What are Social Sciences?

Social sciences are a group of academic disciplines dedicated to examining society. This branch of
science studies how people interact with each other, behave, develop as a culture, and influence
the world.
Understanding Social Sciences
Social sciences help to explain how society works, exploring everything from the triggers
of economic growth and causes of unemployment to what makes people happy. This information is
vital and can be used for many purposes. Among other things, it helps to shape corporate strategies
and government policies.
Social science as a field of study is separate from the natural sciences, which cover topics such as
physics, biology, and chemistry. Social science examines the relationships between individuals and
societies, as well as the development and operation of societies, rather than studying the physical
world. These academic disciplines rely more heavily on interpretation and qualitative research
methodologies.
The social sciences include:
 Anthropology
 Economics
 Political science
 Sociology
 Social psychology
History is also sometimes regarded as a social science, although many historians often consider the
subject to share closer links to the humanities. Both humanities and social sciences study human
beings. What separates them is technique: humanities are viewed as more philosophical and less
scientific. Law, too, has some ties to social sciences, as does geography.
In the U.S., early education of social sciences begins in elementary school and progresses
throughout middle and high school with an emphasis on core social sciences such as economics and
political science. At the collegiate level, more specialized disciplines are offered.
History of Social Sciences
The origins of social sciences can be traced back to the ancient Greeks. The lives they led, and their
early studies into human nature, the state, and mortality, helped to shape Western civilization.
Social science as an academic field of study developed out of the Age of Enlightenment (or the Age
of Reason), which flourished through much of the 18th century in Europe. Adam Smith, Voltaire,
Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Denis Diderot, Immanuel Kant, and David Hume were among the big
intellectuals at the time who laid the foundations for the study of social sciences in the Western
World.
Individuals began to take a more disciplined approach to quantify their observations of society, and
over time, similar aspects of society, such as linguistics and psychology, were separated into unique
fields of study.
Applied social sciences
Applied social sciences are those social science disciplines, professions and occupations which seek
to use basic social science research and theory to improve the daily life of communities,
organizations and persons.
Applied social sciences are those academic social science disciplines, professions and occupations
which seek to use basic social science knowledge, particularly
from sociology, economics and political science, and to a lesser extent psychology, social
psychology and anthropology to make an impact on the daily life of communities, organizations and
persons. Some authorities would also include portions of economics, and in particular economic
analysis and economic planning as applied social sciences. (Others tend to see economics not as a
social but as natural science, more comparable in some respects to physics.)
Social work, public health, urban planning, and public administration may have been the original
applied social sciences in the U.S. All arose out of social reform movements of the late 19th and
early 20th centuries. Management, community organization, social planning, policy
analysis, epidemiology, community medicine, and strategic planning are some of the many related
applied social sciences to arise from this base.
Urban planning, like landscape architecture and architecture can be considered applied social
sciences to the extent they are concerned with the effects on humans of the built environment. In
each case, applied social science concerns (in particular, the use of social research findings) are
intermixed with technical, engineering, aesthetic and other concerns and questions.
The practice of politics is an applied social science only to the extent that political action seeks to
apply the insights of political research or theory in practice. The use of survey research techniques
in estimating the impact of political campaigns for elected office is one such application in
widespread use.
At various times, engineering has also had a major impact on applied social sciences. Following the
success of Henry Ford and Frederick Taylor with scientific management, a broad spectrum of social
science based management approaches arose. During the Depression, for example, social
engineering was a frequently discussed topic in numerous fields, based on the work of Stuart
Chase and others. Also, during the 1930s, social science research played a fundamental role in the
emergence of the human relations approach to management through the work of Elton Mayo and
his associates. Later, a vast complex of organizational behavior, organization theory, organization
design and other social science approaches to the fundamental problems of organization
developed.
In the 1950s and into the 1970s, a number of engineers were prominent in discussions of general
systems theory as it applied to the social sciences in the analysis of social problems, urban redesign
and even problems of welfare and health care reform.
Approaches to applied social science are highly variable in degrees of generality or specificity. For
example, in 1996 Cambridge University Press published a volume on the theory of institutional
design which sought to bring together design perspectives on new institutionalisms in social,
political and economic theory. [1]
Public relations, advertising and marketing are other management- and organization-related
disciplines with substantial applied social science knowledge bases at present.
For much of the twentieth century, fundraising was a practice-based profession without a
systematic theory base or concern for research support. Since the 1980s, this has been changing as
a growing body of social science based research is developing to inform practice.
To some extent, the applied social science categorization can be located on both sides of the
Aristotelean distinction between praxis and techne, with some applied social sciences tending more
toward broad social action and others toward narrow technical prowess. This distinction is evident,
for example, in differing approaches to social research as substantive and theoretical or statistical
and methodological in nature. Both these practical and technical concerns can be differentiated
from theory, also sometimes distinguished from the applied as "basic social science.
COUNSELLING
Counselling: Meaning, Techniques, and Principles
What is Counselling?
Many people will, at some point in their lives, find themselves in the role of a counsellor without
having a true understanding of the concept of counselling or what the role of the professional
counsellor entails.
There is a big difference between a professional counsellor and a person who uses some counselling
skills as part of their role, for example as a friend or colleague. A professional counsellor is a highly-
trained individual who is able to use a different range of counselling approaches with their clients.
Counselling' can be a confusing term.
It often has different meanings for different people.
The Concise Oxford Dictionary (9th Edition) gives at least two definitions of counselling, which
appear to be conflicting, adding to potential confusion:
“give advice to (a person) on social or personal problems, especially professionally.” and
“the process of assisting and guiding clients, especially by a trained person on a professional basis,
to resolve especially personal, social, or psychological problems and difficulties.”
As a simpler definition, the UK’s NHS website defines counselling as:
“A talking therapy that involves a trained therapist listening to you and helping you find ways to
deal with emotional issues.”
There are therefore a number of aspects to counselling. For example, it is important that the
counsellor is trained. It is also important that the process is about helping you to find ways to deal
with your problems, rather than giving advice or telling you what to do.
There are a number of things that it is generally agreed that counselling is, and a number of others
that it is not.
Counselling is:
The process that occurs when a client and counsellor set aside time to explore difficulties which may
include the stressful or emotional feelings of the client.
The act of helping the client to see things more clearly, possibly from a different view-point. This
can enable the client to focus on feelings, experiences or behaviour, with a goal of facilitating
positive change.
A relationship of trust. Confidentiality is paramount to successful counselling. Professional
counsellors will usually explain their policy on confidentiality. They may, however, be required by
law to disclose information if they believe that there is a risk to life.
Counselling is not:
 Giving advice.
 Being judgemental.
 Attempting to sort out the problems of the client.
 Expecting or encouraging a client to behave as the counsellor would behave if confronted
with a similar problem in their own life.
 Getting emotionally involved with the client.
 Looking at a client’s problems from your own perspective, based on your own value system.
Counselling and Psychotherapy
‘Psychotherapy’ and ‘counselling’ are very similar, but not exactly the same. Both describe a
process of helping someone to come to terms with and work out solutions to their problems.
However, they vary in the approach used, and underpinning model and thinking.
Counselling is a helping approach that highlights the emotional and intellectual experience of a
client: how a client is feeling and what they think about the problem they have sought help for.
Psychotherapy, however, is based in the psychodynamic approach—it encourages the client to go
back to their earlier experiences and explore how these experiences affect their current ‘problem’.
A psychotherapist, therefore, helps the client to become conscious of experiences which they were
previously unaware of. Counsellors, however, are less likely to be concerned with the past
experiences of the client and are generally trained in a humanistic approach, using techniques from
client-centred therapy.
Meaning of Counselling:
1. Counselling is not a process of giving advice, but it is a process of helping your patient who is
genuinely in need.
2. It aims to help an individual to help himself to overcome his problem.
3. Counselling is different from a casual conversation as it builds a professional relationship with the
patient.
4. It is totally FOCUSED, SPECIFIC and PURPOSEFUL.
5. Counselling is a long-term process and consists of professional communication.
The Role of the Counsellor
First and foremost, counsellors need to be aware that no two people are alike.
No two people understand the same language in the same way; their understanding will always be
linked to their personal experience of the world. The role of the counsellor, therefore, is to help the
client to develop their own understanding of their situation.
They will enable the client to explore aspects of their life and feelings, by talking openly and freely.
Talking like this is rarely possible with family or friends, who are likely to be emotionally involved
and have opinions and biases that may affect the discussion. Talking to a counsellor gives clients the
opportunity to express difficult feelings such as anger, resentment, guilt and fear in a confidential
environment.
The counsellor may encourage the client to examine parts of their lives that they may have found
difficult or impossible to face before. There may be some exploration of early childhood experiences
to throw some light on why an individual reacts or responds in certain ways in given situations. This
is often followed by considering ways in which the client may change such behaviours.
Good counselling should reduce the client’s confusion, allowing them to make effective decisions
leading to positive changes in their attitude and/or behaviour. The ultimate aim of counselling is to
enable the client to make their own choices, reach their own decisions and act upon them.
Counselling Skills
There are a number of skills that are required by counsellors. Perhaps the most important are
good communication skills.
Counsellors need to be particularly able to listen effectively, giving their full attention to the client.
They need to be aware of body language and other non-verbal communication. Clients will often
communicate far more non-verbally than verbally, so this is an important area of skill.
Questioning is an important skill for counsellors, just as it is in coaching. Counsellors use questioning
both to improve their understanding (as a form of clarification), and also as an active way to help
expose the client’s feelings and emotions. They will also use reflection to show that they have heard
the client, and to validate the client’s feelings and words.
Counsellors also need to be able to build a certain amount of rapport with their client, but not to an
extent that would allow them to become emotionally involved.
They also need to be empathetic. This means that they are aware of their client’s feelings and
emotions. Empathy goes beyond being sympathetic (which is basically feeling sorry for someone),
because the root of the word means to ‘feel with’. Empathy therefore means that the counsellor
understands how the clients feels and can therefore ask appropriate questions and lead the client
to positive conclusions. The nature of empathy is rooted in helping others, and particularly in
empowering them to help themselves, so this is an essential skill area for counsellors.
A final thought
Like coaching, counselling is rooted in the principle that individuals can help themselves, provided
that they receive the right kind of support.
A counsellor is not there to tell their clients what to do, or how to do it, but to help them work out
for themselves what they are going do, and the best approach to take. It is, therefore, very individual
and person-centred, and those who provide counselling need to remember that above all.
Skills and Techniques of Counselling:
1. Listening skills—you should always listen carefully and not question the patient too frequently.
Allow him to ventilate through your listening.
2. Attending skill—your proper attention should be given to the patient to show interest and
concern-verbal and non-verbal.
3. Feedback—expressing the meaning of patient’s feelings and summarizing his problems.
4. Probing—focusing in depth on particular aspects of the situation.
5. Confronting—help the patient to realize his problems or help him to become aware of what he
is suffering from, by making proper statements.
6. Interpreting—presenting the alternative ways or angles to look at his situation.
7. Self-disclosure—share your attitude, opinions and experiences.
8. Non-dependence—do not make the patient dependent rather make him self sufficient to solve
his problems independently.
9. Questioning—ask open ended questions so that the patients gets the clue to open up with you.
Do not ask too many close-ended questions.
10. Incomplete sentence—encourage the patient to complete the sentence if he is not able to do
so.
11. Refocusing—if the patient is going off track or talking in circles get him back to maintain the
theme without hurting any of his feelings.
12. Silence—be with the patient’s feelings while he is crying and do not prevent him from crying.
Let him cry and ventilate himself.
13. Connecting—show connection between thought, behaviour and result or effect of what has
gone before.