CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR

Objectives
By the end of this Chapter, students will be able to explain the following:

a. History of Radar.

b. Basic Principle of Radar

c. Operating Principle of a Radar

d. Function of basic pulse radar and its block diagram

e. Radar frequency Bands and their military applications

1
HISTORY OF RADAR
1. Neither a single nation nor a single person is able to say, that he (or
it) is the inventor of the radar method. One must look at the “Radar” than
an accumulation of many developments and improvements sooner, which
scientists of several nations made share in parallel. In the past there are
nevertheless some milestones with the discovery of important basic
knowledge and important inventions:

a. In 1865 the English physicist James Clerk Maxwell

developed his electro-magnetic light theory (Description of the
electro-magnetic waves and her propagation)

b. In 886 the German physicist Heinrich Rudolf Hertz

discovers the electro-magnetic waves and proves the theory of
Maxwell with that.

c. In 1904 the German high frequency technician Christian

Hülsmeyer invents the “Telemobiloskop” to the traffic supervision
on the water. He measures the running time of electro-magnetic
waves to a metal object (ship) and back. A calculation of the
distance is thus possible. This is the first practical radar test.
Hülsmeyer registers his invention to the patent in Germany and in
the United Kingdom.

d. In 1921 the invention of the Magnetron as an efficient

transmitting tube by Albert Wallace Hull

e. In 1922 A. H. Taylor and L.C.Young of the Naval Research

Laboratory (USA) locate a wooden ship for the first time.

f. In 1930 L. A. Hyland (also of the Naval Research

Laboratory), locates an aircraft for the first time.

g. In 1931 A ship is equipped with radar. As antennae are

used parabolic dishes with horn radiators.

2
 h. In 1936 the developement of the Klystron by Metcalf and
Hahn. This will be an important component in radar units as an
amplifier or an oscillator tube.

j. In 1940 Different radar equipments are developed in the

USA, Russia, Germany, France and Japan

Figure 1: Wall painting from the Technical School of the Air Force in
Kaufbeuren (Germany). Beautifully pointing: The administration was in the
foreground at that time also!

3
2. Driven by the common war expiry and the general development of
the air forces to meaningful key players radar technology underwent a
strong development push during the 2nd World War and was used during
the cold war in large quantities along the german domestic border.

BASIC PRINCIPLE OF RADAR

1. Radar is an acronym for :

RAdio Detecting And Ranging

2. The basic principle of primary radar is simple to understand.

However, the theory can be quite complex. An understanding of the theory
is essential in order to be able to specify and operate primary radar
systems correctly. The implementation and operation of primary radars
systems involve a wide range of disciplines such as building works, heavy
mechanical and electrical engineering, high power microwave
engineering, and advanced high speed signal and data processing
techniques. Some laws of nature have a greater importance here, though.

3. Radar measurement of range, or distance, is made possible because

of the properties of radiated electromagnetic energy.

4. This energy normally travels through space in a straight line, at a

constant speed, and will vary only slightly because of atmospheric and
weather conditions. (The effects atmosphere and weather have on this
energy will be discussed later; however, for this discussion on determining
range, these effects will be temporarily ignored.)

5. Electromagnetic energy travels through air at approximately the

speed of light i.e :

300,000 kilometers per second

or

4
 186,000 statute miles per second
or

162,000 nautical miles per second.

6. The electromagnetic waves are reflected if they meet an

electrically leading surface. If these reflected waves are registered again at
the place of their origin, then that means an obstacle is in the propagation
direction.

7. The electronic principle on which radar operates is very similar to

the principle of sound-wave reflection. If you shout in the direction of a
sound-reflecting object (like a rocky canyon or cave), you will hear an
echo. If you know the speed of sound in air, you can then estimate the
distance and general direction of the object. The time required for an echo
to return can be roughly converted to distance if the speed of sound is
known.

Target
Transmitted Signal

Echo Signal

Radar

Figure 2 : The radar principle( time measurement)

5
8. Radar uses electromagnetic energy pulses in much the same way,
as shown in Figure 2. The radio-frequency (rf) energy is transmitted to and
reflected from the reflecting object. A small portion of the reflected energy
returns to the radar set. This returned energy is called an ECHO, just as it
is in sound terminology. Radar sets use the echo to determine the direction
and distance of the reflecting object.

9. The distance is determined from the running time of the high-

frequency transmitted signal . The actual range of a target from the radar is
known as slant range. Slant range is the line of sight distance between the
radar and the object illuminated. While ground range is the horizontal
distance between the emitter and its target and its calculation requires
knowledge of the target's elevation. Since the waves travel to a target and
back, the round trip time is divided by two in order to obtain the time the
wave took to reach the target. Therefore the following formula arises for
the slant range:

R = CxT /2

C = speed of light = 3x10 m/s

T = measured time [s]
R = slant range [m]

10. The Distances are expressed in kilometers or nautical miles.

11. Derivation of the equation:

Range is the distance from the radar site to the target measured
along the line of sight.

v = s/t in m/s

v = speed
s = range
t = time

6
 v = 2xR/T in m/s

The factor of two in the formula comes from the observation that
the radar pulse must travel to the target and back before detection,
or twice the range.

R = CxT/2 in [m]

Where C= 310 m/s, is the speed of light at which all

electromagnetic waves propagate. If the respective running time t
is known, then the distance R between a target and the radar set
can be calculated by using this equation.

12. The angular determination of the target is determined by the

directivity of the antenna. Directivity, sometimes known as the directive
gain, is the ability of the antenna to concentrate the transmitted energy in a
particular direction. An antenna with high directivity is also called a
directive antenna. By measuring the direction in which the antenna is
pointing when the echo is received, both the azimuth and elevation angles
from the radar to the object or target can be determined. The accuracy of
angular measurement is determined by the directivity, which is a function
of the size of the antenna.

13. The True Bearing (referenced to true north) of a radar target is the
angle between true north and a line pointed directly at the target. This
angle is measured in the horizontal plane and in a clockwise direction
from true north. (The bearing angle to the radar target may also be measured in a
clockwise direction from the centerline of your own ship or aircraft and is referred to as
the relative bearing.)

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OPERATING PRINCIPLE OF RADAR
1. The following figure shows the operating principle of a primary
radar. The radar antenna illuminates the target with a microwave signal,
which is then reflected and picked up by a receiving device. The electrical
signal picked up by the receiving antenna is called echo or return. The
radar signal is generated by a powerful transmitter and received by a
highly sensitive receiver.

Transmitted
EM signal

Echo signal

Transmitter Duplexer Receiver Display

Transmitting path

transmitter duplexer antenna EM signal target

Receiving path
echo
display receiver duplexer antenna target
signal

Figure 3: Block diagram of a basic radar

8
2. All targets produce a diffuse reflection i.e. it is reflected in a wide
number of directions. The reflected signal is also called scattering.
Backscatter is the term given to reflections in the opposite direction to the
incident rays.

3. Radar signals can be displayed on the traditional plan position

indicator (PPI) or other more advanced radar display systems. A PPI has a
rotating vector with the radar at the origin, which indicates the pointing
direction of the antenna and hence the bearing of targets.

RADAR FREQUENCY BANDS AND THIER MILITARY

APPLICATIONS
1. The spectrum of the electric magnetic waves shows frequencies up
24
to 10 Hz. This very large complete range is subdivided because of
different physical qualities in different sub ranges.

2. The division of the frequencies to the different ranges was

competed on criteria formerly, which arose historically and a new division
of the wavebands which is used internationally is out-dated and arose so in
the meantime. The traditional waveband name is partly still used in the
literature; however, an overview shows the following figure:

Figure 4: Waves and frequency ranges

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3. Radar systems work in a wide band of transmitted frequencies. The
higher the frequency of a radar system, the more it is affected by weather
conditions such as rain or clouds. But the higher the transmitted
frequency, the better is the accuracy of the radar system.

4. The figure 5 shows the frequency bands used by military radar

systems.

10
 Precision approach radar

Air defense radar

Medium power radar

Air field surviellence
radar

Early warning UHF radar

11
5. The information given in the diagram above can be tabulated in
detail as given below:

DESIGNATION FREQUENCY APPLICATION

BAND

A 0 – 250 MHz Comm, Navigation, Long Range Radar

B 250 – 500 MHz Comm, Navigation, Long Range Radar
C 500 – 1000 MHz Comm, TACAN, Radar
D 1 – 2 GHz Radar, IFF, TACAN
E 2 – 3 GHz Search Radar, Height Finding Radars
F 3 – 4 GHz Search Radar, Height Finding Radars
G 4 – 6 GHz Ship borne, Surface Search, Radars,
Missile control

H 6 – 8 GHz Ship borne, Surface Search, Radars,

Missile control

I 8 – 10 GHz Airborne radar, Short Range Precision

Radar, Missile Control Radars,
Microwave Relay System

J 10 – 20 GHz Airborne Radar, Doppler Navigation

Radar Systems, Missile Control Radar

K 20 – 40 GHz High Resolution Radars, Experimental

and development Purposes

L 40 – 60 GHz Well suited for precision measurement

and target imaging

M 60 – 100 GHz Millimeteric Radars

12
 CHAPTER 2

RADAR RANGE EQUATION

&
RADAR PARAMETERS

Objectives
By the end of this Chapter, students will be able to explain the following:

a. Radar Range Equation.

b. Radar Parameters

13
RADAR RANGE EQUATION
1. The radar equation represents the physical dependences of the
transmit power, that is the wave propagation up to the receiving of the
echo-signals. Furthermore one can assess the performance of the radar
with the radar equation.

2. If high-frequency energy is emitted by an isotropic antenna, than

the energy propagates uniformly in all directions. Areas with the same
power density therefore form spheres ( A= 4 π R² ) around the antenna.
The same amount of energy spreads out on an incremented spherical
surface at an incremented spherical radius. That means: the power density
on the surface of a sphere is inversely proportional to the radius of the
sphere.

Figure 1: Nondirectional power density diminishes as

geometric spreading of the beam.

14
3. So we get the formula to calculate the Non-directional Power
Density Su

Su= Ps/4 π R1² in w/m² (1)

PS = transmitted power [W]

Su = no directional power density
R1 = Range antenna - Target [m]

4. Since a spherical segment emits equal radiation in all direction (at

constant transmit power), if the power radiated is redistributed to provide
more radiation in one direction, then this results an increase of the power
density in direction of the radiation. This effect is called antenna gain.
This gain is obtained by directional radiation of the power. So, from the
definition, the directional power density is:

Sg = Su · G (2)

Sg = directional power density

G = antenna gain

5. Of course in reality radar antennas aren't “partially radiating”

isotropic radiators. Radar antennas must have a small beam width and an
antenna gain up to 30 or 40 dB. (e.g. parabolic dish antenna or phased
array antenna).

6. The target detection isn't only dependent on the power density at

the target position, but also on how much power is reflected in the
direction of the radar. In order to determine the useful reflected power, it
is necessary to know the radar cross section σ. This quantity depends on
several factors. But it is true to say that a bigger area reflects more power
than a smaller area. That means a Jumbo jet offers more radar cross
section than a sporting aircraft at same flight situation. Beyond this the
reflecting area depends on design, surface composition and materials used.

15
7. With this in mind we can say: The reflected power Pr at the radar
depends on the power density Su, the antenna gain G, and the variable
radar cross section σ:

Pr = Ps· G · σ /4 π R1² in watts

(3)

Pr = reflected power
σ = radar cross section
R1 = range antenna - target [m]

8. A target can be regarded as a radiator in turn due to the reflected

power. In this case the reflected power Pr is the emitted power. Since the
echo encounters the same conditions as the transmitted power, the power
density yielded at the receiver Se is given by:

Se = Pr/4 π R22 in w/m2 (4)

Se = power density at receiver

Pr = reflected power [W]
R2 = range target - antenna [m]

9. At the radar antenna the received power is dependent on the power

at the receiver PE and the effective antenna area AW:

PE = Se . AW (5)

PE = power at the receive place [W]

AW = effective antenna area [m²]

10. The effective antenna area arises from the fact that an antenna
suffer from losses, therefore, the received power at the antenna is not
equal to the input power. As a rule, the efficiency of the antenna is around
0.6 to 0.7 (Efficiency Ka). Applied to the geometric antenna area, the
effective antenna area is:

AW = A · Ka (6)
16
 AW = effective antenna area [m²]
A = geometric antenna area [m²]
Ka = efficiency

11. The power received, PE is then calculated:

PE = Se x AW (5)
AW = Ax Ka (6)

PE = Se x Ax Ka (7)

Se = Pr/4 π R22 (4)

PE = Pr x Ax Ka /4 π R22 (8)

12. The transmitted and reflected waves have been seen separately.
The next step is to consider both transmitted and reflected power: Since R2
(Target - Antenna) is the distance R1 (Antenna - Target) then:

PE = Pr x Ax Ka /4 π R22 (8) & Pr = Ps· G · σ /4 π R1² (3)

PE = [Ps· G · σ /4 π R1² / 4 π R22 ] xA x Ka

as R2= R1

PE = [Ps· G · σ /(4 π) ² R4 ] xA x Ka (9)

13. Another equation, which will not be derived here, describes the
antenna gain G in terms of the wavelength λ:

17
 G = 4 π .A. Ka/ λ2 (10)

14. Solving for A, antenna area, and replacing A into equation 9; after
simplification it yields:

PE = [Ps· G2 · σ . λ2/(4 π) 3 R4 ] in W (11)

15. Solving for range R, we obtain the classic radar equation:

R = 4√ [Ps· G2 · λ2.σ /(4 π) 3 PE] (12)

16. The smallest received power that can be detected by the radar is
called PEmin. Smaller powers than PEmin aren't usable since they are lost
in the noise of the receiver. The minimum power is detect at the maximum
range Rmax as seen from the equation:

R max = 4√ [Ps· G2 · λ2.σ /(4 π) 3 PEmin (13)

17. All considerations, when calculating the radar equation, were made
assuming that the electromagnetic waves propagate under ideal conditions
without disturbing influences. In the practice a number of losses should be
considered since they reduce the effectiveness of the radar considerably.
The radar equation is extended by including the loss factor Lges :

R max = 4√ [Ps· G2 · λ2.σ /(4 π) 3 PEmin.Lges (14)

This factor includes the following losses:

 L D = internal attenuation factors of the radar unit on the transmitting

and receiving paths
 L f = fluctuation losses during the reflection
 L Atm = atmospheric losses during propagation of the electromagnetic
waves to and from the target

18
18. Remember: the most important feature of this equation is the
fourth-root dependence!. Other then the transmit power we assume all
other factors are constant. Calling all of them the coefficient (Kx), so the
maximum range equation becomes:

R max = 4√ [Ps· G2 · λ2.σ /(4 π) 3 PEmin.Lges

R max = Kx . 4√Ps

19. Now it is easy to see that in order to double the range,

the transmitted power would have to be increased by 16!

RADAR PARAMETRS

1. Radars may be designed to fulfil a specific function, or group of

functions (multi-functions). The radar designer knowing the laws of
physics with which EM radiation must comply, will chose the radars
specifications (Parameters) to optimise the radar to match the function, or
functions, as closely as possible; inevitably as you will see, the choice of
some of the Parameters will be a compromise. The following are the major
radar Parameters and how they affect the performance of the system:

a. Frequency: The frequency at which radar operates is

chosen from one of the bands outlined in previous chapter. As a
general rule, long-range radars operate at the lower end of the
frequency spectrum and short-range radars operate at higher
frequencies. There are several reasons for this: first as can be seen
in the graph at Figure 16, lower frequencies suffer less attenuation
than high frequencies as they radiate through the atmosphere.
Second, as we have already learned, frequency is directly related to

19
wavelength. At low frequencies, wavelengths are long and, as a
consequence, radar components tend to be proportionally large and
antennas, in particular can be very big and heavy. This presents
little problem for a radar, which will be used on the ground, or on a
large ship; however, such a radar could not be used in an aircraft or
in the nose of a missile. Size and weight considerations, therefore,
dictate that radars, which will be carried on small platforms, must,
for the reasons just stated, use high frequencies. At 10 GHz, and
above, atmospheric absorption and attenuation are high; for that
reason, high frequency radars

b. Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF) & Pulse Repetition

Interval (PRI): The rate at which a pulse radar transmits,
depends, as a general rule, on the maximum range for which the
radar has been designed. The PRF is the number of pulses per
second, usually expressed in Hz; however, of greater importance in
pulse radar terms is the interval between pulses; the Pulse
Repetition Interval (PRI). The essence of a pulse radar is that the
timing sequence starts at the beginning of the transmitted pulse and
the time measurement is from the leading edge of the transmitted
pulse to the leading edge of the echo pulse. At a radiating speed of
'c' (300 X 106 m/see), the round-trip-time to even a very long-range
target is only a tiny fraction of a second. In fact as can be easily
calculated, a radar pulse travels 300 m (0. 162 nm) every
microsecond. What is most important is that the PRI must be
sufficiently long for the echo from a target at maximum range to
arrive back at the radar receiver before the next pulse is transmitted
and the timing sequence started again. If this requirement is met,
all timing measurements will be unambiguous; otherwise timing
measurement, hence range measurement, will be ambiguous. The
longer the range, the longer must be the PRI; the longer the PRI,
the lower the PRF.

PRF = 1 second Hz or,

PRI (sec)

20
 PRF = 106 Hz
PRI (in µsec)

The consequence of having a PRI, which is too short, is that echoes

from distant targets may arrive at the radar after the next pulse has
been transmitted and a new timing sequence begun. These targets
would be displayed at the wrong range, sometimes called second-
trace-returns or second time around echoes as shown in Figure 17.

Whatever the name, the range measurement is ambiguous. In

order that ambiguous ranges are avoided, the following equation
can be used to calculate the maximum unambiguous range for a
given PRF:

Runambiguous = 162,000 nm or,

2 x PRF

Runambiguous = 300,000 Km
2 x PPF

c. Pulse Width (PW): The pulse width (PW), pulse

duration (PD) and pulse length (PL) are all different ways of
describing the pulsed energy from the radar; PW will be the
terminology used in these notes. PW, in most pulse ~, can be

21
anything from a fraction of a µsec (106 sec) to several µsec.
Exceptionally,, in a technique known as Pulse Compression, very
long PW are used; Pulse Compression will be covered in greater
detail in a later lesson. The total amount of energy in a single
pulse is proportional to its PW. Long-range radars tend to have a
long PW, 3 - 5 µsec is typical, and short-range radars have a much
shorter PW, 0.2 - 1.0 µsec. The PW determines the ability of the
radar to discriminate between two targets close together on the
same bearing. If the targets are separated by a distance equivalent
to half the PW or less the echoes will merge to give a single target
on the display; targets separated by a distance equivalent to greater
than half the PW, will appear as two separate targets.

To calculate the range resolution capability of a radar the following

equation is used

Range Resolution = PW x 300 metres

2

Where PW is in microseconds.

Example

To find the Range Resolution of a radar with a PW of 5 µsec,

Range Resolution = PW x 300 metres

2

= 5 x 300 metres
2
= 750 metres

22
d. Power: There are two different measurements
commonly used to describe the power output of a pulse radar: Peak
Power and Average Power.

i. Peak Power: Peak power is a measure of

the maximum power level in a single radar pulse and is
denoted by Pp. Peak power is important for several reasons.
First, to produce a large peak power requires that the device
producing the output pulses, the transmitter, is capable of
handling the very high voltages, which are then converted
to electromagnetic pulses. Second, the output of the
transmitter is connected to the antenna by a transmission
line; in the case of microwave frequencies, the transmission
line is normally a hollow rectangular metal tube called a
wave-guide. The output pulse is in the form of an
electromagnetic (EM) wave, which is injected into the
wave-guide, and the pulse of EM energy travels up inside
the empty, space, not in the metal walls of the wave-guide.
Depending on the frequency of the radar, the physical
dimensions of the wave-guide may be very large, at long
wavelengths, or very small for high frequency radars. If the
peak power of the pulse is too large, it is possible for the
energy to bridge the gap between the inner walls of the
wave-guide, which results in sparking. Sparking causes
pitting (melting) of the inner walls of the wave-guide and
these discontinuities result in a loss of power output at the
antenna. Wave-guide manufacturers produce tables staring
the recommended maximum power each type of wave-
guide can safely handle. This, therefore, puts a limit on the
maximum peak power of the radar.

ii. Average Power: While peak power is

important, modern radars depend more on average power,
denoted Pavg... Average power is the total power in one
pulse averaged over the PRI. More importantly, modern
radars do not depend on the energy from a single echo to

23
produce a target on the display. The power from many
echo pulses is added together, in a technique called Signal
Integration, to produce a good Signals-to-Noise Ratio
(SNR). It is important then, that during the time the radar
scans past the target, known as the dwell time, a sufficient
number of radar pulses strike the target to give the
integration processor the required number of echo pulses to
produce a good SNR. This requirement to strike the target
with a number of pulses during dwell time puts a limit on
the scanning rate for a given PRF. Figure 20 summarizes
the terminology associated

with radar power. The ratio of the PW to the PRI is called

the Duty Factor; it represents the fraction of time that the
radar is transmitting during one cycle of the pulse radar
operation. For a long-range radar with a PW of 5 µsec and
a PRI of 4,000 µsec, the Duty Factor is:

Duty Factor = τ
T

= 5
4.000

= 0.00125

= 0.125%

This is a very low Duty Factor compared with some types

of radar where the Duty Factor can approach 50%. The
average power of a radar can be improved in one of 3 ways
as shown in Figure 21.

24
 (1) Increasing Peak Power: Increasing
peak power will also increase the power averaged
over the PR1; however, as has already been stated,
increasing peak power also increases the risk of
sparking in the wave guide which could lead to loss
of transmitted power.
(2) Increasing PRF: Increasing the PRF
shortens the PRI, so for a given peak power the
average power will increase. Increasing the PRF,
however, reduces the maximum unambiguous range
of the radar, or, conversely, increases the risk of
second-time-around targets.
(3) Increasing Pulse Width: Increasing the
radar pulse width, increases the total power
averaged over the PRI: however increasing the
pulse width degrades the range resolution capability
and increases the minimum range. A technique
called Pulse Compression enables a very long pulse
width to be used without loss of range resolution;
this will be described in detail in a later lesson.
Pulse Compression cannot restore the minimum
range.

SUMMARY

- R max = 4√ [Ps· G2 · λ2.σ /(4 π) 3 PEmin.Lges

25
- R max = Kx . 4√Ps

- to double the range, the transmitted power would have to be

increased by 16!

- The frequency at which radar operates is chosen from one of

the bands of EM spectrum

- The PRF is the number of pulses per second, usually expressed

in Hz;

- PRI must be sufficiently long for the echo from a target at

maximum range to arrive back at the radar receiver before the
next pulse is transmitted

- Peak power is a measure of the maximum power level in a

single radar

- Average power is the total power in one pulse averaged over

the PRI

CHAPTER 3

26
 RADAR SCANS

Introduction
1. The antenna system of radar is designed to form the transmitted energy
into a highly directional beam and collect energy contained in the
reflected signals. This information is then used to determine the target
position in two co-ordinates; azimuth and elevation.

2. To measure a target’s bearing accurately radar needs to have a narrow

beamwidth. Unfortunately narrow beamwidths reduces the
instantaneous look-area, therefore to cover a wider area, a radar system
needs to scan. Different types of radars use different types of scan,
depending upon the function of the radar.

Objective
The objective of this chapter is to describe the scanning and different
scan types that are used by modern radar systems.

What is Scanning?
1. Scanning can be described as the search pattern of a radar to detect
targets. It may involve physically moving the antenna to change the
orientation of the transmitted beam or alternatively alter the direction of
the radar beam by electronic means.

27
2. Scanning is different from tracking. Tracking involves the precise
and continuous measurement of a target’s range, angle and/or velocity to
determine its flight path and predict its future position. Some radar
systems, particularly airborne radars, can perform both the tracking and
scanning functions at the same time these are called track-while-scan
radars.

Purpose
Currently no radar system can cover 360º in azimuth and elevation
to detect targets. To ensure maximum coverage wide beam widths are
used, this results in poor angular resolution. Narrow beam widths have
good resolution, but less space is searched, therefore the radar beam must
be scanned in order to detect targets.

Scan Duration
Different radar functions require different types of antenna, which
produce different beam shapes that are scanned in different ways. Not
only are the methods of scanning different, but also the duration of the
scan differs. The following terms may be used to describe the scan
duration:

a. Scan Period. The time taken to complete a scan pattern and return
to the starting point, expressed in seconds.

b. Antenna Rotation Period (ARP) Another term for scan period,

although only used when describing circular scanning radar.

c. Rotation Rate. The number of complete scans in one minute,

expressed as revolutions per minute (rpm). Also used to describe
circular scanning radars.

28
 d. Scan Rate. The number of complete scans in one minute or per
second. Scan rate is often used to describe non-circular scanning
radars.

Types of scan

1. Primary Scan: A scanning technique where the main antenna aerial

is moved to produce a scanning beam, examples include circular scan,
sector scan etc

2. Secondary Scan: A scanning technique where the antenna feed is

moved to produce a scanning beam, examples include conical scan,
unidirectional sector scan, lobe switching etc. secondary scans can also be
named as Precision scans

Types of primary scans

Circular Scan
1. Search radars, which normally provide hemispherical coverage,
use a fan-shaped beam consisting of a single beam or several overlapping
smaller beams rotating regularly through 3600

Fig 1

2. Circular scanning is usually used by long-range early warning, air

defence and surveillance radars, with ARPs of 10 to 20 seconds

29
Sector Scan.

1. If the radar is only required to search a portion of the hemisphere,

one method of achieving this is by sweeping a sector, shown in Figure 2,
overleaf. The sector scan is defined by the total arc covered during the
sweep and whether the radar continues to transmit when it reverses direction.
If the radar transmits in both directions it is called a bi-directional sector
scan; if it only transmits in one direction it is called a uni-directional sector
scan. By limiting the volume of search to a sector, the data rate is increased.
Some radars use sector scan in two planes. These sector sweeping beams
will be transmitted on different frequencies and depending on whether the
radar uses bi-directional or uni-directional sector scan will dictate whether it
will be possible to calculate the position of the receiver in both planes.

4
3
2 1

Figure 2: Sector Scan

30
2. A good example of a bi-directional sector scanning radar is the
height finder and an example of a uni-directional sector scan, in
orthogonal planes, is the track-while-scan radar known as FAN SONG.

Conical Scan
1. Conical scan is achieved by rotating a pencil beam with a small
offset angle known as the squint angle, as shown in Figure 3. The radar
beam thus searches a conical volume of airspace. If the target is on the
axis of rotation, the amplitude of the signals will be constant and received
at the PRF rate, as shown in Figure 4. If, however, the target is displaced
from the axis of rotation, the signals will fluctuate at the rotation rate of
the conical scanning beam; the amplitude of the signals will be amplitude
modulated at the scanning rate and the this modulation will be
superimposed on the PRF, as shown in Figure 5. The depth of the
modulation will be a function of the displacement from the axis of rotation
and the phase of the modulation will depend on the directional of angular
displacement from the rotation axis. Conical scanning radars use this
modulation amplitude and phase to correct its position with respect to the
target. When the target is back on the axis of rotation, the modulation
disappears and the signals will return to those shown in Figure 4.

2. Conical scan is normally used by tracking radars.

Figure 3: Conical Scan

31
 Figure 4: Signal Plot - Target on Boresight

Figure 5: Signal Plot - Target Displaced From Boresight

Raster Scan
1. Some radar, particularly airborne intercept (AI) radars, search the
volume of interest by sector sweeping a pencil beam which is stepped up
or down to cover the required airspace. This technique is referred to as a
raster scan and is shown in Figure 7. The raster scan is described by the
angular size of the sector, by the number of levels through which the beam
is stepped and whether the transmission is bi-directional or uni-directional.
The raster pattern can be achieved by accomplished in a series of
sequential steps, as in Figure 7a, or in variations of this sequence, as
shown in Figure 7b. The observed signal from a raster scan will vary
according to the raster pattern.

2. Raster scan is used by AI radars and involves sector scanning in

azimuth, with successive alterations in elevation by less than the overall
beamwidth.

32
 Target
Position

Figure 7: Raster Scan

Figure 7a: Simple Raster Scan Figure 7 b: Complex Raster Scan

Spiral Scan.
Spiral scan is one in which a pencil beam is made to move in a
circular pattern while the radius of the circle is gradually increased out to the
required maximum displacement, as shown in Figure 8. Some older Russian
AI radars employ spiral scan.

33
 Figure 8: Spiral Scan

Helical Scan.
Helical scan is one in which the elevation angle of a circularly scanning
pencil beam is gradually increased, as shown in Figure 9.

Figure 9: Helical Scan

Palmer Scan.

Palmer scan is the name given to the technique of superimposing a

conical scan on top of another scan such as raster; this would then be called a
Palmer Raster scan, as shown in Figure 10.

34
 Figure 10: Palmer Raster Scan

Irregular or Scheduled Scan

Electronically scanned radars can have almost any of the
scan patterns described above; however, some of these radars,
particularly those which provide a track-while-scan function can
have very irregular scans patterns. This is due the fact that the
radar is used in a time-sharing manner, where part of the time is
used to carry out a search pattern and the remainder of the time is
used to track individual targets on a priority basis. An electronically
scanned beam can be moved from one position to another in a few
microseconds; the signal arriving at a passive receiver would
therefore appear erratic. A typical scheduled scan pattern is shown
in Figure 11.
1 2

Figure 11: Scheduled Scan

35
 SUMMARY

- Scanning can be described as the search pattern used by a

radar to detect targets

- The duration of a scan is also known as: scan period, antenna

rotation period, rotation rate or scan rate.

- Circular scanning is usually used by long-range early warning,

air defence and surveillance radars, with ARPs of 10 to 20
seconds

- There are 3 types of sector scan: bi-directional sector scan,

unidirectional sector scan and vertical sector scan

- Conical scan is normally used by tracking radars

- Raster scan is used by AI radars and involves sector scanning

in azimuth, with successive alterations in elevation by less than
the overall beamwidth.

- Electronic scanning is quicker and more agile than mechanical

methods. It allows a radar to steer, change beam shape and
polarisation. It is used by modern multi-mode or
multifunction radars.

36
Continuous-wave radar system is a radar system
where a known stable frequency continuous wave radio energy is
transmitted and then received from any reflecting objects. The return
frequencies are shifted away from the transmitted frequency based on
the Doppler effect if they are moving.

The main advantage of the CW radars is that they are not pulsed and
simple to manufacture. They have no minimum or maximum range
(although the broadcast power level imposes a practical limit on range)
and maximize power on a target because they are always broadcasting.
However they also have the disadvantage of only detecting moving
targets, as stationary targets (along the line of sight) will not cause a
Doppler shift and the reflected signals will be filtered out. CW radar
systems are used at both ends of the range spectrum; e.g., as radio-
altimeters at the close-range end (where the range may be a few feet),
and early warning radars at long range.

CW radars also have a disadvantage because they cannot measure

range. Range is normally measured by timing the delay between a
pulse being sent and received, but as CW radars are always
broadcasting, there is no delay to measure. Ranging can be
implemented, however, through a technique known as "chirping", or
frequency modulated continuous-wave radar. In this system the
signal is not a continuous fixed frequency, but varies up and down
over a fixed period of time. By comparing the frequency of the
received signal to the one currently being sent, the difference in
frequency can be accurately measured, and from that the time-of-flight
can be calculated.

The military uses continuous-wave radar to guide semi-active radar

homing (SARH) air-to-air missiles, such as the U.S. AIM-7 Sparrow.
The launch aircraft illuminates the target with a CW radar signal, and
the missile homes in on the reflected radar waves. Since the missile is
moving at high velocities relative to the aircraft, there is almost always

37
 a strong return. Most modern air combat radars, even pulse Doppler
sets, have a CW function for missile guidance purposes.

CONTINUOUS WAVE RADAR

34. Introduction: Pulse radars measure target range, azimuth

and elevation. To do this they use a single antenna that both transmits
pulses and receives the weak target echoes. However, pulse radars
have the following disadvantages:

a. Pulse radars cannot transmit and receive simultaneously.

b. High peak powers are required to achieve an adequate
average power.
c. Pulse radars have a minimum range.
d. Pulse radars have a maximum range limited by their
relatively low average power and the pulse repetition
interval, (multiple-time-around-returns).
e. Pulse radars are complex.
f. A basic pulse radar cannot measure velocity.

35. Advantages of Continuous Wave Radar: Continuous wave

(CW) radars transmit continuously and have the following advantages
over pulse radars:

a. CW radars transmit their peak power continuously. This means power levels can
be as high as the transmitter and wave-guide limitations will allow.

b. CW radars have a maximum range limited only by the

peak power available and receiver sensitivity. Frequency
modulated CW (FMCW) radar is used by over-the-horizon-
backscatter (OTH-B) radars, such as AN/FPS-118, which
has a maximum range of 1800 nm (3335 km).
c. CW radars have no minimum range and are therefore
ideal for proximity fusing of artillery shells.
d. CW radars are simple; (they have no synchronizer,
Modulator or duplexer).

38
 e. CW radars transmit coherent signals, allowing for the
measurement of a target’s velocity, azimuth and elevation.

36. Disadvantages of Continuous Wave Radar: These are:

a. Separate transmit and receive antennas are usually

required.
b. A basic CW radar cannot measure range.

Frequency-Modulated Continuous-Wave Radar

CW radars have the disadvantage that they cannot measure distance,

because there are no pulses to time. In order to correct for this problem,
frequency shifting methods can be used. In the frequency shifting method,
a signal that constantly changes in frequency around a fixed reference is
used to detect stationary objects. When a reflection is received the
frequencies can be examined, and by knowing when in the past that
particular frequency was sent out, you can do a range calculation similar
to using a pulse. It is generally not easy to make a broadcaster that can
send out random frequencies cleanly, so instead these Frequency-
Modulated Continuous Wave radars (FMCW), use a smoothly varying
„ramp” of frequencies up and down.

c0 · Δt C0 = speed of light = 3·108 m/s

R= Δt = measured time-difference [s]
2 R = distance altimeter to terrain [m]

This kind of radar is used as „radar altimeter” often. The radar altimeter is
used to measure the exact height during the landing procedure of aircraft.
Radar altimeters are also a component of terrain avoidance warning
systems, telling the pilot that the aircraft is flying too low or that terrain is
rising to meet the aircraft.

39
Frequency Modulated Continuous Wave (FMCW) Radar

It is also possible to use a CW radar system to measure range instead of

range rate by frequency modulation, the systematic variation of the
transmitted frequency. What this does in effect is to put a unique "time
stamp" on the transmitted wave at every instant. By measuring the
frequency of the return signal, the time delay between

transmission and reception can be measure and therefore the range

determined as before. Of course, the amount of frequency modulation must
be significantly greater than the expected Doppler shift or the results will be
affected.

The simplest way to modulate the wave is to linearly increase the

frequency. In other words, the transmitted frequency will change at a
constant rate.

40
Figure 3. FMCW theory of operation.

The FMCW system measures the instantaneous difference between the

transmitted and received frequencies, Df. This difference is directly
proportional to the time delay, Dt, which is takes the radar signal to reach
the target and return. From this the range can be found using the usual
formula, R = cDt/2. The time delay can be found as follows:

Dt = T Df/(f2-f1) where:

f2 = maximum frequency
f1 = minimum frequency
T = period of sweep from f1 to f2,
and Df = the difference between transmitted and received.

41
There is a slight problem which occurs when the sweep resets the frequency
and the frequency difference becomes negative (as shown in the plot of Df vs.
time). The system uses a discriminator to clip off the negative signal, leaving
only the positive part, which is directly proportional to the range. Here is a
system diagram:

Figure 4. FMCW block diagram.

Combining these equations into a single form for the range

R = 2cTDf/(f2 - f1)

where Df is the difference between the transmitted and received frequency

(when both are from the same sweep, i.e. when it is positive).

Another way to construct a FMCW system, is to compare the phase

difference between the transmitted and received signals after they have been
demodulated to receiver the sweep information. This system does not have
to discriminate the negative values of Df. In either case however, the
maximum unambiguous range will still be determined by the period, namely

Runamb = cT/2

42
FMCW systems are often used for radar altimeters, or in radar proximity
fuzes for warheads. These systems do not have a minimum range like a
pulsed system. However, they are not suitable for long range detection,
because the continuous power level they transmit at must be considerably
lower than the peak power of a pulsed system. You may recall that the peak
and average power in a pulse system were related by the duty cycle,

MOVING TARGET INDICATION (MTI) RADAR

24. Introduction: In many early warning and surveillance radars,

only moving targets are of interest. The returns from these moving targets are
Often much weaker than those from nearby stationary targets such as buildings,
hangars, hills and other large reflecting surfaces such as electricity pylons. The
presence of these unwanted targets, or clutter, can make the detection of the
desired targets very difficult. For this reason many radar systems include a
processor designed to enhance the detection of moving targets by suppressing
the unwanted stationary targets and clutter. This type of processing is called
moving target indicator (MTI) and is the most useful and widely used class of
radar signal processing.

25. In a pulse radar, the radar signal consists of very short pulses of radio
frequency (RF). The time delay between the transmission of each pulse and the
reception of the echo is proportional to the target range. The phase of the echo
signal also depends on the target range. If the phase of the transmitted signal is
stable from pulse to pulse, the phase of the echo signal received from a
stationary target will also be stable since the target range is constant, (figure 8).

43
26. If the target is moving, the phase of the echo signal will change at a rate
that depends on the targets radial velocity. The rate of change of the phase is
the Doppler frequency, Id. The Doppler shift, in radar, can be calculated from
the following equation:

fd = 2 ft v cos  Hz
c

Where fd is the Doppler frequency

ft is the frequency of the transmitted signal
v is the target speed
 is the angle between target direction and the line of sight
c is the speed of light (3 x 108 msec-1)

27. For the fixed target, the pulse amplitude is constant from pulse to pulse.
For the moving target, the pulse amplitude varies as the phase of the received
signal varies. The Doppler shift can be used to allow the radar to reject fixed
targets (clutters) and display only moving targets. One way of accomplishing
MTI is to use pulse-to-pulse change in amplitude at the output of the phase
detector to differentiate between fixed and moving targets using a delay line
canceller (figure 9).

44
28. The delay line consists of a delay line and a summer. The delay
line delays the video signal by a time equal to the pulse repetition interval
(PRI). The delay line operates by sampling the video signal at a high rate
and storing each sample for the required time. The delayed video signal is
subtracted from the undelayed video signal by the summer. The output of
the delay-line canceller consists of the differences between the successive
pulses in the video signal. If the target is not moving, the amplitude of
each pulse is the same as that of previous pulse. The result of the
subtraction is zero. If the target is moving, the pulse amplitude changes
from pulse to pulse. The result of' the subtraction is not zero; a residue
remains in the form of a bi-polar pulse train. Since only moving targets
produce a residue, only these targets will be displayed. The delay-line
canceller in figure 9 is a single delay line canceller. Multiple delay line
cancellers, having more than one delay, are sometimes used for improved
cancellation performance.

29. There are occasions when target, though moving, does not produce
Doppler shift. An aircraft moving tangentially to the radar beam has no radial
component towards the radar, hence no Doppler shift. This condition is referred
to as tangential fade. This condition will only exist for a short period because, as
the target continues moving, it will begin to have a Doppler component away

45
from the radar and will reappear. Another, more serious, condition occurs when
a moving target has a radial velocity such that the target moves half the radar
wavelength, or any multiple of half the wavelength, between successive radar
pulses; this is known as the blind speed and can be calculated. Blind speed can
be calculated as follows:

Blind speed =  or  x PRF msec-1

2 x PRI 2

30. To simplify this equation, a conversion Factor is added which

allows the wavelength, in cm, to be inserted directly, (n is the number of
the blind speed).

Blind speed =  x PRF kt

103

31. Example: find the blind speeds for a radar, which has a
wavelength of 30 cm, and a PRF of 800 Hz.

First Blind speed = 30 x 800 = 233 kt

103

32. Substituting the values 2, 3 and 4 for n in the previous equation,

466 kt, 699 kt, 932 kt and so on will also be blind speeds.

33. In practice, fading may occur within about 10kt of a blind speed.
The blind speed problem in radars employing MTI processing is usually
overcome by the use of more than one PRF. This is normally done in a
scheduled manner and is referred to as staggered PRF (figure 11). Since
the target speed would have to be such that it was blind at both PRFs, the
risk is considerably reduced; the use of 3 PRFs or more reduces the risk to
an acceptable level. Since stationary targets are mostly at short range, it

46
is normal practice for MTI to be used only over the first 20 to 40 nm from
the radar; it is usually adjusted in 10 nm steps until only a very light fringe
of clutter, through which targets can be detected, is left on the display.

Information on Pulse Doppler Radar

Continuous wave radar (CW radar) is not the only form of radar able to
make use of the Doppler effect. Doppler shifts can be used in pulse radar,
as they were in CW radar, to determine the relative velocity of moving
targets. Pulse radars designed to make use of the Doppler effect in this
way are called pulse Doppler radar (PD radar).
Pulse doppler radars are very useful radar systems as they combine
their ability to determine target velocity with the other functionality of a
standard pulse radar. A pulse doppler radar can, therefore, determine
range, angle and velocity of a target. This makes pulse doppler radar
extremely valuable in situations involving many small moving targets
hidden by heavily cluttered environments. A maritime scenario involving
low-flying aircraft and anti-ship missiles is an example of such an
environment.
It is common for pulse doppler radars to have a capability to

47
concentrate only on moving targets, removing the sometimes confusing
clutter from the operator’s display. This capability is called moving target
indication (MTI).

Moving Target Indicator (MTI)

This system measures changes in the phase of the returned signal to

determine motion of the target. In order to measure the phase, a sample of
the transmitter pulse is fed into a phase comparator, which also samples
the return signal. The output of the phase comparator is used to modulate
the display information. Returns will be the largest and positive when they
are in-phase the largest negative value when out of phase.

Figure 1 phase comparison output.

When the range to a target is changing, the phase comparison output will
be varying between its extreme values, as well as moving in range. One
full cycle of phase shift is completed as the range changes by one-half
wavelength of the radar. This is because the radar signal travels both to
and from the target, so that the change total distance traveled by the radar
pulse changes by a factor of two. For a typical radar wavelength of 3 cm,

48
it is clear that the phase comparison output will be rapidly varying for
targets whose range is changing.

Figure 2. Five sequential returns from pulse comparison output

The fact that stationary targets have a fixed value of phase difference can
be exploited to remove them from the display. This is accomplished by a
cancellation circuit. The MTI processor takes a sample from the phase
comparison output and averages it over a few cycles. Moving targets will
average to zero, while stationary targets will have non-zero averages. The
average signal is then subtracted from the output before it is displayed,
thereby canceling out the stationary targets.

49
Figure 3. Cancellation circuit of MTI processor

What is meant by stationary targets are those returns which are not
changing in range. For moving transmitters, of course, returns from fixed
objects on the ground will be changing in range and therefore displayed.
MTI systems for moving transmitters must provide a modified input to the
phase comparator, which includes the phase advance associated with the
motion of the transmitter.

Pulse Doppler Radar

THIS SYSTEM ADDS ADDITIONAL PROCESSING EQUIPMENT TO

THE BASIC PULSED RADAR SYSTEM. A SAMPLE OF THE
TRANSMITTED SIGNAL IS DIRECTED TO MIXER, WHICH ALSO
SAMPLES THE OUTPUT FROM THE RECEIVER. THE OUTPUT OF
THE MIXER IS THE DOPPLER SHIFT, DF. THE DOPPLER SHIFT IS
PASSED TO A FILTER WHICH MODIFIES THE DISPLAY
INFORMATION ACCORDINGLY.

50
Figure 4. Pulsed Doppler radar system.

THE MOST COMMON APPLICATION IS TO COLOR CODE THE RETURN

INFORMATION ON THE PPI DISPLAY. THE DOPPLER SHIFT IS SORTED INTO
CATEGORIES, FOR EXAMPLE POSITIVE, ZERO AND NEGATIVE, WHICH ARE THEN
ASSOCIATED WITH COLORS. IN THIS EXAMPLE, ONLY THREE COLORS ARE USED:
WHITE, GREY AND BLACK.

Pulsed Doppler radar systems are used in numerous miltary applications. THEY
ARE ALSO THE STANDARD WEATHER RADAR THROUGHOUT THE COUNTRY. THE
PULSED DOPPLER RADAR CAN DETECT AND GRAPHICALLY DISPLAY
INFORMATION ABOUT THE RELATIVE MOTION OF WINDS INSIDE OF STORM
CELLS AND HAS PROVED USEFUL IN DETECTING TORNADOES. A Doppler velocity
display of a tornado will show the two colors which correspond to opposite
directions of motion side-by-side.

51
AIRBORNE SYSTEMS ARE USED TO DETERMINE THE
VELOCITY OF THE VEHICLE RELATIVE TO THE EARTH FOR
SUCH PURPOSES AS NAVIGATION, BOMBING, AND AERIAL
MAPPING, OR RELATIVE TO ANOTHER VEHICLE FOR FIRE
CONTROL OR OTHER PURPOSES. GROUND OR SHIP
EQUIPMENT IS USED TO DETERMINE THE VELOCITY OF
VEHICULAR TARGETS FOR FIRE CONTROL, REMOTE
GUIDANCE, INTERCEPT CONTROL, TRAFFIC CONTROL,
AND OTHER USES.

Figure 5. Pulsed Doppler display.

52
The only useable portion of this spectrum is the interval between the main
lobe and the first harmonic at fc + PRF. Therefore only Doppler shifts that
fall within this range can be measured unambiguously. Therefore the
condition when the Doppler shift is equal to the PRF defines the maximum
unambiguous speed that can be measured. From this we derive the
maximum unambiguous speed:

f = 2s/ = PRF

Sunamb = PRF/2

You will note that this is also the same condition described for MTI
systems, namely when the target moves one-half wavelength in the period
PRT:

sblind * PRT = 2 sblind = PRF/2.

From the spectrum, it is also apparent that the Doppler shift must be larger
than the bandwidth of the main lobe in order to be detectable. This defines
a minimum detectable speed:

fmin = 2smin/ = 1/(4PW)

smin = /(8PW).

Example: WSR-88 (NEXRAD) weather radar.

53
This system operates at 3 GHz (= 10 cm) and uses a 325 Hz PRF in its
normal mode, find the maximum unambiguous speed this system can
measure.
Sunamb = (0.1 m)(325)/2
sunamb = 16.25 m/s or about 37 mph.

There are two ways to fix this problem. The first is to increase the PRF. Of
course, this will reduce the maximum unambiguous detection range
accordingly. The other is to vary the PRF. Ambiguous returns will vary
either in range or velocity, while accurate ones will not. This does not
solve the problem, but can be used to identify conditions where the target
range is beyond Runamb or when the target radial speed is beyond sunamb.

54