~ .

Lanka 1984 12 ( 2 ) : 257-271

J . Natn. Sci. C O U Sri

Geology and Occurrence of Gems in Sri Lanka*

J. W. NERATH
Oceanography Unit, National Aquatic Resources Agency, Colombo 15, Srl Lanka
(Date of receiut: 17 August 1984)
(Date of acceptunce: 28 December 1984)

Abstract: The gemstones of Sri Lanka with the exception of moonstones, some
tourmaline, and garnets which have been found in situ, are all obtained from old
alluvial deposits. Although the occurrence of gem%in their rock-matrix is rare, there
is no doubt that they are associated with some form of intnsive material and most
probably originated in material of pegmatitic nature. The succession of formations
obser-ved in alluvial gem fields varies much in character according to the materials
and the circumstances under which they are deposited. Perhaps nowhere in the
world are so many minerals of the gem variety (common and rare) concentrated in
such a comparatively restricted area of mountainous country as in the Sabaragamuwa
Province of Sri Lanka in which Ratnapura is the main gem trading centre.

8 . Introduction
Sri Lanka has long been renowned for its gems. In the Chronicles, reference is
made to gems being brought from Ceylon to the Court of Solomon. The 'Maha-
wansa' tile great historical record of the Island, refers to the singular reputation of
the Island for its gems. Several Greek writers of the first and second centuries
refer to the reputation of Sri Lanka for its precious stones. From about the fourth
century to the eleventh century the Arabs and the Persians exercised a great influence
over the trade of the Island. The Venetian traveller, Marco Polo in the thirteenth
century visited Sri Lanka on his homeward journey from China and in his book
he mentions the gems of the Island. He also records that he found the Moors,
the descendants of the Arabs, in undisputed possession of the gem trade of Sri Lanka.
It is also believed that Sinbad's Valley of Gems in the Arabian Nights is probably
the Ratnapura gem fields. Sri Lanka has therefore been famous for its gems since
early historic times.
Sri Lanka is a tropical Island and lies 32 km to the east of the southernmost
extremjty of Peninsular India. It has an area of 65,600 sq. krn and is 432 km
long and 224 km at its greatest breadth. The Island may be divided into two main
physiographic divisions :
1. Tlie low lying coastal plain with little relief is traversed by rivers which
have reached their base level of erosion.
2. The central highlands with immature drainage pattern and marked
relief abounds in numerous strike ridges, hills and mountains.
Paper read at the 19th international Gemmological Conference - Sri Lanka 1983
 J. W. Herath-
The coastal plain is narrow in the western and southern parts of the Island.
The general level varies fromsea level to about 150 m where some erosion remnants
rise to 300m or more above sea level. The central highlands rise steeply from the
coastal plain and the highest mountain (Pidurutalagala) attains a n elevation of
2528 m above sea level.
Sri Lanka lies in the monsoon region of south-east Asia and it has a humid
tropical climate. The division into a West Zone and Dry Zone which merge in
a n Intermediate Zone is one of the most conspicuous geographical features of the
Island. In Figure 1 the rainfall pattern is shown clearly demarcating the Wet and
Dry Zone. The average rainfall varies from below 50 inches (1270 mm) in the
north-west and south-east parts of the lowland zone to over 200 inches (5080 mm)'
in the south-west slopes of the central hill country. The mean rainfall for the
Island is 80 inches (2032 mm). In the Wet Zone area the average mean temperature-
varies between 21" and 29°C and in the Dry Zone it may be nearer 32°C. In the
highlands the mean temperature ranges between 15"C and 26°C according to elevation.
The rivers are for the most part radial. The upper reaches are mainly con-
fined to the hill country. The radial pattern is the dominant element in the drainage
pattern in Sri Lanka. A great problem in the Wet Zone is flood control. In the
Dry Zone a seasonal shortage of water is a problem. Very few rivers rise in the
Wet Zone and flow into the Dry Zone. The main population concentration is in
the Wet Zone. In the Dry Zone the population is sparse. The population of
Sri Lanka is around 15 million.
The present paper attempts to give a broad picture of the geology, occur-.
rence, origin and mining of gems in Sri Lanka. During the course of geolog~cal
mapping of the Ratnapura, Rakwana and Balangoda areas (the main gem bearing
areas of Sri Lanka), the author has had the opportunity of examining a large number
of gem pits and was closely associated with the work of many gem-miners in the
region. During this period of 2 to 3 years a considerable amount of useful infor-
mation was gathered on the occurrence of gems. Although this paper is not an
exhaustive treatment of the subject it provides in a convenient form a useful summary
for those interested in the gems of the Island.
2. General Geology
Over 90 per cent of the surface area of the Island is underIain by Precambrian rocks
consisting of a complex series of high-grade metamorphic rocks, most of which
have been derived from sediments and altered by one or more metamorph~sms.
Associated with these metamorphic rocks are granites and granitoid rocks of igneous
origin. Figure 2 shows the outcrops of the main geolog~calformations in the
Island and Table I is presented to show the general succession of geolog~calforma-
tions and the important mineral deposits of Sri Lanka.
,Geology and Occurrence of Gems in Sri Lanka

ISOHY E l O N C H E S I

LI..;;,..~..::::?' CL IMATlC ZONE BOUNDARY

TRINCOMALEE

3 0 MILES

P.N.

1 - Rainfall Pattern - Sri Lanka

FIGURE
250 J . W. fkrath

RECENT
PLEISTOCENE I
:[Large Jots Indlrotc P l ~ l a t o c e n e
ovsrlylng Miecant 8 Precornbrlan r o c k r )

H~OCENE L IUESTONE

JURASSIC SNALES

METASEDIMENTS

YA..Ll!

ZIRCON GRANITES

"%, DOLERITE DYKE(Agruncrrtaln)

SERPENlINlTE

2 - Simplified Geologica! Map - Sri Lanka

FIGURE
 3 - Distribution of Gem bearing Gravel - Sri Lanka
FIGURE
 J. W.Herath

EDGE O F S L l GHTLY I N SWAMPY IN ALLUVIAL

SWAMP
-- -- -- -- -___ VALLEY

--:------
- -

CROSS SECTION OF GEM P l f S

p?xj S O I L COVER ALLUVIUM -1 CLAY SAND

I - ~ L P E A T-1Y E A
O E MROT H
RAV EL V///71 DECOMPOSED B E D R O C K

F\T B E D ROCK FALSE BEDDINO S A N D Y C L A Y

OVER BURDEN OEM BEARING ORAVEL WAOlA 6
1 - 12H F E W CMS.TO 1 M THl CK FERNANDO 1g45

FIGURE
4 - Succession of Forrnat~onsin Gem P ~ t s
 TABLE1. General succession of Geological Formations and Principal Mineral Deposits in Sri Lanka

Principal Geological
Divisions
Principal Formations Jmporfanl Mineral
0.0 Period Deposits Others
Recent residual and alluvial Kaolin, ball clay, Thorianite,
ANTHROFOZOTC HOLOCENE deposits, blown sand, coastal refractory bond clay, thorite,
(RECENT) sandstone, coral and shell residual and alluvial baddeleyite.
formations, beach mineral clay, silica sand, ilmenite,
sands, gem gravels, peat, rutile, zircon, monazite,
lagoonal and estuarine garnet, gem, coral, shell,
deposits sillimanite, clay ochers
----- --
QUATERNARY Laterites (may extend from Laterites, limonitic iron -
CENOZOIC IPLEI STOCENE) Recent to Tertiary Periods). ore. red earths (sands).
gravels, red earths, gem,
TERTIARY Limestone Limestone
(MlC CENE)
JURASSIC Shales, carbonaceous shales Shales
MESOZOIC and arkosic sandstone
-- -

- Absent
PALAEOZOIC
PRECAMBRIAN Highland Series Marble, quartz, Magnesite,
ARCHAEOZOIC (metasediments) felspar, graphite, allanite,
cordierite,
Vi-iayan Series mica, apalile,
(gneissic complex) magnclite chert ,
Southwestern Group viollastonite,
(gneisses and metasediments) sillimanite,
Innusives (granites) copper,
dolorite dykespegmatjtes) serpentinite.
- -- .

Modified after Herath 1980

 J. W.Herath

The precambrian crystalline rocks consist essentially of (1) a Highland Series

(2) Vijayan Series and (3) the South - Western Croup. The Highland Series is
characterised by metamorphosed sediments and charnockitic rocks. The main rock
types exposed are quartzites, marble (mainly dolomitic limestones), garnet - sillima-
nite - graphite schists, granulites and gneisses of various types including a variety of
charnockitic rocks. The Vijayan Series is mainly composed of granites, gneisses
of various types and migmatites. Athough the South - Western Group is fairly
similar to the Highland Series there are differences between the two units in terms
of both lithology and metamorphic character. Rock types in this group include
thin quartzites, wollastonite bearing rocks, cordierite bearinggneisses, coarse char-
nockitic rocks and appreciable amounts of chert.

These rocks have been folded into a series of synforms and antiforms, gene-
rally trending in a north-west south-east direction. A good deal of controversy
still remains about the subdivision of the Sri Lanka Precambrian, what can be
generally agreed however, is that the structures are everywhere complex. In recent
years the boundary between the Highland Series and the eastern Vijayan has been
recognized as a mineralized zone. A number of serpentinite rocks have been located
on this boundary (Figure 2) and the Seruwila copper-magnetite deposit in the
Trincomalee area is also confined to this zone.

The largest development of sedimentary rocks occur in the north-western

coastal belt extending from the Jaffna Peninsula in thenorth to the south of Puttalam
on the west coast. This formation is of Miocene age and the rock type is a massive
limestone of marine origin which is fossiliferous. Jurassic rocks are limited in
extent and they are exposed in the Tabbowa, Andigama and Pallama areas north
of Chilaw. These sedimentary rocks are composed of sandstone, grits, arkoses
and shales. Similar Jurassic (Gondwana) rocks occur below the Miocene lime-
stone of the Mannar area (Petroleum surveys-drill cores).

Recent formations include a variety of unconsolidated materials (beach sands

and extensive deposits of alluvial clays), coastal sandstone, coral and shell formations.
The Pleistocene deposits include the gem gravels of the.Island, red earths and ordi-
nary gravel beds in the western and north-western parts of the Island and the laterite
deposits in the south-western parts of the Island (residual deposits).

3. Distribution and Geological Occurrence of Gems

The main gem bearing area of Sri Lanka which has been known f o centuries
~ com-
prises a series of parallel hill ranges separated by longitudinal valleys and situated
in the Sabaragamuwa Province.
Geology and Occurrence of Gems in Sri Lanka
To date, the main gemming fields in the Island are confined to this area
which covers nearly 1500 sq. km. The neighbourhood of Avissawella, Ratnapura,
Rakwana and BaIangoda has undoubtedly supported the most actively worked
gem pits in the Island for a number of decades. This region has supplied to the
market some high-priced blue sapphires, star sapphires and cat's eyes. Ratnapura
(city of gems) is the main centre for the gem industry. Outside this area there are
isolated gemming grounds of which Okkampitiya and Elahera are noteworthy.
Other areas, include Nuwara Eliya, Horton Plains, Hatton, Kandy, Matara,
Hambantota, Uda Walawe and many other 1ocaIities underlain by Precambrian
rocks.
The precious stones of Sri Lanka with the exception of moonstone (Meeti-
yagoda) corundum, and some tourmalines and a few garnets which have been
found in situ are all obtained from old alluvial deposits. They represent the indes-
tructible residual debris brought down from the high ground as products of degra-
dation of the rocks and are found embedded in gravel layers and sand in beds of
ancient rivers, in valley bottoms, beds of abandoned tributaries, alluvial tcrraccs
and in talus accumulations at the foot of hills. All gem minerals are undoubtedly
from the rocks of the country in the vicinity of which they are found provided they
have not been transported for great distances. Figure 3 is presented to show the
distribution of gem bearing gravels in the Island. These are the better known
areas but it is believed that gems have been found in many other parts of the Island
in Precambrian terrain.
The succession of formations observed in the gem fields differ according
to the circumstances and the type of material deposited in flood plains, wide flat
bottomed valleys, residual gravel on hill slopes, fan type gravel occurrences at foot
hills and gravel stretches on abandoned hill streams. Gravel formations with gem
material have also been observed in decomposed material overlying concealed
pegmatite dykes. The succession of formations in a typical gem pit may be classi-
fied into three categories: (Figure 4).

(i) Superficial layers of soil either lateritic or peaty overlying sandy and
clayey material. The clayey material is in parts kaolinized. Thc
thickness of this formation which is virtually the overburden varies
considerably and is in general from 1 metre to 12 metres thick.

(ii) A layer or layers of pay-gravel usually of lenticular shape. This is the

gem bearing gravel. The miner refers to it as the 'illam'. The illam
layer is from ?.few cms to about a metre in thickness and may be en-
countered at shallow depths (< 3 metres) or at depths up to 12 metres.

(iii) The next formation is the decomposed rock which is normally kaoli-
nized and micaceous. The decomposed material is termed the 'Malawa'
 J . W. Herath

by miners. In pits where more than one 'illam' or pay-gravel is struck,

it is the lower ones which are more prolific in gems. All gem pits
should theoretically end work on striking the 'malawa' layer or decom-
posed rock.
Apart from their economic value as the carrier of the principal gems the
'illam' gravels are highly interesting from a petrological and mineralogical point
of view. Once the gems are recovered after washing, the gravels are discarded.
This discarded material is termed 'Nambuwa' by the miners and up to recent years
very light coloured corundum (semi transparent) has been discarded. Corundum
of this nature termed 'Geuda' is now heat treated to enhance its blue colour. The
most abundant constituent of gem gravel is quartz in well rounded pebbles. The
gem miner has come to regard these quartz pebbles as an infallible companion of
gemstones in the field and is guided in his search for pay-gravel by this criterion.
Besides quartz and the ornamental stones including a variety of rare gem minerals
the gem gravel may also contain grains and crystals of the rare earth minerals -
compounds of thorium, uranium, cerium, yttrium, niobium, titanium, beryllium,
zirconium and others. In regard to gems in the pay-gravel there is a notorious
uncertainty and variation in the content of gems. Some pay-gravel may draw
blanks while pits dug a few metres away may yield very high priced gems.

4. Origin of Gems

No detailed work has been zttempted on the origin of gems in Sri Lanka. Adamsl
considered that they are the constituents of the associated crystalline rocks.
Katz6 states that the Ratnapura-type gem deposits are derived from cordierite
gneisses and associated rocks. Wadia and Fernando7 and Coates2 advocated a
pegmatitic origin for some of the gem varieties. Dahanayake3 considered that
most of the gem varieties in the Ratnapura and Elehara areas are found associated
with garnetiferous gneisses and skarn-type marble deposits and this confirms the
author's findings when geological field mapping was carried out in the Ratnapura
and Rakwana areas in the mid 1960s.

Zircon from Sri Lanka gem gravel has been dated (560 m. y.). This does
not mean that the gem gravel formed during this period. Deraniyagala4 studied
a number of fossils embedded in the gem-gravels of the Ratnapura area and his
work indicates a Pleistocene age for the majority of the Ratnapura gem gravels.
Wadia and Fernando? however, mentions that the gem gravels do not all belong
to any one particular age as erosion of the particular rocks of the surrounding area
proceeded continuously through each succeeding geological age. Although a few
instances are known of raw gem-stones occurring in rocks, there is however,
no doubt regarding the pegmatitic habitat of topaz, tourmaline, beryl, chrysoberyl,
amethyst, sphene and zircon, but only a few gems have been extracted from this
Geology and Occurrence of Gems in Sri Lanka
source. In several Ratnapura fields, gems are found under conditions which point
to their being not far removed from the source of origin, but the deep mantle of
decomposed material in which the rocks are buried precludes their being examined
by pits or trenches. The majority of the rare-earth minerals that are known
have likewise come to light from their association with gem gravels. Their habitats
are also unknown. It is therefore logical to assume that weathering has exposed
deeper parts of the mountain folds of the Island where mineralization has taken
place. This is the result of millions of years of subaerial weathering of the highly
folded landmass which must have been very different in appearance from what we
see now. This weathering process in previous geological ages have exposed pegmat-
ite veins and rocks containing a number of minerals of gem quality. These
outcrops of rock and pegmatite material have been subjected to renewed process
of weathering through countless ages of time and the gradual sorting action of the
water has resulted in the deposition in favourable sites of gem gravel and sands
which have subsequently been sealed by a covering of alluvial deposits as in the
Ratnapura valleys.

5. Gem Mining in Sri Lanka

The mining methods employed although primitive using only manual labour, are
time honoured methods of ancient Sinhalese tradition. They involve little capital
outlay and are quick and efficient. Three methods are used to recover the gems:

1. Placer mining
2. Geinining by pits
3. Gemming of river beds by dredging.

1. When the pay-gravel is in superficial soil deposits within about 2 metres

of the ground surface, the land is worked by open cast mining after
clearing the surface. The material obtained is sorted out and washed
in the usual manner in running water or in improvised sluices.
2. When the overburden is of considerable depth the most common method
is to sink pits. The size of the pit is normally 3 to 5 metres square,
divided into 2 chambers by a partition, one for working and excavating
the gravel and the other for de-watering the sump. Lateral drifts are
also driven in all directions from the bottom of the shaft in some of the
deeper pits. The gravel is washed in shallow baskets made of rattan
or wicker.
Very few pits use mechanised contrivances, however, in recent years
a high degree of mechanisation has been introduced at the various mines.
268 J. W. Herath
This is the most popular method of gem mining in the Sabaragamuwa
mining area.
3. Gemming in beds of rivers is less common and require the assistance
of experienced dredgers. An obstruction is put up across a stream to
increase the flow of water at a selected spot over its bed. Long handled
showels up to 40 feet or more in length are employed by six to eight
men to drag the river bed at a point upstream of the dam till the illam
layer is exposed after some weeks work. The overburden is carried
away by the agitated water and the coarse sand and gravel (illam) is raked
up and allowed to collect in a low ridge. This partly sorted illam is
then removed from the water in baskets to the bank of the stream and
the usual process of gem washing completed.

The gemming season normally extends from December to May, the drier
part of the year. Under the existing mining law a licence to mine must be obtained
from the State. No prospecting liccnces are issued for the search for gems. Appli-
cations for lease of gemming rights are on approval granted permits to mine for
gems at an annual fee. Sometimes gemming rights are given after calling for tenders
from applicants, a reserve price or upset premium is fixed beforehand. Seldom are
gemming rights in Sri Lanka leased on a royalty or rent basis. The actual work of
mining in the property is carried out on a remarkable system of co-operative sharing,
of labour, expenses and profits. The output of the gem pit is distributed as follows :

Ground rent of owner 20 per cent

Lease or Licence-holder's share 10 per cent
Financier's share 35 per cent
Diggers share 35 per cent

Suppliers of the pump and timber may also be given a percentage share.
This system or sharing is unique in a highly uncertain business. It has maintained
the gem-cutting industry in a healthy state for centuries and has checked over
production. The system of tenure under which land is held in Sri Lanka makes
mechanical large scale operations unworkable in practice.

All mineral deposits that support mining are a constantly diminishing

asset.. This is true of the gem gravels of. Sri Lanka. Exhaustion of gravels a t a
.number of points is an indication that the Ratnapura gem beds will not be everlasting
and that their extinction is only a question of time. New areas have however been
found. In fact the entire Precambrian of Sri Lanka could be searched for gem
gravel. Table 2 is presented .to show the main gem varieties in the gem gravels of
'Sri Lanka and Table 3 is a list of the rare gem minerals of the Island as listed by
Zoysa.8
Geology and Occurrence of Gems in Sri Lanka 269
TABLE
2. Sri Lanka Gem Varieties
Mineral Gem Varieties

Corundum Star Sapphire ruby and star ruby, yellow, Blue, Green, Orange,
Pink and White Sa~vhire.
Chrysoberyl Alexandrite and Cat's Eye.
Beryl Aquamarine - Colourless, Pink, Yellow
Topaz Colourless Yellow topaz.
Blue green and rarely red topaz (pale tints)
Tourmaline Black, pink, rose-red, blue, brown, green, varieties.
GARNET Pyrope - deep red t o black
Pyrope Almandine - deep crimson, red to violet
Almandine Grosularite - honey yellow to brownish yellow,
Grossularite also known as Hessonife or cinnamon stone
Spinel Spinel - deep red, green, violet
Zircon Brown, Green, Blue, red, orange, and yellow varieties
Quartz Rock crystal, amethyst, rose, quartz, smoky quartz, Citrine
(yellow) cat's eye quartz and star quartz
-

Feldspar Moonstone and amazon stone.

(After Herath 1980)

TABLE3. Occurrence of rare Gem varieties in Sri Lanka

Afineral Star Varieties Cat's Eye types Colour change types

Garnet
Corundum
Spinel
Zircon
Andalusite
Apatite
Diopside
Enstatite
Euclase
Fibrolite
Ekanite
Kornerupine
.Scapolite

.Other rare minerals present include morganite, Axinite, Danburite, Epidot, Iolite, Peridot Sinhalite,
.Sphene, Taaffeite.

(After Zoysa 1983) X occurs in. Sri Lanka

 Gem cutting in Sri Lanka up to recent years was by machines of primitive
construction operated by hand. No mechanical or electrical appliances were
employed. During the past 5 to 7 years modern and up-to-date machinery has been
introduced to the gem cutting industry and today machine cut gems of a very high
quality could be obtained in the Island.
With a view to develop the gem industry of Sri Lanka, the State Gem Corpo--
ration was established in November, 1971. The Corporation now handles issue
of permits for gemming, buys cut and uncut gems and all exports of gems from
the Island have to be channelled through the Corporation. A modern gem testing
laboratory with training facilities has been established and the Corporation has
already made a significant contribution towards setting up a sound gem industry
in the Island. In 1971 exports of gems from the Island were valued at
Rupees 3,446,293 and in 1977 the export figures were in the region of
Rupees 500 million and in 1982 exports were around Rupees 600 million. These
figures indicate the increasing confidence owners of gems are beginning to have
in the Corporation.
6. Summary and Conclusions
With the possible exception of Brazil no other country in the world produces such
an abundance and variety of precious and semi-precious stones as Sri Lanka. The
gemstones of the island are mainly obtained from old alluvial deposits and the
main gem-bearing area is confined to the Sabaragamuwa Province of which Ratna-
pura is the Gem Trading Centre. Gems have however been found throughout
the Precambrian of the Island. The co-operative system of working gem pits is
unique in mining economics. In recent years mechanisation has been introduced
in a number of gem mines and the gem cutting industry has also undergone changes.
Machine cut gems of high quality are now freely available. Figures given for
exports of gems cannot be considered as accurate as large quantities of gems are
taken out of the country by illicit methods. Illicit mining is also prevalent in most
parts of the Island. This activity has become so common that unconsidered action
could result in a serious environmental problem.
Large scale gem mining operations using modern equipment cannot be-
undertaken in Sri Lanka and the present system of mining operations has main-
tained the industry in a healthy state for centuries, and has also checked over pro-
duction. The possibility of expanding the jewellery industry has great promise.
RegionaI JewelIery Centres could be established with adequate training facilities
and such Centres could be operated by a State agency.
Acknowledgements
The author wishes to thank the State Gem Corporation, Gemmologists Association
of Sri Lanka and Mr. T. G. Punchiappuhamy, former Chairman, State Gem Corpo--
Geology and Occurrence of Gems in Sri Lanka
ration for inviting me to attend the 19th International Gemmological Conference -
Sri Lanka 1983. Valuable information has been obtained from the Geological
Survey Department for the preparation of this paper. The paper is published
with the kind permission of Dr. Hiran W. Jayewardene, Chairman - NARA.
References
1. ADAMS,F. D. (1929). The Geology of Ceylon, Canadian J. ofRes. Vol. 1 , Canada, 425-511.
2. COATES,J. S. (1935). Geology of Ceylon, Ceylon J. Sci. 19B, 101-187.
3. DAHANAYAKE, K. (1980). Modes of Occurrence and Provenance of Gemstones of Sri Lanka,
Mineral Deposita (Berl), 15, 81-86.
4. DERANIYAGALA, P. E. P. (1958). The Pleistocene of Ceylon, Ceylon National Museum Pub.,
Colombo - Sri Lanka.
5. HERATH, J. W. (1980). The Mineral Resources of Sri Lanka, Eco. Bull., No. 2, Geological
Survey Department, 60-63.
6. KATZ, M. B. (1972). On the Origin of the Ratnapura-type Gem Deposits of Ceylon, Econ.
Geol., 67, 113-115.
7. WADIA,D . N. & FERNANDO, L. J. D. (1945). Gems and Semi-precious Stones o j Ceylon,
Prof. Paper 2, Geological Survey Department, 1-44.
ZOYSA,E. G. E. (1983). Unusual Gem Materials of Sri Lanka, (Abstracts), Symposium -
Geology of Sri Lanka, Peradeniya, 15.