CHAPTER 1: OVERVIEW fields as economics, psychology, political science, history, and

sociology. Writers from earlier schools of criminological thought were

The field of criminology systematically studies the causes of crime. not primarily concerned with developing generalizations about crime,
The explanations for crime are not simple. We live in a complex criminal behavior, and the relationship between a varying crime rates
society, and the causes of crime are as complex as the society itself. and social conditions. Instead, most early scholars who develop
The criminologist attempts to explore the conditions leading to theories about crime causation did so, as a criminologist Donald R.
criminal behavior and the factors in society that contribute to its Grassy has stated, “In an attempt to find a panacea for criminality.”
continued existence. This chapter and those that follow explore a wide
variety of theories regarding this theoretical explanation contribute to He also indicated that early writers made few, if any, efforts to “verify
an understanding of criminal behavior and also provide an important the many theological or moralistic assertions by actually investigating
framework for examining current policies and past as well as present relevant situations; writers usually selected a general ‘cause’ of all
treatment efforts established to deal with or alleviate the crime criminality and then sought to convince their readers that elimination
problem. of the cause would eradicate crime both by reforming criminals and by
preventing future criminality.” Even though writers and philosophers.
As shown in chapter 1, and thereafter, theories are important for the
development of political and social policies and treatment programs Understanding why people commit crime has been a focus of
for dealing with criminals and their victims. Each perspective provides academic study for over 200 years. It is a subject that raises debate
insight into the nature of crime and helps us to focus on different amongst academicians, politicians, and the general public and
aspects or dimensions of reality. As this chapter extensively explain theories have been forwarded that emphasize factors such as biology,
and analyzes crime and criminal behavior, you will see how elements psychology, and rationality as causes of offending.
of each of these perspectives are used to help us explain crime. Some of the earliest theories of why people were ‘bad’ focused upon
These chapters focus on what are considered to be the most ideas around spirituality, witchcraft and demonology, yet this were
important explanations for crime. In particular, this chapter's attempts superseded by ideas that placed ‘rationally’ at the centre of
to explain crime date back through many centuries of recorded
understanding the causes of crime.
history. During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, for example, While some criminology theories may today seen implausible, study of
people who engage in crime and other forms of deviant behavior the history and development of criminological theory is essential for
where thought to be possessed by demons or evil spirits. Exorcism any serious student of the discipline. Such a study not only enables us
and banishment were among the treatments against crime. At the to grasp key ideas that have shaped the discipline, but also to
same time, victims of crimes might view their loss as divine retribution
appreciate how various methodologies have been used to develop
for some wrong that they or a family member had a committed in the
theories and how these have refined over time.
past. This module will introduce you to various criminology theories and
During the past 300 years a variety of a scholars have develop perspectives. We will not only identify the various theoretical
important theories or explanations of crime. These writers have come perspectives that help us to understand and explain crime/criminal
from many fields. In the 18th and 19th centuries, they came from such behavior, we will also evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of
field as philosophy, theology, medicine, and psychiatry. In the 20th different criminological theories and perspective. As part of this we will
and 21st centuries, many of these theories have come from such consider of the wider social and political context and which crime
occurs and can be explained and understood.
Theory – Definition guardians include neighbors, friends, and others who happen to be in
the same place as that attractive target. Parents, teachers, peers, and
 Any system of ideas arranged in rational order that produce others close to potential victims are also potential guardians. A target
general principles which increase our understanding & with effective guardians is less likely to be attacked by a potential
explanations offender than a target without guardian. If the guardians is absent,
 Derived from, and perspective, of particular facts, but those weak, or corrupt little protection is provided the target.
principles are not dependent upon the particular thing to be
explained Finally, consider places, someone owns every location and ownership
 Foundation of criminology and of criminal justice confers certain rights to regulate access to the site and behaviors of
people using the site. The owner and the agents of the owner (e.g.,
A Theory of Crime Problems employees) look after the place and the people using the place.
The Crime triangle (also known as the problem analysis triangle) Owners and their agents are called place managers. Place managers
comes straight out of one of the main theories of environmental control the behavior of offenders and potential victims. Examples of
criminology – routine activity theory. place manager include merchants, lifeguards, parking lot attendants,
recreation and park workers, janitors, and motel clerks, and the
“Routine Activity Theory” provides a simple and powerful insight into presence of an effective place manager crime is less likely than when
the causes of crime problems. At its heart is the idea that in the the manager is absent, weak, or corrupt.
absence of effective controls, offenders will prey upon attractive
targets. To have a crime, a motivated offender must come to the All of the people in this theory used tool to help accomplish their
criminal or crime control objective. Tools that gang members use may
same place as an attractive target. For property crimes the target is a
thing or an object. For personal crimes the target is a person. If an include spray paint cans, guns and cars. Offenders without access to
attractive target is never in the same place as a motivate offender, the tools are less likely to be able escape handlers, enter unauthorized
places, and overcome victims, guardians, and managers Guardians
target will not be taken, damaged, or assaulted. Also, there are
controllers whose presence can prevent crime. If the controllers are may be use light increase surveillance, engraving devices to mark
absent, or present but powerlessness, crime is possible. property, and other devices to help reduce the chances of
victimization. Place managers can use gates, fences, science and
First consider people who are influential in the lives of potential other tools to regulate conduct. With effective tools handlers, victims,
offenders. In the case of juveniles these might be parents, close guardians, and managers will have a greater chance of keeping
relatives, siblings, peers, teachers, coaches, and other similarly crimes from occurring. The tools use is often highly specific to the
placed individuals. In the case of adults these people may include crime in questions. The tools and offender needs for a burglary (e.g.,
intimate partners, close friends, relatives, and sometimes their screw driver) are likely to be different from those needed for robbery
children. These people are called “handlers” in routine activity theory. (e.g., gun), for example
Crimes will take place where handlers are absent, weak, or corrupt.

Next considered targets, or victims. Guardians try to protect targets

from theft and damage and potential victims from attack and assault.
Formal guardians include the police, security guards, and others
whose job is to protect people and property from crime. Informal
 guide as problems solvers as a series of questions about offenders,
handlers, targets, guardians, places, managers, and the tools used by
each. The answers to these questions, which will vary by problem,
suggest possible responses. Thus, responses are problems specific
(for example, a residential burglary problem in the neighborhood of
single family residences may require different responses than one in
large apartment complex, and a residential burglary problem in an
apartment complex near a heavily traveled highway may require
different responses than one in an apartment in a more isolated
location).

Though responses are problem specific, there are often several

possible responses to any a specific problem. Few problems will have
unique responses. Instead, the special insight of problem solvers is to
choose among possible responses that can be implemented. Further,
if one approach does not work, other backup responses are usually
The relationship of the actors, places and tools is depicted in the possible.
problem triangle, shown in Figure 1. Problems occur when offenders Though it is possible to use the guide and responses list without
are at the same places as target without any effective controller. If one understanding the basics of routine activity theory, knowing this theory
or more of the controllers is present, however, the chances of crime helps use the guide and list with greater flexibility. For example, if
are greatly reduced. The effectiveness of the people involve will
someone proposes a potential solution to a problem, it is possible to
depend, in part of the tools they have available. Adding or subtracting determine if the solution is appropriate. To do this the problem solver
various elements in this model will alter the chances of crime. identifies which of the 58 possible responses the proposed solution
resembles most closely. The problem solver then works backwards
The presence of attractive targets, weak handlers, ineffective from the solution list to the question. The questions describe the types
guardianship, and indifferent management is not randomly distributed of answers needed for the solution to fit the problem. If the answers to
across places. Offenders do not wander aimlessly across the the questions are consistent with the solution, the proposed solution
landscape. Like everyone else, offenders have routine behaviors that may be appropriate. In short, the more familiar one is with routine
take them away from handlers and lead them to discover places with
activity theory, the more adaptable, the guide and solution list will be.
attractive targets. Potential victims also follow routines that separate Additional information on routine activity theory can be found in the
them from affective guardians in places with weak management. The references cited below, particularly, | Clark (1997) and Felon (1994)
spatial ordering of crimes opportunities and the routines of offenders
and victims creates many of the crime problems we see. Three Theories of Criminal Behavior
historically, there are three broad theoretical models of criminal
This theory of crime also suggests ways of preventing these behavior
problems. The questions in the guide and the responses list are
organized around each of the 11 elements shown in Figure 1. The A) PSYCHOLOGICAL B) SOCIOLOGICAL C) BIOLOGICAL
All infer different methods of control, but it is difficult to completely The last assumption of the psychological model would suggest that a
separate the three categories as it is generally accepted that all three variety of different causes or reasons exist for criminal behavior and
of the factors play a role in the expression of behavior. Moreover, that the general principles target at the individual would be effective
psychological science consists of several disciplines including for crime control. However, the model also assumes that there is a
biological psychology and social psychology, so psychological subset of psychological criminal type, define currently as antisocial
principles could be applied across all three domains. personality disorder in the DSM-IV and previously defined as the
sociopath or psychopath (APA, 2002). This type of criminal exhibits
However there are some general principles associated with each of deviant behavior early in life and is associated with self centeredness
these paradigms that would be associated with some specific crime a lack of empathy, and a tendency to see others as a tools for their
controls policies. These results in admittedly narrow definitions for ends. Controls for these individuals would be more extreme and
each of the categories, but it do simplify the discussion herein. general public policies may not be stringent enough to curve the
PSYCOLOGICAL APPROACHES behavior in this small subset of criminals.

There a many different psychological models of criminal behavior Given these six principles to establish psychological explanations of
ranging from early Freudian notions to later cognitive and social criminal behavior, we can suggest a first the traditional imprisonment,
fines, and other court sanctions are based on operant learning models
psychological models. We cannot review them all here. Instead, we
will list the several fundamental assumptions of psychological theories of behavior for crime control. Operant learning models are based on
of criminality (and human behavior in general). These are: the utilitarian concepts that all people wish to maximize pleasures and
minimize pain or discomfort. Skinnerian based social psychological
1. The individual is the primary unit of analysis in psychological theories of reinforcement and punishment are influential in this model
theories of criminal control although the idea of punishment for crime has a
much longer history. (Jeffrey, 1990) Technically speaking,
2. Personality is the major motivational element that drives behavior punishments are any sanctions design to decrease as specific
within individuals behavior; thus, fines, jail sentences, etc., are all forms of punishment.
However, Skinner himself recognize that the punishment was
3. Normality is generally defined by social consensus.
generally ineffective in behavior modification and that reinforcement
4. Crimes then would result from abnormal, dysfunctional, or work better (e.g., skinner 1966).
inappropriate mental processes within the personality of the individual.
A caveat should be applied here: punishment is effective if applied
5. Criminal behavior may be purposeful for the individual insofar as is properly, but unfortunately it really it is applied properly. Punishment
addresses certain felt needs. needs to be an immediate (or a close to the time the offense as
possible), inescapable, and sufficiently unpleasant (in fact, the more it
6. Defective, or abnormal, mental processes may have a variety of is subjectively perceived as harsh, the better). Given the judicial
causes, i.e., a diseased mind, in appropriate learning or improper system in the U.S., it would be hard to apply punishment to its
conditioning, the emulation of inappropriate role models, and maximal effectiveness, thus it is not an effective deterrent, as
adjustment to inner conflicts. (Mischel, 1968). reflected in the stable homicide rates of states that carry the death
penalty. Nonetheless, punishments and sanctions for criminal Various forms of criminal profiling are based heavily on psychological
behavior are based on behavioral psychological principles. principles and represent an effort to either apprehend existing
criminals or to identify persons at risk for certain behavior (Holmes &
Because harsh forms of punishment do not appear to significantly Holmes, 2008). More recently there have been efforts to develop
decrease recidivism rates, other psychological principles have been methods to identify individuals at risk for certain forms of deviant
applied. In terms of cognitive-behavioral psychological principles behavior including criminal activities based on personality and social
rehabilitation and relearning, retraining, or educational programs for variables. These psychological variables can be identified in the
offenders are form of psychologically based methods to control crime. school or at the home at an early age and include such disorders and
These methods are based on the cognitive behavioral methods of learning disabilities, ADHD, depression, and others. Since many
teaching and alternative functional response in a place of a formally individual with these problems often to go on demonstrate criminal
dysfunctional one as opposed to simple punishment. These programs behavior or have legal problems later efforts and identify and treat
can take place in prisons or outside of the prisons and have long been these issues are forms of psychological crime control policies (APA,
demonstrated to be successful (e.g., Mathias, 1995). So any form of 2002)
returning medication or reentry guidance is based on psychological
principles of criminality and reform. However, rehabilitation programs Thus, methods of crime control policies based on psychological
are often rarely implemented in jail or prison. Many of these programs principles target the individual and attempt to reform or prevent
appear to be especially beneficial for drug and alcohol offenders. criminal behavior from that perspective. Any policies requiring
Likewise, any for education such as the DARE program and recent therapeutic intervention, retraining, or education are psychological in
efforts to curb bullying in schools are based on these methods. In line nature. Any policy designed at preventing crime by targeting
with this, changing the environment of the offenders such as providing individuals such as raising consciousness, promoting self-awareness,
more opportunities would be a psychological behavior all principle or identifying individuals at risk are also psychological. Likewise,
design to cut crime. psychologists have long recognized that the best predictor of future
behavior is the individual's past behavior (Mischel, 1968). So policies
In line with other psychological methods are policies aimed at and that are specifically designed to deal with repeat offenders are
maintaining a visible presence of law enforcement and methods to also based on psychological principles of criminality.
maintain self-awareness in tempting situations such methods are
preventative. For instance, it has been a well-known social SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES
psychological principle that situations that diminish self-consciousness
and self-awareness leads individuals to being less restrains, less self- Sociological and psychological principles of criminality are intertwined
regulated, and more likely to act without considering the and technically not independent. As with psychological theories, there
consequences of their actions (e.g,. Diener, 1979). The simple act of are numerous sociological formulations of the cost and control of
placing mirrors in stores can increase self awareness and decrease criminality. We will define sociological notions of criminality as:
shoplifting. Likewise, the presence of visible law enforcement can cut
 attempting to connect the issues of the individuals criminality with
down on crime. Making sanctions and the consequences for crime
the broader social structures and cultural values of society, familial
well publicized and available to the public is another psychological
or peer group.
method to control crime in this vein.
 how the contradictions of all this interacting groups contribute to
criminality
 the ways these structures cultures and contradictions have educational funding, urban renewal project, and so forth would be in
historically developed line with sociological policies to control crime (Merton, 1968). other
 the current processes of change that this group are undergoing related sociological controls for crime with consists of organizing and
 criminality is view from the point of view of the social construction empowering neighborhood residents with projects like neighborhood
of criminality and its social causes crime watches, providing law-abiding, role models for children in
schools and in other venues, providing parental support for working
Traditional sociological theories proposed that crime was a result of parents, and establishing community centers and downtrodden areas
anomie; a term meaning “normlessness” or a feeling of a lack of social to allow people to learn and engage positive activities
norms, a lack of being connected to society. The term was made
popular by Emile Durkheim in (1897) who originally used the term to Social programs aimed at socializing children properly and providing
explain suicide. Later sociologists used the term to describe the support for single family homes are also examples of sociological
dissociation of the individual from the collective conscience or the methods to control crime. there are a number of these programs
criminality resulting from a lack of opportunity to achieve aspirations including career academic (small learning communities in low-income
or by the learning of criminal values and behaviors. Therefore high schools offering academic and carol technical courses as well as
criminality results from the failure to properly socialized individual and workplace opportunities).
by unequal opportunities between groups. Durkheim believed that
Finally, sociological policies to control crime would advocate stronger
crime was an inescapable fact of society and advocated maintaining
and harsher penalties for serious crime such as murder, rape, are
crime within reasonable boundaries
more effective law enforcement. Again, sociologists accept the
A feature of sociological theories is that society “constructs” realities that crime is a social phenomenon that will not disappear no
criminality. Thus, certain types of human activity are harmful and are matter how many interventions are enacted to control it. sociologist
judged so by society as a whole. But it is also true that there are other note that of every 100 felonies committed within the united states,
behaviors recognized by society as “criminal” that do not result in only one is sent to prison. A vast number or unreported and of those
harm to others and are therefore criminalize without sufficient ground, that are reported only a small portion goes to trial. if a justice system
there are so called “victimless” crimes. these include drug use, is to work properly it must be able to rely on its law enforcement
prostitution, etc. therefore according to this view (if carried to system and judicial system to bring to justice and prosecute serious
extreme), 100% of the members of a society are lawbreakers at some offenders. the purpose of imprisonment include punishment,
point. one of the sociological policy methods of crime control would be rehabilitation, deterrence, and selective confinement. all of these
to advocate for decriminalization of these victimless crimes or at least should be utilized where appropriate for the individual. (Hester &
a vast reduction in their penalties (Schur, 1965). Eglin, 1992)

An important sociological control would be to increase legitimate BIOLOGICAL APPROACHES

opportunities for advancement and obtainment of goods and wealth in
Biological theories of criminality basically purport that criminal
areas where this do not exist. sociological controls targeted at this
behavior is the result of some flow in the biological makeup of the
goal could originate and higher State and Federal levels of
individual. this physical flow could be due to…
government as well as local levels of government and would include
programs designed to guarantee equal opportunities to all individuals. 1. Heredity
Thus, social programs ranging from soup kitchens, job training,
2. Neurotransmitter dysfunction the medication and return to use. sex offenders are closely monitored
and there is some evidence that this policy has been efficacious.
3. Brain abnormalities that were caused by either of the above, sometimes mentally ill people in the criminal justice system been
improper development, or trauma (Raine, 2002) ordered to take medication to treat their mental illness. other
Biological theorists would also endorse stricter penalties and better pharmacological interventions to control crimes implausible and are
law enforcement techniques for crime control, but there are several being investigated but do not appear to have been widely used.
methods of crime control that are specific to the biological theories of Others: deep brain stimulation is used for some disorders such as
criminality. I will discuss these briefly here. Parkinson's disease, but has been yet investigated for criminal
Psychosurgery: Brain surgery to control behavior has rarely been behavior. biological theories have advocated changes in diet to deal
with criminality (Burton, 2002) and better relations between parents.
applied to criminal behavior certainly much more common between
the 1930’s to the late 1970’s there were over 40,000 frontal there is also the famous genetic XYY combination that was once
lobotomies is performed. lobotomies were used to treat a wide range thought to be a marker for criminal type, but as it turned out these
of problem from depression, to schizophrenia. However, while widely individuals were found to be less intelligent or more likely to have
discussed as a potential treatment for criminal behavior a perusal of learning difficulties as opposed to being criminal types. while there are
many studies indicating a connection between antisocial personality
the literature could not find a court ordered case for a lobotomy as a
sentence for a convicted criminal. lobotomies were also used for disorder or criminal behavioral and heredity, there are no policies
people who were considered an annoyance because the being implemented to advocate for selective breeding, genetic testing
demonstrated behavior characterizes as moody or they were children etc. for criminals. i do not yet and vision a policy of genetic testing for
criminals as the variables are not stable enough in order to predict
who were defiant with authority figures such as teachers. the
lobotomy involves separating the prefrontal cortex from the rest of the with set of gene combinations are predictive of a biological criminal
brains either surgically or in the case of the trans orbital lobotomy with type (Rutter, 2006) although this is certainly a possibility.
a sharp ice-pick like instrument that was inserted in the eye socket if the biological model of the criminal has a significant effect on policy
between the upper eyelid and the eye. in this method the patient was outside the use of chemical castration for sex offenders, it would be
not anesthetize not even children the psychiatrist hit the end of the the policy that certain forms of criminal behavior or certain individuals
instrument with a hammer to disconnect the nerves in the frontal lobe may not be rehabilitated and the advocacy for harsher and stricter
of the brain. afterwards behavior were change, but a high price as you imprisonment or even executions are viable methods of control in
can imagine. today the lobotomy has fallen out of a favor to these instances. the issue for the community as how to recognize as
medications used to control behavior although some view the use of significant biological contribution to criminal behavior since genetic
medication as equivalent to a lobotomy (e.g., see Breggin, 2008). testing is and reliable and there are no other physical markers of
Psychosurgery appears to be an option that will most likely not be put criminality it seems that currently in the absence of very harsh crimes
into use due to the stigma associated with it like murder and rape one must be recognized as a repeat offender
Chemical methods of control: the use of pharmacological before we can acknowledge a possible innate tendency towards
treatments to try to control crime has been ongoing into major areas: criminality. by that time the damage, which is often irreparable, is
chemical castration for sex offenders and pharmacological done. perhaps the answers lies in a stricter probation and parole
interventions for drug or alcohol addicts. However, addicts can stop practices for first time offenders. However, this policy is expensive
and tax payers may not support it. the policy mandating convicted sex theories have been advanced in an attempt to explain criminal
offenders to be monitored over their lifetime and certain restriction behavior. However, to grow a better understanding of crime and
placed on them in a result of the acknowledgment of a biological deviant behavior, it is important to know these theories. They provide
predisposition to engage in this crime and therefore traditional forms different perspectives on crime. These theories are important for
of treatment or remediation do not appear to be effective. Similar understanding the sources of motivation or circumstances which may
policies might follow with habitual criminal offenders based on the lead to criminal behavior.
biological theories of criminality
Demonology is one of the earliest theories in criminology. In the
CHAPTER 2: EARLY GENERAL THEORIES ON THE CAUSES OF ancient times people believed that evil spirits or demons entered
CRIME human body to commit sins. This was the release explanation given
regarding crime and criminal behavior. Terms like demons, witches
Demonology is the study of demons or beliefs about demons, and windigo were used for people who had turned criminals.
especially the methods used to someone and control them the original
sense of demon from the time of Homer onward, was a benevolent An early explanation of crime is theological or religious Dot crime has
being, but in English to the name now holds connotations of been view as a violation of religious doctrine it is called a sin a
malevolence in order to keep the distinction when referring to the violation of sacred obligation an individual who commits a crime has
word in its original Greek meaning English may use the spelling been view as possessed by evil spirits or under divine rap criminal
daemon or daimon. acts where considered as indicia of basically evil human nature
suggesting adherence to Satan or under the spell of the prince of
Demons, when regarded as a spirit, may belong to either of the darkness the causes of crime have been based in the superstitious
classes of spirit recognized by primitive animism. That is to say, they beliefs in which criminals were allegedly perceived as controlled by
may be human comma or non human, separable souls, or discarnate otherworldly forces - the devil.
spirits which have never inhabited a body. A sharp distinction is often
drawn between these two classes, notably by Melanesians, several There are many myths, stories and legends that we know about. They
African groups, and others Lot the Arab jinn, for example, are not may be the product of our imagination or be well crafted by our
reducible to modify the human souls at the same time these classes creative mind. Or maybe not? Demonology is a very old discipline
are frequently conceived as producing identical results e.g. diseases. which developed itself out of theology. Existence of the demons (evil
beings) only confirms a fact that god exist.
1. Demonological Theory
Demonology is unfortunately a borderline science. This essentially
Theories in criminology: from demonological to Biological theories of means that modern science will never accept any explanation that
crime. involves non material or spiritual forms of evidence. Officially, any
Demonology crime that involves a demonic possession may be qualified as
insanity. Psychiatrist is those who at a request of the core make a
Crime does not evolve from any single source. There can be several diagnosis and prognosis about a person's sanity or insanity. Modern
reasons behind a person's criminal behavior. The theories in science tends to rationally and materially planes connections of crime
criminology have tried to explain these reasons through several and demonic possessions. Main reasons are lawmaker request for a
theories. From demonology to the born criminal theory, several legal form of evidence can be statements of witnesses , victims or
perpetrators thought those statements get there's a form of evidence “People commit crimes under demonic or evil influences.”
in court records and usually are back by consistencies and material
and circumstantial evidence or facts as well as with high credibility of
person who gave those statements. 2. Positivist Theory
Demonological explanation of crime was based on the mixture of Theories which existed before positivist theory of crime were
common logic and religious beliefs. Similar attempts to explain human
phrenology and physiognomic theories. Johann Lavater, the
behavior were made by astrologist. Development of astrology starts physiognomist, thought that the shape of the skull and some facial
around 3500 BC. The position of heavenly bodies such as features had an impact on human behavior and actions. Later,
constellations and planets affect human behavior. In the 13th century positivist theories of crime Cesare Lombroso took Lavater’s ideas and
theology attempted to explain crime in similar fashion as demonology
began exploring other physical traits of a body. Lombroso, the criminal
did before the theology. Introduction of the inquisition enable clerics to anthropologist, not only researched the facial features and the shape
be investigators prosecutors and judges at the same time of the skull, but social conditions of individual like an employment and
Criminology as a science looks out on this matters from a cultural and medical history of illnesses. He compares a large number of criminals
a legal perspective. The legal perspective includes forensic psychiatry and non criminals using human physical traits like ear size, hair
and psychology, while the cultural perspective includes systems of length, and other. Goring, the main critics of Lombroso, conducted the
values and some ethnic group our nation. for an example there are research on crime heredity, but didn't find any differences in facial
still some ritual practices among the tribes of African continent that features or other human physical traits between prison inmates,
allow throwing of the first born male children to the pigs. Looking on it asylum, inhabitants and non-criminals. The only physical differences
from our perspective, this is not really a crime but among those tribes going found between an experimental and control group was the
this is a tradition. Systems of values are also different in organizations significant dissimilarity in body weight and stature.
like Cosa Nostra, narcotic cartels or other criminal organizations.
The criminals in goring’s research tend to have the lower weight and
While some behaviors are desirable in that kind of organization. They small stature. Positivist’s theorists of crime argued that human
are banned or marked red by a normal society. behavior is pre-disposed and fully determined by individual
Criminology as a science was established at second half of 19th differences and biological traits. In short, terms, what drives people's
century. however, interest research crime existed in earlier times of towards prime is not a matter of free-will. The positivist is crime
history until criminology became an autonomous science crime must theorist and criminal anthropologist Cesare Lombroso made attempts
research from the theological, metaphysical, legal (nomotechnical) to scientifically prove his thesis that criminal offenders were physically
sociological, psychological, anthropological, psychiatry (medical) or different from non-offenders. Lombroso stated that atavistic features
biological standpoint. Development of criminology theory starts with are more akin to savages and criminal offenders. This view was held
demonology around 5500 BC according to some theories; the first by many biological positivists.
school of criminology was the demand logical school of criminology. Positivist theory of crime presumed that scientific study of criminal
Criminology as a science was established at second half of the 19th behavior should find the “causes” of such behavior. They also believe
century that the causes of crime are beyond the control of the individual.
Explanations of positivist theory were deterministic. Lombroso was
influenced by Darwinian principles of evolution and uses these ideas 3. Neoclassical Crime Theory
to support a thesis on inferiority of criminals. Positivist theory of crime
implemented the idea of social Darwinism that individuals or groups Neoclassical crime theory is represented by the theoretical study of
develop certain physical and psychological attributes, which allow Jeremy Bentham and Cesare Beccaria. Jeremy Bentham was a
them to function more efficiently in the social and natural environment. founder of English utilitarianism. Bentham thought that human beings
are hedonistic and act only in their own self interest. Utilitarianism also
We can object to positivist theories of crime that the theories never considered rational courses of action when people pursue own
accepted the idea about the equality of gender roles. Lombroso interest. Utilitarian’s teachings are important part of criminal-justice
thought that males were more lenient to a crime, because they were ethics today. Neoclassical crime theory is a continuation of classical
more masculine that females in general. Italian historian Renzo Villa crime theory tradition development of neoclassical crime theory will
thought that Lombroso's attempt to identify signs of criminality using continue in 1980 with the forming of new sociological, theories i.e.
biological traits are an inevitable result and part of the contextual differential association and identification.
development 19th century penal science and medicine. The positivist
theory of crime understanding was limited on the external appearance Although sources that mention neoclassical school and crime theory
or phenotype properties as the way to identify the physical of criminology are merely sparse, it main contribution to the field of
characteristics, which were present in criminal approach of criminology is reflected through the understanding of individual
phrenology. differences of the perpetrators. While classical school was wholly
concern with an explanation of crime neoclassical crime theories saw
this theory acts on the proposition that one who commits a crime some flaws in Beccaria’s theory of crime classical crime. Theory
cannot morally comprehend the wrongfulness of his actions and the completely concentrated on the criminal act and positivist crime theory
same way individuals of average intelligence or who are socially concentrated on the perpetrator. Positivist was obsessed with
accepted, etc are able to do so. The mind of these individuals has behavioral prediction and classicist with a crime explanation.
been affected in a particular way and therefore does not have the
capability to make a conscious, rational choice to obey the law. Neoclassical crime theories sought to improve the instances towards
Unfortunately a case can be made based on this theory regarding perpetrators who should have an impact on the level of guilt and
shootings on school campuses where students have murdered fellow severity of punishment. Not all perpetrators should be treated in the
students usually become of some type of bullying involved. same fashion, because the evident differences exist among them.
Crime is a result of many conditions that have ultimately influence on
In the early 1800s public executions used to be commonplace. The the perpetrators to commit it. Representative of neoclassical
idea was that society would be afraid of the public punishment that criminology theory, Gabriel trade publish the book “penal philosophy”
came with wrongdoing and adjust their actions. This reasoning for in 1890 Gabriel Tarde who was a French sociologist and founder of
punishment aligns with a view known as utilitarianism. Utilitarianism neoclassical criminology school in his book he criticize classical and
as a theory that one is motivated by pleasure and the fear of pain, so positivist criminology and text from both criminology. Neoclassical
punishments can be used as deterrent to commit crimes. In the mid- criminology theory considers age, gender, and social class of the
1800s ideas about criminals and punishment is started to evolve. perpetrators. The perpetrators are people who think feel act and
Positivist criminology began to emerge, which is the study of criminal behavior is learned within groups by imitation and
criminal behavior based upon external factors. identification.
4. Classical Theory chance of rewards to them would be greater than the likelihood of
punishment.
The meaning of critical theory derives from Greek word kritikos
It was the pain/pleasure view of human behavior: that human sought
Meaning judgment or discernment, and in its present form goes back to gain pleasure and avoid pain. These men believe that people acted
to the 18th century on the principle of free will: they made a choice of what behaviors to
indulge in and therefore should suffer consequences if caught in
Classical theory in criminology has its roots in the theories of 18th
century Italian nobleman and economists, Cesare Beccaria and the criminal acts. the emphasis of human centered rationality let this
English philosopher, Jeremy Bentham. This was a time in history theories to the position that perpetrators of crimes should be held
when a punishment for crime was severe in the extreme, and both personally responsible for the actions and punish according to the
severity of the crime under these circumstances, criminal law must
men preferred that theory of utility. New theories like Beccaria and
Bentham look at the causes of criminal and delinquent behavior, and match the needs of the individual to the needs of society as a whole,
began scientifically explained such deviance. They rejected theories with neither wishing a crime to be committed.
of naturalism and demonology which characterized the European Classical theory of crime explains that crime is a product of believes
enlightenment as explanation for these types of behavior. The new that benefits of committing crimes are far greater. People opt in
theories reflected the rationalism and humanitarianism of the decisions making between two scenarios A and B. a scenario is: a
philosophy of the age of enlightenment. ‘crime isn't profitable because you will get caught’ and b scenario
Beccaria did not develop a completely new theory of criminology, but present certainty in decision making “that you will never get caught’.
Most of the criminals think they'll never get caught.
rather such a way to make the punishment for committing a crime
rational. he believed that there should be a of punishment for more Main principles of classical school of criminology
and more serious crimes and the number of times a criminal had been
charged previously, the circumstances under which the death penalty
was impose whom would depend entirely on the severity of the crime
and not the actual committed or the degree of involvement in the act.
He was against judges having the broad discretion they possess and
favored definite punishment fitting each crime.

He published an historic piece an Essay ‘on crimes and punishment’,

in 1764, discussing why crime occurs and what society should do
about it. He advocated a proposition that punishment should be swift,
certain, and proportional to the crime. He also advocated the abolition
of both corporal and capital punishment, a revolutionary idea in his
time. His work was promoted by Bentham particularly in his book ‘An
Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation’ Beccaria and
Bentham that people committed crimes when they believed that the