required function, when
Maintainability
maintenance is performed under given conditions and using stated
procedures and resources.
Maturity The second or centre portion of the bathtub curve constant failure rate.
Mean Time Between The arithmetic mean (average) time between failures of a system or
Failures (MTBF) system component.
Average time between failures with the modelling assumption that the
Mean Time To
failed system is not repaired. This method is used for non-repairable
Failure (MTTF)
products or components associated with systems.
Mean Time To
The average time that it takes to repair a failed system or component.
Repair (MTTR)
Maintenance performed at predetermined intervals or in accordance with
Preventive prescribed criteria (manufacturer’s recommendations) and intended to
Maintenance reduce the probability of failure or degradation of system, equipment or
component operation.
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Reliability-Availability-Maintainability-Safety.
RAMS ISO 50126 is an international standard, used mainly for railway/signalling
applications.
Ability of a system or component to perform and maintain its required
Reliability
function under any given conditions for a given time interval.
Control systems to operate tunnel ventilation, power distribution, lighting
Remote Control and traffic control and surveillance systems from a central location or
from a location away from the tunnel.
Safety is related in this report to safety equipment in tunnels, (fire
Safety detection, emergency telephones, air quality detection) that helps safe
driving in normal and emergency situations
Scheduled/Planned Preventive maintenance performed in accordance with an established
Maintenance time schedule or established number of operations.
Period of time after installation during which a facility or its component
Service life
parts meets or exceeds the performance requirements
The design process of preparing the brief and the design for the building
Service life planning and its parts to achieve the design life, for example in order to reduce the
costs of building ownership, facilitate maintenance and refurbishment
Signs that are designed to have one or more informational, signals or
warning messages to motorists. These messages may be displayed or
Signing deleted as required. Signs may be changed manually either locally or by
remote control or by automatic controls that can sense the conditions that
require the special pre-programmed message or messages.
Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition Systems used to control and
SCADA monitor the mechanical, electrical and traffic control systems using a
computer based system from a central location.
Mechanical and electrical equipment rooms used for electrical
Technique Rooms distribution, ventilation, drainage and traffic surveillance and control
equipment at tunnel facilities.
The expected life or the acceptable period of use in service for systems,
Useful Life
equipment or components where it is economically feasible to maintain.
Mechanical fans used to maintain the environment within tunnels, to
Ventilation
remove smoke and vehicle pollutants
Whole life costs All significant and relevant initial and future costs of an asset, throughout
(WLC) its life cycle, while fulfilling the performance requirements
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2. International Requirements
2.1. Hierarchy of Standards and Guidelines
The different levels for directives and standards are shown as follows.
National Guidelines
National Standards
TC PIARC
European Standards
International Standards

FigURE 1 - Typical levels of standardisation
The standardization can be pictured in form of a pyramid, including national

guidelines, national standards, European standards and international standards.
• National Guidelines are specifically related to national requirements and are

normally very detailed (e.g. RVS Austria, NFPA USA).
• National standards are legally binding norms and codes (e.g. DIN Germany,
Ö-Norm Austria, AASHTO USA).
• There are “Inter-country/interstate” standards (e.g. European standards CEN,
Federal Highway Standards FHWA USA).
• International standards are for worldwide application (e.g. ISO, IEC, IEEE).
2.2. The European Directive 2004/54/EC
The directive defines minimum requirements for construction and operation in

European tunnels. The member countries of the European Union are obliged to put
these requirements in their legislation within a defined period.
The directive was one of the first international quasi-standard for road tunnel safety
and is applied not only in Europe.
2.3. The ISO-Standard “RAMS”
The RAMS-Standard is a common norm/standard dealing with probability-related

aspects of life cycles.
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The application of the standard RAMS for a technical system means defining the
requirements of the quality and life expectancy for subsystems and components.
All four elements of the RAMS standard (reliability, availability, maintainability,

safety) are applicable to the technical requirements of systems used in road tunnels.
2.4. The ISO-standard 15686 on service life planning
The standard is basically made and intended for buildings; however, it is also
applicable for electrical equipment in tunnels.
The standard ISO 15686 establishes a systematic framework for undertaking service
life planning of planned building or construction works throughout its life cycle. It
also compares the remaining life cycle for existing buildings or construction works.
The ISO 15686 consists of the following parts:
Part 1: General principles

Part 2: Service life prediction procedures
Part 3: Performance audits and reviews
Part 4: Data requirements
Part 5: Life cycle costing
Part 6: Procedures for considering environmental impacts
Part 7: Condition assessment and feed-back of relevant durability data from practice
Part 8: Reference Service Life
Part 9: Inclusion of requirements of service life assessment and service life
declaration in product standards
Part 10: Serviceability
2.4.1. General principles
The design brief limits acceptable life cycle cost. The service life of technical
equipment in tunnels depends on the service life of each component. Service life
planning is a process of estimation of future events. If the estimated service life of
any component is less than the design life the functions have to be adequately
maintained (e.g. by replacement or maintenance).
The service life planning should consider:
• the likely performance of components,

• the life cycle cost and environmental impact,
• operation and maintenance costs,
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• the need for repairs, replacements, dismantling, removal, re-use and disposal,
• the construction of the whole system, installation and the maintenance of components.
The service life planning should be integrated into the building design process, so
the estimated service life is a key-factor in the planning process.
The estimated service life depends on the data sources as shown in the following figure:
Reference service life: Documented service life data

Data from testing and Expected service life under defined
degradation model reference set of conditions
ISO 15686 - 2 ISO 15686 - 7
ISO 15686 - B
For futher guidance on production

of documented performance data
see:
ISOTS 15686 - 9
For the same components and
Under the same conditions in use conditions service life
in use service life may be may be estimated directly
estimated directly Factor method for service life from data on performance
estimation in use
ISO 15686 - 8
Estimated service life
FigURE 2 - approaches to service life estimation in ISO 15686
The quality as well as the reliability of this estimation depends on the data used to
generate the service life estimation. In annex of part 1 the service life planning during
a design process is described. The expression “useful life” – as used in this report –
broadens the originally used expression “service life” with the aspect of economy.
2.4.2. Life cycle costing
In part 5 of this standard the life cycle cost (LCC) and the whole life cost (WLC) are
described. The difference between these two approaches is that the WLC includes
additional externalities, non- construction costs and income streams to LCC.
Life cycle cost includes the cost of construction, of operation, of maintenance and
the cost of end-of-life. The LCC should also include consideration of special risks.
LCC analysis may be used during following key stages:
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• project investment and planning,

• design and construction,
• during operation,
• disposal.
The analysis is based on the client requirements and may be revised and clarified
throughout the project life cycle. The LCC should contain the sum of the independent
parts and the interaction between them. LCC analysis may be used to evaluate if
higher acquisition costs are a good investment to lowering lifetime costs.
2.5. References to Maintenance and Life Cycles
References to standards (extract):

ISO 15686 Buildings and constructed assets - Service life planning
IEC 60706 Maintainability of equipment
IEC 61709 Electronic components - Reliability - Reference conditions for
failure rates and stress models for conversion
IEC 61508 Functional Safety
ISO 50126 RAMS: Reliability, Availability, Maintainability and Safety
EN 60300-3-3 Dependability management - Part 3-3: Application guide - Life
cycle costing
EN 13306 Maintenance terminology
DIN 31051 Fundamentals of maintenance
References to PIARC-reports
PIARC 05.13.B-2005 Good Practice for the Operation and Maintenance of Road
Tunnels
PIARC 05.06.B-1999 Reduction of Operating Costs of Road Tunnels
PIARC 2008R15 Urban road tunnels - Recommendations to managers and
operating bodies for design, management, operation and
maintenance
Beside these documents, the fundamental principle of planned maintenance (see

PIARC.05.06.B-1999, Reduction of Operating Costs of Road Tunnels) is common practice.
3. Maintenance and Life Cycles
3.1. Introduction into the theory of reliability

and availability
As a natural consequence, installations suffer break downs over time due to ageing,
so that the maintainability of the system can get compromised. Maintainability
describes all activities which aim to keep or restore the operability of a unit. When
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maintaining parts of a system, attention has to be paid, that the functioning of the
overall system is ensured.
In order to optimise maintenance and to be better able to determine the ideal time for
replacement, guidelines or a decision tool are required. Such decision-making aids
take their origin in failure rates of typical installations as detailed in the following
chapters. Failure rates can be used in a simple deterministic based maintenance
strategy or in more advanced probabilistic maintenance strategies. Failure rates can
be obtained from manufacturers or have to be monitored from structures in service.
In the following, the theory of failure rates as a help to determine maintenance and
replacement strategies is briefly introduced.
The reliability of systems is illustrated as a function of operational time. It not only

declines over time, but is also depending on the environmental conditions i.e.
temperature, pollution, vibration, etc.
R(t)
100%
Time
FigURE 3 - Reliability in function of time
Reliability is expressed as R(t) and represents the probability of a system working

without failures under given conditions over a certain period of time. In other words,
reliability indicates the probability that a system does not fail in accomplishing its
specific task. A failure arises when the considered unit stops fulfilling its purpose.
The failure rate plays a decisive role in reliability analyses and describes the number
of failures over a given time.
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Reliability is represented by a logarithmic curve (figure 3) and expressed as follows:
R Reliability [1]
λ Failure Rate [1/s]
n Number of units with different failure rates [1]
t Time [s]
In this equation λ stands for the failure rate (number of failures during a specified
period) and n for the number of elements to be considered. It gets clear, that the
overall reliability is dependent on the failure rates of all elements in the system. One
key to keep a system in a reliable state is to design redundancies and include them
into the operational process. If some components of a system should fail, such
backups have the potential to heighten the reliability of a system because there are
alternative paths for accomplishing a function.
The mean value of all periods where the system is functioning faultlessly (without
failures) is usually called “Mean Time To Failure” (MTTF). Once the components
break down they need to be repaired in order to resume their given task. The mean
value of all repair times is named “Mean Time To Repair” (MTTR), which is of course
depending on the repair organization (capability, staff size, mobilization, availability
of replacement parts, etc.). These two expressions are further used to express the
availability of a system, which is the probability that the considered system is
performing as planned at a certain point of time, under given working conditions.
The availability of a system is defined as the quotient of the mean value of the time
where the system is working as planned and the mean time between failures (MTBF
R( t )  e ( 1 2 ... n) t
= MTTF + MTTR)
MTTF
A =
MTTF  MTTR
A Availability [1] λ =

number of failed items during the interval
MTTF Mean Time To Failure [s] number of remaining good items at the beginning of th
MTTR Mean Time To Repair [s]
1 1
λ =
or for repairable systems
MTTF MTBFincreases, if
With the help of this equation it gets obvious that the system availability
the MTTF can be prolonged while the MTTR is held at a constant level. The overall
system availability is expressed in probabilistic terms, e  indicating the probability (A <
dq  
every component of a system
1) that the system is available at a specific
r time. Because
A  exp  kT 
dt
is susceptible to failure, the overall system availability is always less than 1. On the
left side of figure 4, following page, the availability of a component which is not
repairable is illustrated. Once the unit
has failed, it needs to be replaced.
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On the right-hand side of following figure, the same situation is shown for systems
where the failed components can be repaired. This fact results in an “up-and-down”
pattern of the operating state. The line is indicating the overall availability, which
was determined from the relationship of MTTF and MTTR as illustrated above. It
never reaches the state of “total availability” (as when the system is functioning
faultlessly in “up-periods”) due to mathematical reasons.
In other words, the availability depends on the number of failures, the time between
the failures and the time it usually takes to restore the normal operating state of the
affected components.
FigURE 4 – Reliability and availability
The failure rate (λ) can easily be determined by life cycle investigations of a certain
sample of identical items.
Using
R( t ) the
 eexample
(  1  2 ...  n ) t
of
a lighting system, the failure rate shall be ascertained from the
life cycle information of a number of lamps. For a given time interval (e.g. 24 hours)
theA =
number MTTF of failed lamps is counted. As mentioned above, the failure rate is

expressed MTTFas:  MTTR

λ =
number of remaining good items at the beginning of the interval
If the failure rate is depicted as 1 following picture emerges (figure 5).

1 a graph,
λ = or for repairable systems
MTTF MTBF

 e 
dq  

r  A  exp  kT 
dt

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FigURE 5 - Experimental failure rate
This graph is commonly known as “bathtub curve” and shows 3 typical sections.
R( t )  e ( 1 2 ... n) t
In the first section called “infant mortality”, failures occur due to material defects,
deficiencies
MTTFor manufacturing problems. Some manufacturers perform special
A =
burn-in programs
MTTF prior to delivery in order to minimize these early life-cycle failures.
 MTTR

The next section
λ = characterises the “maturity” and features an almost constant failure
number of remaining good items at the beginning of the interval
rate at a low level. For this area the relation is:
1 1
λ = or for repairable systems
MTTF MTBF
λ Failure Rate
MTTF dqMean Time  e To




Failure
r   A  exp  kT 
MTBF dt Mean Time Between Failures

The last section of the bathtub curve named “ageing” illustrates the end of a

life-cycle, where the failures increase rapidly.
The bathtub curve starts again after replacement of a system component.
3.2. Life Cycles and Maintenance Strategies
In the following, other aspects such as life cycle of systems and good practice in
maintenance strategies are considered.
3.2.1. Influence of Life Cycle Knowledge on Maintenance Strategies
The knowledge of a typical life cycle, as depicted in figure 4, assists in defining

appropriate maintenance strategies.
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After the early failure period – typically the warranty period – the failure rate
stabilises during the service period. In this maturity phase, preventive maintenance
is carried out according to a maintenance plan (figure 6). As an example, this might
incorporate the replacement of components whose life span is known because of the
manufacturer’s recommendations.
FigURE 6 – Scheduled or planned maintenance
3.2.2. Maintenance Strategies
Besides the knowledge on life cycles, the maintenance strategy is also depending on
the following factors:
• technical performance of the system;

• the environmental influences;
• the available funding.
With reference to a road tunnel, a selection of different environmental influences is

outlined in the figure 7, following page:
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air pressure impulses
“Salty” fog contaminated air flow
Tunnel
temperature range
mechanical stress
(+20°C to +30°C)
FigURE 7 - A few important environmental influences in tunnels (incomplete list)
The once defined maintenance strategies as e.g. suggested by manufacturers need to

be evaluated and periodically adapted based on the local environmental conditions.
For certain components, no preventive maintenance is recommended, for instance if

the defect of a single item has no influence on the overall system performance (single
lamp replacement).
In road tunnels systems are affected by the environmental conditions, especially by

salty fogs due to winter services. Under these conditions it may be advantageous to
replace the complete system instead of periodically changing components. This
decision can be made after the tunnel is in operation by performing a risk analysis.
It is of utmost importance that we can get more stringent and detailed characterizations
of the environment in the tunnels to get the expected useful lifetime of the equipment
from the contractor/supplier.
4. The International Life Cycle Survey
In 2008 an international survey was conducted within PIARC-countries in order to

evaluate the average lifetime of typical technical systems associated with road
tunnels. The questionnaire was based on the following criteria:
• Questions about the average lifetime of 26 systems in road tunnels,

• Possible answers: 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35 years.
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The following systems were included in the survey:
System Description
SCADA Systems general
1 SCADA SYSTEMS Traffic SCADA systems
Operation Centre equipment
Lamps
Luminaries
2 ILLUMINATION
Lamp control units
Monitoring systems
Jet fans
Axial fans
3 VENTILATION Monitoring systems
CO/Opacity measuring instruments
Dampers
Active signs
4 SIGNING
Lane use signals
Fire detection Systems
Video equipment
5 SAFETY EQUIPMENT
Radio systems
Emergency stations
High/Low voltage equipment
Transformers
6 ENERGY SUPPLY Distribution panels
Uninterrupted power supplies
Batteries
High voltage cables
7 CABLING Communication cables
Fibre cables
FigURE 8 - systems used for the survey
The result allowed an analysis based on a significant sample: 27 questionnaires from

10 different countries were received and could be evaluated. The participating
countries were: Austria, Belgium, Finland, France, Japan, Spain, Sweden,
Switzerland, UK, USA.
The typical life cycle of main tunnel systems and components are shown in figure 9,
following page.
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Average Lifetime of Tunnel Systems and Components
Average lifetime [years]
Lifetime of tech-
nical equipment 25
1. SCADA
Systems
10,7
2. Illumination 11,2
3. Safety
Equipment
14,8
4. Signing 14,1
5. Ventilation 18,2
6. Energy
supply
20,1
7. Cabling 25,7
10 years 15 years 20 years 25 years

FigURE 9 - average Lifetime of different tunnel systems
The chart demonstrates that the typical lifetime varies between 10 and 25 years.
“Lifetime of technical equipment” is referring thereby to the electromechanical
equipment only.
The standard deviations illustrate a variety of impact to installations that differ from
case to case depending upon basic design quality, level of maintenance, physical
impact (temperature, mechanical stress, environmental conditions).
4.1. Discussion of the Survey Results
Comparing the results, we find big differences in equipment lifetimes, which are not
surprising: Electronic systems, monitoring equipment like SCADA-systems have a
limited lifetime. Mechanical and energy supply/cabling systems have higher life
expectations, which reach 20 years and more. Surprisingly low is the life span of
illumination equipment – the impact of the tunnel atmosphere will probably
deteriorate the material quicker than expected. The rest of the typical tunnel systems
like safety or signing equipment is positioned in the middle of the scale, with average
lifetime of approximatively 15 years.
It is interesting to compare the lifetime differences between the countries, considered

for a specific system. The difference of the standard deviation is between 5 and 8
years for the following equipment:
• ventilation: fans, respective controls, dampers ;

• safety equipment: emergency stations, fire detection systems;
• energy supply: all systems except uninterrupted power supplies;
• cabling: all type of cabling.
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In all these systems the differences of the active system life period varies with more
than 5 years – this is not surprising for equipment with a relatively long life span like
cables, ventilation; however, also for safety systems the differences are relatively high.
For all other systems the deviations (standard deviation) are between 3 and 5 years.
35.0
30.0
Average Lifetime [y]
25.0
20.0
15.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
NT
N
LY
N
G
S
E
EM
IN
N
PP
TI
TI
LI
N
A
IP
LA
ST
AB
G
IN
S
U
SI
TI
SY
C
EQ
Y
N
LU
G
A
VE
R
TY
D
IL
E
A
EN
FE
SC
Tunnel System

SA
FigURE 10 - Standard deviations in years, max/min deviations
We conclude that due to the broad variety of this survey this practical data has a
sufficient statistical value to be used for life time planning.
4.2. R eplacement Costs of Tunnel Systems based

on Survey Data
The statistical data is used to calculate the average cost per annum, based on the
initial investment cost and the average lifetime. The calculation is illustrated through
the example of three typical tunnels from three different countries.
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Replacement costs per anno for a tunnel (about 2km) in Switzerland, 1 tube
Mean Life Costs Relative Costs/year

Cycles [million US$] Costs [%] [US$]
SCADA SYSTEMS 10.7 2.9 15% 270'000
ILLUMINATION 11.1 2.3 12% 207'000
VENTILATION 18.2 2.5 13% 137'000
SIGNAGE 14.1 3.8 20% 269'000
SAFETY EQUIPMENT 14.8 3.5 18% 237'000
ENERGY SUPPLY 20.1 1.7 9% 85'000
CABLING 25.7 2.4 13% 93'000
Total Costs 19.1 1'298'000
Replacement costs per anno for a tunnel (about 2,7km) in Austria, 2 tube
1 € = CHF
SCADA SYSTEMS 10.7 1.2 7% 107'000
ILLUMINATION 11.1 2.0 13% 177'000
VENTILATION 18.2 1.5 9% 81'000
SIGNAGE 14.1 1.9 12% 135'000
ENERGY SUPPLY 20.1 2.7 17% 134'000
CABLING 25.7 2.9 18% 112'000
Total Costs 15.6 987'000
Replacement costs per anno for a tunnel (about 3,2km) in USA, 2 tube
1 $ = CHF
SCADA SYSTEMS 10.7 1.6 8% 148'000
ILLUMINATION 11.1 3.7 19% 330'000
VENTILATION 18.2 5.3 28% 290'000
SIGNAGE 14.1 2.6 14% 187'000
ENERGY SUPPLY 20.1 4.4 23% 218'000
CABLING 25.7 2.9 15% 113'000
Total Costs 22.5 1'425'000
350'000
300'000
[US$/year]
250'000 CH
200'000
150'000 A
100'000 USA
50'000
0
S
LY
E
N
G
EN
M
AG
O
N
PP
E
TI
LI
AT
M
ST
AB
LA
SU
IP
G
IN
SY
TI
SI
C
U
M
Y
EQ
N
G
LU
A
VE
ER
AD
TY
IL
EN
SC
FE
SA

FigURE 11 – Average replacement costS per annum for 3 typical tunnels based on –
average life cycles collected in THE survey
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4.3. Replacement Strategy Based on Survey Data
Based on the calculations of the average costs and the expected maintenance costs
during service and traffic costs, different replacements strategies can be prepared
and assessed.
The 3 examples in section 4.2 are used as the basis to illustrate how replacement
strategies can be prepared. In principle there are 2 basically different strategies
Strategy 1: Installations are replaced successively according to break down.

Strategy 2: Replacement occurs according to a plan that originates in the
expected service life and the traffic restrictions related to the
specific replacement.
Strategy 2 includes again 2 alternatives as an illustration on how to use service life

data in this stage of the process:
Strategies Strategy 2.1 Strategy 2.2
Years 10 15 20 25 10 15 20 25
1 SCADA systems x x x x
2 Illumination x x x x
3 Ventilation x x x
4 Signing x x x
5 Safety equipment x x
6 Energy supply x x
7 Cabling x x

FigURE 12 - Different replacement strategies according to expected service life
The comparison between the different strategies can be based on e.g. the net present
method where interest rates are taken into account similar to the method used within
the field of economics.
It has to be kept in mind, that the ascertainment of an optimal strategy is a matter of

a combined consideration of cost benefit and safety evaluation.
In the above mentioned case study, the comparison using a 5% interest rate shows
that strategy 2 is economically more efficient than strategy 1. Furthermore, strategy
2.2 is the optimal strategy compared to 2.1, though it interrupts the normal operation
of the tunnel more often. But still, it includes a lower risk of unforeseen breakdowns
before the expected service life is fulfilled.
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Strategy 1, however, uses the service life of the single system to its optimum. If the
service life of a system is longer than the expected average service life, strategy 1
might be the optimal maintenance strategy, although safety considerations have to be
taken into account – can an unexpected breakdown with a possible impact on safety
be accepted?
Close coordination with other necessary tunnel renovations have to be considered in

order to optimize available funding and maintenance schedule.
4.4. Relation between Maintenance and Life Cycles
The schedule of maintenance measures is often regulated by national guidelines (e.g.

RVS 13.03.41 in Austria). Additionally there are manufacturers’ guidelines and
common practice which are used to establish maintenance schedules. Experience
demonstrates that preventive maintenance is vital to the useful life cycle for systems
and components. It also has the potential of prolonging the MTTF of components
which in turn enhances the overall availability of the system.
An important factor when refurbishing tunnels, are the resulting costs developing
from a diversion of traffic. Tunnel cleaning cycles therefore may be used to perform
maintenance works simultaneously. Such a strategy has the advantage, that the
absence of traffic allows an effective and safe maintenance procedure.
Based on experience, the condition of certain systems and components can be

categorized and adapted to the maintenance schedule. Many systems can be checked
by collecting specific intrinsic data or visual observation (vibration value of a fan to
verify bearing condition, lighting density of illumination).
Further systems parameters may be evaluated and used to determine the current
condition. These parameters deliver valuable data to define the applicable
maintenance measures. The following guidelines provide a foundation to extend the
useful life of equipment.
Electrical and mechanical equipment situated in the tunnel are exposed to an

aggressive atmosphere which causes corrosion and wearing-out of bearings.
Therefore, recommended maintenance has to be performed periodically in order to
extend the useful life of systems (lubrication of bearings, cleaning).
Constant supervision of the control centre and equipment room temperature, dust
and humidity, has an important impact on availability (e.g. MTTF, down-time) of
certain subsystems, components, elements of the SCADA-systems. However, there
are processes which lead to replacement beyond the control of tunnel owners, e.g.
software technology changes, platform changes, end of manufacturer’s support,
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availability of spare parts. Even if appropriate maintenance programs are

implemented, the intrinsic system life may not be prolonged.
5. Main Factors Influencing the Ageing Process
5.1. Operating Temperature
It is necessary to review and evaluate causes of ageing or reduction in life cycle,

regardless of maintenance procedures and performance. Especially the operating
temperature is one of the main causes for accelerated ageing, which is discussed
herein below in detail.
In the field of chemistry, the ageing process and the respective simulation is often
described and investigated using the Arrhenius equation.
FigURE 13 - Svante Arrhenius (1859-1927)
The principle is based on the observation that a chemical reaction accelerates with
increasing temperature. It was found that a temperature increase of around 10°C
R( t )  e ( 1 2 ... n) t
results in a doubling of the reaction speed. This doubling rule is a good benchmark;
in practice it is between 1.6 and 2. This is MTTF equivalent to a life cycle reduction relative
to the ambient temperature by this A = factor of 1.6 to 2.
MTTF  MTTR
This ageing process, as described above forλ =chemical reactions,

number of can
failedalso
itemsbe usedthetointerval
during
estimate the life expectancy of systems and components of technical equipment
number of remaining good items at the in of the
beginning
tunnels accordingly.
1 1
or for repairable systems
λ =
MTTF with
An increase or decrease of the reaction rate can be described MTBF
the following
equation - the Arrhenius equation:
 e 
dq  

r  A  exp  kT 
dt

r Reaction rate [1/s]
q Chemical (ageing) reaction
[1]
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t Time [s]
A Material constant (available from international data bases) [1]
E Activation energy (available from international data bases) [eV]
k Boltzmann constant [eV/K]
T Absolute temperature [K]
5.1.1. The 10 degree Celsius rule
The formula can be used to establish a 10-degree rule to determine the ageing
acceleration factor, and will thus be simplified as follows (ratio of reaction rates):
factors > 1 indicate that the ageing effect is accelerated for this factor at the elevated
temperature and therefore the life cycle is shortened accordingly.
10
1.1 eV
Factor of the accelerated aging
8
0.8 eV
0.5 eV
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
Delta T over 22°C

FigUre 14 – accelerated ageing as a function of the difference between actual
operation temperature and 22 degrees. The different activation energies represent
different materials.
At an activation energy of 0.5 eV, a temperature increase of 10 degrees (from 22 to

32 degrees) quickens the ageing process by a factor 2. With an activation energy of
0.8 eV, a temperature rise of 10 degrees results in an accelerated ageing process of
almost a factor 3.
Thus, it gets obvious, that the activation energy is an important element, and further,
that it is also dependent on other extrinsic factors. The sensitivity of the activation
energy is therefore crucial in achieving a quantitative assessment. Good to know that
there are international databases available, for such data.
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Technical Component Activation Energy E[eV]

High Tension Cable Insulation 0.5
0.94 (at 6kV/mm)
Low Density Polyethylene Cable (LDPE)
0.82 (at 20kV/mm)
Cross-Linked Polyethylene Cable, 250kV Insulation (XLPE) 0.9-1.0
High Density Polyethylene Cable (HDPE) 0.7
Electronic Component (integrated circuit) 0.7
FigURE 15 - Typical values for activation energies
Most of the technical equipment is located in equipment rooms, control centres and
special areas within control buildings. It is therefore essential to constantly control the
temperature of these rooms. The design temperature of equipment, which normally
ranges from 0° and 40°C, does not account for the ageing process. This temperature
range is just a figure from the manufacturer applied to the warranty period.
Often temperatures > 30°C are observed, which should be avoided. As shown above,
the life time of several systems is directly linked with ambient temperature.
Other environmental conditions also have to be considered: dust, salty fog, tire and
exhaust particles, pollutants, humidity.
5.2. Mechanical Stress
Mechanical stress is another key factor with respect to accelerated ageing: Wind
loads generated by trucks, vibration during operation of e.g. vibrating fans due to a
lack of maintenance or old bearings, expansion and contraction due to temperature
changes. (Mechanical stress during installation is not considered here; however,
these stresses should be carefully evaluated prior to installation; for example electric
cable pulling tension calculations and bending radii).
These factors have to be carefully considered and incorporated into the maintenance
procedures. As there are no general rules to be adapted, each system has to be
analysed individually.
A typical example for mechanical stresses and other influencing factors on energy
cables is given below. Are these stresses higher than expected, this will lead to a
phase of forced ageing.
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Mechanical
Humidity
stress
Heat
Electrical
Condition
stress
Forced
Usual material aging
aging
Limit of damage
Time

FigURE 16 - Different stresses shown for energy cable
5.3. Galvanic corrosion
There are other important influences on the life cycles, which highly jeopardize
mechanical systems and are not especially addressed in this report, e.g. galvanic
corrosion. The tunnel equipment is exposed to an atmosphere, which could cause
corrosion. Hence, there are materials used with high corrosion resistance, like
stainless steel; however, screws, bolts, washers, etc. have often not the same standard
and lead to galvanic elements.
This subject will not especially be addressed here; however, it should not be neglected
in the overall LCC-Aspect analysis.
6. typical systems and their life cycles
In the previous sections, the focus has been directed on the theoretical approach and
principles of ageing, maintenance and average service life.
To illustrate the practical use of the theory, two typical tunnel systems are investigated
in this section SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition) and lighting
systems. These examples are intended to illustrate, how design and decisions taken
in the design phase influence maintenance and visa versa.
6.1. SCADA-components, computers (PC’s)
A crucial issue during the design phase is to decide on a quality level of e.g. PC´s. Should
one invest in an expensive long life PC or a cheaper one with a shorter service life?
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In order to get a well-founded decision, attention has to be paid to a series of technical

aspects, such as the possibility of cooling of PC’s. The cooling of active control
components is often neglected, which makes it all the more essential, that following
points are assessed:
• expansion of a control centre, thereby increasing concentration,

• increased density of active rack components,
• no adequate method of cooling,
• too narrow rack organization, space allocation,
• no suitable choice of the hardware design.
Although active ventilation should be applied whenever possible, a natural circulation

of air, used as an active third-ventilation has to be taken into account. Through this,
possible disadvantages of an additional critical component “fan” and the additional
entry of dirt, dust and moisture may be avoided.
Industrial PC’s are an option worthwhile to be evaluated. These devices are

specifically designed for industrial applications and are optimized to customer
requirements. Models with or without fans are available as well as devices especially
designed for higher temperatures.
14 Indus trial-PC
w ithout fan
12
10
MTBF (years)
Indus tial-PC
8 De s k top-PC w ith fan
w ith fan
6 Laptop w ith
fan
4

FigURE 17 - Comparison of different life spans
The useful life time of components of SCADA systems cannot be judged as a whole,
a consideration of the main operational hardware is necessary. However, it can be
stated, that without special attention the useful life time of such equipment is reached
already after 3 to 5 years. If there are special stress, factors like high ambient
temperature, humidity, vibration, gases applying, the life period decreases accordingly.
2012R14EN
Example:
The head of a hard disk drive has an expected lifetime of 6.4 years when steadily
operated with 3 kHz at an ambient temperature of 25 ° C (1.27eV activation energy).
The temperature rise of 10° C accelerates the ageing process by a factor 4.
6.2. Illumination
The lamp is part of the tunnel lighting system, consisting of control equipment,
lamps and luminaries. The statements by manufacturers regarding lifetime of lamps
in tunnels based on the observation that optimum operating conditions for the lamp
apply. Only luminaries especially developed for tunnels are designed for the required
operating conditions. Therefore, the lamp has to cope with thermal, mechanical,
electronic influences and environmental aspects such as humidity or pollutants.
Regarding the lifetime of light sources, there are different terms used on the market
depending on the lamp type and the manufacturer. The lifespan of a lamp is an
essential quality element of the product and is here defined as the period until the
light flux has reached the level of 70-80 %.
The following graph shows experienced values in tunnels and also illustrates the
possibility of reaching long life spans if special lamps are installed. As seen in the
plot, the introduction of long living fluorescent lamps bears the potential to prolong
the life cycle of lighting systems significantly.
FigURE 18 - Comparison of life periods of typical tunnel lamps
The new lighting technology using LED (light emitting diodes) is introduced in
different outdoor applications starting ca. 2007/2008. This technology will change
2012R14EN
standard street (and tunnel) lighting in a way that was not experienced in the last
decades. LED-lamps are claimed to deliver higher life times at lower energy
consumption with comparable or even better lighting quality and performance.
However, at the stage of finalizing this report (2010), it is still too early to provide
qualified statements on the effectiveness and life cycle cost of LED-lamps.
7. Conclusions AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The 2008 international life cycle survey showed that the useful life of standard
equipment varies between 10 and 25 years, while the average life span lies at
approximately 15 years. But still, some systems and components have life spans of
10 years and below, which makes it all the more essential to consider the useful life
periods. The factors that exert a considerable influence on the system need to be
established, so that life cycles can be extended.
A careful planning of the service life and the useful life period is essential. The
analysis of the different life stages could be done according to the graph presented in
figure 19.
Whole life
cycle costing
FigURE 19 - Analysis of different stages of the Life cycle (iso 15686-5)
The following adapted bathtub curve is widely used as a general guideline for
considering the life phases of systems (figure 20). Note, that early decisions on e.g.
the selection of products and their quality, but also varying maintenance strategies
2012R14EN
have an influence on the extension of the life cycle at the end of the useful life period.
The importance of this fact is depicted through several failure rates with different
rising points at the end of the life cycle.
Failure rate
Elimination of design failures Maintenance End of the useful life period
- Cleaning - Unavailable maintenance

- Replacement - Unavailable spare parts
- Software - New requirements
Update, - New technologies
Site accpetance test
Upgrades - Software revision

- New applications
Commissioning
Specification
Acceptance
Guarantee
Time
FigURE 20 - Adapted bathtub curve for technical equipment incorporating software
It is useful to consider special factors that influence life expectancies of systems and
components such as temperature, humidity, mechanical stress and environment. The
influence of temperature is often underestimated. Using the Arrhenius equation, it
can be shown that ageing is highly affected by the ambient temperature. Particular
attention therefore has to be paid to environmental temperature in equipment and
control rooms.
Experience demonstrates that preventive maintenance is vital to the useful life cycle
of systems and components. The schedule for maintenance measures is often
regulated by national guidelines. Additionally, there are manufacturer s guidelines
and common practice used to establish a maintenance schedule.
Sufficient and/or well distributed funding is a key factor to useful life cycles and
protection of investment costs.
2012R14EN
8. Abbreviations
RVS Richtlinien für Verkehr und Strassen (Austrian guidelines for traffic, roads, tunnels)
DIN Deutsches Institut für Normung (German Institute for Normalization)
ÖNORM Österreichisches Normungs-Institut (Austrian Standards Institute)
Österreichischer Verband für Elektrotechnik (Austrian Association for
ÖVE
Electrotech-nique)
CEN Comité Européen de Normalisation (European Committee for Standardization)
ISO International Standardization Organization
IEC International Electrotechnical Commission
NFPA National Fire Protection Association
TC Technical Committees of PIARC
AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
IEEE Institute of Electronic and Electrical Engineers
FHWA Federal HighWay Administration
9. BIBLIOGRAPHY / references
[1] A. BIROLINI “Qualität und Zuverlässigkeit technischer Systeme”,

Springer-Verlag, 1999.
[2] PIARC TECHNICAL COMMITTEE ON ROAD BRIDGES “Repair of bridges

under traffic”, reference 11.03.B, PIARC, Paris, 1991
[3] FAIZ, A. “An Overview of Automotive Air Pollution”, “Routes/Roads”, PIARC

Magazine, n°274, p.88-92, 1991.
[4] EN 13306 Edition 2001.
[5] HUBERT KIRRMANN “Fault tolerant computing in industrial automation”,

ABB Research Center, Baden-Switzerland, 2005.
[6] PIARC TECHNICAL COMMITTEE ON ROAD TUNNEL OPERATIONS

“Reduction of Operating Costs of Road Tunnels”, reference 05.06.B, PIARC,
Paris, 1999.
[7] U. DINESH KUMAR et al. “Reliability, Maintenance and Logistic Support: A
Life Cycle Approach”, Boston Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2000.
[8] “Maintenance Excellence: Optimizing equipment Life-Cycle Decisions”, ed. by

John D. Campbell, Andrew K.S. Jardine. New York, Marcel Dekker, 2001.
2012R14EN
[9] HENRIKKE BAUMANN “Life Cycle Assessment and Decision Making:

Theories and Practices”, Göteborg, Chalmers University of Technology, 1998.
[10] WALTER S. ZAENGL “Dielectric Spectroscopy in Time and Frequency

domain for HV Power Equipment (Transformers, cables etc.)”, 12th Int.
Symposium on High Voltage Engineering ISH 2001, Bangalore India, 2001.
[11] J EAN JACQUES et al., “A Noval Compact Instrument for the Measurement and
Evaluation of Relaxation Currents conceived for On-Site Diagnosis of Electric
power Apparatus”, IEEE 2000 Int. Symposium on Electrical Insulation,
Anaheim, CA, USA, 2.- 5. April 2000.
. BRÄUNLICH et al., “Assessment of Insulation Condition of large Power

[12] R
Transformers by On-Site Electrical Diagnostic Methods”, IEEE, International
Symposium on Electrical Insulation, Anaheim CA, 2000.
[13] TH. A. HANSON “Analysis of the Proof Test with Power Law Assumptions”,
SPIE Vol. 2074, 1993.
[14] Corning AEN 21, Rev. 4, Oct, 02.
. YSHUIE AND M. JOHN MATTHEWSON “Mechanical reliability of silica

[15] Y
fiber: a case study for a biomedical application”, SPIE Conference on Optical
Fiber reliability and testing, Boston, 1999Rutgers University”.
. BOUDOU, J. GUASTAVINO “Influence of temperature treatment on the

[16] L
electrical properties of low-density polyethylene”, J. Phys. D: Applied Physics
33 (2000), L129-L131.
[17] STEVEN BOGGS et al. “Effect of Insulation Properties on the Field Grading
of Solid Dielectric DC Cable”, accepted for publication in IEEE Trans PD.
ENNETH R. SHULL et al. “Ageing Characterisation of Polymeric Insulation

[18] K
in Aircraft Wiring via Impedance Spectroscopy”, paper from the Northwestern
University Evanston, IL 60208.
.S. SHIUE, M.J. MATTHEWSON “Apparent activation energy of fused silica

[19] Y
optical fibers in static fatigue in aqueous environments”, Journal of the European
Ceramic Society 22 (2002), page 2325-2332.
[20] U. WELTE, G. FRIEDRICH “Zerfallszyklen von EM-Anlagen”, Swiss

Association of Road and Transportation Experts VSS 1140, 2005.
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[21] U. WELTE “Relevanz von Kenngrössen”, Swiss Association of Road and
Transportation Experts VSS 457, 2000.
. WELTE, M. OCHSNER, D.SCHULER, “Sicherheit von Kabelanlagen”,

[22] U
Swiss Association of Road and Transportation Experts VSS 1125, 2005.
[23] W. NELSON “Accelerated testing: statistical models, test plans, and data
analyses”, Hoboken/Wiley, 2004.
[24] ISO 15686 “Building and constructed assets Service life planning”, 2009.
[25] ISO 50126 “RAMS Reliability, Availability, Maintenance, Safety”, 2009.

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www.piarc.

LIFE CYCLE ASPECTS

Copyright by the World Road Association. All rights reserved.

World Road Association (PIARC)

International Standard Book Number 978-2-84060-272-5

Cover: Grande Mare Tunnel (France), © CETU

The contributors to the preparation of this report are:

Urs WELTE (Switzerland),

The reviewers of this report are:

Carsten HENRIKSEN (Denmark),

The French version is published under reference 2012R14FR; ISBN: 978-2-84060-271-7.

An international survey was conducted in order to gain an insight on how tunnel

The report discusses a methodology how to use LCC-aspects in design and

• show how equipment ages,

Limitations of the study

To facilitate international communication and comparison a minimal set of terms is

2.1. Hierarchy of Standards and Guidelines

The standardization can be pictured in form of a pyramid, including national

• National Guidelines are specifically related to national requirements and are

2.2. The European Directive 2004/54/EC

The directive defines minimum requirements for construction and operation in

2.3. The ISO-Standard “RAMS”

The RAMS-Standard is a common norm/standard dealing with probability-related

All four elements of the RAMS standard (reliability, availability, maintainability,

2.4. The ISO-standard 15686 on service life planning

The ISO 15686 consists of the following parts:

Part 1: General principles

2.4.1. General principles

The service life planning should consider:

• the likely performance of components,

Reference service life: Documented service life data

For futher guidance on production

Estimated service life

FigURE 2 - approaches to service life estimation in ISO 15686

2.4.2. Life cycle costing

• project investment and planning,

2.5. References to Maintenance and Life Cycles

References to standards (extract):

Beside these documents, the fundamental principle of planned maintenance (see

3. Maintenance and Life Cycles

3.1. Introduction into the theory of reliability

The reliability of systems is illustrated as a function of operational time. It not only

FigURE 3 - Reliability in function of time

Reliability is expressed as R(t) and represents the probability of a system working

Reliability is represented by a logarithmic curve (figure 3) and expressed as follows:

A Availability [1] λ =

FigURE 4 – Reliability and availability

number of failed items during the interval

If the failure rate is depicted as 1 following picture emerges (figure 5).

FigURE 5 - Experimental failure rate

number of failed items during the interval

The bathtub curve starts again after replacement of a system component.

3.2. Life Cycles and Maintenance Strategies

3.2.1. Influence of Life Cycle Knowledge on Maintenance Strategies

The knowledge of a typical life cycle, as depicted in figure 4, assists in defining

FigURE 6 – Scheduled or planned maintenance

3.2.2. Maintenance Strategies

• technical performance of the system;

With reference to a road tunnel, a selection of different environmental influences is

3.1. Introduction into the theory of reliability

4.2. R eplacement Costs of Tunnel Systems based

Strategy 1: Installations are replaced successively according to break down.

[1] A. BIROLINI “Qualität und Zuverlässigkeit technischer Systeme”,

[2] PIARC TECHNICAL COMMITTEE ON ROAD BRIDGES “Repair of bridges

[3] FAIZ, A. “An Overview of Automotive Air Pollution”, “Routes/Roads”, PIARC

[4] EN 13306 Edition 2001.

[5] HUBERT KIRRMANN “Fault tolerant computing in industrial automation”,

[6] PIARC TECHNICAL COMMITTEE ON ROAD TUNNEL OPERATIONS

[8] “Maintenance Excellence: Optimizing equipment Life-Cycle Decisions”, ed. by

[9] HENRIKKE BAUMANN “Life Cycle Assessment and Decision Making:

[10] WALTER S. ZAENGL “Dielectric Spectroscopy in Time and Frequency

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