Chapter 3
Chapter 3
Chapter 3
INDEKS
Title Page
The Legal Enviroment
E-WORLD – Law and the internet 3
Differences in Legal Systems
4
The Legal Environment: Differences in Legal Systems
5
Legal environment: Differences Legal System
6
Environmental law: Law in the country Orientation
Environmental law: Laws Directly Affecting International Business Transaction 8
15
The Technological Enviroment
17
The Accounting Enviroment
50
The Roots of National Differences
BRINGING THE WORLD INTO FOCUS : The Sarbanes- Oxley Act
Differences in Accounting Practices
VENTURING ABROAD : Chinese Accounting Buries Caterpillars
Investment
Impact on Capital Markets
The Policital Enviroment
Political Risk
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SUMMARY (Chapter Review)
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Describes the main types of legal systems that are used in international business
Explain how domestic laws affect the company's ability to conduct international business
List the ways the firm can resolve international business disputes
business
Objektif
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Menerangkan bagaimana syarikat boleh melindungi diri mereka daripada risiko politik
Rule of law
Role of lawyers
Burden of proof
Laws
The legal system of the country has changed dramatically due to history, culture, politics
and religion. The rule of law, the role of lawyers, the burden of proof, the right to judicial
review, and, of course, the laws themselves vary from one country to another.
Brink, for example, when a subsidiary of Belgium declared bankruptcy due to high labor
costs. Union affected, immediately sued the company for failure to negotiate wages,
Kedaulatan undang-undang
Peranan peguam
Beban pembuktian
Undang-undang
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budaya , politik dan agama. Kedaulatan undang-undang , peranan peguam, beban bukti ,
hak untuk semakan kehakiman, dan, sudah tentu , undang-undang diri mereka berbeza
Brink , sebagai contoh , apabila anak syarikat Belgium yang diisytiharkan muflis akibat
daripada kos buruh yang tinggi. Kesatuan terjejas, dengan segera mendakwa Herbalife
Common Law - the common law is based on the accumulated wisdom of the judge's
Civil Law - Is based on codification, or a detailed list of what is and is not allowed
Religious Law - based on the rules established formally in control of faith and practice a
particular religion
Law of Bureaucracy - whatever the state bureaucrats say it is, regardless of formal legal
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Undang-Undang Sivil - Adalah berdasarkan kodifikasi, atau senarai terperinci, apa yang
Undang-undang Birokrasi - apa sahaja birokrat negara mengatakan bahawa ini adalah,
tidak kira undang-undang formal di negara ini. Kontrak boleh dibuat atau pecah sesuka
Effect
The law affects all aspects of the firm's domestic operations: managing (law relationship
hiring, compensation, and labor) labor; finance operations (securities, banking law and
credit) it; marketing of its products (legal advertising, distribution, and consumer
protection); and developing and using technology (patent law, copyright and trademark).
Although the law is mainly focused on the domestic market, it can indirectly affect the
ability of local firms to compete in international markets when they increase their costs,
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In state law orientation may also inadvertently affect the business practices of foreign
companies that operate outside national borders. Often companies with products geared
to the export market to change their production techniques to meet the regulations of the
importing country, even though the firm is operating legally in their home countries.
Undang-undang tersebut memberi kesan kepada semua aspek operasi domestik firma :
mengurus (undang-undang hubungan pengambilan pekerja, pampasan, dan buruh)
tenaga kerja ; membiayai operasi (sekuriti , undang-undang perbankan dan kredit) itu;
pemasaran produknya (undang-undang pengiklanan, pengedaran, dan perlindungan
pengguna) ; dan membangunkan dan menggunakan teknologi ( undang-undang paten ,
hak cipta dan tanda dagangan ).Walaupun undang-undang tersebut terutamanya tertumpu
kepada pasaran dalam negara, ia secara tidak langsung boleh menjejaskan keupayaan
firma tempatan untuk bersaing di peringkat antarabangsa dengan meningkatkan kos
mereka, sekali gus mengurangkan daya saing harga mereka berbanding dengan firma
asing.
Di dalam negara undang-undang orientasi mungkin juga secara tidak sengaja
menjejaskan amalan perniagaan syarikat-syarikat asing yang beroperasi di luar sempadan
negara. Selalunya syarikat yang produk yang menjurus kepada pasaran eksport mengubah
teknik pengeluaran mereka untuk memenuhi peraturan-peraturan negara pengimport,
walaupun operasi firma adalah sah di negara asal mereka.
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Restrictions
Embargo
Extraterritoriality
A country may try to encourage both countries to change the unwanted policies by
imposing restrictions on trade with that country. Restrictions may in many forms, such
as restricting access to high-tech goods, withdraw the preferential tariff treatment, to
boycott the products of the country, and denied a new loan.
Countries can also attempt to regulate business activities conducted outside their
borders, a practice known as extraterritoriality. For example, the firm is exposed to the
action of US antitrust law if they engage in activities outside the United States to reduce
competition in the US market.
Sekatan
Embargo
Kawalan eksport dwi-guna produk
Extraterritorialit
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Negara A mungkin cuba untuk mendorong negara kedua untuk mengubah dasar yang
negara itu. Sekatan boleh mengambil pelbagai bentuk, seperti menyekat akses kepada
yang dikenakan oleh negara-negara yang bertindak serentak atau bersendirian. Satu
bentuk yang penting daripada kawalan eksport melibatkan barangan berteknologi tinggi.
Banyak negara maju dari segi teknologi menghadkan eksport yang dipanggil produk
dwi-guna yang boleh digunakan untuk kedua-dua tujuan awam dan tentera.
Negara juga boleh cuba untuk mengawal selia aktiviti perniagaan yang dijalankan di
luar sempadan mereka, amalan yang dikenali sebagai extraterritoriality. Sebagai contoh,
diri dalam aktiviti di luar Amerika Syarikat yang mengurangkan persaingan dalam
pasaran AS itu.
Basic Resources
Transfer of technology
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Investment in infrastructure and human capital has allowed the developed countries to
continue to prosper in the world market despite high wages paid to workers in the
country.
technology, competition technology from one country to another. Several countries have
foreign firms to transfer technology to the country is the level of legal protection offered
Sumber Asas
Pemindahan teknologi
Pelaburan dalam infrastruktur dan modal insan telah membolehkan negara-negara maju
untuk terus makmur di pasaran dunia walaupun gaji yang tinggi yang dibayar kepada
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Satu lagi cara untuk mengubah persekitaran teknologi sesebuah negara adalah
pemindahan teknologi, persaingan teknologi dari satu negara ke negara lain . Beberapa
Penentu penting dalam persekitaran dan teknologi sesebuah negara kesediaan firma asing
untuk memindahkan teknologi kepada negara adalah tahap perlindungan yang undang-
Inventory Valuation
Most of the country's accounting system 'began with the assumption that the firm's assets
should be valued on a historical cost basis. That is, the assets of firms conducted by the
asset's original cost, less depreciation. Because of inflation, however, the market value of
assets that are often higher than the historical cost. The solution of this problem varies
Inventory Valuation:
There is a big difference abroad in the use of the two main methods to assess inventory
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Dealing with the Tax Authority: A firm's accounting records form the basis for assessing
the income tax burden. In Germany accounting procedures clearly detailed in the German
Commercial Code and follow the requirements of the tax laws of Germany. taxable
distinction is made between the financial statements reported to the shareholders and the
financial statements reported to the German tax authorities. The United States follows a
different approach. US companies typically report two different sets of false statements to
the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) and the financial shareholders. conduct was justified
by the laws of the United States and allows companies to take advantage of the special
Another important difference in the accounting system of the country is in the use of
accounting reserves, which account made in the financial statements of the firm to record
future expenses that can be expected which may affect its operations.
Many other differences exist in the way the country treats accounting issues such as the
capitalization of finance leases, capitalization of research and development and the treatment of
goodwill.
Penilaian Inventori
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Penilaian Inventori:
Terdapat perbezaan yang besar di luar negara dalam penggunaan kedua-dua kaedah
utama untuk inventori menilai (LIFO) dan (FIFO).
Berurusan dengan Pihak Berkuasa Cukai: rekod perakaunan A firma menjadi asas untuk
menilai beban cukai pendapatan. Di Jerman prosedur perakaunan diperincikan dengan
jelas di dalam Jerman Kod Perdagangan dan ikut kehendak undang-undang cukai Jerman.
pendapatan boleh cukai Sebuah syarikat Jerman itu diukur dengan kandungan rekod
kewangan syarikat. Biasanya tiada perbezaan dibuat antara penyata kewangan
melaporkan kepada para pemegang saham dan penyata kewangan yang dilaporkan
kepada pihak berkuasa cukai Jerman. Amerika Syarikat berikut pendekatan yang berbeza.
syarikat AS biasanya melaporkan dua set yang berbeza daripada kenyataan yang salah
kepada Perkhidmatan Hasil Dalam Negeri (IRS) dan satu kepada pemegang saham
kewangan. kelakuan itu dibenarkan oleh undang-undang Amerika Syarikat dan
membolehkan syarikat untuk mengambil kesempatan daripada peruntukan kod cukai
khas untuk mengurangkan pendapatan boleh cukai mereka.
Satu lagi perbezaan penting dalam sistem perakaunan negara adalah dalam penggunaan
rizab perakaunan, yang akaun yang dibuat dalam laporan kewangan firma untuk
merekodkan perbelanjaan masa depan yang boleh dijangka yang mungkin menjejaskan
operasinya.
Banyak perbezaan lain yang wujud dalam cara negara merawat isu-isu perakaunan seperti
Permodalan pajakan kewangan, Permodalan penyelidikan dan pembangunan dan Rawatan
muhibah.
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companies incorporated in different countries. For example, the incomes of German and
French companies are often different because of the alignment between the financial
reporting and tax reporting statements. Price-earnings ratio of Japanese firms often higher
than US firms, mainly because Japanese accounting practice often significantly reduce
reported profits.
advantages. However, any foreign banks believe that the United States is the most
convenient place for foreigners to lend because of the U.S policy public disclosure. Such
policies are believed to cause the numbers to assess the riskiness of lending potential. In
contrast, the German accounting system allows firms to lump together the cost categories
and to create a reserve, is much less useful for potential foreign lenders.
Perbezaan bangsa dalam amalan perakaunan boleh mengganggu prestasi yang diukur
daripada syarikat yang diperbadankan di negara-negara yang berbeza. Sebagai contoh,
pendapatan syarikat Jerman dan Perancis sering berbeza kerana keselarasan di antara
laporan kewangan dan laporan laporan cukai. Nisbah harga-pendapatan firma Jepun sering
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lebih tinggi berbanding dengan firma-firma Amerika Syarikat, terutamanya kerana amalan
perakaunan Jepun sering ketara mengurangkan keuntungan dilaporkan.
Amalan-amalan perakaunan maklumat-sarat yang digunakan oleh firma AS yang
menawarkan mereka kelebihan tertentu, namun. Banyak bank-bank asing percaya bahawa
Amerika Syarikat adalah tempat yang paling mudah bagi orang asing dimana untuk memberi
pinjaman kerana polisi pendedahan awam AS. Dasar-dasar tersebut menyebabkan nombor
dipercayai untuk menilai sifat berbahaya bagi pinjaman yang berpotensi. Sebaliknya, sistem
perakaunan Jerman, yang membolehkan syarikat mendapat sekaligus kategori kos bersama-
sama pelbagai dan mewujudkan pelbagai rizab, adalah lebih kurang berguna bagi pemberi
pinjaman asing yang berpotensi.
Most firms comfortably assess the political situation in their home country. However, assessing
the political situation in other countries is far more problematic. An experienced international
business involved in the assessment of political risk, a systematic analysis of the political risks
they face in foreign countries. The change in the political environment is one of the political
risks that may affect the business activities of the firms.
Operational risk, where operations are being run in a security firm or its employees
Risk Transfer, where the government interferes with the ability of firms to transfer funds
Political risks may affect all firms equally or focus on just a handful. Macropolitical risk
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politik, analisis sistematik terhadap risiko politik yang mereka hadapi di negara-negara
asing. Risiko politik sebarang perubahan dalam persekitaran politik yang boleh
Risiko pemilikan, di mana harta firma yang diancam melalui rampasan atau rampasan
Risiko operasi , di mana operasi yang sedang berjalan di sebuah firma atau keselamatan
Risiko politik boleh menjejaskan semua firma sama atau memberi tumpuan kepada hanya
negara.
Risiko micropolitical menjejaskan hanya firma atau syarikat tertentu di dalam industri
tertentu .
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External factors in technology have impact on business operations. Changes in technology affect
how a company will do business. A business may have to dramatically change their operating
Perubahan dalam teknologi banyak memainkan peranan dalam syarikat yang akan menjalankan
perniagaan. Sebuah perniagaan mungkin perlu mereka perubahan strategi operasi akibat daripada
Small businesses can implement business technology and level the playing field with
larger organizations.
Small businesses use computers, servers, websites and personal digital products to
process. This allows owners to create operations using the best technology available.
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perniagaan.
Perniagaan kecil boleh melaksanakan teknologi perniagaan dan taraf yang sama
Perniagaan kecil menggunakan komputer, pelayan, laman web dan produk digital
Importance
Business technology helps automate back office functions, such as record keeping,
Business owners can also use technology to create secure environments for maintaining
This allows business owners with a minor background in information technology to use
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Kepentingan
kos perniagaan.
Features
Business technology can help small businesses improve their communication processes.
Emails, texting, websites and personal digital products applications, known as “apps,"
Companies may also receive more consumer feedback through these electronic
communication methods.
These methods also allow companies to reach consumers through mobile devices in a
real-time format.
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Ciri-ciri
mereka melalui E-mel, SMS, laman web dan produk digital peribadi aplikasi,
dengan Pengguna.
Syarikat juga boleh menerima lebih banyak maklum balas pengguna melalui kaedah
komunikasi elektronik.
Function
Small businesses can increase their employees' productivity through the use of
Business owners can also implement business technology to reduce the amount of human
This allows small businesses to avoid paying labor costs along with employee benefits.
Business owners may also choose to expand operations using technology rather than
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Fungsi
teknologi.
maklumat
Membolehkan Perniagaan Kecil untuk mengelak daripada membayar kos buruh bersama-
Potential
Technology allows small businesses to reach new economic markets. Rather than just
selling consumer goods or services in the local market, small businesses can reach
Retail websites are the most common way small businesses sell products in several
Websites represent a low-cost option that consumers can access 24/7 when needing to
purchase goods or services. Small business owners can also use Internet advertising to
reach new markets and customers through carefully placed web banners or ads.
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Berpotensi
Bukan hanya menjual barangan atau perkhidmatan di premis pengguna pasaran, perniagaan
Laman web runcit adalah cara yang paling biasa perniagaan kecil menjual produk dalam
Laman web yang mewakili pengguna pilihan kos rendah boleh mengakses 24/7 apabila
menggunakan pengiklanan Internet juga untuk mencapai pasaran baru dan pelanggan
Considerations
Outsourcing can help company’s lower costs and focus on completing the business
Technical support and customer service are two common function companies outsource.
Small business owners may consider outsourcing function if they do not have the proper
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Pertimbangan
Outsourcing boleh membantu kos yang lebih rendah dan fokus syarikat pada
Sokongan teknikal dan perkhidmatan pelanggan adalah dua syarikat fungsi biasa
outsource.
Pemilik perniagaan kecil boleh pertimbangkan fungsi penyumberan luar Jika mereka
tidak mempunyai kemudahan atau tenaga kerja yang betul boleh didapati.
Problem and control can be achieved with the existence of a system of environmental
However, in making any decision, this accounting system environment requires both
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Lenders
Company's Managers
Government officials (for each
Persekitaran Perakaunan
Terdapat perbezaan dalam prosedur dan dasar dalam sistem perakaunan Negara.
Masalah dan pengawalan dapat dicapai dengan adanya sistem persekitaran perkaunanan
Namun begitu, dalam membuat sebarang keputusan , persekitaran sistem perakaunan ini
Pemberi pinjaman
A country practicing public accounting standards will be able to look at the factors that
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Generally, accounting is general accounting and all these principles generally accepted
Country Francis, practice this General Accounting and be able to control the
France and German, the Government played a major role that will monitor the accounting
A country's that practice accounting system that will reflect the culture of the country as
well.
Sesebuah Negara yang mengamalkan standard perkaunan akan dapat melihat faktor-
Secara umumnya, perakaunan ini adalah perakaunan am dan semua prinsip-prinsip ini
Negara Francis, mengamalkan pekauanan am ini dan dapat mengawal ekonomi kerajaan
Negara Francis dan Jerman, kerajaan memainkan peranan utama yang akan memantau
Sistem perakaunan sesebuah negara yang akan mencerminkan budaya negara tesebut.
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accounting profession. The U.S. congress feared that investor could lose faith in the U.S capital
market if they no longer trusted public accountants or corporate accounting statements. If so, the
cost to U.S firms of acquiring capital could rise and lessen their competitiveness in the world
market. To restore the public's trust in the capital market, congress passed the Public Company
Accounting Reform and Investor Protection Act of 2002, more commonly know as the Sarbnes-
Oxley Act.
Akta Sarbanes-Oxley.
Skandal perakaunan sekitar Enron, Tyco dan WorldCom terancam mare daripada profesion
perakaunan. A.S. kongres bimbang bahawa pelabur boleh kehilangan iman dalam pasaran modal
A.S. jika mereka tidak lagi dipercayai akauntan awam atau penyata perakaunan korporat. jika
demikian, kos untuk syarikat A.S. memperoleh modal boleh meningkat, yang mengurangkan
daya saing mereka di pasaran dunia. untuk memulihkan kepercayaan orang ramai dalam pasaran
modal, kongres meluluskan Akta Syarikat Awam Pembaharuan Perakaunan dan Perlindungan
They also affect the way a country's accountants treat different accounting issues.
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These different treatments in turn impact a firm's reported profits, the value of its assets,
its tax bill and its decision begin or continue operating in a country.
yang berlainan.
Cara yang berbeza dalam menangani akan meberi impak kepada firma dalam
specialized mining vehicles, provides a vivid example of the costs of not understanding
Although world-renown for the quality and durability of its rugged equipment, Caterpillar
found it hard to compete in the Chinese market which emphasized low prices, political
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To bolsters its presence in China, In June 2012 it purchased ERA mining Machinery Ltd,
One of the leading domestic suppliers of roof support equipment for underground coal
One of the leading domestic suppliers of roof support equipment for underground coal
Within 9 month of the transaction, Caterpillar was forced to write off $580 million of its
While the write-off 83 percent of its investment is embarrassing enough for the lllinois -
based company, even more troubling is the setback in Caterpillar’s plans to boost its
Currently, Caterpillar earns only 3 percent of its revenues from the huge Chinese market,
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,jengkaut dan juga pakar jentera perlombongan dengan memberi contoh yang jelas
Walaupun Caterpillar merupakan syarikat gergasi dunia , ianya masih sukar untuk
bersaing di dalam pasaran China. Yang menekankan harga yang rendah, perhubungan
Untuk mengukuhkan kedudukannya di China, pada June 2012 ia mengambil alih syarikat
ERA Machinery Ltd, syarikat tempatan utama pembekal peralatan perlombongan arang
Walaubagaimanapun dalam masa 9 bulan proses jual beli, Syarikat Caterpillar telah
dipaksa untuk melepaskan pegangan dalam pelaburan di dalam ERA sebanyak $580 juta.
Pelepasan 83% pegangan tersebut adalah bersamaan dengan pelaburan syarikat tersebut
Pada ketika ini, syarikat Caterpillar hanya memperolehi 3% hasil pendapatannya daripada
pasaran China, meskipun mempunyai 23 buah kilang, 4 pusat R&D dan 15,000 orang
pekerja di China.
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Valuation Of Inventories
Every Introducing accounting course discusses the two principal methods for valuing
inventories: Last in , First out ( LIFO) and first in , First Out (FIFO).
In times of inflations LIFO Tends to raise the firm’s reported costs of goods sold, lower
the book value of its inventories and reduce its reported profits.
FIFO does whereas FIFO Produces a clearer estimate of the value of the firm existence
Comparing in the performance of two firms’, one needs to know which technique each
U.S and Canadians firms may use either approach. China and India LIFO cannot be used,
whereas in Japan LIFO Is permitted. Firms In Brazil And United Kingdom Normally Use
only FIFO.
Penilaian Inventori
Pengenalan akaun membincangkan dua kaedah utama untuk menilai inventori iaitu LIFO
dan FIFO
Pada zaman inflasi LIFO cenderung untuk meningkat firma melaporkan kos barangan
FIFO menghasilkan anggaran yang lebih jelas mengenai inventori sedia ada daripada
FIFO.
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kaedah.
Amerika Syarikat dan syarikat Kanada boleh menggunakan pendekatan ini. China dan
India LIFO tidak boleh digunakan , manakala Di Jepun LIFO dibenarkan. Manakala,
A firm’s accounting records form the basis for assessing its income tax burden.
The United Stated States follows a different approach. U.S firms commonly report two
different sets of financial statements. One to the Internal Revenue Services (IRS) and one
to the shareholders.
Such conduct is authorized by U.S law and allows firmns to take advantage of special tax
For example , U.S firms often use accelerated depreciation for tax purposes but not for
A German firm normally does not have this option, the firm must use accelerated
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Tax Law also plays a major role in French accounting practices, which follow well-
defined procedures detailed by the French government in the national uniform charts of
account.
Terdapat perbezaan yang dibuat oleh Jerman, Penyata Kewangan tidak melaporkan
kepada para pemegang saham dan penyata kewangan itu perlu dilaporkan kepada pihak
Amerika Syarikat mengikuti pendekatan firma AS. Kebiasaannya perlu melaporkan dua
set yang berbeza , Penyata Kewangan perlu diberi kepada Internal Revenue Services
Perkara ini dibenarkan oleh Undang-undang U.S dan firma menggunakan peruntukan kod
Sebagai Contoh , Firma U.S sering menggunakan susut nilai dipercepatkan bagi tujuan
Jerman tidak mempunyai pilihan , firma mesti menggunakan susut nilai dipercepatkan
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Undang-undang cukai juga memainkan peranan utama dalam perakaunan Perancis, yang
mengikut prosedur yang terperinci oleh kerajaan Perancis dalam carta Kebangsaan akaun.
For example, might establish a reserve account for bad debts and for returned
merchandise.
The use of accounting reserves by U.S firms is carefully monitored and limited by the
In contrast to the restrictive U.S system, The German Commercial Code Liberrally
Permits German firms to establish accounting reserves for various potential future
expenses.
In The 1990’s, For example, Deutsche Bank Admitted that its hidden reserves amounted
Sebagai contoh , ia mungkin mewujudkan satu akaun rizab hutang lapuk dan pemulanga
barangan.
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Penggunaan rizab perakaunan oleh firma U.S dipantau dengan telitu dan dihadkan oleh
Berbeza dengan system U.S yang ketat, Kod Komersial Jerman yang liberal
Pada tahun 1990’s , sebagai contoh Deutsche Bank mengakui menyembunyi rizab yang
Perakauanan yang berbeza ini merumitkan pelabur untuk membuat keputusan bagaimana
Other Differences
Many other differences exist in the way countries treat accounting issues. The following
permit firms to capitalize R&D expenses, but this practice is forbidden in the
Treatment of goodwill : A firm that acquires a second firm often pays more than
the book value of the acquired firm’s stock. The excess payment is called
years. UK firms also are allowed to choose between immediately writing off
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period of time. Japanese and French firms may amortize goodwill as well.
Perbezaan lain
Huruf pajakan kewangan: Amerika Syarikat, British, dan Kanada firma mesti
tetapi amalan ini haram di Amerika Syarikat kecuali dalam keadaan terhad.
Rawatan muhibah: Sebuah firma itu memperoleh sebuah firma kedua sering
membayar lebih daripada nilai buku saham firma yang diambilalih. Bayaran
muhibah dalam tempoh 5 tahun kanak, walaupun mereka boleh menulis ia di luar
atas kedudukan kewangan mereka dan merencana ia lebih satu tempoh masa.
curiosity were it not for international business people's need for information to make
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decision. These differences can distort the measured performance of firms incorporated in
different countries. As already noted, the earning of German and French often are
understated because of the congruency between financial reporting and taxing reporting.
The price to earnings ratios of Japanese firms are frequently higher than those of U.S
firms, primarily because Japanese accounting practice often substantially reduce reported
profits. For example, Japanese firm report depreciation expenses on an accelerated basis
to their shareholders and are allowed to create generous reserve fund for future pension
liabilities. The overall impact on these accounting differences is clear. Comparing the
more difficult for international investors to assess the performance of the world's
businesses.
These differences can affect the global capital market in other ways. The New York
rules that must be followed by publicly traded corporations under the SEC's jurisdiction.
performance information, and the NYSE fears that the rules discourage foreign firm from
listing on the exchange, thereby threatening the exchange's global competitiveness. The
Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 has worsened this problem, as "Bringing the World into
Focus" on page 94 indicated; increasingly, foreign firm are choosing to list their stock on
European or Asian stock exchange , rather than NYSE. Consider the plight of Philips NV.
As a Dutch company, it must first comply with Dutch accounting standards. To list its
stock on the NYSE, Philips must then undergo the expense of reworking its financial
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statements to meet SEC requirements as well as comply with the requirements as well as
The information-laden accounting practice used by U.S firms does offer them certain
advantages. However, many foreign bankers believe that the United States has the easiest
foreign locale in which to lend because of the U.S public disclosure policies. Those
policies result in reliable number of assessing the riskiness of potential loans. In contrast,
the German accounting system, which allows firms to lump together various cost
categories and establish a variety of reserves, is much less helpful for a potential
foreigner lender. As one investment manager has noted, "The poor quality of financial
information available from many German companies make it difficult for investor to buy
improving their standing with institutional investors, many German MNCs adopted either
Standards Board (IASB). The FASB, which established U.S accounting standard, and the
IASB have been negotiating to standardize their treatment of accounting issues, but
Perbezaan ini boleh menganggu ukuran prestasi syarikat yang diperbadankan di negara-
negara yang berbeza. Seperti yang telah dinyatakan, pendapatan daripada Negara Jerman
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dan Perancis sering kali terkurang kerana ketidaksesuaian dan perbezaan diantara laporan
Negara Jepun sering kali lebih tinggi berbanding firma daripad A.S, kerana amalan
contoh, laporan perbelanjaan susut nilai daripada firma Negara Jepun adalah dengan cara
sahamnya dan mewujudkan Kumpulan Wang Rezab. Maka secara keseluruhan kesan
perbezaan ini amat jelas. Membandingkan laporan kewangan syarikat dari setiap negara-
negara yang berbeza adalah sangat kompleks, membuat ianya lebih sukar bagi pelabur
Perbezaan ini boleh memberi kesan kepada pasaran modal global dengan cara lain.
Sebagai contoh, Bursa Saham New York (NYSE),mengambil berat tentang peraturan
sepenuhnya dan menyeluruh dalam maklumat prestasi kewangan firma, dan kebimbangan
tersenarai di bursa, sekali gus mengancam daya saing global. Akta Sarbanes-Oxley 2002
telah memburukkan masalah ini, kerana "Membawa Dunia kepada Focus" dinyatakan
pada halaman 94; semakin banyak firma asing memilih untuk menyenaraikan saham
NYSE, Philips kemudian perlu menjalani dengan berkorban untuk merangka semula
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penyata kewangannya bagi memenuhi keperluan SEC serta mematuhi syarat-syarat serta
yang menawarkan kelebihan tertentu mereka. Banyak bank-bank asing percaya bahawa
Amerika Syarikat adalah penempatan asing dimana yang paling mudah untuk memberi
bilangan dalam mempercayai dan menilai setakat mana berisikonya pinjaman yang
rizab, dan kurang membantu untuk pemberi pinjaman asing yang berpotensi. Salah
seorang pengurus pelaburan telah berkata, "Kualiti maklumat kewangan yang lemah
banyak boleh didapati daripada syarikat Jerman dan menyukarkan pelabur untuk
membeli saham dengan yakin, kerana penilaian tidak boleh didapati dengan jelas".
Maka dengan harapan untuk meningkatkan kedudukan mereka sebagai pelabur institusi,
banyak syarikat multinasional daripada Jerman telah menggunakan kaedah sama ada AS
telus dan alternatif kepada laporan kewangan yang dikeluarkan oleh Lembaga Piawaian
perakaunan A.S., dan IASB telah berunding untuk menyeragamkan layanan mereka
terhadap isu-isu dalam perakaunan, namun begitu kemajuan yang dicapai masih
perlahan.
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Political system
Economic system
Laws and regulations passed by any level of government can effect a firm’s operations in
Most people have a pluralistic society where there are different beliefs, religions and
customs.
The role of political system is ensuring there is no fight between people that have a
Democracy system
Totalitarianism system
Syariah System
Democracy
Based on the creed that a majority vote determines how a society should be governed.
Some country citizens are free to choose the leader of the country while the other country
Example :-
Malaysia
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Totalitarianism
indidividuals.
Example :-
North Korea.
Syariah.
Al-Quran
Hadis
Laws and regulations that is based by Al-Quran and Hadis (e.g. Hudud) overcoming the
Example :-
Sudan
Saudi Arabia
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Political Risks
images
legislation
Lower productivity
Lost Sales
Disruption of production
Lower productivity
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JTP 293 PERNIAGAAN ANTARABANGSA
Persekitaran Politik.
Sistem Politik
Sistem Ekonomi
negara tersebut.
Peranan sistem politik ialah memastikan tidak berlaku pergaduhan diantara puak-puak
Sistem Demokrasi
Sistem Totalitarianisma
Sistem Syariah
Demokrasi.
Berdasarkan kepada fahaman suara terbanyak yang harus menetukan bagaimana sesuatu
masyarakat ditadbir.
Sesetengah negara rakyat bebas memilih pemimpin sementara di negara lain hak rakyat
terbatas.
Contoh :-
Malaysia
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Amerika Syarikat
Totalitarianisma.
Polisi negara ditentukan oleh seorang individu (diktator) atau sekumpulan kecil individu.
Contoh :-
Korea Utara
Syariah.
Al-Quran.
Hadis.
Undang-undang yang jelas berdasarkan Al-Quran dan Hadis (seperti hudud) mengatasi
Suara ramai rakyat tidak boleh mengatasi perkara yang diputuskan oleh TUhan.
Contoh :-
Sudan
Arab Saudi
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Risiko Politik
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Former British colonies follow Common Law whereas most of the Western Countries
A Few countries use religious law such as Saudi Arabia and Iran
Country Law that has extraterritorial reach may affect the transaction beyond country
borders.
MNC operate in host country can give good and bad influence to politic, environment
and economic.
It can generate the employment opportunities and raised the productivity of the host
country.
It also can generate the competition for workers by introduce product and practice
The accounting task international businesses confront are more complex then those faced
International businesses that operate in foreign environment are subject to political risks.
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RUMUSAN
Negara yang pernah menjadi koloni British biasanya akan mengamalkan Common Law.
Beberapa Negara di asia barat mengamalkan undang-undang syariah seperti, arab Saudi
birokratik.
MNC yang beroperasi di Negara tertentu boleh memberi kesan positif dan negative.
produktiviti Negara.
Meningkatkan persaingan penduduk dengan menawarkan produk baru serta amalan yang
domestic.
masalah politik.
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The South China Sea has long been a critical waterway in international commerce.
Squabbling over three small island chains which are the Spratly Islands, the Paracel
Islands, and the Pinnacle Islands including the Macclesfield Bank and the Scarborough
Shoal had threaten to undermine trade relations and escalate political conflicts among
The Scarborough Shoal, claimed by China, Taiwan, and the Philippines, has triggered
Incidents involving surveillance of Chinese fishing boats by the Philippine navy have led
Vietnam, China, and Taiwan claim sovereignty over the Paracel Islands, which are
The diplomatic squabbles between Vietnam and China heated up when Vietnam charge
that Chinese forces robbed and assaulted Vietnamese fishermen who sought refuge on a
The hottest dispute is over five small islands and three barren rocks labeled on
nineteenth-century British naval chart as the Pinnacle Island. Japan believes that the
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Japan.
Chinese and Japanese politicians have used the Pinnacle dispute to promote their
property.
The Chinese Communist Party was in the midst of a transfer of power, and wished to
show no weakness to the world. Accordingly, the Chinese government intensified its
presence in the waters surrounding the Pinnacle Islands, thereby reasserting its claims to
the islands.
Laut China Selatan telah lama menjadi laluan air yang penting dalam perdagangan
antarabangsa.
Pertengkaran lebih tiga pulau rantaian kecil iaitu Kepulauan Spratly, Kepulauan Paracel ,
dan Kepulauan Pinnacle merangkumi tebing Macclesfield serta beting Scarborough telah
politik antara Brunei, China, Jepun, Malaysia, Taiwan, Filipina dan Vietnam.
Beting Scarborough yang dituntut oleh China, Taiwan, dan Filipina telah mencetuskan
Insiden yang melibatkan pengawasan bot nelayan China oleh tentera laut Filipina telah
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universiti Filipina oleh penggodam Cina , membuat peraturan-peraturan yang lebih ketat
ke atas eksport pisang Filipina ke China, dan penggantungan lawatan Cina ke Filipina.
Vietnam, China, dan Taiwan menuntut kedaulatan terhadap Kepulauan Paracel , yang
Pertengkaran diplomatik antara Vietnam dan China dihangatkan lagi apabila Vietnam
mendakwa tentera Cina merompak dan menyerang oleh nelayan Vietnam yang mencari
Pertikaian paling hangat adalah apabila lebih lima pulau kecil dan tiga batu tandus
dilabelkan carta tentera laut British pada abad kesembilan belas sebagai Pulau Pinnacle.
ahli politik Cina dan Jepun telah menggunakan pertikaian Pinnacle untuk
Parti Komunis China sedang membuat pemindahan kuasa, dan berusaha untuk
menunjukkan tiada kelemahan kepada dunia. Dengan itu, kerajaan China mempergiatkan
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pay’
a. Belgium
b. United States
c. France
d. Britain
e. Germany
Answer: b
a. Belgium
b. Amerika Syarikat
c. France
d. Britain
e. Jerman
Jawapan: b
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b. Based on the officially established rules governing the faith and practice of a
particular religion
Answer: c
a. Berdasarkan kodifikasi atau terperinci penyenaraian apa yang ada dan tidak
b. dibenarkan
d. melalu sejarah
3 What is the name given to the country that applies religious law to civil and criminal
conduct?
a. Autocracy
b. Democracy
c. Theocracy
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d. Monarchy
Answer: c
a. Autokrasi
b. Demokrasi
c. Teokrasi
d. Monarki
Jawapan: c
d. When the host government offers no compensation to the private owner for their
e. losses
Relating to rights and responsibilities and the relationship between the trustee and
the beneficiaries.
Answer: b
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melalui
d. sejarah
Apabila kerajaan tuan rumah tidak menawarkan pampasan kepada pemilik swasta
Jawapan: b
5. ‘Authorizes the US government and the former US owners of the confiscated assets
a. Extraterritoriality
b. Trade
c. Embargo
d. Administrative Law
Answer: e
5. 'Kuasa kepada bekas pemilik US aset yang dirampas kerajaan Amerika Syarikat dan
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a. ‘Extraterritoriality’
b. Perdagangan
c. Embargo
d. Undang-undang Pentadbiran
e. Akta Helms-Burton
Jawapan : e
e. Outlines the rights and responsibilities that exist as a result of the agreement can be
enforced in law.
Answer: b
a. Apabila kerajaan tuan rumah menawarkan pampasan kepada pemilik swasta untuk
kerugian mereka
b. Proses penukaran hakmilik sesuatu sumber dari persedirian kepada sektor awam
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e. Mengariskan hak dan tanggungjawab yang wujud akibat perjanjian yang boleh
Jawapan: b
7. Many governments limit foreign ownership of domestic firms to avoid having their
a. Consfication
b. Embargo
d. Expropriation
e. Antiboycott
Answer: c
mengelakkan ekonomi mereka atau industri utama yang dikawal oleh warga asing’
b. Embargo
d. Pengambilalihan
e. Anti boikot
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Jawapan: c
8. What is the one most important difference between comman law and civil law?
Answer : b
8. Apakah perbezaan paling penting antara undang-undang biasa dan undang-undang sivil?
Jawapan: b
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iii Each party to the transaction may seek to have the case heard in the court system
The foreign court judgement does not violate domestic statutes or treaty obligation
a. i and v
b. i , ii and iii
c. i and iv
d. i , ii and iv
e. i and iii
Answer : d
i Timbal balik dilanjutkan antara negara-negara; iaitu negara A dan negara B saling
iii Setiap pihak kepada transaksi itu boleh meminta untuk mempunyai kes untuk
sendiri
v obligasi
perjanjian
a. i dan v
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b. i , ii dan iii
c. i dan iv
d. i , ii dan iv
e. i and iii
Jawapan : d
c. The use of computer, server, website and digital product in developing competitive
advantage.
Answer : d
10. Berikut adalah kesan pertukaran teknologi kepada aktiviti perniagaan kecuali….
b. Perniagaan yang kecil meminta taraf yang sama dengan perniagaan yang lebih
besar.
antabangsa.
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Jawapan : d
a. Email
b. SMS
c. Letter
d. Website
e. Telegram
Answer :c
a. Email
b. SMS
c. Surat
d. Laman Web
e. Telegram
Jawapan : c
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a. i and iii
b. i, ii and iv
d. iii and v
Answer : b
iv. Membolehkan syarikat mencapai pengguna yang lalu melalui peranti mudah alih.
v. Melumpuhan ekonomi
a. i and iii
b. i, ii and iv
d. iii and v
Jawapan : b
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b. Social media
Answer: a
a. Suatu program yang siap untuk digunakan oleh suatu sasaran yang akan digunakan
e. Semua diatas
Jawapan :a
c. Attract investors
Answer: d
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JTP 293 PERNIAGAAN ANTARABANGSA
Jawapan : d
Answer: b
d. Pembangunan dan penggunaan alatan atau mesin untuk selesaikan masalah manusia
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Jawapan: b
i. Technical support
a. i and ii
b. i and iii
c. ii , iii and iv
d. iii, iv and v
e. iv and v.
Answer : b
i. Sokongan teknikal
a. i dan ii
b. i dan iii
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c. ii , iii dan iv
d. iii, iv dan v
e. iv dan v.
Jawapan : b
e. No customer satisfaction
Answer: d
17. Yang manakah kesan utama daripada perubahan technology persekitaran kepada
sesebuah syarikat?
Jawapan : d
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c. Reducing manpower
Answer: d
Jawapan: d
19. What are the advantages of a country obtained by applying THE ACCOUNTING
ENVIRONMENT?
a. Create significant operational and control problem which develop accounting system
business.
c. All Above
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d. No Answer Above
Answer : a
PERSEKITARAN PERAKAUANAN?
luaran
d. Semua Diatas
Jawapan : a
20. The following is the person who required in the process of decision making results
through accounting procedures and system policy of the companies practice in The
a. Investors
b. Lender
c. Executive Company
d. Company's managers
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Answer : c
20. Berikut merupakan mereka yang diperlukan dalam proses pembuatan keputusan
melalui prosedur dan polisi sistem perakaunan sesebuah syarikat yang mengamalkan
a. Pelabur
b. Pemberi Pinjaman
c. Eksekutif Syarikat
d. Pengurus Syarikat
Jawapan : c
except……
a. A country practicing public accounting standards will be able to look at the factors
c. Country Francis, practice this General Accounting and be able to control the
d. A country's that practice accounting system that will reflect the culture of the
country as well.
ANSWER E
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Answer : e
21. Berikut merupakan penyataan yang diterangkan dalam penulisan “The Roots of
tesebut.
Jawapan: e
i. Economic force
ii. Cultural
iv. Religion
v Politic
b. i, ii, and iv
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d. ii and v
e. All above
Answer : c
22. Di antara, aspek berikut yang manakah memberi kesan terhadap suatu sistem
i. Kekuatan ekonomi
ii. Budaya
iv. Agama
v. Politik
Jawapan : c
a. Kairetsu
b. Keiretsu
c. Kei-retsu
d. Kai-retsu
Answer : b
a. Kairetsu
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b. Keiretsu
c. Kei-retsu
d. Kai-retsu
Jawapan : b
24. Differences among countries accounting practices affect a firms decision on:
b. Sources of capital
c. Skilled
d. Laws
Answer : E
syarikat pada
b. Sumber modal
c. Mahir
d. Undang-Undang
Jawapan : e
25. Why the German Commercial Code liberally permits German firms to establish
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Answer : a
Jawapan : a
26. The following Asian countries practiced democracy political system except
a. Vietnam
b. Indonesia
c. Thailand
d. Singapore
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e South Korea
Answer :e
26. Negara asia berikut mengamalkan sistem politik secara demokrasi kecuali
a. Vietnam
b. Indonesia
c. Thailand
d. Singapura
e. Korea Selatan
Jawapan :e
27. How can business affected by the political environment that led to the loss of future
profits?
d. Wars
e. Inflations
Answer: a
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d. Peperangan
e. Inflasi
Jawapan : a
28. What type of law that being used by majority of European Country?
a. Syaria’ Law
b. Bureaucratic Law
c. Civil Law
d. Traditional Law
e All of above
Answer : c
28. Apakah undang- undang yang diterima pakai di kebanyakan Negara Eropah?
a. Undang-undang syariah
b. Undang-undang birokrasi
c. Undang-Undang sivil
e Semua di atas
Jawapan : c
a. Continually monitor the political situation in the country that they operate by
consulting their local staff, embassy official or firm specializing in political risk
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assessment.
b. By viewing the information from internet regarding political situation at local area.
c. Hired personal investigator to give the information about the political situation.
Answer : a
29. Bagaimana firma mampu melindungi diri dari ancaman risiko politik?
mendapat maklumbalas dari pekerja, pejabat kedutaan atau firma yang berkepakaran
setempat.
politik semasa.
d. Berkawan dengan ahli politik bagi mengetahui suasana politik di negera terbabit
Jawapan : a
30. Supervision of Chinese fishing boats by the Philippine navy has led to the following
except:
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Answer :c
30. Pengawasan bot nelayan China oleh tentera laut Filipina telah menyebabkan perkara
berikut kecuali:
China
Jawapan : c
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