SHRI GURU RAM RAI PUBLIC

SCHOOL

GOVINDPURAM,GHAZIABAD

PROJECT REPORT OF
PHYSICS
SESSION: 2019-2020

SUBMITTED TO: MR.AJAY NEGI

SIR
SUBMITTED BY: AFSHA
CLASS: 12th SCIENCE
ROLL NO: 05
SUBJECT: PHYSICS
 CERTIFICATE
THIS IS TO CERTIFY THAT AFSHAOF CLASS XII
SCIENCE HAS SUCCESSFULLY COMPLETED HER
PHYSICS PROJECT REPORT ON THE TOPIC
"POTENTIOMETER" AS PRESCRIBED BY Mr.AJAY
NEGI SIR, DURING THE ACADEMIC YEAR 2019-2020 AS
PER THE GUIDELINES ISSUES BY CENTRAL BOARD
OF SECONDARY EDUCATION - CBSE.

PRINCIPAL’S SIGNATURE TEACHER’S SIGNATURE

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to
my physics teacher Mr.Ajay negi as well as our principal
Mr.A.K Kandwal who gave me the golden opportunity to
do this wonderful project on the topic Potentiometer,
which also helped me in doing a lot of Research and i
came to know about so many new things I am really
thankful to them.
Secondly i would also like to thank my parents and friends
who helped me a lot in finalizing this project within the
limited time frame.

PRINCIPAL’S SIGNATURE TEACHER’S SIGNATURE

CONTENT:
 POTENTIOMETER:
The Potentiometer is an electric instrument that used to measure the The
Potentiometer is an electric instrument that used to measure the EMF
(electro motive force) of a given cell, the internal resistance of a cell. And
also it is used to compare EMFs of different cells. It can also use as
a variable resistor in most of the applications. These potentiometers are
used in huge quantities in the manufacture of electronics equipment that
provides a way of adjusting electronic circuits so that the correct outputs
are obtained. Although their most obvious use must be for volume controls
on radios and other electronic equipment used for audio of a given cell, the
internal resistance of a cell. And also it is used to compare EMFs of
different cells. It can also use as a variable resistor in most of the
applications. These potentiometers are used in huge quantities in the
manufacture of electronics equipment that provides a way of
adjusting electronic circuits so that the correct outputs are obtained.
Although their most obvious use must be for volume controls on radios and
other electronic equipment used for audio.
Why is Potentiometer chosen over Voltmeter to measure the potential
(EMF) of a cell? When we use Voltmeter, current flows through the circuit
and because of the internal resistance of the cell, always terminal potential
will be less than the actual cell potential. In this circuit, when the potential
difference is balanced (using a Galvanometer null detection), no current
flows in the circuit, so the terminal potential will be equal to the actual cell
potential. So we can understand that the Voltmeter measures the terminal
potential of a cell, but this measures actual cell potential. The schematic
symbols of this is shown below.
Since a potentiometer measures voltage, it can also be used to detect
current simply by measuring the voltage drop produced by the unknown
current passing through a known standard resistance.
The potentiometer is extensively used for a calibration of voltmeters and
ammeters and has in fact become the standard for the calibration of these
instruments. For the above mentioned advantages the potentiometer has
become very important in the field of electrical measurements and
calibration.
Construction and Working Principle
The potentiometer consists of a long resistive wire L made up of magnum or with constantan and a battery of known EMF V. This

voltage is called as driver cell voltage. Connect the two ends of the resistive wire L to the battery terminals as shown below; let us

assume this is a primary circuit arrangement. One terminal of another cell (whose EMF E is to be measured) is at one end of the

primary circuit and another end of the cell terminal is connected to any point on the resistive wire through a galvanometer G. Now let

us assume this arrangement is a secondary circuit. The arrangement of the potentiometer as shown below.
The basic working principle of this is based on the fact that the fall of the potential across any portion of the wire is directly
proportional to the length of the wire, provided wire has uniform cross-sectional area and the constant current flowing through
it.“When there is no potential difference between any two nodes there is electric current will flow”.

Now the potentiometer wire is actually a wire with high resistivity (ῥ) with uniform cross-sectional area A. Thus, throughout the wire, it

has uniform resistance. Now this potentiometer terminal connected to the cell of high EMF V (neglecting its internal resistance) called

driver cell or the voltage source. Let the current through the potentiometer is I and R is the total resistance of the potentiometer.

Then by Ohms law V=IR

We know that R= ῥL/A

Thus, V= I ῥL/A

As ῥ and A are always constant and current I is kept constant by a rheostat.

So L ῥ/A=K (constant)

Thus, V= KL. Now suppose a cell E of lower EMF than the driver cell is put in the circuit as shown above. Say it has EMF E. Now in

the potentiometer wire say at length x the potentiometer has become E.

E= L ῥx/A=Kx

When this cell be put in the circuit as shown above figure with a jokey connected to the corresponding length (x), there will be no flow

of current through the galvanometer because when the potential difference is equal to zero, no current will flow through it. So the

galvanometer G show null detection. Then the length (x) is called the length of the null point. Now by knowing the constant K and the

length x. We can find the unknown EMF.

E= L ῥx/A=Kx
Secondly, EMF of two cells may also be compared, let the first cell of EMF E1 given a null point
at a length= L1 and the second cell of EMF E2 show a null point at length= L2

Then,

E1/E2= L1/L2
Types of Potentiometers
A potentiometer is also commonly known as pot. These potentiometers have three
terminal connections. One terminal connected to a sliding contact called wiper and the
other two terminals are connected to a fixed resistance track. The wiper can be moved
along the resistive track either by use of a linear sliding control or a rotary “wiper” contact.
Both rotary and linear controls have the same basic operation.

The most common form of the potentiometer is the single turn rotary potentiometer. This
type of potentiometer is often used in audio volume control (logarithmic taper) as well as
many other applications. Different materials are used to construct potentiometers,
including carbon composition, cermet, conductive plastic, and the metal film.

Rotary Potentiometers
These are the most common type of potentiometers, where the wiper moves along a
circular path.

Linear Potentiometers
In these types of Potentiometers the wiper moves along a linear path. Also known as slide
pot, slider, or fader.
Applications of Potentiometer
There are many different uses of a potentiometer. The three main applications
of a potentiometer are:

1. Comparing the emf of a battery cell with a standard cell

2. Measuring the internal resistance of a battery cell
3. Measuring the voltage across a branch of a circuit
Comparing EMF of Battery Cells
Consider the potentiometer with the length of the wire L. Two cells E1 and E2 are
connected with the help of a two way switch. The switch is then connected to a
galvanometer and the other end of the galvanometer is connected to a jockey.
The jockey is able to slide on the wire. So now let us connect the cell E 1 with
the help of the two way switch. By changing the value in the rheostat adjust the
reading of the galvanometer to zero. When galvanometer shows zero deflection
or null deflection, no current flows through the wire. With the help of jockey let
us consider the point of null deflection as A1.
As no current flows through the wire, it is independent of the internal resistance
of the cell E1. So the potential difference across the point A A1 = E1. Consider
the length of A A1 as L1. So according to the principle of potentiometer we know
that E1 L1. Thus E1 = K L1 – equation1, where K is the potential gradient. We
know that K = V/L.
Next we will connect the cell E2 with the help of the two way switch. Adjust the
reading of the galvanometer to zero by changing the value in the rheostat. We
know that no current flows through the wire when the galvanometer shows the
null deflection. Let us assume the point of null deflection as A2 with the help of
jockey. The potential difference across the point A A2 = E2. The length of A A1 is
taken as L2. So E2 L2 .Thus E2 = K L2 .This is the second equation.
Dividing the equation 1 by 2 we get E1 = K L1/E2 = K L2
Thus E1/E2 = L1/L2. Thus we can compare the emf of two cells. We can also use
this equation to get the unknown emf.

Measuring Internal Resistance of A Battery

Cell
In this process, one battery is connected across the resistor of a potentiometer
through a galvanometer as shown in the figure below. One resistance of
known value (R) is connected across the battery through a switch. First, we
keep the switch open and adjust the sliding contact of the potentiometer
resistor to make the galvanometer current zero. Once the galvanometer shows
zero deflection from its null point we take the position of the sliding contact
tip on the resistor scale. Say this is L1.
Now we make the switch on. At that condition, a circulating current starts
flowing through the battery cell as well as the resistance (R). As a result, there
is a voltage drop in the battery itself due to its internal resistance. So now the
voltage across the battery cell would be a little bit less than its open circuit
voltage or emf of the cell. Now again we adjust the sliding contact on the
transistor to make the galvanometer current zero and once it becomes zero
that is zero deflection is indicated in the galvanometer, we take the position of
the sliding contact tip on the resistor scale and say it is L2.
For this a cell whose internal resistance is to be determined is connected to
terminal A of the potentiometer across a resistance box through a key K2
First close the key K1 and obtain the null point .Let l1 be the length of this null
point from terminal A then
E=Kl1
When key K2 is closed ,the cell sends current through resistance Box (R).If
E2 is the terminal
Potential difference and null point is obtained at length l2(AJ2) then
V=Kl2
Thus
E/V=l1/l2
But E=I(R+ r) and V=IR
This gives
E/V=(r+R)/R
So (r+R)/R=l1/l2
giving
r=R(l1/l2-1)
Using above equation we can find internal resistance of any given cell

Measurement of Voltage by Potentiometer

The principle of measuring voltage across a branch of a circuit with help of a
potentiometer is also simple. Here first we have to adjust the rheostat to
adjust the current through the resistor so that it causes a specific voltage drop
per unit length of the resistor. Now we have to connect one end of the branch
to the beginning of the resistor and other end is connected to the sliding
contact of the resistor through a galvanometer. Now we have to slide the
sliding contact on the resistor until the galvanometer shows zero deflection.
When the galvanometer comes to its null condition we have to take the
reading of the position of the sliding contact tip on the resistor scale and
accordingly we can find out the voltage across the branch of the circuit since
we have already adjusted the voltage per unit length of the resistor.

A battery of emf E is connected the end terminal A and B of potentiometer with

rheostat Rh, resistance box and key K in series. This is called auxiliary circuit.

The ends of the R1 are connected to terminal A and jockey J through galvanometer.
The resistance R1 is connected to cell E1 and key K1 in series.
Working and Theory: Close key K and adjust the resistance from resistance box so
that the potential across the potentiometer wire is grated then which is to be measured.

Close key K1. The current flows through R1. A potential difference is developed
across R1. Adjust the position of jockey on potentiometer wire such that galvanometer
shows no deflection.

Let this position is J. Let AJ length is l of potentiometer wire. Galvanometer shows no

deflection because potential difference is same if K is the potential gradient of
potentiometer wire, then potential difference across R1 that is

Potentiometer does not draw any current from the cell whose emf is to be measured,
whereas a voltmeter always draws some current.
USES OF POTENTIOMETER
Potentiometers are a form of electrical resistors. While not designed to
carry a great deal of electrical current, they are often ideal for small
jobs. A potentiometer is helpful in such common tasks as adjusting the
volume level on a radio, or changing channels on some types of
television sets.
In construction, a potentiometer uses either a two or three terminal
configuration. A slide-wire contact is used to create a voltage divider
that can be adjusted to different settings as needed. It is this ability to
make an adjustment in position that makes it possible for the resistor
to be useful in simple management tasks associated with the
operation of small electrical devices.
The amount of power controlled by a potentiometer is very small. In
most cases, the voltage output and input is no more than a single
watt, but this is enough power to allow simple manipulation of many
electrical devices. Along with the volume control on a radio, this
resistor provides enough power control to trigger the on/off function on
a number of devices, as well as increase of decrease the flow of
current to a given device. Light fixtures and lamps that have a dimmer
control are able to brighten and dim the output of light with the aid of
a potentiometer.

A potentiometer may be activated with the use of a knob that is turned

to various settings, a slide control, or even a simple switch. In all
cases, the movement of the outward mechanism activates the
function of the resistor and helps to achieve the desired effect. The
range of movement allowed will depend on the construction of the
electrical device and the exact configuration of the potentiometer. In
many cases, one complete circle or turn is permitted among a limited
amount of selections along a scale. Some devices use a model that
allows for multiple revolutions around the range, however, increasing
the number of settings that may be chosen. This is particularly true
when the resistor is used to control volume levels.
Potentiometer Sensitivity
The sensitivity of a potentiometer implies what the small
voltage difference can be measured by the potentiometer.
For same driver voltage if we increase the length of the
potentiometer resistance, length of the resistance per unit
voltage gets increased. Hence the sensitivity of the
potentiometer gets increased. So we can say sensitivity of
a potentiometer is directly proportional to the length of
the resistance. Again if we reduce the driver voltage for a
fixed length of potentiometer resistance, then also voltage
per unit length of the resistance gets decreased. Hence
again the sensitivity of the potentiometer gets increased.
So the sensitivity of the potentiometer is inversely
proportional to the driver voltage.
Advantages of Digital Potentiometers

The advantages of digital potentiometers are:

 Higher reliability
 Increased accuracy
 Small size, multiple potentiometers can be packed on a
single chip
 Negligible resistance drift
 Unaffected by environmental conditions like vibrations,
humidity, shocks and wiper ontamination
 No moving part
 Tolerance up to ±1%
 Very low power dissipation, up to tens of millwatts
ADVANTAGES OF POTENTIOMETER:
.The voltmeter is used to measure terminal potential difference of cell while
potentiometer is used to measure small terminal potential difference as well as EMF
of the cell.

.The accuracy of potentiometer can be easily increased by increasing the length of

wire.

.A small potential difference can be measured accurately by using potentiometer

.The resistance of voltmeter is high but not infinity to work as ideal voltmeter.

.The internal resistance of a cell can be measured with the help of potentiometer.

.Potential difference across the wire is greater than E1 or E2 or E1+E2.

Disadvantages of Potentiometers
Potentiometers, or pots, are adjustable resistors having a contact that
moves across a resistive element. Some have a rotary action, and others
are linear. This motion involves friction between internal parts, and leads
to wear and noise. While designers use pots as inexpensive, easy-to-use
electronic controls, wear and inertia limit their usefulness as sensors in
mechanical systems. Over decades, potentiometer materials have
improved, but these fundamental problems still exist.
Most potentiometers last only a few thousand rotations before the
materials wear out. Although this may sound like a lot, and may mean
years of service in some applications, it takes special designs to stand up
to daily, demanding use. And it means they can’t be used for machine
sensing where rapid cycling would wear them out in a matter of minutes.

The action of the wiper moving across the element creates a noise called
"fader scratch." In new pots, this noise is inaudible, but it can get worse
with age. Dust and wear increase the bumpiness of the action and make
the noise noticeable. Small cracks can appear in the element, and these
make noise as the wiper moves over them.

Out of necessity, most potentiometers can dissipate only a few watts of

power at most. To handle more power, they would have to be larger and
more expensive. Engineers work around this problem by putting the
potentiometer in low-power parts of circuits. They control small currents,
which, in turn, control transistors and other components with greater
power ratings.