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Design For Manufacture And Assembly
Selective Assembly
AXIAL PLAY
This is the total axial movement of the shaft parallel to the axis.
Examples for Calculation of Axial Movement in Assembly:

Example 1:
Carrier wheel assembly is shown fig .1. It has a specified assembly requirement
namely the axial freedom of movement of the gear wheel (with bush) on the stud
in between 0.30mm and 0.12 mm. These limits are assembly limits, which are
required when the components are assembled together in their working
condition.
gear-running fit on stud

housing stud-press fit in housing
bearing bush-press fit in gear
gear to have an axial freedom

of 0.12 to 0.30 mm.
Fig.1-Carrier wheel assembly
The attainment of assembly limits requires the allocation of appropriate limits

to the relevant dimensions of the components and the procedure for obtaining
these component limits is as follows.
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Selective Assembly
First step:
Identify the component dimensions involved.
NF NF
F
F
F F
F
NF
NF NF
F: a functional dimension
NF: a non- functional dimension
Fig.2 –Represents functional and non-functional dimensions
Fig.2 shows that the bearing bush is longer than the gear width and projects
each side of the gear faces. Therefore, it is the bush, which must be free to move
axially between the stud flange face and the face of the housing. The relevant
component dimensions therefore are bush length and length of middle diameter
of stud.
Second step:
Allocate tolerance to component dimensions.
The assembly tolerance is the amount of tolerance for the component
dimensions. Share this tolerance equally when possible between the component
dimensions. Thus: Assembly tolerance = 0.3 - 0.12 = 0.18mm
Equally divided: Tolerance for stud dimension = 0.09 mm
Tolerance for bush dimension = 0.09 mm
Third step:
With the tolerance known and the nominal size known, set limits for all
components dimension except one.
Decide to set limits for the bush, the nominal size of the bush being 30mm.
The bush limits will be set at 30.09 mm (maximum), 30.00mm (minimum).
(The bush limits could equally well be 30.00 and 29.91 mm)
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Selective Assembly
Fourth step:
Determine limits for remaining component dimensions.
(a) Fig.3 shows diagrammatically, that for maximum axial movement, the stud
dimension is maximum and the bush dimension is minimum. Conversely, for a
minimum axial movement, the stud dimension is minimum and the bush
dimension is maximum.
stud
minimum max. axial movement:0.30 mm.
bush
minimum
above CL:conditions for

max. axial movement
below CL:conditions for

min. axial movement
bush
maximum
stud min. axial movement:012 mm.
maximum
Fig.3- Represents assembly conditions

(b) Choose one of the assembly conditions and determine the limits for the stud
thus:
Stud maximum=Bush minimum+0.30=30.00+0.30=30.30 mm
Stud minimum =Bush maximum+0.12=30.09+0.12=30.21 mm
Example 2:
The automobile steering box as shown in fig.4 where in the drop arm is to have a
vertical freedom of movement in between 0.24 mm and 0.12mm .The drop arm is
in contact with the boss face of the cover plate .The relevant component
dimensions with their nominal sizes are shown in fig.5.
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Selective Assembly
drop arm to have

vertical freedom cover plate
from 0.12 to 0.24
box
(dimensions in mm)
drop arm
Fig.-4 Automobile steering box
Step 1:
Dimensions involved are Drop arm (A), Steering box (B), Cover plate(C).
Step2:
Assembly tolerance=0.24-0.12=0.12mm
Tolerance for dimension A (drop arm) =0.04 mm
Tolerance for dimension B (steering box) =0.04 mm
Tolerance for dimension C (cover plate) =0.04 mm
C6.00 nominal
cover plate
nominal
nominal
26
B
20
drop arm
box
(dimensions in mm)
Fig.-5 Relevant component dimensions and nominal sizes
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Selective Assembly
Step3:
Set of limits and tolerances for drop arm and steering box.
20.04
Let the limits for A= mm
20.00
26.04
The limits for B= mm
26.00
Step 4:
Now setting limits for cover plate.
Fig.6 shows diagrammatically, the two conditions of the assembly. If ‘C’ is
minimum then the axial movement is maximum. If 'C' is maximum then the
axial movement is minimum.
'C' minimum= ('B 'maximum)-('A' minimum+0.24)
= 26.04-(20.00+0.24) =5.80 mm
'C' maximum=('B' minimum)-('A' maximum+0.12)

=26.00-(20.04+0.12) =5.84 mm
C minimum
minimum
C maximum
minimum
B maximum
B
A
maximum
minimum
A
max.vertical movement min.vertical movement

0.24 mm. 0.12 mm.
Fig.6-Represents assembly conditions
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Selective Assembly
Solved Problems:
Problem 1:
Fig.7- Plate to have a specified axial movement.
The plate shown in fig .7 is to have an axial freedom of movement in between

9.85 mm and 10.15 mm. Using the nominal sizes specified, draw the three
components and show only the appropriate limits to achieve the required axial
freedom of movement.
Solution:
The relevant dimensions are the length of the elongated slot in the plate (P), and
the middle diameter of the retaining stud (S). The relevant dimensions are
shown in fig.8. The tolerance of the assembly requirement is the tolerance for ‘P’
and ‘S’, i.e., = 10.15 - 9.85 =0.3mm.
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Selective Assembly
plate
S
stud
block
Fig.8 –Shows the relevant dimensions.

Let the tolerance for ‘P’ and’ S’ be 0.15 mm each.
Set the limits for (say) ‘S’ in between 10.00 mm and 10.15 mm
When ‘P’ is minimum and ‘S’ is maximum then the axial movement is
minimum, (i.e.) 9.85mm
When ‘p’ is maximum and ‘S’ is minimum then the axial movement is
maximum, (i.e.) 10.15mm
‘P’ min=’S’max+9.85=10.15+9.85=20.00mm
‘P’ max=’S’min+10.15=10.00+10.15=20.15 mm (or)

directly ‘P’ max=20.00+0.15=20.15mm.
Problem 2:
The shaft assembly of the intermediate transmission unit shown in fig .9 is

required to have an axial freedom in between 0.06 and 0.18 mm when
assembled in the working condition. Using the nominal sizes specified for shaft,
housing, and bearing bushes shown in fig .10. State only the appropriate limits
to achieve the required axial freedom.
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Selective Assembly
Solution:
housing H F
bearing bush
shaft
Fig.9- Shaft assembly
Fig.10-Componenets nominal sizes.

The relevant dimensions are housing boss length H, shaft running fit length S,
and bush flange thickness F.
The assembly tolerance is 0.18-0.06=0.12 mm
The tolerance for ‘F’(two) ,’H’ and ‘S’ can be set at 0.03 mm each.
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Selective Assembly
Set the limits for ‘F’ in between 5.00mm and 5.03 mm and the limits for ‘H’ in
between 80.00 mm and 80.03mm, then determine the limits for ‘S’ as follows.
Fig.11 diagrammatically represents the extreme conditions of assembly and it is
seen that
‘S’min=’H’ max + (2* ‘F’ max) + 0.06
= 80.03 + (2*5.03) + 0.06 =90.15 mm
‘S’ max=’H’ min + (2*’F’ min) + 0.18
= 80.00 + (2*5.00) + 0.18 =90.18 mm
F max. H maximium F max.
condition for min.
axial movement.
S minimum
S maximum
conditon for max.
axial movement.
F min. H minimum F min
Fig.11-The extreme conditions.
Secondary machining operations

For purpose of economy in machining, an alternative method of manufacture is
adopted in order to achieve larger component tolerances for specified assembly
limits. One method is to leave a calculated surplus of material on one of the
components during the first machining stage and then to remove a determined
amount of this surplus during a second machining stage, in order to obtain the
required assembly limits.
In high volume machining of complex parts the need to optimize throughout is

imperative. The advantage of spreading the machining operations over a
number of different machines and performing those operations more or less
simultaneously to increase the number of parts produced per hour is difficult to
ignore.
The alternative method to avoid the secondary machining operations is
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Selective Assembly
laminated shim
Problem 3:
In problem 2 the limits given to the component dimensions involved in the axial
movement feature will ensure a complete interchangeability of parts, and of
necessity, a small machining tolerance for these component dimensions.
By the method of leaving a surplus of material in the first machining stage later
removed in a second machining stage .Show a method of manufacture where by
the small tolerances ,necessary in problem 2 can be increased. State the new
limits for the dimensions involved.
Solution:
A surplus of material is left on the bush flange thickness in the first stage
machining of the bushes. The tolerances, therefore, at this stage can be
+0.3 mm and –0.3 mm.
In this method of manufacture, the bushes will be pressed into position in the
housing for the second stage machining of the bush flanges and therefore the
housing boss length dimension is not now critical. The tolerance for the
housing dimensions can be in between +0.3 mm and –0.3 mm.
As always, when a second stage machining is to be done, the component limits
in the first stage machining must ensure that at least 0.15 mm is removed in
the second stage machining as shown in fig.12.
A maximum
condition for min.

axial movement.
S minimum
S maximum
conditon for max.
axial movement.
A minimum
Fig.12 Extreme conditions.
First the new limits for the shaft and the sub-assembly of housing and bushes
(second machining stage). The assembly tolerance of 0.12 mm is now allocated
to two dimensions, ‘A’ and ‘S’ 0.06 mm each.
Set limits for ‘A’ in between 90.00 mm and 90.06 mm

‘S’ min=’A’ max + 0.06
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Selective Assembly
=90.06 + 0.06 = 90.12 mm

‘S’ max=’A’ min + 0.18.
=90.00 + 0.18 = 90.18 mm
Housing dimension ‘H’ is given the general tolerance of –0.3 to +0.3 mm, the
limits will be in between 79.7 mm and 80.3 mm.
The first stage machining limits for bush flange dimension ‘F’ are to ensure that
at least 0.15 mm is removed from each bush face, and the required limits result
from the conditions shown in fig.13.
0.15 mm. 0.15 mm.
CUTTER SET TO HIGH

LIMIT 90.06
F MIN. H MINIMUM F MIN.
Fig-13-To ensure a minimum cut of 0.15 mm.

‘F’ min =0.5*[90.06 + (2*0.15)-79.7] =5.33 mm.
A general tolerance of 0.06 mm can be given to dimension ‘F’ in first stage
machining, and therefore the limits for ‘F’ will be in between 5.33mm and
5.93 mm.
Shims
A thin strip of material used in machinery to make parts fit .This is a thin strip
of material used in the assembly to obtain required tolerance.
By using the shims we can avoid second stage machining operations.

Shims are of two types.
1. Solid shims.
2. Laminated shims.
Solid shims
They are made from flat metal or plastic sheets. Solid shims are the simplest of
shim types. They are used when close tolerances are required or when a single
shim is sufficient to provide correct position alignment and spacing. By using
the shims we can avoid secondary stage machining operations.
Laminated shims
Laminated shims consist of sheets of either 0.050 or 0.076mm bonded together
and cut to any required shape and size. The bonding between the laminated
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Selective Assembly
shims is the surface bonding. These are more versatile shims. These are
developed to overcome the disadvantages of solid and loosed leaf shims.
Laminated shims offer quick adjustment as well as maximum precision. The
laminated shims are shown in fig.14.
Fig.14-Laminated shims.
Laminated shims available in thickness range from 0.152mm to whatever
thickness is required. These materials are fabricated in 1219.2mm long sheets
and widths range from 203.2mm to 609.6mm depending on the material
involved. The bonding material between layers of material so secure that shim
looks and behaves like solid metal piece. Laminated shims are simply peeled off
with a knife blade to required thickness on the assembly line.
Benefits of Laminated shims

1. Replace costly precision machining of mating parts.
2. Provide flexibility for assembly line adjustments.
3. Make assembly line adjustments earlier and faster.
“Smart shim” with peel able precision of +0.001 mm is readily offered.
Examples of laminated shims

Material Size Thickness of laminations
1. Aluminium 609.6mm*1219.2mm 0.050 to 0.076mm
2. Stainless steel 609.6mm*1219.2mm 0.050to 0.076 mm
3. Brass 609.6mm*1219.2mm 0.050 to 0.076mm
Example Problem on Shims

For the Steering box shown in fig .15 is attached with a shim of thickness
0.228mm .The nominal sizes of the involved component dimensions are shown
in Fig. 16 and it will be assumed that a machining tolerance of at least 0.304
mm is required for each component dimension. A total tolerance of 0.914 mm is
minimum. This total required tolerance is obtained by adding the assembly
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Selective Assembly
tolerance, namely 0.101 mm to the shim tolerance, i.e., maximum shim

thickness minus minimum shim thickness.
drop arm to have

vertical freedom cover plate
from 0.102 to 0.203
box
(dimensions in mm)
drop arm
Fig-15 Automobile steering box

C 6.35 nominal
coverplate
nominal
A
nominal
1.25
droparm
(dimensionsinmm)
Fig-16 Relevant component dimensions and nominal sizes

Shim tolerance = 1.143 - 0.228 = 0.915 mm.
Hence the total component tolerance is 1.016 mm
The tolerance may be distributed thus:
Let tolerance for dimension A be 0.330 mm.
Tolerance for dimension B be 0.330 mm
Tolerance for dimension C be 0.335mm
Now set the limits for two dimensions for two dimensions say A and B and
proceed to determine the limits for dimensions C as follows.
Limits for A=in between 19.05 mm and19.380 mm
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Selective Assembly
Limits for B=in between 25.4 mm and 25.730 mm
Now limits for C

C max = (Shim max + B min) - (A max+ Assembly min)
= (1.143 + 25.4) - (19.38 + 0.101) =7.062mm.
C min = (Shim min + B max) - (A min + Assembly max)
= (0.228 + 25.73) - (19.05 + 0.203) =6.705 mm.
Reference
• C. A. Gladmann, Manual for "Geometric Analysis of Engineering Design",
Pitmann publishers, 1975.
• Harry Peck, “Designing for manufacture”, Pitmann Publishers, UK, 1973.
14
Design for Manufacture and Assembly
Tolerance Analysis
CUMULATIVE EFFECT OF TOLERANCES
All piece parts are eventually used for assembly. The probable lengths of the
resulting combinations are the one to be concentrated upon. In large volume production
the problem is complicated by the fact the lengths of the assembly members are unknown
to the designer. They may only know that the lengths of individual parts lie somewhere
within the specified tolerances.
Variations in a dimension occur despite of keeping production conditions as

constant as possible. The manner in which these variations are distributed within the
tolerance therefore becomes important in determining the length of the resulting
assembly. In addition, the drawings are done at one location, but the fabrication and
assembly take place at far-distant places under conditions unknown to the designer.
Nevertheless, it becomes necessary that the designer makes the best estimate possible so
as to find out the probability of assembly variations be. The contacting surfaces should be
flat and free of burrs and other imperfections. Thermal effects must also be taken into
account.
Types of Tolerance Specification:

1. Unilateral tolerance
2. Bilateral tolerance
• Equal
• Unequal
Unspecified tolerances for the present consideration could be employed as ±0.3.
The open tolerance for various dimensions are illustrated in the Table 2.2
For ease of calculation, bilateral tolerancing should be used. Unilateral tolerance

can be changed temporarily changed to the bilateral form for the purpose of making
calculations. Thus a dimension 4.000,+0.000,-0.008 mm would become 3.996±0.004mm.
Tolerance will be represented as u and will be used to represent the permissible variation
each way from the mean. The other nomenclatures foregoing u are as follows:
A Area under distribution curve
k Class width
f(x) Function of x
N Number of pieces
u Engineering tolerance
un Natural tolerance or 3σ
ua Natural tolerance for assembly
x Dimension
x Weighted average of dimension x
z Number of standard deviations between specified dimension x and mean
x of normal curve
σ Standard deviation or root-mean-square error
σa Standard deviation for assembly
σt standard deviation for truncated normal curve
σ2 Variance, Square of standard deviation
1
Tolerance Analysis
∑ Summation x
∞ Infinity
xa Mean value
Arithmetic or Sure-Fit Law

The length of a simple part is shown in Fig 1. A mean dimension x is given with the
tolerance ´u´ expressed bilaterally. The mean value x a for an assembly is the sum of
means of separate part as given by the Eq 2.1.
x a = x 1 + x 2 + ….......= ∑ x ……………………………………(2.1)
The simplest rule for estimating the tolerance ua for the assembly is merely to add
the tolerances ´u´ of the individual parts. The results are given in equation 2.2.
ua = u1 + u2 + …………..= ∑u …………………………………….(2.2)
Fig 1 Length of simple part expressed with bilateral tolerance
Example1:
The lengths for the three parts that are placed in end-to-end assembly are shown in
Figure 2 determine the probable tolerance ua for the assembly by the arithmetic rule.
Fig 2 Piece parts

Solution:
By Eq. (2.2),
ua= ∑u=0.050+0.075+0.150=0.275 mm
2
Tolerance Analysis
Equation (2.2) usually gives a value too large for ua. In fact, all the parts could
simultaneously be at their high limit or all simultaneously at their low limit. Although
physically possible, such an event would be of very rare occurrence. In general, some
parts will be longer than their mean and sum will be shorter, so that after assembly the
result for ua will be less than that indicated by Eq. (2.2).
The inverse problem sometime occurs. Mere assembly tolerance ua would be
specified with piece part tolerances u1, u2 …to be determined. The arithmetic rule may
impose a severe restriction of small tolerances on the individual parts.
Assembly When Some Parts Double Back on Others

Assemblies are sometimes arranged where some of the parts double back on the others. It
can be easily shown that the mean of the resulting assembly is equal to the algebraic sum
of the means of the component parts and the tolerance
Fig 3 Assembly tolerance is unchanged if some of the parts double back

on the others. Assembly dimension is 35.56±0.011.
on the assembly is merely the sum of the tolerances on the components all taken
positively when the arithmetic rule is used.
Example 2:
Suppose that the three parts of Fig. 3(a) are arranged as in Fig.3(b) and (c). Find the
dimensions of the resulting assembly.
3
Tolerance Analysis
Solution:
In Fig. 3 (b) the parts have lengths that give the largest assembly dimension and in
Fig.3 (c) the lengths give the smallest assembly dimension. It is seen that the assembly
dimension, 35.56 mm, is equal to the algebraic sum of the means of the parts. The
tolerance ua of 0.011 mm. is the sum of the tolerances on the three parts when all are
considered as positive.
Example 3:
Arrange the three parts of Fig.4 similarly to Fig. 3 Find the value of tolerance u2 if the
tolerance of the resulting opening by the arithmetic rule is to be +0.4572 mm. Make
drawings to demonstrate the validity of the solution.
Solution:
The calculations are carried out in the figure. The maximum opening occurs when
parts 1 and 2 have their maximum lengths and part 3 has its minimum length. The figure
indicates that u2 is equal to 0.010.
Fig. 4 Determination of component tolerance.
The minimum opening occurs when parts 1 and 2 have their minimum lengths and part 3
has its maximum length. The figure shows that u2 is equal to 0.254 mm.
4
Tolerance Analysis
Length of Assembly When Errors is Normally Distributed

The Equation of the normal curve is given by ,
1 ⎛ x−μ ⎞
2
1 − ⎜ ⎟
σ ⎠
f(x) = e 2⎝
2πσ
The variations in the length of the assembly dimension form a distribution that has
a variance σ12 whose value is determined
by Eq. (2.3)
( )
∑ x1 − x1 f1 ( x1 )
2
N
The distribution for another lot to be used in the assembly will have a variance σ22 .
The third lot will have the variance σ32, and so on.
Let a part be selected at random from each lot and placed in end-to-end assembly.
Assembly lengths will vary depending on the lengths of the parts of which it is composed.
A sufficient number of assemblies will form a distribution for the assembly lengths and
this distribution will have a variance σa2.
σa2 = σ12 + σ22+…=Σσ2……………………………………………………….(2.3)
In this equation σ12 , σ22 refer to the variances of the piece part distributions regardless of
their shape.
Variance σa2 can also be calculated from the assembly histogram in the usual way.
However, variance σa2 as calculated by Eq. (2.3) tells nothing about the shape of the
distribution curve for the assemblies. It can be demonstrated, however, that the shape of
the distribution curve rapidly approaches the normal form as the number of parts in the
assembly increases. This statement is valid regardless of the shape of the distribution
curves for the errors of the individual parts. It can be shown, however, that if the piece-
part error distribution does not depart too much from the normal form that only a few
parts are needed to give the normal form to the assembly curve. Thus only the two parts
are needed for truncated normal curves such as those in Fig.2.8(b), (c) and (d). However,
for distribution curves such as Fig.2.8 (e) and (f), at least three parts are needed.The
natural tolerance un for the normal curve could be taken as three standard deviations σ of
the curve, or
un=3σ………………………………..……………………….(2.4)
Assume that the assembly has a sufficient number of parts that its distribution curve will
have the normal form. Its natural tolerance ua will then have the length
ua=3σa ………………………………………………………..(2.5)
Example 4:
Let the tolerance in Fig 2 natural tolerances with normally distributed errors centered on
the mean of the dimension. Find the tolerance ua for the assembly.
5
Tolerance Analysis
Solution:
0.002
For part 1, σ 1 =
3
0.003
For part 2, σ 2 = = 0.001
3
0.006
For part 3, σ 3 = = 0.002
3
By Eq 2.3
2
⎛ 0 .002 ⎞
σ 2
a =σ +σ
2
1
2
2 +σ 2
3 =⎜ ⎟ + 0 .001 + 0 .002
2 2
⎝ 3 ⎠
0.000049
=
9
0.007
σa =
3
By Eq 2.5
ua = 3σa = 0.007
It is noted that 0.007 is a marked reduction from 0.011 as found by arithmetic rule in
Example 1. In fact, unless there is full assurance that the errors are normally distributed
and centered on the mean dimension with 3σ of the errors equal to the engineering
tolerances u , there is a grave possibility that a solution will give too small a value for ua.
Assembly Length Determined By Tolerances

Let the error distributions for each of the parts of an assembly have the normal form
centered on the mean of the dimension. Let Eq. (2.4) and (2.5) be substituted into Eq(2.3).
ua2 u12 u22
= + + .....
9 9 9
or
ua2 = u1 2 + u22 + …. = ∑ u2 ……………………………………….. (2.6)
It must be carefully noted that this equation is valid only when all piece part errors are
distributed normally and centered on the mean of the dimension with 3σ equal to u.
Example 5:
Let the errors for the parts of Fig. 2 be normally distributed and centered on the mean of
the dimension. Find the natural tolerance ua for the assembly by Eq (2.6).
Solution:
By Eq.(2.6),
ua2 = u1 2 + u22 + u32 = 0.050 2 + 0.075 2 + 0.150 2 = 0.031
ua = 0.176 mm
6
Tolerance Analysis
This result is seen to agree with that found in Example 4.

Care must be exercised in distinguishing between the engineering tolerance u as placed
on the drawing by the designer and the natural tolerance un as determined by the
accuracy of the production equipment.
Assemblies When Piece-Part Errors Overrun the Tolerances

Sometimes the piece-part errors overrun the given tolerances as shown in Fig.5. In large-
volume production the parts may not be individually checked, If the entire production is
assembled , the variation in the length of the assembly will thereby be increased.
For the normal distribution the proportion of parts that overrun the tolerances can
be represented by the shaded areas in the tails of the curve. These areas can be found by
the use of the Table 1.1, as previously shown. Coordinate z is required , which represents
the number of standard deviations σ in the space between some chosen value of error x
and mean x of the normal curve. Coordinate z is given by the following Equation:
x−x
z= ……………………………………………………….(2.7)
σ
When x is taken at the edge of the engineering tolerance, x- x becomes equal to u and
Eq.(2.7) becomes
u
z= …………………………………………………………..(2.8)
σ
The σ in these equations refers to the σ of the full normal curve. When applied to the
normal curve for an assembly, Eq.(2.7) becomes
xa − xa
z= …………………………………………………….(2.9)
σa
where
σa is the standard deviation of the assembly curve.
Example 6:
In Fig. 5 suppose that the parts have normally distributed errors, but 4% of them are
smaller than the specified tolerance and 4% are larger. If all of them are assembled , find
the natural tolerance ua for the resulting assembly.
Solution:
Since the entire production is assembled, the standard deviation to be used are
those of the full normal curve. By Table1.1, for A=0.04 and z= -1.75, using Eq.(2-7) for the
part on left,
x1 − x1 u1 − 0.0762
σ1 = = = = 0.044
z z − 1.75
Eq (2.7) for the part on right,
x2 − x 2 u21 − 0.1219
σ2 = = = = 0.070
z z − 1.75
7
Tolerance Analysis
σa 2 = ∑ σ2 = 5 * 0.0442 + 2 * 0.0702 = 0.019
σa = 0.140 mm
ua = 3 σa = 3 * 0.140 = 0.420 mm.
σ=0.0434 σ
σ
σ σ
Fig 5 Assembly curve for piece parts that overrun their tolerance
Truncated Normal Curve
A symmetrically truncated normalal curve results when equal amounts of the curve are
cut off at each and. Sometimes the distribution curve for a set of errors resembles a
truncated curve. For making calculations, its standard deviation σt will be required. It is
obvious that σt for the truncated portion is smaller than σ for the full normal curve
before truncation.
σ σ
σ σ
Fig 6 Truncated Normal Curve.
For symmetrical truncation:

σt
= −0.12 z 2 + 0.69 z − 0.02
σ
z is a positive value
8
Tolerance Analysis
σt
Values of the ratio can be found from the graphs of Fig.8. such values depend z or
σ
μ
u/σ as determined by Eq z = .The empirical equations shown on the figure can be used
σ
if desired. The curves of Fig 57 do not apply to nonsymmetrical truncation.
The lower curve in Fig 57 is convenient , as it enables one to pass directly from z or
u/σ to u/σt.
Example 7:
Consider the curve of Fig 8, where u is 0.102 and σ is 0.064. Find the standard
deviation σt for the retained central portion of the curve.
σ σ σ
Fig 7. Areas under the Normal curve when spread of production exceeds the engineering
tolerance.
Solution:
Let x be taken at the edge of the tolerance zone. Then ,
μ
z= = 0.102/0.064=1.59
σ
σt
By Fig 8, = 0.776
σ
σt = 0.776 σ = 0.776*0.064=0.050 mm.
9
Tolerance Analysis
σ σ
σ
σ
s = u σ
σ
σ σ σ σ σ σ σ σ σ σ
σ σ σ σ σ σ
u u u u
σ σ
σ
= 0.880
= σ σ
σ σ σ
σ
σ σ σ σ
σ σ
σ
σ
σ
σ
σ σ 0.5σ σ σ
U u
1.5 σ σ
1.5 = 0.744
σ σ σ
σ σ
σ σ
σ σ
σ
σ
σ
σ σ 0.5σ σ σ
u u
1.5 σ σ
1.5 = 0.744
σ σ σ
σ σ
Fig 8 Standard deviations for various distributions of errors. Ratio σ t

σ
Obtained.
10
Tolerance Analysis
Example 8:
A normal curve is given a symmetrical truncation equal to σ of the full normal curve.
Find the value of σt for the truncated curve.
Solution:
For σ truncation, u=2σ or σ =u/2.
μ 2σ
z= = =2
σ σ
By Fig.2.8
σt
= 0.88
σ
u
σt = 0.88 σ = 0.88 * = 0.44 u
2
This result can also be obtained from the lower curve in Fig.4. For z = 2,
u u
=2.27 σt = = 0.44u
σt 2.27
Normal curves with truncations of 0.5σ, σ ,1.5σ and 2σ are shown in Fig.59.
Thus if σt is equal to 0.44 u, the normal curve has been given a symmetrical truncation
equal to σ. Such a rule of thumb applies strictly only to the normal curve but may be
approximately true when the frequency is highest near the mean and becomes less on
either side.
Assemblies Made from Truncated Normal Curve
μ σ μ
Fig 9 Individual parts and their assemblies
11
Tolerance Analysis
Let the piece-part as shown in Fig.9 errors be approximated by a truncated normal curve.
Such distributions can occur when normal curve distributions overrun the specified
tolerance and the parts are sorted by go/no go gauges and only the acceptable parts are
assembled.
In working examples it will be necessary to find σt, the standard deviation of the
acceptable central portion of the error distribution curves for the piece parts. These are
then substituted into Eq.(2.3).
σ a2 = σ t21 + σ t22
σ t21
= 0.88 (for 1σ truncation)
σ1
σt1=0.44u1
σt2=0.44u2
σ a = σ t21 + σ t22 = 0.44 u12 + u22 or ua = 1.32 u12 + u22
Example 9:
Suppose that only the parts falling within the engineering tolerances in Fig 5 are
assembled. Find the tolerance ua for the assembly.
Solution :
By Table 1.1 , for A= 0.04 and z = 1.75 , by Fig 55,
σt
= 0.82
σ
σt = 0.82 σ
From Example 6,
σ1 = 0.043, σ2 = 0.070 for full normal curves.
Then
σt1 = 0.82 * 0.043 , σt2 = 0.82 * 0.070
By Eq.(2.3),
σa 2 = ∑ σt2 = 5(0.82* 0.043)2+ 2 (0.82* 0.070)2
= 0.013 mm
σa = 0.113 mm
The assembly distribution can be assumed to be normal , so that

ua = 3 σa = 3 * 0.113 = 0.339 mm.
Example 10:
Let the error distribution in Fig 3 be truncated normal curves of the form shown in
Fig 8 c. Find the natural tolerance ua of the resulting assembly distribution.
Solution.
In Fig 8(c) , σt = 0.44 u.
For part 1, σt1 = 0.44 * 0.051 =0.022
For part 2, σt2 = 0.44 * 0.076 =0.034
For part 3, σt3 = 0.44 * 0.152 =0.067
12
Tolerance Analysis
By Eq.(2.3),
σa 2 = ∑ σt2 = 0.0222+0.0342+0.0672
σa = 0.078
ua = 3 σa = 3 * 0.078 = 0.235 mm.
This result is intermediate between that of Example 1 using the arithmetic law and
Example 4 when the errors were assumed to be normally distributed with 3σ equal to u.
Example 11:
Let the errors in part1,Fig 3 have a distribution like that of Fig.8 (c) .For part 2 the
distribution is that of Fig.8(d), and for part 3, the errors have the distribution of
Fig. 8(e).Find the natural tolerance ua for end- to -end assembly.
Solution:
By Fig. 59,
For part 1, σt1 = 0.440u = 0.440* 0.051 =0.022mm
For part 2, σt2 = 0.496u =0.496* 0.076 =0.038mm
For part 3, σt3 = 0.540u =0.540* 0.152 =0.082mm
By Eq(2.3)
σ a2 = (0.0224)2 + (0.0378)2 + (0.0823)2
= 0.009
σ a = 0.093mm
The assembly curve can be assumed to have the normal form. By Eq(2.5)
ua=3σa = 3*0.093=0.288mm.
This example indicates that when the piece part distributions resemble normal curves
with the greater amount of truncation, the excepted tolerance on the assembly is
increased.
The difference between the expected tolerance for an assembly when calculated by the
arithmetic method and then by statistical method becomes greater as the number of parts
in the assembly is increased.
Example 12:
Same as Example 11 except there are three pieces for each of the parts of Fig 3. Find the
excepted tolerance for the end-end assembly.
Solution:
From Example 11,
σt1 = 0.022
σt2 = 0.038
σt3 = 0.082
13
Tolerance Analysis
By Eq(2.3),
σa 2 = Σ σt 2 = 3*0.0222 + 3*0.0382 +3*0.0822

= 0.026
σa = 0.162 mm
ua = 0.485 mm
By the arithmetic rule,

ua = 3(0.051 + 0.076 + 0.152) = 0.838 mm
Hence the variation between the statistical method and the arithmetic rule
becomes greater when the number of parts is increased and the arithmetic rule may
indicate too large a tolerance for the assembly.
The inverse problem that of finding the piece-part tolerances for a specified
assembly tolerance, can be handled by the foregoing equations. The following example will
aid in visualizing the large difference between arithmetic tolerances and those determined
by probability methods.
Example 13:
It is desired that an end-to-end assembly of four equal parts have a tolerance ua equal to
0.203mm . Find the piece-part tolerances that should be specified by the arithmetic rule,
the normal law with a truncation of one standard deviation.
Solution:
For the arithmetic rule, by Eq.(2.1)
ua = Σ u = 4u = 0.203 mm
u = 1/4*0.203 = 0.051 mm
For the normal distribution , by Eq.(2.7)

ua 2 = Σ un 2 = 4un 2 =0.0232 = 0.041
un 2 =1/4*0.041= 0.010
un = 0.102 mm
For the truncated normal distribution, σt =0.44u by Fig.59 (c)
σa 2 = Σ σ 2 = 4*σt 2
σa = 2σt = 2* 0.44u = 0.88u
ua = 3*σa = 3*0.88u = 0.203 mm
0.203
u = ---------- = 0.077 mm
3*0.88
The results in Example 13 indicate that the arithmetic rule demands the smallest
tolerances for the piece parts. The tolerances required by assuming normal distributions
may be too liberal. The truncated normal assumptions, for
σt = 0.44u ,gives results about halfway between.
14
Tolerance Analysis
In an assembly, the dimensions that are more expensive to maintain can be given
larger tolerances, while the dimensions that are inexpensive can be given smaller
tolerances. The following example illustrates how this can be done using estimates by the
designer.
Example 14:
Suppose in an assembly of three parts that ua must be maintained at 0.229 .Let u1 be the
least expensive tolerance and let the designer feel that u2 can be 1.5 u1 and that u3 can be
2 u1.If the piece part errors are assumed to have a truncated normal distribution with
σt =0.44u,find suitable values for the tolerances.
Solution:
σt =0.44u
σa = ua /3 = 0.229/3 = 0.076
For part1,
σt1 = 0.44u1
For part1,
σt2 = 0.44u2 = 0.44 * 1.5 u1 = 0.66 u1
For part3
σt3 = 0.44u3= 0.44 * 2 u1 = 0.88 u1
σa 2 = Σ σt 2 = u1 2 (0.442+0.662+0.882)=1.404 u1 2
σa = 1.184 u1 = 1/3* 0.229=0.076 mm
u1 = 0.076/1.184 = 0.064 mm
u2 = 1.5 u1 = 0.097 mm
u3 = 2u1 = 0.129 mm
Check:
σt1 = 0.44u1 = 0.028 σt1 2 = 0.0008
σt2 = 0.44u2 = 0.043 σt2 2 = 0.0018
σt3 = 0.44u3 = 0.057 σt3 2 = 0.0032
----------------
σa 2 = Σ σt = 0.0058
2
σa = 0.076 ua = 3σa = 0.229
Example 15:
Seven similar parts with normal distributions for the errors are placed in end-to-end
assembly. The normal curves overrun the engineering tolerance u of 0.043 .Parts are
gauged and only good parts are assembled. The Natural tolerance ua of the assembly
must be 0.152mm.Find the proportion of oversize and undersize parts that are
discarded.
Solution:
By Eq.(2.5)
σa = ua/3=0.152/3=0.051
For the assembly, by Eq.(2.3)
σa 2 = Σ σ 2 =7σt 2 OR σt 2 = σa 2 /7
15
Tolerance Analysis
Then
σt = σa / 7 = 0.051/2.646=0.019 For piece parts
With only u and σt are known ,let the following proportion be formed:
u/σt = 0.043/0.019 = 2.250
By the lower curve, Fig 4, for u/σt of 2.250 , then

Z = 1.97
By Table 2.1,
A−−∞1.97 = 0.024 or 2.44%
Thus 2.44% of the parts will be undersize and 2.44% will be lower size.
Solved Examples:
1. Find the resulting dimension in both cases.
1. 2.
Fig 10 Piece parts
The resulting dimension x, will have a tolerance of addition of individual tolerances.

(i.e.) parts: U1+u1,U2+u2,U3+u3,…..,Un+un
Case 1:
By Sure Fit Law:
Assembly:
Ua = U1±U2
= 30+40 = 70 mm
ua = u1+u2
= 0.3+0.4 = 0.7 mm
X = 70±0.7 mm
Case 2:
By Sure Fit Law:
Assembly:
Ua = U1±U2
16
Tolerance Analysis
= 70-30 = 40 mm
ua = u1+u2
= 0.3+0.5 = 0.8 mm
X = 70±0.8 mm
2. Find the resultant dimension
σ σ σ σ
Fig 62 Normal Distribution-Piece parts

By Normal law:
µa = µ1 + µ2
= 30 + 40 = 70 mm
σa = σ 12 + σ 22
ua = u12 + u22
= (0.3) + (0.4 )
2 2
= 0.5
Resulting Dimension is 70±0.5mm
3. Three parts are to be placed in end-to-end assembly. The tolerances are 0.2286 mm,
0.3048 mm and 0.9144 mm. Form an estimate for the variations in the lengths of the
assemblies by using the arithmetic and normal laws.
Solution:
Arithmetic or Sure-fit law:
ua = 0.229 + 0.305 + 0.914
= 1.448 mm
Normal law:
ua = (0.229)2 + (0.305)2 + (0.914 )2
= 0.991 mm
4. Find the resultant dimension X in Fig 12
Fig 12 Dimension of Parts
17
Tolerance Analysis
Solution:
Parts: U1±u1 ; U2±u2

Assembly:Ua±ua
Sure Fit Law : ua=u1+u2
Normal Law : ua= u12 + u22
1σ truncated normal law ua= 1.32* u12 + u22
Mean dimension of 30.2 and 29.9 = 30.05±0.15

Mean dimension of 20.7 and 19.9 = 20.3±0.4
The resulting length X will be :
1.By sure fit law Ua=U1+U2 = 50.35 X=50.35±0.55

ua=u1+u2 = 0.55
2.By Normal law Ua=U1+U2 = 50.35

ua= u12 + u22 = (0.15)2 + (0.4 )2 = 0.427 X= 50.35±0.427
3.By 1σ truncated Normal law
Ua=U1+U2 = 50.35
ua=1.32 u12 + u22
=1.32 (2 * 0.15 / 3)2 + (2 * 0.4 / 3)2 X= 50.35±0.376

=0.376
5.Analyze the interference of the interference fit 20H7/r6 by the above methods. If the
piece part
errors are having 1σ truncated normal distribution, find the percentage of assemblies
that have
more than 20 microns interference.
20.021
20H7= 20.012±0.011 3σ =0.011
20.000
20.041
20r6= 20.035±0.007 3σ =0.007
20.028
18
Tolerance Analysis
Fig.13 Normal Distribution
σa = σ t21 + σ t22
u12 + u 22
= 0.44
= 0.44 (0.007) 2 + (0.004) 2

= 0.004
Area above 20=0.5+ A20
24
Solution :
By sure fit law:
Mean (interference) = μ1 − μ 2 or u1 − u 2
= 27.5μ
Tolerance on mean interference= u1 + u 2
= 0.011+0.010=20.5μ
i.e., Mean interference = 27.5μ
Minimum interference = 7μ
Maximum interference = 48μ
By Normal law:
Mean interference= u1 − u 2 =27.5μ
Tolerance on mean interference= u12 + u 22
= (0.011) 2 + (0.010) 2
= 0.015
19
Tolerance Analysis
= 14.5μ
Minimum interference=27.5-14.5=13 μ
Maximum interference=27.5+14.5=42μ
Fig 14 (a)Normal Distribution Fig 14 (b) 1σ Truncated Normal Distribution
By truncated Normal law:

Refer 14 (b)
μ a = μ1 − μ 2 =27.5 microns.
σa = σ t21 + σ t22
= 0.44 u12 + u 22
= 0.44 (0.0070) 2 + (0.0043) 2

= 0.00361 = 3.61μ
u1 = 2σ = 2 / 3 * 0.011 = 0.007; μ a + 3σ a = 27.5 + 3 * 3.61 = 38.33μ
u 2 = 2σ = 2 / 3 * 0.010 = 0.007; μ a − 3σ a = 27.5 − 3 * 3.61 = 16.67 μ
Therefore Maximum Interference = 38.33μ

Minimum Interference = 16.67μ
7.The clearance permitted between stator and rotor in a motor assembly is 0.120 to
0.280.assuming hole basis system, determine the design sizes for both the stator bore
and rotor to meet the above functional requirements. The nominal size of the rotor may
be taken as φ200.Distribute the machining tolerance equally between the stator and
rotor.
Solution:
Maximum clearance=0.280mm
Minimum clearance=0.120mm
Mean clearance = (280-120)/2+0.120
200μ
6σa=0.280-0.120
=160μ
σa=160/6=26.6μ
=0.003mm
Hole based system is followed.
Therefore,
Fundamental deviation of hole is zero
i.e., Min hole=basic size of hole
20
Tolerance Analysis
Fig 15 Stator and Rotor in a Motor Assembly
σa= σ 12 + σ 22
If we distribute the machining tolerances equally between stator and rotor

u1 = u 2
σ1 = σ 2
Therefore σa= 2σ
σ =σa/ 2
=0.027/ 2 =0.019 and 3σ = 0.056
6σ = 0.113mm
8. Two parts have normally distributed errors centered on their tolerances u of

0.076 mm, 0.122mm as produced, 5% of the parts are undersize and 5%
are oversize. Find the natural tolerance for an end-to-end assembly of the
two parts if the entire production is assembled.
Solution:
A = 0.05
Z = -1.64
Left
σ1 =
(x
1 −x )
z
= -0.076/-1.64
= 0.047 mm
21
Tolerance Analysis
σ2 =
(x 2 −x )
z
= -0.122/-1.64
= 0.074 mm
σa2 = Σσ2 = 2 * (0.047)2 + 2 * (0.074)2

= 0.015 mm
σa = 0.124 mm
ua = 3σa
= 3* 0.124
= 0.372 mm
9.The assembly tolerance ua for the three parts must be held to 0.508 mm.
the designer decided that the tolerance on the second part should be
twice as great as for the first part, and for the third part should be three
times as great as for the first. Distributions are such that σt = 0.440u .
Find the tolerance that should be specified for each part.
Solution:
ua = 0.508 mm
u2 = 2 u1
u3 = 3 u1
σt = 0.44u
ua
σt1 =
3
0.508
=
3
= 0.169 mm
σt2 = 0.44 u2
= 0.88 u1
σt3 = 0.44 u3
= 1.32u1
σa2 = σt2 =u12 (0.442 +0.882 +1.322)

= 2.711 u12
σa = 0.169 mm
u1 = 0.103 mm
u2 = 0.206 mm
u3 = 0.309 mm
10.Three parts in an end-to-end assembly have a natural tolerance of ua for the

assembly of 0.419 mm. The entire production has to be assembled. If piece part
errors are normally distributed, find the proportion of production that fulfills the
engineering tolerance of u = 0.152 mm.
22
Tolerance Analysis
Solution:
ua =0.419 mm
u = 0.152 mm
σa = ua/3
= 0.419/3
= 0.139 mm
σa 2= Σ σt 2= 3 σt2
σ a2
σt2 =
3
σt = 0.081 mm
u
= 0.152/0.081
σt
= 1.889
From Table 2.1

z = 1.33
For z = 1.33
A−z∞ = 0.092 = 91.8%
11.Find the net dimensions in Fig.67
Fig.16 Drill Bush
23
Tolerance Analysis
24
Tolerance Analysis
Solution:
Drill bush to datum[A] gives:

From bush I.D(G1) to O.D(H1) = 0.0±0.01(concentricity)
From H1 to E1 = 0.0±0.00(assume perfect fit)
From E1 to E2 = 38.0±0.01
From E2 to H2 = 0.0±0.00(assume perfect fit)
From bush O.D (H2) to I.D(G2) = 0.0±0.01(concentricity)
---------------
Net Dimension = 38.0±0.03(acceptable)
The desired location of hole F2 as measured from datum [A] is 23.5±0.1 mm and
tracing the link from the drill bush(G2) to datum[A] gives:
From bush I.D(G2) to O.D(H2) = 0.0±0.01(concentricity)

From H2 to E2 = 0.0±0.00(assume perfect fit)
From bush at hole E2 to column D1 = -38.0±0.01–21.0±0.01+20.0±0.01
= -39.0 ±0.03
From column D1 to dowel pin = -10.0±0.00
From dowel pin B to datum [A] = -12.5±0.05+85.0±0.05
= 72.5±0.10
-----------------------
Net Dimension 23.5±0.14(violated)
Considering tolerance stacks in the vertical orientation(downwards as positive),it

can be seen that the desired location of hole F2 as measured from datum [B] is
23.5±0.1mm and tracing the link from the drill bush G to datum [B] gives:
From bush I.D(G) to O.D(H) = 0.0±0.01(concentricity)

From H to E = 0.0±0.00(assume perfect fit)
From bush at hole E to column D = -45.0±0.01
From column D1 to dowel pin B = 58.0±0.00
From dowel pin B to datum [B] = 10.5±0.2-47.0±0.05
= -36.5±0.25
-----------------------
Net Dimension = -23.5±0.27(violated)
Problems:
1. Five similar parts are placed in end-to-end assembly. Parts overrun the engineering
tolerance of 0.127 mm, with 2% of the parts being oversize and 2% undersize. Only
parts within tolerance are assembled. Find the natural tolerance ua for the assembly.
[ua =0.371mm]
2. The engineering tolerances for the two parts in end-to-end assembly are u1=0.076 mm
and u2=0.102 mm. Drawings are marked “95% of parts to fulfill given tolerances”. The
entire production is to be assembled. Assume that the errors are normally distributed
and centered on the tolerances. Find the natural tolerance for the resulting assembly.
[ua = 0.193 mm]
25
Tolerance Analysis
3. The natural tolerance ua for an assembly is to be 0.305. There are four parts with
similar tolerances. Drawings are marked “98% of parts to fulfill given tolerances”.
Assume that the part errors are normally distributed and centered on the tolerances.
Find the tolerance u that should appear on the drawing. The entire production is to be
assembled.
[u = 0.117 mm]
4. Seven parts in end-to-end assembly are to have a natural tolerance ua for the
assembly of 0.154 mm. Part errors are normally distributed but overrun the
tolerances, with 0.62% of them too small and 0.62% too large. Only the good
parts are assembled. Find the engineering tolerance u that should appear on
the drawing.
[u = 0.051 mm]
5. Seven parts in end-to-end assembly have truncated normal curves for the error
distributions, with 1% of the parts discarded as too large and 1% discarded as too
small. Engineering tolerance u = 0.051 mm. Only the good parts are assembled. Find
the natural tolerance ua for the assembly.
[ua = 0.163 mm]
6. Six parts in an end-to-end assembly are dimensioned u = 0.048 mm. Errors have
truncated normal curve distributions. The assembly tolerance ua = 0.152 mm. Find
the percent of over length and under length parts that are discarded.
[1.79%]
7.A case study illustrating cumulative effect of tolerances
Fig. 17 Monoblock Pump Assembly
26
Tolerance Analysis
Table 2.1 Proportion of total area between - ∞ and z
Z Z Z Z
A−z∞ A−z∞ A−z∞ A−z∞
0.00 0.5000 -0.40 0.3446 -0.80 0.2119 -1.20 0.1151
-0.01 0.4960 -0.41 0.3409 -0.81 0.2090 -1.21 0.1131
-0.02 0.4920 -0.42 0.3372 -0.82 0.2061 -1.22 0.1112
-0.03 0.4880 -0.43 0.3336 -0.83 0.2033 -1.23 0.1093
-0.04 0.4840 -0.44 0.3300 -0.84 0.2005 -1.24 0.1075
-0.05 0.4801 -0.45 0.3264 -0.85 0.1977 -1.25 0.1057
-0.06 0.4761 -0.46 0.3228 -0.86 0.1949 -1.26 0.1038
-0.07 0.4721 -0.47 0.3192 -0.87 0.1922 -1.27 0.1020
-0.08 0.4681 -0.48 0.3156 -0.88 0.1894 -1.28 0.1003
-0.09 0.4641 -0.49 0.3121 -0.89 0.1867 -1.29 0.0985
-0.10 0.4602 -0.50 0.3085 -0.90 0.1841 -1.30 0.0968
-0.11 0.4562 -0.51 0.3050 -0.91 0.1814 -1.31 0.0951
-0.12 0.4522 -0.52 0.3015 -0.92 0.1788 -1.32 0.0934
-0.13 0.4483 -0.53 0.2981 -0.93 0.1762 -1.33 0.0918
-0.14 0.4443 -0.54 0.2946 -0.94 0.1736 -1.34 0.0901
-0.15 0.4404 -0.55 0.2912 -0.95 0.1711 -1.35 0.0885
-0.16 0.4364 -0.56 0.2877 -0.96 0.1685 -1.36 0.0869
-0.17 0.4325 -0.57 0.2843 -0.97 0.1660 -1.37 0.0853
-0.18 0.4286 -0.58 0.2810 -0.98 0.1635 -1.38 0.0838
-0.19 0.4247 -0.59 0.2776 -0.99 0.1611 -1.39 0.0823
-0.20 0.4207 -0.60 0.2743 -1.00 0.1587 -1.40 0.0808
-0.21 0.4168 -0.61 0.2709 -1.01 0.1562 -1.41 0.0793
-0.22 0.4129 -0.62 0.2676 -1.02 0.1539 -1.42 0.0778
-0.23 0.4090 -0.63 0.2643 -1.03 0.1515 -1.43 0.0764
-0.24 0.4052 -0.64 0.2611 -1.04 0.1492 -1.44 0.0749
-0.25 0.4013 -0.65 0.2578 -1.05 0.1469 -1.45 0.0735
-0.26 0.3974 -0.66 0.2546 -1.06 0.1446 -1.46 0.0721
-0.27 0.3936 -0.67 0.2514 -1.07 0.1423 -1.47 0.0708
-0.28 0.3897 -0.68 0.2483 -1.08 0.1401 -1.48 0.0694
-0.29 0.3859 -0.69 0.2451 -1.09 0.1379 -1.49 0.0681
-0.30 0.3821 -0.70 0.2420 -1.10 0.1357 -1.50 0.0668
-0.31 0.3783 -0.71 0.2389 -1.11 0.1335 -1.51 0.0655
-0.32 0.3745 -0.72 0.2358 -1.12 0.1314 -1.52 0.0643
-0.33 0.3707 -0.73 0.2327 -1.13 0.1292 -1.53 0.0630
-0.34 0.3669 -0.74 0.2297 -1.14 0.1271 -1.54 0.0618
-0.35 0.3632 -0.75 0.2266 -1.15 0.1251 -1.55 0.0606
-0.36 0.3594 -0.76 0.2236 -1.16 0.1230 -1.56 0.0594
-0.37 0.3557 -0.77 0.2207 -1.17 0.1210 -1.57 0.0582
-0.38 0.3520 -0.78 0.2177 -1.18 0.1190 -1.58 0.0571
-0.39 0.3483 -0.79 0.2148 -1.19 0.1170 -1.59 0.0559
27
Tolerance Analysis
Table 2.1 (continued)
Z Z Z Z
A−z∞ A−z∞ A−z∞ A−z∞
-1.60 0.0548 -2.00 0.0228 -2.40 0.0082 -2.80 0.0026
-1.61 0.0537 -2.01 0.0222 -2.41 0.0080 -2.81 0.0025
-1.62 0.0526 -2.02 0.0217 -2.42 0.0078 -2.82 0.0024
-1.63 0.0516 -2.03 0.0212 -2.43 0.0075 -2.83 0.0023
-1.64 0.0505 -2.04 0.0207 -2.44 0.0073 -2.84 0.0023
-1.65 0.0495 -2.05 0.0202 -2.45 0.0071 -2.85 0.0022
-1.66 0.0485 -2.06 0.0197 -2.46 0.0069 -2.86 0.0021
-1.67 0.0475 -2.07 0.0192 -2.47 0.0068 -2.87 0.0021
-1.68 0.0465 -2.08 0.0188 -2.48 0.0066 -2.88 0.0020
-1.69 0.0455 -2.09 0.0183 -2.49 0.0064 -2.89 0.0019
-1.70 0.0446 -2.10 0.0179 -2.50 0.0062 -2.90 0.0019
-1.71 0.0436 -2.11 0.0174 -2.51 0.0060 -2.91 0.0018
-1.72 0.0427 -2.12 0.0170 -2.52 0.0059 -2.92 0.0017
-1.73 0.0418 -2.13 0.0166 -2.53 0.0057 -2.93 0.0017
-1.74 0.0409 -2.14 0.0162 -2.54 0.0055 -2.94 0.0016
-1.75 0.0401 -2.15 0.0158 -2.55 0.0054 -2.95 0.0016
-1.76 0.0392 -2.16 0.0154 -2.56 0.0052 -2.96 0.0015
-1.77 0.0384 -2.17 0.0150 -2.57 0.0051 -2.97 0.0015
-1.78 0.0375 -2.18 0.0146 -2.58 0.0049 -2.98 0.0014
-1.79 0.0367 -2.19 0.0143 -2.59 0.0048 -2.99 0.0014
-1.80 0.0359 -2.20 0.0139 -2.60 0.0047 -3.00 0.00135
-1.81 0.0351 -2.21 0.0136 -2.61 0.0045 -3.01 0.00131
-1.82 0.0344 -2.22 0.0132 -2.62 0.0044 -3.02 0.00126
-1.83 0.0336 -2.23 0.0129 -2.63 0.0043 -3.03 0.00122
-1.84 0.0329 -2.24 0.0125 -2.64 0.0041 -3.04 0.00118
-1.85 0.0322 -2.25 0.0122 -2.65 0.0040 -3.05 0.00114
-1.86 0.0314 -2.26 0.0119 -2.66 0.0039 -3.06 0.00111
-1.87 0.0307 -2.27 0.0116 -2.67 0.0038 -3.07 0.00107
-1.88 0.0301 -2.28 0.0113 -2.68 0.0037 -3.08 0.00104
-1.89 0.0294 -2.29 0.0110 -2.69 0.0036 -3.09 0.00100
-1.90 0.0287 -2.30 0.0107 -2.70 0.0035 -3.10 0.00097
-1.91 0.0281 -2.31 0.0104 -2.71 0.0034 -3.11 0.00094
-1.92 0.0274 -2.32 0.0102 -2.72 0.0033 -3.12 0.00090
-1.93 0.0268 -2.33 0.0099 -2.73 0.0032 -3.13 0.00087
-1.94 0.0262 -2.34 0.0096 -2.74 0.0031 -3.14 0.00085
-1.95 0.0256 -2.35 0.0094 -2.75 0.0030 -3.15 0.00082
-1.96 0.0250 -2.36 0.0091 -2.76 0.0029 -3.16 0.00079
-1.97 0.0244 -2.37 0.0089 -2.77 0.0028 -3.17 0.00076
-1.98 0.0239 -2.38 0.0087 -2.78 0.0027 -3.18 0.00074
-1.99 0.0233 -2.39 0.0084 -2.79 0.0026 -3.19 0.00071
28
Tolerance Analysis
Table 2.2 Free Dimensions Tolerance
OVER UPTO TOLERANCE
0 3 0.1
3 10 0.15
10 18 0.20
18 30 0.25
30 50 0.30
50 80 0.35
80 120 0.40
120 250 0.50
250 315 0.60
315 500 0.70
References:
Merhyle Spotts,F.,”Dimensioning and Tolerancing for Quantity Production”,Prentice-

Hall,Inc.,Englewood Cliffs,1983.
29
Datum Systems
DATUM SYSTEMS
Design Principles for Locating Components
The movement of any body in space may be resolved into six degrees of freedom
relative to the three co-ordinate axes in figure 1,viz., three of translation in
the directions X, Y and Z and three co-ordination axes OX OY OZ.
Fig.1 Co- ordinate Axes

To fix a body in space relative to any other it is both necessary and sufficient
to introduce 6 constraints. This is the “6 point location principle”.
In figure 2 the block is located precisely in relation to the co-ordinate planes

by 6 hemi-spherical pins, 3 in the base contacting the XOY plane, 2 in the side
contacting the ZOY plane and 1 in the side contacting the ZOY plane.
Fig: 2 “6 point Location Principle” Diagram
Apply these principles in design as far as practicable particularly when precise

location or precise mechanical movements are required.
Note: severe conditions in engineering such as heavy loads, high speeds, etc.,
often necessitate adopting modified principles. An example would be
1
Datum Systems
substitution of limited areas of contact for the point contact in figure 2 such as
is often adopted in jig and fixture design. the point contact in figure 2 such as
is often adopted in jig and fixture design.
Fig- 3. Datum Spigot and Recess Assembly
When locating one component relative to any other in an assembly, design so

as to confine the need for positional accuracy to the minimum number of
features, consider datum systems.
Function of Datum Systems

To align certain features on two components in accurate geometric relation
when assembled.
In the flange coupling, figure 3, a spigot B and recess A have been introduced
in the design so as to align the respective shafts on assembly.
To locate mating components accurately to finite assembly facilitates

assembly. In figure 3 the datum spigot and recess also facilitates assembly of
the securing bolts.
To set as a convenient base from which to dimension other features. see

surfaces A and D is figure 4
2
Datum Systems
Fig: 4 Datum Based Dimensioning
Common Datum Systems

Group of two or three datum planes
Function
The system using two co-ordinate planes controls the relative movement of two
components in 5 degrees of freedom, while that using three co-ordinate planes
controls them in all 6 degrees of freedom.
Geometric analysis
Geometry involved is flatness and squareness of the planes.
Location accuracy
This is limited by the tolerances for flatness and squareness. The common is
where one plane, usually in largest , is the principal datum, and in others are
referred to this for squareness. see figure 5 where X is the principal datum.
yy
x z
X
Z
Fig: 5 Locational Accuracy of Principal Datum(X)

Tolerances
Assign flatness tolerances to each principal datum, and squareness tolerances
to the other datums relative to the principal.
3
Datum Systems
Note: sometimes it may be necessary to assign special requirements to the

flatness tolerance such as “surface must not be convex”, the latter to ensure no
rock when assembled.
Grouped datum plane and spigot assembling

with Grouped datum plane and recess.
Fig: 6 . Positional Datum Groups
Function
This system controls the movement of one component relative to the other in 5
degrees of freedom. The 6th degree not controlled by the system is rotation
about OZ. The two planes control 3 degrees of freedom. Viz., translation in the
Z direction, and rotation about OX and OY; the spigot and recess control 2
degrees of freedom, viz., translation in the X and Y directions. This system is
used as a datum group for position, concentricity or symmetry.
Geometric analysis
The planes are the principal datums with zero position tolerance. The spigot
and recess are the datums with zero position and squareness tolerances all on
MMC, relative to the principal datums. Design the spigot short in length since a
long spigot introduces redundancy by restraining rotational freedom about OX
and OY,which is the function of the planes.
Location accuracy
This is limited only by the fit C between the spigot and recess and the flatness
4
Datum Systems
of the planes. _
Take as criterion C=C±k where C is the mean fit and k is the permissible
variation.
Basic size
Choose this from data sheets as appropriate.
Fit, Design sizes and Tolerances

The fit between spigot and recess should be chosen to suit the location
accuracy required. Confine the choice to the fits given in data sheets.
Do not specify flatness tolerances for the planes unless unusually precise
location is required.
Drawing practice
Show the spigot and plane as one geometric group, and the recess and plane as
another. See figure 7 and use tabular method (a) in general; Method (b) may be
used if there is only one positional groups
A
DIA
B 25.4
-0.304
Y
Geometric Groups and Tolerances
Feature Geometry Tols MMC Datum
Group
No Letter No of Features
Type Magnitude
Features
POSN .001
1 B 1 A
&SQ DIA
(a)
5
Datum Systems
(b)
Fig: 7 (a) Tabular Method (b) sketch for Using one

positional Groups
Example, figure 6
Design requirements
Location accuracy to be for translation 0.0254mm
Basic size for recess and spigot 25.4mm from data sheet
Fit 1.01H8h8 from data sheet giving
Recess: 25.4+0.0305
And spigot: 25.4-0.0305
Location accuracy is 0.0305± 0.0305
This is close enough to the design requirement to be satisfactory.
Grouped Datum Plane , Spigot and Hole

assembling with Grouped Datum Plane,
Recess and Pin. See figure 8.
Function
This system controls the relative movements of two components in all 6 degrees
of freedom, but rotation about OZ less precisely than the others. This system is
used mainly as a datum group for positional features.
Geometric analysis
The planes are principal datums with zero position tolerances. The spigot and
recess are datums with zero position and squareness tolerances on MMC
relative to the principal datums.
6
Datum Systems
Fig:8 Spigot & Hole with Recess & Pin Assembly (Grouped
The hole and pin are datums having position and squareness tolerances MMC
relative to the datum spigot and plane and the datum spigot and plane and the
datum recess and plane
Design spigot short in length for the same reason as in 3.22 above.
Location accuracy
Translational movement in the X, Y and Z directions is limited by the fit C

between the spigot and recess and by the flatness of the planes. Take as before
the criterion.
_
C=C±k
Rotation about OX and OY is limited by the flatness of the planes, about OZ by

the fit between the spigot and recess and the hole and pin. The clearance
between the latter including provision for the position tolerances for the
position tolerances for the hole and pin. Take as criterion the mean angular
play.ie, at minimum material conditions with no positional errors present.
7
Datum Systems
25.000 dia B
+0.003
5.000 DIA C
+.075
Fig: 9 (a)
22.0T. Y
Geometric Groups and Tolerances.

Group
No Letter No of Feature
Type Magnitude
Features
POSN O dia
B 1
&SQ
1
C POSN A
1 0.1 dia
&SQ
25.000 dia B POSN & SQ TOL O dia MMC

+0.003 Datum Face A
5.000 DIA C
+.075
POSN & SQ TOL
0.1 dia MMC
Datums Spigot B MMC X
& Face A.
22.0T.P Y
9(b) Examples.-Grouped Datum Planes with spigot

and Hole Assembly
Basic Sizes
Choose from data sheets as appropriate.
Fits, design Sizes and Tolerances

The fit between the spigot and recess should be chosen to suit the location
accuracy required. Confine your choice to the fits shown in data sheets 4,5 and
6 for Hole basis; Hole Basis is preferred.
Do not specify flatness tolerances for the planes unless unusually location is
8
Datum Systems
required.
The fit between the hole and pin must satisfy the location accuracy required
and also provide sufficient C min to allow for position tolerances. Confine your
choice of fit to those given for positional fits in data sheets; the shaft basis will
be applicable here.
Drawing practice
Show the plane, spigot and hole as one geometric group, with the plane as
principal datum for the group. See figure 9(a). Similarly the plane would be
shown as principal datum for the recess and the pin in the other component.
The tabular method (a) in figure 9 is preferred in general; method (b) may be
used if there is only one positional group other than the datum group.
Example.
Fig:10.Spigot & Hole with Recess & Pin Assembly

(Grouped Datum Planes)
Design requirements:
Location accuracy to be
For translation 0.03$0.03mm
For rotational 40 minutes of arc
Basic size,
For recess and spigot 25.0mm
For pin and hole 5.0mm
9
Datum Systems
Both from data sheet

Choose hole basis for both fits.
Assign position tolerances as follows:
For spigot 0 dia MMC
For hole 0.15 dia MMC
For recess 0 dia MMC
For hole for pin 0.15 dia MMC
For concentricity
Of two dies of pins 0.04dia MMC
Cmin for spigot and recess
=0+0.10
=0
For hole and pin = 0.15+0.15+0.04+0.04
= 0.38
Provisional design sizes are as follows:
Recess=25.0: spigot=25.0
Pin = 5.0-0.38: hole = 5.0
=4.62
Choose fits from data sheet as follows:

Spigot and recess = 25.0 H8h9
Giving recess 25.000+0.033
And spigot 25.000-0.033
And hole and pin 5.0 H7h9
Giving hole 5.000+0.075
And pin 4.73-0.03
The location accuracy for translation
=0.033+/-0.033
This is regarded as satisfactory.
The maximum angular play
=(5.075-4.700)+(25.033-24.963)*10800/n
=69 minutes of arc.
Criterion for location accuracy is therefore 35 minutes of arc approximately

and hence is satisfactory.
The position tolerances for the pin and the corresponding hole would be
modified to suit the new Cmin 0.21let position tolerance
For hole =0.1 dia MMC
For pin =0.1 dia MMC
For concentricity of
two diameters of pin= 0.01dia MMC
And let C=0.03
See figure 9
10
Datum Systems
Grouped Datum Plane, Spigot and Tongue,

Assembling with Grouped Datum Plane,
Recess and Gap. (Fig 11)
Fig: 11. Spigot & Tongue Assembling with Recess

and gap (Grouped Datum Planes)
Function
This system performs a similar function to 3.3 above, except that rotation
about OZ can be more precisely controlled.
Geometric Analysis
For the planes, spigot and recess same remarks apply as in 3.32. The tongue
and gap are also datum related to the other datums, but tolerances are
assigned for symmetrically and squareness instead of for position and
squareness.
Location Accuracy
In principle the same remarks apply as in 3.3.
Basic sizes
Choose from data sheets as appropriate
Fits, Design sizes and Tolerances

In principle the same remarks apply as in 3.3 above, except that the symmetry
11
Datum Systems
tolerance for the tongue relative to the spigot or for the gap relative to the
recess can be small, even zero on MMC.This requirement is much easier to
attain with this design than with the corresponding position tolerances in
section 3.3. Confine your choice of fit to those given in data sheets for hole
basis; another data sheet for shaft basis; hole basis is preferred
Drawing practice
Show the plane, spigot and tongue as one geometric group with the plane as
principal datum for the group see figure 9(a). Similarly the plane would be
shown as the principal datum for the recess and pin other geometric group.
The tabular method (a) in figure 9 is preferred in general; Method (b) may be
used if there is only one positional group other than the datum group.
Fig 12(a)
Fig 12 (b)
12
Datum Systems
Grouped Datum Plane and Pins assembling

with Grouped Datum Plane and Holes. See
Figure 13
Datum holes
1.2 TP
Y 2 Holes
0.21500±0.0009 dia
Z
Z
X Y
O O
Datum plane
Datum pins
Datum planes
Fig 13 Grouped Datum Plane and Pins assembling with Grouped Datum
Plane and Holes
Function
This system controls the relative movements of the two components in all 6
degrees of freedom and in principle relation as precise as translation. The two
planes control 3 degrees of freedom viz. Translation in X and Y directions and
rotation about OZ.
13
Datum Systems
A A
2.9 TP 2.9 TP
1.2 TP 1.2 TP
2 Holes 2 Holes
0.21500±0.0009 dia 0.21500±0.0009 dia
Geometric Groups & Tolerances

Group Type Feature
Letter No of Magnitude
No
Features
POSN .001
B 2 A
1 &SQ DIA
Fig :14 Tabular method. Plane as datum for pins
Geometric Analysis
The planes are principal datums with zero position tolerances. The pins and
holes are datums with position and squareness tolerances
on MMC related to their respective principal datums.
Location Accuracy
Translation in the Z direction and rotation about OX and OY is limited by the
flatness of the datum planes. Translation in the X and Y directions and
rotation about OZ is limited by the fit between the holes and pins the
clearance between the later including provision for the position tolerances for
the holes and pins. Take as criterion the mean angular play calculated as half
the maximum angular play ie at minimum material conditions with no
positional errors present.
14
Datum Systems
Basic Sizes
Choose from data sheets 2 or 3 as appropriate.
Fits, Design Sizes and Tolerances

Do not specify flatness tolerances for the planes unless unusually precise
location is required.
The fits between the holes and pins must satisfy the location accuracy
required and also provide sufficient Cmin to allow for position tolerances .
Assign the same position tolerances to each pin and to each hole. Confine your
choice to the positional fits in data sheets 4 and the shaft basis may well be
applicable here see data sheet 7.
Drawing practice
Show the plane and the two holes as one geometric group with the plane as
datum for the group. see figure 14similarly the plane would be shown as
datum for the pins in the other geometric group. The tabular method (a)in
Figure 1.14is preferred in general method (b) may be used if there is only one
positional group other than the datum group.
Example, Figure 14
Design Requirement
Location accuracy to be for rotation of 3 minutes of arc
Basic size for pins and holes 6.35mm from data sheet2
Fit (on shaft basis)6.35 h8c9 from data sheet 7
giving pin 6.35 -- .0009
and hole 6.4262 + .0014
Cmin =.003 permitting .0015 dia MMC position tolerances for the pins and
the holes.
=(.0053\1.5) x(10.800/π)
=12 minutes of are approx.
Criterion for location accuracy is 6 minutes of arc and this is too great in
relation to the design requirement.
Choose fit (on shaft basis) as 6.35 h8E8 from data sheet 7
giving pin 6.35 -- .0009
And hole 6.4262 + .0009

=(.0028\1.5) x (10.800/π)
=6.5 minutes of are approx.
Criterion for location accuracy is thus 3.25 minutes of arc and in this case is
regarded as satisfactory.
Cmax = -.001
Position tolerances for strict interchangeability would be .005 dia but are
considered to be too small.
If we choose .001 dia MMC position tolerances for both the pins and the holes
the virtual sizes of pin and hole become secured and then drilled and reamed
for the insertion of dowels, which are normally a press fit.
15
Datum Systems
If the cover Figure 1.13 were dealt within this way a suitable note would be
inserted on the management drawing such as in figure 1.14. The t chosen here
is 6.35h8s7. The holes B would then not ensure strict interchangeability
between components but is an economical solution for small to medium Pin
.251and Hole .250
Thus theoretically giving interference. However the metal interference will be
only on one side of each pin and hole and will not be greater then .0005 Hence
the fits and tolerances chosen are regarded as satisfactory.
Use of Dowels
This system is similar in design to the datum system of section 3.5 However
the dowels generally play no part in the control during production. Usually the
components are assembled together adjusted quantity production.
A A
2.9 TP 2.9 TP
1.2 TP
1.2 TP
2 2 Holes
0.21500±0.0009 dia 0.21500±0.0009 dia
Geometric Groups & Tolerances

Group Type Feature
Letter No of Magnitude
No
Features
POSN .001
B 2 A
1 &SQ DIA
Fig 15: Tabular method. Plane as datum for pins
In the datum systems described in section 3 above the principal datum was
invariably the plane or at surface and the spigot was made short in length to
ensure that its function did not conflict with that of the planes. In same cases
however such as in figure 15 the shaft may be used to align the component on
assembly and is then made for the better to achieve this function. The shaft
becomes the principal datum in the datum system and the surface Y is
tolerenced for squareness in relation to Z as shown in figure 15. A shaft washer
is inserted under the head so ads to provide for errors in squareness..
16
Design for Manufacturing and Assembling
Case Studies
DESIGN OF EXPERIMENTS
The product development cycle can be divided into three overlapping phases;
• Product development
• Process development
• Manufacture
The development phase, which determines all following phases, is of utmost
importance. The cost of changes during later stages of development increases,
while the possibilities for changes decrease. Due to the growing complexity of
modern products, systematic product and process development is increasingly
significant in determining all parameters, that influence the product and in
avoiding changes during the later stages of development.
These product and process determining parameters can be divided into two
main groups;
1. Product and process specific factors (dimensions, weights, etc)
2. Noise factors (environment, irregularities during manufacture)
In order to minimize the effect of noise factors, and to optimize the products as
well as the process specifications, a special system for product and process
development can be applied. It is divided into three phases;
System development (primary design)
Parameter optimization (secondary design)
Determination of tolerances (tertiary design)
The primary design develops an efficient prototype with product specific
factors. The optimum value for system parameter is determined and the fault
factors are reduced in the secondary design phase. In the tertiary design
phase, tolerances are set around the optimum values taken from the
secondary design.
The steps involved in parameter
optimization.
The flow- chart shows how various design methods incorporated into
parameter optimization or tolerance studies.
1. Problem Definition
The first step in parameter optimization is to define the criterion for
optimization as a measurable quantity. If it is not possible, a weighted system
ranging from 0 to 10 is used for evaluation. In some cases, the critical
requirement of customers can be translated into a technical language by
means of the Quality Function Deployment (QFD) techniques. Limits for
certain parameters must also be defined.
2. Problem Analysis
This step focuses on establishing all the parameters significant to the problem.
This is a decisive stage for the success or failure of parameter optimization.
This stage is already necessitates a strict process scheme, otherwise important
parameters may be neglected.
The systemization of the problem analysis is carried out by the following
techniques:-
1
Case Studies
• Ishikawa fish – bone diagram

• Failure mode effect analysis
• Fault tree analysis
• Brainstorming techniques and etc.
Fig1 Flow chart for parameter optimization
2
Case Studies
3. Parameter Reduction: (Homing - In)
The large amounts of data that are gathered during problem analysis have to
be reduced by means of homing – in method. Homing – in methods are used to
carry out a first, rough selection in order to reduce the actual number of
experiments.
4. Weighted selection of parameters
If only theoretical model exists, but no prototypes or manufacturing processes,

the parameters have to be selected by an empiric homing – in method, which is
used a weighted range. Evaluation criteria could be;
• The theoretical influence of the parameter
• Cost entailed by the current parameter
• Suitability for volume production
The parameters with the highest score are eventually used for the design of
experiments. The disadvantage of this method is parameters are selected on a
subjective basis, thus influential parameters could be left unconsidered.
5. Homing – in according to shainin
For situations in which there is hardware available, Shainin suggests for

experiment design, three different homing – in methods, to reduce the
parameters to one main group for a subsequent variable search or full factorial
experiment.
6. Multi- variable charts
The charts are similar to the process monitoring charts. By means of multi-
variable charts, main cases of the variations of a process can be identified as;
• Variation within one unit- the variation occurs when the same
characteristics is measured twice but at different places in the unit.
• Variation from unit to unit – the variation occurs when two units are
compared.
• Temporary drifts- the variation occurs over a period of time.
3
Case Studies
Fig 2. (a) Multi – variate chart: variation within one unit
Components search
It can be applied when at least two dismountable units are available, one being
‘good’, the other being ‘bad’. Components of these units will be exchanged until
The characteristics of the units are reversed. This method consists of six
individual steps;
1. Randomly select a good and a bad unit, whereby bad does not mean non-
functioning.
2. Determine the units of measure for good and bad, carrying out the
measurements of good and bad units. The readings are G1 and B1, where
G and B represent good and bad units respectively.
3. Disassemble the good and the bad unit, then assemble and test them
again. Here, the measurements arrived are G2 and B2.
If the ratio D : d (difference of mean values : different of repetitions) is greater
than or equal to 5:1, there is a significant difference between good and bad. If
not, the component search is not the suitable method to solve the problem.
4. Make a list of those components considered to be of great significance.
Their importance should be rated.
5. Cross- exchange the parts listed under item 4 and measure again.
6. If the same result is achieved, the exchange of components was of no
importance to the total result.
4
Case Studies
Fig.3 Results of a component search for a real axle transmission. U-original unit
Exercise:
The rear axle transmissions are noisy. By means of random selection, a good
and bad units chosen.
G1=72 db/A ; B1 =83 db/A , then the units are disassembled, assembled
and measured again. G2=73 db/A, B2=83.7 db/A.
Questions:
1. Is it possible to carry out a component search?
D = | ((G1+G2) / 2)-((B1+B2) / 2) |
= ((72+73)/2) – ((83+83.7)/2)
= 10.85
d = | ((G1-G2) / 2)| - |((B1-B2) / 2) |
= 0.2
D : d = 54.25 : 1 > 5 : 1. That is, the components search can be
applied. The components are exchanged and the results are shown in
figure.3.
2. Which component is the main source of noise and which one has only slight
influence on the noise behavior?
From the fig 3,
• Component A has no influence on the total result
• Component D has only slight influence on the noise behavior, because only
a slight change is arrived after component exchange.
7. Are there interactions?
When B is exchanged, and there are suddenly two bad units, or C is
exchanged, and there are two good units, this is to be interpreted as an
interaction, i.e., the solution can only be found if both B and C are exchanged
at the same time.
Paired comparisons:-
Paired comparisons are applied if;
• Components cannot be further disassembled
There are varying qualities within the good and bad units, which can be
compared
• Good and bad can be quantified
Only differences are measured, specifications are disregarded. The measured
criteria as such must be determined a priori.
5
Case Studies
Exercise:-
During a components search experiment, the main cause of the problem was
found to be component C. Comparison measurements of three good and three
bad units showed the following results:
Pair number Differences

1. good-bad Good: hypoid offset=0.5 degree
Bad: hypoid offset=5.0 degree
2. good-bad Good: hypoid offset=0.8 degree
Bad: hypoid offset=4.7 degree
3.good-bad Good: hypoid offset=0.3 degree
Bad: hypoid offset=3.9degree
It is very obvious in this example that the hypoid offset is the cause of the
problem. The great disadvantage of this method lies in the fact that one must
have an idea of what is to be measured, or else the problem will not be
detected.
Determining decisive parameters (variables

search)
If the problem has been narrowed down to one main cause, the problem itself or
the cause of the problem can be exactly localized during this step. Knowing the
good and bad levels is a necessary prerequisite for applying the variables search
method. The variables search method is constructed as follows.
First stage
1. Prepare a list of all parameters (A, B, C…) relevant to the problem.
2. Assign two levels to each parameter. One level should improve the results
(first level). The second level should describe the current condition of the
specific parameter.
Parameter Designation First level Second level

A Extrusion pr. Yes No
B Milling speed 150 mm/min 100 mm/min
C Cutting speed 110 m/min 90 m/min
D No. of teeth 64 48
E Cutting angle 26 degree 7 degree
F Tension pr. 60 kg 20 kg
G Milling direction In stamp Against stamp
direction direction
3. Carry out two experiments with all parameter levels at 1, then two
experiments with all parameter levels at 2.
Results of the experiments at:
6
Case Studies
Level 1 Level 2
8 micron 17 micron
9 micron 16 micron
4. Apply the rule D : d = 5:1

D = | ((8+9)/2)-((17+16)/2) | = 8
d = ((9-8) + (17-16))/2 = 1
D:d=8:1>5:1
5. If the ratio D : d is greater than 5 :1 , the parameter or parameters relevant
to the problem can be found in the list of item 1.
If the ratio D : d < 5:1, then:
a. There are other influential factors that have not yet been detected.
b. Assigning of the levels 1 and 2 is incorrect.
Either the problem has to be reconsidered by starting at item 1, or the pre-
information is insufficient to assign level 1 and 2 correctly. If that is the case,
another experiment design should be applied.
Second stage
1. Carry out experiments by changing one parameter at time.
2. Compare the results.
3. Carry out further experiments until the main influential factors are
determined.
4. Verify the main influential factors by means of process monitoring
methods.
5. Carry out a statistical proof, in order to verify the probability of
improvement.
Scatter plots
Scatter plots can be applied for the following tasks that may also intersect:
1. Check whether the main influential parameters have been correctly
perceived.
2. Optimize one influential parameter, (the parameter A is set to A
optimal, in order to get a maximum measurement value y).
3. Set the tolerance limits selectively.
B versus C test
If an optimum factor combination has been found by any method, the B vs. C
test is applied to prove the improvement statistically. For this kind of
verification, Shainin suggests sample values that have to be obtained by means
of a random scheme (table given below). Four samples at the ‘improved’
condition and five samples at the ‘current’ condition are to be prepared, in order
to prove, with a 99 % confidence rate, that an improvement has been achieved.
Then, these nine samples are to be random-tested.
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Fig 4. (a). Main influential Fig (b) Parameters of no Fig (c) Optimization of
Parameters influence main parameters
α-risk = 1- p B C
confidence range p Improved condition Current condition
99.9 % 6 6
99.0 % 4 5
95.0 % 3 3
90.0 % 2 3
If the worst of the four better samples shown better results than the best of the
five current samples, an improvement has been achieved by a 99 % probability.
It should be noted that the above mentioned B vs. C test only takes the (- risk
into consideration, i.e. the risk of not recognizing an improvement, although
there is one.
Exercise:
Following a manufacture experiment, an improvement that has been achieved
is to be verified. At first, three experiments based on C are carried out, and then
three experiments based on B. The following has been yielded:
C1 = 89 % B1 = 84 %
C2 = 87 % B2 = 88 %
C3 = 90 % B3 = 91 %
Questions : a. what has been done wrong?
b. what can be deduced from the above results?
By means of a randomized sequence, the following results have been achieved:
B2 = 90 % B3 = 88 %
C3 = 82 % C2 = 85 %
C1 = 85 % B1 = 92 %
Questions : a. can you call this an improvement?
b. what is the range of confidence of this statement?
Full factorial
If neither good nor bad levels for the parameters are known, and all possible
interactions of the parameters are required, a full factorial experiment must be
designed. If such an experiment is carried out, however, the number of
parameters must be reduced to a maximum of four or five by means of a
homing – in method, since the number of individual tests with four parameters
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and two levels is 2^4 = 16, with five parameters already 25=32. During this kind
of test, all parameter combinations are examined.
The procedure is as follows:
1. Select the parameters to be examined and assign two levels. (-) stands
for step 1, (+) stands for step 2.
2. Generation of a full factorial matrix.( all possible combinations).
Example for two parameters A and B; at first ,all possible combinations of
A and b are listed with their interactions (AB).
Factor A B AB
combination
1 - - +
2 - + -
3 + - -
4 + + +
3. Randomize the test sequence and the test procedure
Sequence 1 Sequence Factor A B AB Data Data

2 combination 1 2
2 2 1 - - + 10 11
4 1 2 - + - 12 12
1 4 3 + - - 19 18
3 3 4 + + + 23 22
4. Randomize again, and carry out the tests for the sequence2.
5. Calculate the effects of the individual parameters and their interactions
A = 10+11+12+12=45
A = 18+18+23+22=82
From this we have the resulting effect:
A = |A – A| = | 82-45 | =37
B = 58 B = 69 effect B = 11
AB = 61 AB = 66 effect AB = 5
6. The greatest effect is the main influential factor, i.e. for this example it is
A, followed by B.
7. Determine the optimum factor combination. In the above example, a
maximum is required, i.e. A B is the optimum factor combination.
Taguchi’s Principles
Robust design
Introduction
Robust design is an engineering methodology for improving productivity during
research and development so that high quality products can be produced
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quickly and at low cost. It can greatly improve an organization’s ability to meet
market windows; keep development and manufacturing costs low, and deliver
high-quality products. Through his research in the 1950s and early 1960s,
Dr.Genichi Taguchi developed the foundation of robust design and validated the
basic, underlying philosophies by applying them in the development of many
products.
Robust design uses many ideas from statistical experiment design and adds a
new dimension to it by explicitly addressing two major concerns faced by all
product and process designers:
a. How to reduce economically the variation of a product's function in the

customer's environment?
b. How to ensure that decisions found optimum during laboratory
experiments will prove to be so in manufacturing and customer environments?
Variation in product performance can be thought of as a failure and this
chapter discusses the salient features of robust design aimed at limiting the
above product function variance, based on Taguchi's principles.
Ideal Quality
The ideal quality a customer can receive is that every product delivers the target
performance each time the product is used, under all intended operating
conditions, and throughout the product's intended life, with no harmful side
effects. The deviation of product's performance from the target causes loss to
the user of the product, the manufacturer, and in varying degrees, to the rest of
the society as well. The quality level of a product is measured in terms of total
loss to the society due to functional variation and harmful side effects.
Fundamental Principle
The fundamental principle of robust design is to improve the quality of a
product by minimizing the effect of causes of variation without eliminating the
causes. This is achieved by optimizing the product and process designs to make
the performance minimally sensitive to various causes of variation, a process
called parameter design. The robust design method has been found to be
valuable in virtually all engineering fields and business applications.
TYPES OF FACTORS
A product response that is observed for the purpose of evaluating the quality
loss or optimizing the product design is called a quality characteristic. The
parameters or factors that influence the quality characteristic can be classified
into three classes:
Signal factors: These factors specify the intended value of the product
response.
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Noise factors: Factors that cannot be controlled by the designer are termed as
noise factors. Factors whose settings are difficult or expensive to control are
also called noise factors. The noise factors themselves can be divided into three
broad classes;
i. external (environmental and load factors)
ii. unit-to-unit variation (manufacturing non-uniformity) and
iii. deterioration (wear-out, process drift)
Control factors: Factors that can be specified by the designer are grouped
under the category of control factors. Their settings are selected to minimise the
sensitivity of the product's response to all noise factors. Control factors that
also affect the product's cost are also called tolerance factors.
Steps In Robust Product Design

A robust product or process is one whose response is least sensitive to all noise
factors. A product's response depends on the values of the control and noise
factors through a non-linear function. This non linearity is exploited to achieve
robustness. The three major steps in designing a product or process are:
Concept design - Selection of product architecture or process technology.
Parameter design - Selection of optimum levels of the control factors to
maximise robustness
Tolerance design - Selection of the optimum levels of the tolerance factors
(material, type, tolerance limits) to balance the improvements in quality loss
against the increase in the unit product cost.
Quality improvement through concept design needs breakthrough, and is

difficult to schedule. Parameter design improves quality without increasing the
unit product cost. It can be performed systematically by using orthogonal
arrays and the signal-to-noise ratios, which is the most inexpensive way to
improve quality. The details are discussed in the following sections. Tolerance
design, should be undertaken only after parameter design is completed:
otherwise, the unit product cost may turn out to be unnecessarily high. The
robust design methodology focuses on how to perform parameter design
efficiently.
Matrix Experiments
A matrix experiment consists of a set of experiments where the settings of
several product or process parameters to be studied are changed from one
experiment to another. Matrix experiments are also called design experiments,
parameters are also called factors, and the parameter settings are also called
levels.
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Conducting matrix experiments using orthogonal arrays is an important

technique in robust design. It gives reliable estimates of factor effects with fewer
experiments when compared to traditional methods such as one factor at a time
experiments. Consequently, more factors can be studied within the available
resources, leading to more robust and less expensive products.
The columns of an orthogonal array are pair wise orthogonal that is, for every
pair of column, all combinations of factor levels occur an equal number of
times. The columns of the orthogonal array represent factors to be studied and
the rows represent the individual experiments. Conducting a matrix experiment
with an orthogonal array is analogous to finding the frequency response
function of a dynamic system by using the multi-frequency input. The analysis
of data obtained from matrix experiments is similar to Fourier analysis.
Quadratic Loss Function

Quadratic loss function is a simple and meaningful function for approximating
the quality loss in most situations. The three most common variations of the
quadratic loss function are,
Nominal - the - best type : L (y) = (A /2) (y - m)2 Eq. (1)

Smaller - the - best type : L (y) = (A /2) y2 Eq. (2)
Larger - the - best type : L (y) = (A2) (1/y2) Eq. (3)
Where is the functional limit and A is the loss incurred at the functional limits.
The target value of the response y (or the quality characteristic) for the three
cases are m, 0, and α respectively.
Quality Characteristic
In designing a product one is invariably interested in increasing the mean time
to failure, whereas in designing a manufacturing process one desires to
maximize the yield. The final success of the product or the process depends on
how well such responses (reliability, yield, etc.) meet the customers
expectations. As mentioned previously, the product response that is observed
for the purpose of evaluating the quality loss or optimizing the product design is
referred to as quality characteristic.
The following guidelines are recommended for the selection of quality

characteristics:
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• The quality characteristic should be directly related to the energy transfer

associated with the basic mechanism or the ideal function of the
product.
• As far as possible, it is desirable to choose continuous variables as quality
characteristics.
• The quality characteristic should be monotonic and easy to measure.
• Quality characteristic should be complete - that is it should cover all the
dimensions of the ideal function.
• For products having a feed back mechanism, the open loop sensor and
compensation modules should be optimised separately, and the modules
can be integrated subsequently.
Signal To Noise Ratio

The quadratic loss function is ideally suited for evaluating the quality level of a
product as a supplier to a customer ships it. It typically has two components:
one related to the deviation of the products function from the target, and the
other related to the sensitivity to noise factors, signal to noise ratio developed
by Taguchi, is a predictor of quality loss after making certain adjustments to
the product function. It isolates the sensitivity of the product's function to noise
factors.
Commonly encountered types of problems and the corresponding signal to

noise ratios (S/N), are described below:
Smaller - the - better type : = - 10 log 10 (1/n) y2 Eq. (4)
Nominal - the - best type : = - 10 log 10 (2/2) Eq. (5)
Larger - the - better type : = - 10 log 10 (1/n) (1/y2) Eq. (6)
Where y denotes the observations of the quality characteristic under n different

noise conditions: and are the mean and standard deviation of the above
response observations.
It may be noted that the benefits of the signal - to - noise ratio for optimizing a
product or process design are (i) optimization does not depend on the target
mean function, implying that the design can be reused in other applications
where the target is different, and (ii) design of sub systems and components can
proceed in parallel.
Planning Of Experiments
Some important terms used in the matrix experiments are: The region formed
by the factors being studied and their alternate levels is called the experiment
region. The starting levels of the factors are the levels used before conducting
the matrix experiment. The main effects of the factors are their individual
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effects. If the effect of a factor depends on the level of another factor, then the
two factors are said to have interaction. The replication number of a factor level
is the number of experiments in the matrix experiment that are conducted at
that factor level. The effect of a factor level is the deviation it causes from the
overall mean response. The optimum level of a factor is the level that gives the
highest (S/N) ratio. The number of independent parameters associated with an
entity like a matrix experiment, or a factor, or sum of squares is called its
degree or freedom.
An additive model, also called superposition or variable separation model is

used to approximate the relationship between the response variable and the
factor levels. Interactions are considered as errors in the additive model.
The first step in constructing an orthogonal array to suit a specific case study is
to count the total degrees of freedom that tells the minimum number of
experiments that must be performed to study the main effects of all control
factors. Taguchi has tabulated 18 standard orthogonal arrays [1,2]. In many
problems, one of these arrays can be directly used in planning of orthogonal
array experiments that involve interactions [1].
Analysis Of Data
After conducting the matrix experiments, analysis of data is undertaken as per
the following steps:
• Compute the appropriate summary statistics, such as signal to noise ratio
• Compute the main effects of factors
• Perform analysis of variance to evaluate the relative importance of factors
and the error variance
• Determine the optimum level for each factor and predict the S/N ratio for
the optimum combination
• Compare the results of the verification experiment with that of the
prediction. If the results match the predication, then the optimum
conditions are considered to be OK; otherwise, additional analysis and
experimentation are needed
Case study
The use of Taguchi's method for a typical process control example is illustrated
below.
Problem definition:
Consider a project where we are interested in determining the effect of four
process parameters: Temperature (A), Pressure (B), Settling time (C), and
Cleaning methods (D) on the formation of certain surface defects in a chemical
vapour deposition (CVD) process. Suppose for each parameter three settings are
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chosen to cover the range of interest. The different factors and their levels are
listed in Table 1.
Table. 1 Factors and their levels .
Factor Levels *
1 2 3
A. Temperature (0 C) T0 - 25 T0 T0 + 25
B. Pressure (m tor) P0 -200 P0 P0 +200
C. Settling time(min) t0 t0 +8 t0 +16
D. Cleaning method None CM2 CM3
• The starting level for each factor is identified by an underscore.
Objective function:
The objective function is to minimize the number of surface defects, hence the
signal to noise ratio is given by,
η = -10 log 10 (mean square of surface defect count)
The objective function with the above definition for signal to noise ratio gets
transformed to maximization of signal to noise ratio.
Planning of experiments:
Using the list of standard orthogonal array listed in Table 2, an appropriate
orthogonal array is selected. In this case, an L9 array shown in Table 3 will suit
four design factors each with three levels. Table 3 also provides an example of
L18 orthogonal array. A set of sample values of the experimental results with
the measured values of signal-to-noise ratios, is shown in Table 4. Table 5 lists
the average values of for the different factors for their respective levels and the
same are plotted in Fig. 1. The recommended optimum settings for the different
factors can be established from Fig. 1 by selecting the factor levels which yield
maximum values of.
Table 2 Standard orthogonal arrays.
Orthogonal Number Maximum Maximum number of columns at
array * of number of these levels
rows factors
2 3 4 5
L4 4 3 3 - - -
L8 8 7 7 - - -
9 4 - 4 - -
L9
12 11 11 - - -
L12
L16 16 15 15 - - -
L16 16 5 - - 5 -
18 8 1 7 - -
L18
25 6 - - - 6
L25
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L27 27 13 - 13 - -
L32 32 31 31 - - -
32 *10 1 - 9 -
L'32
36 23 11 12 - -
L36 36 16 3 13 - -
L'36
L50 50 12 1 - - 11
L54 54 26 1 25 - -
64 63 63 - - -
L64
64 21 - - 21 -
L'64 81 40 - 40 - -
L81
* 2-level arrays: L4 , L8 , L12 , L16 , L32 , L64 .

3-level arrays: L9 , L27 , L81 .
Mixed 2- and 3- level arrays: L18 , L36 , L'36 , L54 .
Table.3 (a) L18 (21 X 37 ) Orthogonal array .
Column
Expt.
No.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2
3 1 1 3 3 3 3 3 3
4 1 2 1 1 2 2 3 3
5 1 2 2 2 3 3 1 1
6 1 2 3 3 1 1 2 2
7 1 3 1 2 1 3 2 3
8 1 4 2 3 2 1 3 1
9 1 3 3 1 3 2 1 2
10 2 1 1 3 3 2 2 1
11 2 1 2 1 1 3 3 2
12 2 3 1 3 2 2 1 3
13 2 2 1 2 1 3 3 2
14 2 2 2 3 1 2 1 3
15 2 2 3 1 2 3 2 1
16 2 3 1 3 2 3 1 2
17 2 3 2 1 3 1 2 3
18 2 3 3 2 1 2 3 1
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Table 3 (b) .L9 (34 ) Orthogonal array.
Expt. No. Column

1 2 3 4
1 1 1 1 1
2 1 2 2 2
3 1 3 3 3
4 2 1 2 3
5 2 2 3 1
6 2 3 1 2
7 3 1 3 2
8 3 2 1 3
9 3 3 2 1
Table. 4 Matrix experiment.

Column Number and Factor Assigned Observation
*
Expt. No. 1 2 3 4
(dB)
Temperature Pressure Settling Cleaning
(A) (B) Time (C) Method (D)
1 1 1 1 1 η = -20
2 1 2 2 2 η = -10
3 1 3 3 3 η =-30
4 2 1 2 3 η =-25
5 2 2 3 1 η =-45
6 2 3 1 2 η =-65
7 3 1 3 2 η =-45
8 3 2 1 3 η =-65
9 3 3 2 1 η =-70
* η = -10 log 10 ( mean square surface defect count )
Table 5 Average by factor levels.
Factor Level
1 2 3
A. Temperature -20* -45 -60
B. Pressure -30* -40 -55
C. Settling time -50 -35* -40
D.Cleaning method -45 -40* -40*
• Overall mean η = - 41.67 dB. Starting level is identified by an
underscore, and the optimum level is identified by * .
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Fig. 1 Analysis of average effect of factors
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Fig.2. Decomposition of the individual factor effects of the experiment.

Table 6 ANOVA Table for μ.
Factor / source Degrees of Sum of Mean Square F
Freedom Squares
A. Temperature 2 2,450 1,225 12.25
B. Pressure 2 950 475 4.75
C. Settling time 2 350* 175
D.Cleaning 2 50* 25
method
Error 0 0 -
Total 8 3,800
(Error) (4) (400) (100)
F = Variance ratio
In order to determine the relative rating of factors i.e. the ability of factors to
influence the objective function, ANOVA viz. analysis of variance can be
performed. The orthogonal decomposition of the effect of various factors for the
present case is shown Fig. 2. The shaded area shown against the different of
factors is a measure of the influencing capacity of the factor under
consideration. It can be noted from Fig. 2, that changing levels of factors A
(Temperature) and B (Pressure) relatively have significant effects on the
objective function, i.e. number of surface defects and hence they require
stringent control. In a similar manner, factors C (Settling time) and D (Cleaning
method) have no appreciable influence on the measured number of surface
defects and their levels can be decided purely from economic consideration.
These results are tabulated in the ANOVA Table 6. Variance ratio, F that is a
quantitative measure of the relative influencing capacity of the factor under
consideration is also listed in Table 6. The inferences derived above could be
confirmed by studying the Table 6.
A confirmatory experiment for the established optimum combination is to be
performed to ascertain the validity of the above technique. The results of the
experimentally measured value of for the confirmatory experiment must lie
within a range predicted from statistical analysis of the (S/N) ratio, values
obtained for the L9 experiment.
Conclusion
Thus the matrix experiment followed by a verification experiment constitutes a
powerful tool to achieve robustness in product design or process optimization.
Introduction To Taguchi’s Experiment Design
The orthogonal arrays cover a wide range of applications and thus can be used
for solving many problems. Experiment design according to Taguchi has one
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prerequisite; not all interactions of factors need to be recognized and analyzed.

If complete relationships are needed, a full factorial experiment is necessary.
8.24 Design layout for bolt-tightening experiment by means of the orthogonal

array.L8
Frequently during the volume production of vehicles, bolts that are tightened
with a specified torque have no defined pre-load. Presumably, the causes for
this are differences in friction values and settling phenomena on coated
surfaces. However, to analyze the exact cause, a bolt-tightening test is carried
out.
At first, the department responsible determined a test sequence as represented
in Fig1. BY means of homing-in methods, seven factors with two levels each
were eventually selected. Care was taken that one level described an existing
condition and the other level a presumed value that is expected to achieve an
improvement. It was not possible, however, to assign the levels definitely.
Fig.1. Model configuration for a bolt-tightening experiment.
A Surface of part (3) (top side)

A1 = polished A2 = painted
B Tightening side
B1 = tightening the bolt B2 = tightening the nut
C Lubricant
C1 =Yes C2 = no
D Surface nut
D1 = phosphatized D2 = zinc-coated
E Surface of part (5) (bottom side polished)
E1 = painted E2 = polished
F Surface of bolt
F1 = zinc-coated F2 = phosphatized
G Surface of part (3) (bottom side)
G1 = Polished G2 = painted
The above conditions necessitate at 27 experiments, i.e.27 = 128 factor

combinations are necessary to cover all possibilities. If orthogonal arrays are
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used, the number of factor combinations can be reduced to eight without

neglecting one of the main effects.
The test sequence is determined by inserting the specific factor in the columns
of the smallest possible orthogonal array for this problem (Table 1). The first
factor combination of this experiment layout is :
A1B1C1D1E1F1G1
This means that the topside of part (3) is polished, the bolt is tightened, a
lubricant is used, the nut is phosphatized, part (5) is painted, the surface of the
bolt is zinc-coated, and the bottom side of part (3) is polished. The lengths of
the bolts are measured while the bolt is unstressed.
Table 1. Layout by means of the L8 orthogonal array

Factor A B C D E F G
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Factor combination
2 1 1 1 2 2 2 2
3 1 2 2 1 1 2 2
4 1 2 2 2 2 1 2
5 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
6 2 1 2 2 1 2 1
7 2 2 1 1 2 2 1
8 2 2 1 2 1 1 2
After tightening they are measured with regard to a specified torque.Table.3.

Shows relative changes in lengths, multiplied by 100. The test had been
repeated four times per factor combination, and the test sequence had been
randomized.
Table 2. Layout (in detail)
Tight
Factor ABCDEFG Part ening Lubri Nut Part 5 Bolt Part 3 (B)
3(T) side cant
1 1111111 Polished bolt Yes Phoshph Painted Zinc –c Polished
2 1112222 Polished bolt Yes Zinc-c Polished Phoshph Painted
3 1221122 Polished nut No Phoshph Painted Phoshph Painted
4 1222211 Polished nut No Zinc-c Polished Zinc-c Polished
5 2121212 Painted bolt No Phoshph Polished Zinc-c Painted
6 2122121 Painted bolt No Zinc-c Painted Phoshph Polished
7 2211221 Painted nut Yes Phoshph Polished Phoshph Polished
8 2212112 Painted nut yes Zinc -c painted Zinc-c Painted
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Table3. Result of the bolt – tightening test
Factor ABCDEFG 1st rep 2nd rep 3rd rep 4th rep Total
Factor
combination
1 1111111 8.26 7.70 7.20 7.27 30.43
2 1112222 9.93 13.10 10.94 10.07 44.04
3 1221122 8.96 7.67 10.17 9.07 35.87
4 1222211 6.33 5.27 7.04 4.53 23.17
5 2121212 8.90 9.84 8.70 9.00 36.44
6 2122121 9.23 9.00 10.70 9.74 38.67
7 2211221 10.06 10.27 9.90 9.76 39.99
8 2212112 9.63 8.93 7.33 6.70 32.59
Total 71.30 71.78 71.98 66.14 281.20
To compare A1 with A2 proceed as follows:
Add the changes in lengths of factor combination 1, 2, 3 and 4, carried out
under A1 and the changes in lengths of factor combination 5, 6, 7 and 8, carried
out under A2.
Table4. Effects of individual factors of the bolt –tightening experiment
Factor Total result

Factor combination
A1 133.51 8.34
A2 147.69 9.23
B1 149.58 9.35
B2 131.62 8.23
C1 147.05 9.19
C2 134.15 8.38
D1 142.73 8.92
D2 138.47 8.65
E1 137.36 8.16
E2 143.65 8.98
F1 122.63 7.66
F2 158.57 9.91
G1 132.26 8.27
G2 148.94 9.31
In the following, ΣA1 and ΣA2 are the designations for the total results under
conditions A1 and A2.
ΣA1 = 30.43+44.04+35.87+23.17 = 133.51
ΣA2 = 36.44+38.67 +39.99+32.59 = 147.69
If ΣA1 and ΣA2 are divided by 4x4 (four factor combinations and four
repetitions). We obtain the mean change in lengths under the conditions A1 and
A2:
A1 = 8.34 (/100mm)
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A2 = 9.23(/100mm)
The above result shows that the pre-load increases from 8.34 to 9.23, if the top
side of part (3) is painted.
B1 and B2 are compared by way of the mean results of the factor combination
1,2,5 and 6 (B1) as well as the factor combination 3,4,7 and 8 (B2). Thus the
effects of all factors can be calculated simply; Table.4 shows the result.
The above example shows clearly that, in contrast to the one-factor-by-one-
technique where only one factor varies while the others are (apparently) fixed,
the average effect of A1 and A2 (or the main effect A) is achieved by varying the
levels of the other factors. Due to the selective variation of the other factors, the
results of the experiments are more accurate than those of conventional
experiment design methods, since in practice it is usually not possible to
maintain exactly defined levels for each comparison of other factors.
Subsequently, the results are very often not reproducible .The orthogonal
experiment design method, however, is characterized by its high reproducibility.
By considering the sum of factor combination, significant knowledge can be
gained with regard to individual factors. If the influence of A1 and A2 on the
results remains the same, while the other factors vary, the effect of A seems to
be significant.
If results vary considerably with regard to changes of A, A seems not to be
significant. The data can however, only be exactly analyzed by means of a
statistical calculation.
Variance analysis
Based on the sum of length variations in the section above, variance analysis is
carried out as follows (the data are taken from Table3 & 4)
The total number of experiments is 32. From these, the sum of squares of
variations for the mean value can be calculated.
Sm = (Σxi ) 2 /n=CF
=281.22 /32 =2471.05. (f = 1)
The sum of squares of variations for the complete system is :
ST =Σxi2 –CF
ST = 8.262 +7.72 +….+7.332+6.72 – CF
ST = 2565.56 – 2471.05 = 94.51 (f = 31)
The sum of squares of variations for the individual values is
SA = (ΣA1) 2 + (ΣA2) 2 – CF
nA1 nA2
Sa = 133.512 + 147.692 – CF = 6.28 (f=1)
16 16
SB = 149.582 + 131.622 - CF = 10.08 (f=1)
16
Sc = 147.052 + 134.152 - CF = 5.20 (f=1)
16
SD = 147.732 + 138.472 - CF = 0.56 (f=1)
16
SE = 137.562 + 143.642 - CF = 1.16 (f=1)
16
SF = 122.632 + 158.572 - CF = 40.37 (f=1)
16
SG = 132.262 + 148.942 - CF = 8.69 (f=1)
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16
For this experiment, all columns of the orthogonal array have been filled with
factors, i.e. (error from factor combination to factor combination) is zero. Thus
the sum of squares, Se1 is also zero. The total sum of squares of the eight
factors is thus given by the sum of the individual sums of squares.
ST1 = SA + SB + …. + SG
ST1 = 6.28 + 10.09 + ….+ 8.69 = 72.34 (f=7)
(Or)
ST1 = 30.432 + …. + 32.592 – CF (f=7)
4
The sum of squares from repetition to repetition Se2 (e2 = error from repetition
to repetition) is achieved by subtracting the sum of squares of all results from
the sum f squares ST1.
The number of degrees of freedom for Se2 is 31 – 7 = 24. Each factor
combination is repeated four items, i.e. each factor combination ahs 4-1 = 3
degrees of freedom. Thus, the total number of degrees of freedom is again 3x8 =
24. Se2 is calculated as follows.
Se2 = ST – ST1 = 22.17 (f=24)
The above variance analysis is based on the following concept. The data of
factor combinations (1) differ from repetition to repetition. This means that
under apparently equal conditions there are influences such as raw material
variations, layer thickness variations, and different tightening torques, which
affect the specific results. These effects are called temporary effects at
repetition errors. Their calculated value is defined as repetition error or e2. with
:
Vx = Sx
fx
Table 5. ANOVA table for the bolt tightening experiment

F S V F S P (%)
A 1 6.28 6.28* 6.83 5.36 5.67
B 1 10.08 10.08** 10.96 9.16 9.69
C 1 5.20 5.20* 5.65 4.28 4.53
D 1 0.47 0.47o
E 1 1.16 1.16o
F 1 40.37 40.37** 43.88 39.45 41.74
G 1 8.69 8.68** 9.45 7.7 8.22
e1 0 - -
e2 24 22.17 0.92
(e) 26 23.80 0.92
Total 32
and : Fx = Vx
V(e)
and the relationships :
Sx = Sx – (f x V(e))
and : px = 100 x Sx (%)
ST
24
Case Studies
The ANOVA table shown in table is achieved :

The F1/26 table is uniform for all values. From the table of F-values :
F 1/26 (95%) = 4.23
F 1/26 (99%) = 7.72
When compared to the values of the ANOVA table, A and C are significant for
the 95% rate, F and G for the 99% rate, i.e. the probability that they have a
significant influence on the total result is 95% or 99% respectively.
8.26 Determining significant factors

This example still leaves open the question of e1. It is possible, however, to
determine the effects of significant factors.
To get the mean value for A1 the total sums of the first four factor combination
are added and divided by 16:
A1 = 133.51 = 8.34 (/100mm)
16
A2 = 147.69 = 9.23 (/100mm)
16
The variation range of the above values is then determined by means of an F-
distribution. The degree of freedom for the numerator is one, for the
denominator 26. The 95% value from the F table for the above degrees of
freedom is called F 1/26 (95%).
The variation range sis calculated by means of the equation:
√F 1/26 (95%) x V(e)/ne

With Ve representing the pooled error variance. Ve is arrived at through
superposition of the insignificant effects (D,E) onto Ve
V(e) = Se2 + SD + SE
Fe2 +fD + fE
V(e) = 0.47 + 1.16+22.17 = 0.92
1+1+24
ne is the number of repetitions to determine the mean values A1 and A2 from

that we arrive at a value of 16 for ne. This result is also achieved by means of
the equation for an ne
ne = Number of all measurement values

(Number of degrees of freedom fro A0 + (Number of degrees of
freedom for mean value)
ne = 32 = 16
2
Therefore, the confidence interval for 95% of the values is
+ √4.23 x 0.92/16 = +0.49 (/100mm)

Since the degrees of freedom are equal for all parameters, the
above equation applies to all significant factors. Individual effects, such as A
can also be represented graphically (figure 2)
25
Case Studies
Δt
A1 A2
Fig.2. Effect of the surface of part (3) on the total result.
Verification Run
If the effects are additive (monotonous), Table 4 shows optimum conditions, and
the likely pre-load can be determined. From Table the factor levels are
determined according to the criterion for maximum pre-load. Since D and E are
not significant, the version that is cheaper to produce is selected. The optimum
factor combination is:
A2B1C1D1E1F2G2
For values such as failure rates, yield, relative change, or percentages,
the arithmetic mean close to 0 and 100% is not valid. Fro that reason, it is
better to use a hyperbolic approach, i.e. using the method, which
transforms the limits 0 and 1to – and to The process mean value is achieved by
means of the equation:
µ= (A2 – T) + (B1 – T) + (C1 – T) + (F2 –T) + (G2 – T) +T
µ = A2 +B1 + C1 + F2 + G2 -4T
i.e. only the specific improvement achieved via the optimum setting of
the significant factors are added to the mean total result.
The relative changes in lengths for A,B,C,F,G and T are converted by means of a
db value table (see Appendix ) so :
µ(mm/100) = 9.23 + 9.35+9.19 + 9.31 – (4 x 8.79)
becomes:
µ(db) = 9.9274 – 9.8658 – 9.98482 – 9.5860 – 9.8861 – (4x (-10.1605))
µ(db) = - 8.5712
This value is re-converted by means of the db value table to :
µ(mm/100) = 12.19
This means that the average change in length under A2B1C1F2G2 must be 12.19
(/100mm)
Furthermore, we want to know in which range 95% of the values
are to be expected for the optimum. The process average x is given
by the following equation.
x=µ+ √F1/26 (95%)x V(e) x (1/ne +1)
ne takes the following value :
1/ne = 1(for T) + 1 (for A) +1(for B) + 1 (for C) + 1 (for F) + 1 (for G)

_________________________________________________________
26
Case Studies
32
= 6/32
In the numerator, only the degrees of freedom of the significant factors
are taken into consideration.
In to the equation for the process average, we put:
x = 12.19 +√ 4.23 x 0.92 x 6/32+1

x = 12.19 + 2.15 x (1/100mm)
If at least two experiments are carried out under the condition A2B1C1F2G2 the
results must be within the range of x = 12.19 + 2.15
(mm/100), in order to produce statistical proof that an improvement at
a probability of 95% has been achieved. (B and E are not relevant,
thus not significant)
Exercise
During an experiment, the following factors are to be examined.
Factor Levels
A 2
B 2
C 2
Question Assign the factors to an appropriate orthogonal array.
Exercise Carry out a variance analysis

A B C 1st 2nd
repetition
1 1 1 1 22 31
2 1 2 2 32 46
3 2 1 2 52 59
4 2 2 1 43 51
Experiments for which optimization criteria cannot be

clearly determined
In the section above, an experiment with a definitely measurable

criterion was analyzed. There are technical applications, however, where
only good – bad can be defined, or where the result of an experiment can
only be evaluated by means of a rated scale. Please not that a measurable
criterion is preferable in any case!
Experiment results rated by good – bad

Example:
A factor producing picture tubes has prepared a three- factor experiment, in
order to optimize the failure rate of a coating process. The measurement
values in Table represent the number of approved parts per 100 units, i.e.
an approved part had been evaluated with 1, a reject part with 0.
ΣA1 = 93+67 = 160
ΣA2 = 61+97 = 158
ΣB1 = 93+61 = 154
ΣB2 = 67+97 = 164
ΣC1 = 93+97 = 190
ΣC2 = 67+61 = 128
27
Case Studies
The sum of squares of the deviations for the mean value is :

Sm = (Σxi)2 = CF = 3182 = 252.81 (f=1)
n 400
n = 400, since 318 = 318 x 1 and 82x0 (The sum of the units evaluated
with 0 or 1 is 400 = 4 factor combinations x 100 individual results)
Table 6. Experiment layout and data of a factory producing picture

tubes
A B C Data
Factor
Combination 1 1 1 93
1 1 2 2 67
2 2 1 2 61
3 2 2 1 97
4 318
Total
The sum of squares of the individual factors is

SA = (ΣA1)2 + (ΣA2)2 -CF
nA1 nA2
SA = 1602 + 1582 -252.81 = 0.01 (f=1)

200 200
SB = 1542 + 1642 -252.81 = 0.25 (f=1)

200 200
SC = 1902 + 1252 -252.81 = 9.61 (f=1)

200 200
The sum of squares for the complete system is :
ST = 318 – 252.81 = 65.19
ST = SA+SB + SC (f=399)
ST1 = 0.01 +0.25 +9.61 = 9.87 (f=3)
or:
ST1 = (932+672+612+972)x 1/100 – 252.81 = 9.87
Thus the sum of squares of repetition error e2 is :
Se2 = ST – ST1 = 65.19 – 9.87 = 55.32 (f =399-3=396)
The significance test is carried out with F 1/397 (95%) = 3.84 and
F 1/397(99%) = 6.63%. Table 7 shows that factor C is significant at the
99% level.
The optimum factor combination for carrying out the success
run calculation is Ci.
µ = 95
i.e. in the average at level C1 95 out of 100 parts must be sufficient.
28
Case Studies
Table 7. ANOVA table for an experiment to a factor producing

picture tubes
f S V F
A 1 0.01 0.01o -
B 1 0.25 0.25 1.79
C 1 9.61 9.61 68.64**
e2 396 55.32 0.14o -
(e) 397 55.33 0.14 -
T 399 65.19 - -
The values marked with a small circle are added to (e).
The confidence range, within which 95% of the values are to be found, is:
x = µ + √F 1/397(95%) x V(e) x (1/ne +1)
With
1/ne = 1(for T) +1(for C) /400 = 2/400
x = 95+ √3.84 x 0.14 x 2/400+1)
x =95 + 0.74
Experiment result rated by points chart

For practical tests it is very often necessary to evaluate an optimization criterion
by means of a points chart. This can happen in a situation where there are
only subjective check methods or in the case where the optimum depends
on so many individual criteria that the evaluation is carried out by
considering the customer’s point of view above all.
Experience has showed that a scale ranging from one to ten is very
efficient. The chart appears as shown in table 8. These data are evaluated
and analyzed in the same way as measurement values. If this points chart
is used, a maximum is to be strived for, of course.
Table 8 Point chart for subjective evaluation criteria
10 Excellent Commercial
9 Very good
8 Good
7 Satisfactory
6 Acceptable
5 Sufficient
borderline case
4 Insufficient Non-
3 Poor commercial
2 Very poor
1 Extremely poor
29
Design For Manufacturing and Assembly
Effect of Materials and Manufacturing processes on Design
EFFECT OF MATERIAL AND

MANUFACTURING PROCESSES IN DESIGN
Introduction:
Design is the process of translating a new idea or a market need into the
detailed information from which a product can be manufactured. Each of its
stages requires decisions about the materials from which the product is to
be made and the process for making it. The number of materials available to
the engineer is vast: between 40000 and 80000. At the beginning the design
is fluid and the options are wide; all materials must be considered. As the
design becomes more focused and takes shape, the selection criteria
sharpen and the shortlist of materials, which can satisfy them, narrows.
Then more accurate data are required and a different way of analyzing the
choice must be used. In final stages of design, precise data are needed and
the search finally comes to only one. The procedure must recognize the
initial choice, the narrow this to a small subset, and provide the precision
and detail on which final design calculations can be based.
The choice of material cannot be made independently of the choice of

process by which the material to be formed, joined, finished, and otherwise
treated. Cost enters, both in the choice of material is processed. Good design
alone will not sell a product. Industrial design is one that, if neglected, can
also loss the manufacturer his market.
So, Engineering materials are evolving faster, so there are wide options,
which pave way for new innovations. It is important in the early part of
design to examine the full materials, which fulfill the requirements, and
subsequently deciding upon the manufacturing processes. For this, the
knowledge of the Effect of material properties and manufacturing processes
is required.
Major Phases of Design:

Introduction:
Engineering design work is usually performed on three different levels:
1. Development of existing products or designs, i.e., redesign, by

introducing minor modifications in size, shape or materials to
improve performance.
2. Adaptation of an existing product or design to operate in new
environment or to perform a different function.
3. Creation of totally new design that has no precedent. This work is
more demanding in experience and creativity of the designer.
1
Major Phases of Design:

Engineering design is usually an iterative process, which involves a series of
decision-making steps where each decision establishes the framework for the
next one. There is no single, universally recognized sequence of steps that
leads to a workable design as these depends on nature of the problem being
solved as well as the size and structure of the organization.
However, a design usually passes through most of the phases, which are
shown in the Fig 1.
1. Identification of the problem and evaluating the need in order to

define the objective of the design represent the first phase of the
design in most cases.
2. Functional requirements and operational limitations are directly
related to the required characteristics of the product and are specified
as a result of the active phase I.
3. System definition, concept formulation, and preliminary layout are
usually completed, in this order, before evaluating the operating loads
and determining the form of the different components or structural
members.
4. Consulting design codes and collecting information on material
properties will allow the designer to perform preliminary material
selection, preliminary design calculations, and rough estimation of
manufacturing requirements.
5. The evaluation phase involves a comparison of the expected
performance of the design with the performance requirements
established in phase 2.Evaluation of the different solution and
selection of the optimum alternative can be performed using decision-
making techniques, modeling techniques, experimental work and /or
prototypes.
6. In some cases, it is not possible to arrive at a design that fulfills all
the requirements and compiles with all the limitations established in
phase2. This means that these requirements and compiles with all the
limitations established in phase 2.
7. Having arrived at final design, the project then enters the detailed
design stage where it is converted in to a detailed and finished form
for suitable for use in manufacturing. The preliminary design layout,
any available detail drawings, models and prototypes, and access to
the developer of the preliminary design usually form the basis of the
detailed design.
8. The next step in the detailed design phase is detailing, which involves
the creation of detail drawings for every part .All the information that
is necessary to unambiguously define the part should be recorded in
detailed drawing. The material of the part should also be selected and
specified by reference to standard codes.
2
Major phases of design

Constraints
Safety, LOP Fig 1
1. Identification of the problem
Unavailable
Yes Files
information R&D
Patents
No
2. Functional requirements
3. Concept formulation
and preliminary layout.
4. Preliminary material and process

Material selection.
properties,
Design Codes
No
Information Modeling and simulation
sufficient to Prototype
reach feasible Expt.Work.
solution?
Yes
5. Evaluate solution with
functional requirements. Sales
Marketing
Prospective customers
No
Acceptable Revise Functional
Design? requirements.
Yes
Detail Design
Detailing Specifications for standard

Materials and processes items.
specified.
Yes
Design
Changes
necessary
No
Marketing
4. Bill of Materials Purchase and
Accounting.
Manufacturing
Customer
3
9. An important part of the detailed design phase is the preparation of

the bill of materials, sometimes called parts list .The bill of materials
is a hierarchical listing of everything that goes into the final product
including fasteners and purchased parts. Close interaction between
design, manufacturing, and materials engineers is important at this
stage.
10. The relationship between the designer and the product does not
usually end at the manufacturing or even delivery stages. The
manufacturing engineer may ask the detailed designer for a change in
some parts to make fabrication easier or cheaper. Finally when the
product gets in to use, the reaction of the consumer and the
performance of the product in service are of concern to the designer
as the feedback represents an important source of information for the
future design modifications.
Effect of Material Properties on Design:

Introduction:
Materials are the food of design. A successful product is one that performs
well, is good value for money and gives pleasure to the user. A successful
design should take in to account the function, material properties and
manufacturing processes, as shown in the following fig., in the context of
selection of material, there are many classes of materials metals, polymers,
and ceramics but in the end, what we seek is a profile of properties.
Function
And
Consumer
Requirement
Component
Design
Manufacturing
Process Material
Properties
Fig 2 Factors that should be considered in component design.
This figure shows that there are other secondary relationships between
material properties and manufacturing processes, and between function and
material properties.
4
The relationship between design and material properties is complex because

the behavior of the material in the finished product is quite different from
that of stock material used in making it. This point is illustrated in the
following Fig.3
Properties of
Stock
materials.
Behavior of
material in
the
Component
Component
Effect of
Geometry and
fabrication
External forces method
Fig 3, Factors that should be considered in anticipating the behavior of

material in the component.
This figure shows the direct influence of the stock material properties
production method, and component geometry and external forces on the
behavior of materials in the finished component. It also shows the secondary
relationships exist between geometry and production method, and between
stock materials and component geometry.
Effect of Component Geometry:

In most cases, engineering components and machine elements have to
incorporate design features, which introduce changes in cross-section. These
changes cause localized stress concentrations, which are higher than those,
based upon the nominal cross-section of the part.
Stress Concentration Factor:

A geometrical or theoretical stress concentration factor K t, is usually used to
relate the maximum stress, Smax, at the discontinuity to nominal stress,
S av , according to the relationship:
K t = Smax/ S av
In making a design, K t is usually determined from the geometry of the part.
Under static loading Kt gives an upper limit to the stress concentration value
and applies only to brittle and notch –sensitive materials. With more ductile
materials, local yielding in the very small area of maximum stress causes a
5
considerable relief in the stress concentration. So, for ductile materials

under static loading, it is not usually necessary to consider the stress
concentration factor.
Guidelines for design:
Stress concentration can be a source of failure in many cases,

especially when designing with the high-strength materials and under
fatigue loading. In such cases, the following guidelines should be observed if
the stress concentrations are to be kept minimum.
1. Abrupt changes in cross-section should be avoided. If they are
necessary, generous fillet radii or stress-relieving grooves should be
provided.
2. Slots and grooves should be provided with the generous run-out radii
in all corners.
3. Stress-relieving grooves or undercuts should be provided at the ends
of threads and spines.
4. Sharp internal corners and external edges should be avoided.
5. Oil holes and similar features should be chamfered and the bore
should be smooth.
6. Weakening features like the bolt and oil holes, identification marks,
and the part numbers should not be located in highly stressed areas.
7. Weakening features should be staggered to avoid the addition of their
stress concentration factors.
Fig 4 Stress concentration factor on Design.
6
Designing for Static Strength:

Designs bases on static strength usually aims at avoiding yielding of the
component in the case of soft, ductile materials and at avoiding fracture in
the case of strong, low-toughness materials.
Designing for Simple Axial Loading:
Components and structures made from ductile materials are usually

designed so that no yield will take place under the expected static loading
conditions. When a component is subjected to uniaxial stress, yielding will
take place when the local stress reaches the yield strength of the material.
The critical cross-sectional area, A,
Of such a component can be estimated as :
A= K t nL/YS
Where Kt = Stress concentration factor,
L = applied Load,
N = factor of safety,
YS= yield strength of the material
Designing for Torsional Loading:
The critical cross-sectional area of a circular shaft subjected to torsional

loading can be determined from the relationship:
2I p /d = Kt nT/
where d = shaft diameter at the critical cross-section,
= Maximum shear strength of the material
T = transmitted Torque,
I p = polar moment of inertia of the cross-section
= π d 4/ 32 for a solid circular shaft
= π(d4 o – d4 i )/ 32 for a hollow shaft of inner dia d i and outer dia d o
Design for Bending:
When a relatively long beam is subjected to ending, the bending moment, the
maximum allowable stress, and the dimensions of the cross-section are
related by the equation:
Z = (nM)/YS
where M = bending moment.

Z = section modulus = I/c,
I = moment of inertia of the cross-section with respect to the neutral
axis normal to the direction of the load.
c = distance from the center of gravity of the cross-section to the
outermost fiber.
Designing for Stiffness:

In addition to being strong enough to resist the expected service loads, there
may also be the added requirement of stiffness to ensure that deflections do
not exceed certain limits.
7
When an initially straight beam is loaded, it becomes curved as a result of its

deflection. As the deflection at a given point increases, the radius of
curvature at this point decreases. The radius of curvature, r, at any point on
the curve is given by the relationship:
r = EI /M
The equation shows us that the stiffness of a beam under bending is

proportional to the elastic constant of the material, E, and the moment of
inertia of the cross-section, I. Therefore, selecting materials with higher
elastic constant and efficient disposition of material in the cross-section are
essential in designing beams for stiffness.
Torsional Rigidity of Shafts:
The torsional rigidity of a component is usually measured by the angle of

twist, ø, per unit length, where
Ø = T/ G I p
Where G = modulus of elasticity in shear
= E/2(1+v)
Where v = Poisson’s ratio.
The usual practice is to limit the angular deflection in shafts to about 1
degree in a length of 20 times the diameter.
Designing With High-Strength, Low Toughness

Materials:
High-strength is being increasingly used in designing critical components to
save weight or to meet difficult service conditions. These materials tend to be
less tolerant of defects than the traditional lower-strength, tougher
materials. While a crack-like defect can safely exist in a part of lower-
strength ductile material, it can cause a catastrophic failure if the same part
is made of a high-strength, low toughness material.
In designing with the high-strength, low toughness materials, the interaction

between fracture toughness of the material, the allowable crack size, and the
design stress should be considered. In the case of high-strength, low-
toughness material, as the design stress increases (or as the size of the flaw
increases) the stress concentration at the edge of the crack, the stress
intensity K I increases until it reaches K IC and fracture occurs.
K I = K IC = YF s (πa)1/2
where F s = fracture stress (controlled by the applied load and shape of the
part)
a = quality control parameter (controlled by the manufacturing
method)
8
Y = dimensionless shape factor. (Estimated experimentally,

analytically or numerically)
Designing against Fatigue:

In majority of cases the reported fatigue strengths or endurance limits of
materials are based on tests of carefully prepared small samples under
laboratory conditions. Such values cannot be directly used for design
purposes because the behavior of the component or structure under fatigue
loading does depend not only on the fatigue or endurance limit of the
material used in making it, but also on several other factors including:
¾ Size and shape of the component or structure
¾ Type of loading and state of stress.
¾ Stress concentration
¾ Surface finish
¾ Operating temperature
¾ Service environment
¾ Method of Fabrication.
The influence of the above factors on the fatigue behavior of the component
can be accounted for by modifying the endurance limit of the material using
a number of factors. Each of these factors is less than unity and each one is
intended to account for a single effect.
S e = k a k b k c k d k e k f k g k h S′ e
Where, S e = endurance limit of the material in the component.
S′ e = endurance limit of the material as determined by laboratory
fatigue test.
k a = surface finish factor.
Surface finish factor varies between unity and 0.2 depending upon
surface finish and strength of the material.
k b = size factor.
Size factor is 1.0 for component diameter less than 10mm; 0.9 for
component diameter in the range of 10 to 50 mm.
k c = reliability factor.
Reliability factor is 0.900 for 90% reliability
0.814 For 99% reliability
0.752 For 99.9% reliability
k d = operating temperature factor.
Operating temperature value is 1.0 in the range of -45° to 450°C
Its value is 1- 5800(T-450) for T between 450° - 550°C
Its value is 1- 3200(T- 840) for T between 840°- 1020°C
k e = loading factor.
Loading factor is equal to 1 for applications involving bending.
It is equal to 0.9 for axial loading.
It is equal to 0.58 for torsional loading.
k f =stress concentration factor.
k g = service environment factor.
Service Environment factor varies from 0.72 to 0.19
k h = manufacturing process factor.
Manufacturing factor is generally taken as 0.3-0.5.
9
The above equation can be used to predict the behavior of the component or
a structure under fatigue conditions provided that the values of the different
modifying factors are known.
Cumulative Fatigue Damage:
Engineering components and structures are often subjected to different

fatigue stresses in service. Estimation of the fatigue life under variable
loading conditions is normally based on the concept of cumulative fatigue
damage, which assumes that successive stress cycles cause a progressive
deterioration in the component.
The Palmgren -Miner rule, also called Miner's rule proposes that if a cyclic
stressing occurs at a series of stress levels S 1 , S2, S3…..S i each of which
would correspond to a failure life of N 1 , N2, N3,….N i if applied singly, then
the fraction of total life used a each stress level is the actual number of
cycles applied at this level n 1 , n2, n3, .n i divided by the corresponding life.
The part is expected to fail when the cumulative damage satisfies the
relationship:
n1 n 2 n3 ni
+ + + ......... + =C
N1 N 2 N3 Ni
The constant C can be determined experimentally and is usually found to be

in the range of 0.7-2.2. The Palmgren - Miner rule does not take in to
account the sequence of loading nor the effect of mean stress and it should
be taken as rough guide to design.
Designing under High-Temperature Conditions:

Service temperature has a considerable influence on the strength of
materials and consequently, on the working stress used in design.
Depending on the temperature range, the design can be based on:
1. Short-time properties of the material, i.e., ultimate tensile strength,

yield strength for moderate temperatures.
2. Both the short time and creep properties for intermediate
temperature range.
3. Creep properties of the materials for high temperatures.
In addition to creep, the other factors, which must be taken in to

consideration when designing for elevated temperatures, include:
1. Metallurgical and micro structural changes, which occur in the
material owing to long-time exposure to elevated temperature.
2. Influence of method of fabrication, especially welding, on creep
behavior.
3. Oxidation and hot corrosion, which may take, place during service
and shutdown periods.
10
Design guidelines:
For design purposes, creep properties are usually presented on plots, which
yield reasonable straight lines. Common methods of presentation include
log-log plots of stress vs. steady state creep rates and stress vs. time to
produce different amounts of total strain as shown in the Fig.5. A change in
the microstructure of the material is usually accompanied by a change in
creep properties, and consequently a change in the slope of the line.
Stress (log scale)
Increasing
temperature
Creep rate (%/1000h) (log scale)
Fig5, Variation of stress with steady-state creep rate at various

temperatures.
Rupture
Stress (log scale)
Strength
Increasing total
strain
Time (h) (Log scale)

Fig.6, Variation of stress with time to produced different amounts of total
strain at a given temperature.
11
Larsen- Miller Parameter:
In many cases, creep data are incomplete and have to supplemented or

extended by interpolation or, more hazardously, extrapolation. This is
particularly true of long-time creep and stress-rupture data where the
100,000 hour (11.4 years) creep resistance of newly developed materials is
required. Reliable extrapolation of creep and stress-rupture curves to longer
times can be made only when no structural changes occur in the region of
extrapolation. Such changes can affect the creep resistance, which would
result in considerable errors in the extrapolated values.
The basic idea of these parameters is that they permit the prediction of long-
time creep behavior from the results of shorter time tests at higher
temperatures at the same stress. A widely used parameter for correlating the
stress rupture data is the Larson-Miller parameter (LMP), where LMP is
described as,
LMP = T(C + log t r )
Where T= the test temperature in kelvin (°C+273) or degrees Rankine (°F+

460)
t r = time to rupture in hours (the log is to the base 10)
C= the Larson- Miller constant which generally falls between 17 and
23, but is often taken to be 20.
100
Stress (Mpa)
10
20 30 40
T(C+logt)
Fig.7 Larsen-Miller Plots.
12
Life under Variable Loading
The stress-rupture life of a part or a structure, which is subjected to a

variable loading, can be roughly estimated if the expected life at each stress
level is known. Under such conditions, the life fraction rule assumes that
rupture occurs when:
t1 t 2 t 3
+ + + ....+ = 1.
tr1 tr 2 tr3
Where t1, t2, t3, are the times spent by the part under stress levels 1,
2, 3… respectively.
tr1, tr2, tr3…. are the rupture lives of the part under stress levels 1,
2, 3...
respectively.
Life under Combined Fatigue And Creep Loading:
Similar reasoning can also be applied to predict the life of a part or a

structure when subjected to combined creep and fatigue loading. Cumulative
fatigue damage laws,e.g. Palmgren-Miner Law, can be combined with the life
fraction rule, given in the equation, to give a rough estimate of expected life
under combined creep-fatigue loading. Thus:
t1 t 2 t 3 n1 n 2 n 3
+ + + ... + + + + ..... = 1
tr1 tr 2 tr3 N1 N 2 N3
Where n1, n2, n3... are the number of cycles at stress levels 1, 2, 3…
respectively.
N1, N2, N3… are the fatigue lives at stress levels 1, 2, 3… respectively.
Effect of Manufacturing Process on Design

Introduction
It is now widely recognized that design, materials selection, and
manufacturing are intimately related activities, which cannot be performed
in isolation of each other. Creative designs may never develop into
marketable products unless they can be manufactured economically at the
required level of performance. In many cases, design modifications are made
to achieve production economy or to suit existing production facilities and
environment. Modifications of design may also be made in order to improve
quality and performance, in which case the cost of production may increase.
13
Design Considerations for Cast Components

Casting covers a wide range of processes which can be used to shape almost
any metallic and some plastics in a variety of shapes, sizes, accuracy, and
surface finish. In some cases, casting represents the obvious and only way of
manufacturing, as in the case of components made of the different types of
cast iron or cast alloys. In many other applications, however a decision has
to be made whether it as advantageous to cast a product or to use another
method of manufacture. In such cases, the following factors should be
considered:
1. Casting is particularly suited for parts which contain internal cavities

that are inaccessible, too complex, or too large to be easily produced by
machining.
2. It is advantageous to cast complex parts when required in large numbers,
especially if they are to be made of aluminum or zinc alloys.
3. Casting techniques can be used to produce a part, which is one of a kind
in a variety of materials, especially when it is not feasible to make it by
machining.
4. Precious metals are usually shaped by casting, since there is little or no
loss of materials.
5. Parts produced by casting have isotropic properties, which could be
important requirements in some applications.
6. Casting is not competitive when the parts can be produced by punching
from sheet or by deep drawing.
7. Extrusion can be preferable to casting in some cases, especially in the
case of lower- melting nonferrous alloys.
8. Castings are not usually a viable solution when the material is not easily
melted, as in the case of metals with very high melting points such as
tungsten.
A general rule of solidification is that the shape of the casting should allow
the solidification front to move uniformly from one end toward the feeding
end, i.e. directional solidification. This can most easily be achieved when the
casting has virtually uniform thickness in all sections. In most cases this is
not possible. However, when section thickness must change, such change
should be gradual, in order to give rise to stress concentration and possible
hot tears in the casting. Figure 8.gives some guidelines to avoid these
defects.
Another problem, which arises in solidification, is caused by sharp corners;

these also give rise to stress concentration and should be replaced by larger
radii. When two sections cross or join, the solidification process is
interrupted and a hot spot results. Hot spots retard solidification and
usually cause porosity and shrinkage cavities.
14
Effect of material properties

The type and composition of the material play an important
rtant part in
determining the shape, minimum section thickness, and strength of the
casting. Materials, which have large solidification shrinkage and contain low
– melting phases are susceptible to hot tears. Another material variable is
cast ability, which can be related to the minimum section thickness, which
can be achieved. It should be noted that the shape and size of the casting
as well as the casting process and foundry practice could affect the
minimum section thickness.
Correct Designs Incorrect designs
Solidifications of intersecting sections results in hot

spots and shrinkage activities
Stagger section Use a core or Use External Use a riser

internal chill Chills
Fig 8
Design Considerations for Molded Plastic Components

Compression, transfer, and injection molding processes are the commonly
used methods of molding plastic components. These processes involve the
introduction of fluid or a semi fluid material into a mould cavity and
permitting it to solidify into the desired shape.
Guidelines for design
Experience shows that the mechanical, electrical, and chemical properties of

molded components are influenced by the flow of the molten plastic as it fills
the mold cavity. Streamlined flow will avoid gas pockets in heavy – sectioned
areas.
An important common feature in molding processes is draft, which is

required for easy ejection of molded parts from the mold cavity. A taper of 1
to 4 degree is usually used for polymers, but tapers of less than 1 degree can
15
be used for deep articles. Another common feature is the uniform thickness.
Non-uniformity of thickness in a molded piece tends to produce non-uniform
cooling and unbalanced shrinkage leading to internal stresses and warpage.
If thickness variations are necessary, generous fillets should be used to allow

a gradual change in thickness. The effect of junctions and corners can also
be reduced by using a radius instead, as shown in Fig 9.The nominal wall
thickness must obviously such that the part is sufficient strong to carry the
expected service loads. However, it is better to adjust the shape of the part to
cope with the applied load than to increase the wall thickness. This is
because thick sections retard the molding cycle and require more materials.
The presence of holes disturbs the flow of the material during molding and a
weld line occurs in the side of the hole away from the direction of flow. This
results in a potentially weak point and some from of strengthening, such as
bosses may be necessary as in Fig 10.Through holes are preferred to blind
holes from a manufacturing standpoint. This is because core prints can
often be supported in both halves of the mold in the case of through holes,
but can only be supported from one end in the case of blind holes.
Accuracy of molded parts.
Dimensional tolerances in molded plastic parts are affected by the type and
constitution of the material, shrinkage of the material, heat and pressure
variables in the molding process, and the toolmaker’s tolerances on the mold
manufacture. Shrinkage has two components:
Mold shrinkage, which occurs upon solidification; and
After shrinkage, this occurs in some materials after 24 hours.
For example, a thermosetting plastic like melamine has mold shrinkage of
about 0.7 to 0.9 %, and an after shrinkage of 0.6 to 0.8%. Thus a total
shrinkage of about 1.3 to 1.7 % should be considered. On the other hand, a
thermoplastic like polyethylene may shrink as much as 5% and nylon as
much as 4%. In addition, the value of tolerance depends on the size of the
part. Larger dimensions are normally accompanied by larger tolerances. For
example, dimensions less than 25mm (1 in) can be held within ±50 μm.
Larger dimensions are usually given tolerances of ±10 to 20 μm/cm. The
value of tolerances also depends on the direction in relation to the parting
plane.
Poor Design Better Design
(a)
Fig 9 some design features of plastic parts. (a) Using radii instead of sharp
corners.
16
(b)
Fig 10 some design features of plastic parts (b) Use of bosses to strengthen
areas round holes and slots.
Design Considerations for Forged Components

Forging processes represent an important means of producing relatively
complex parts for high-performance applications. In many cases forging
represents a serious competitor to casting especially for solid parts that have
no internal cavities. Forged parts have wrought structures, which are
usually stronger, more ductile, contain less segregation, and are likely to
have less internal defects than cast parts. This is because the extensive hot
working, which is usually involved in forging, closes existing porosity, refines
the grains, and homogenizes the structure.
On the other hand, cast parts are more isotropic than forged parts, which
usually have directional properties. This directionality is due to the fibre
structure, which results from grain flow and elongation of second phases in
the direction of deformation. Forged components are generally stronger and
more ductile in the direction of fibres than across the fibres.
Guidelines for Design
Rapid changes in thickness should be avoided because these could result in

laps and cracks in the forged metal as it flows in the die cavity. To prevent
these defects, generous radii must be provided at the locations of large
changes in thickness. Another similarity with casting is that vertical
surfaces of a forging must be tapered to permit removal from the die cavity.
A draft of 5 to 10 degrees is usually provided. It is better to locate the parting

line near the middle of the part in order to avoid deep impression in either of
the two halves of the die and allows easier filling of the die cavity. A design
would be more economically produced by forging if dimensions across the
parting line are given appropriate mismatch allowance, and parallel
dimension are given a reasonable die closure allowance. Specifying close
17
tolerances to these dimensions could require extensive machining which

would be expensive.
Machined Forged
Fig 11 Schematic comparison of the grain flow in forged and machined

Components.
Design Considerations for Powder Metallurgy Parts

Powder metallurgy (P/M) techniques can be used to produce a large number
of small parts to the final shape in few steps, with little or no machining, and
at high rates. Many metallic alloys, ceramic materials, and particulate
reinforced composites can be processed by P/M techniques. Generally, parts
produced by the traditional P/M techniques contain 4 to 10 vol % porosity.
The amount of porosity depends on part shape, type and size of powder,
lubrication used, pressing pressure, sintering temperature and time, and
finishing treatments.
The distribution and volume fraction of porosity greatly affect the

mechanical, chemical, and physical properties of parts prepared by P/M
techniques. An added advantage of P/M is versatility. Materials that can be
combined in no other way can be produced by P/M. Aluminum - graphite
bearings, copper - graphite electrical brushes, cobalt - tungsten carbide
cutting tools (cermets), and porous bearings and filters are such.
The Powder Metallurgy Parts Association and Metal Powder Industries

Federation have made certain rules. They are:
1. The shape of the part must permit ejection from the die, Fig 12
2. Parts with straight walls are preferred. No draft is required for ejection
from lubricated dies.
3. Parts with undercuts or holes at right angles to the direction of pressing
cannot be made, Fig 13.
4. Straight serrations can be made easily, but diamond knurls cannot, Fig
18
14.
5. Since pressure is not transmitted uniformly through a deep bed of
powder, the length/diameter ratio of a mechanical pressed part should not
exceed about 2.5: 1.
Fig 12 Reverse taper should be avoided, use parallel sides and machine the
Required taper after sintering.
Fig 13 undercuts and holes at right angles to pressing direction should be

avoided; if necessary such features are introduced by machining after
sintering.
Fig 14 Diamond knurls should be replaced by straight serrations.
Design of Sheet - Metal Parts
Parts made from sheet metal cover a wide variety of shapes, sizes, and
materials. Many examples are found in the automotive, aircraft, and
consumer industries. Generally, sheet-metal parts are produced by shearing,
bending, and/or drawing. The grain size of the sheet material is important
and should be closely controlled. Steel of 0.035 - 0.040 mm (0.001 - 0.0016)
19
grain size is generally acceptable for deep- drawing applications. When

formability is the main requirement in a sheet material, drawing - quality
low carbon steels represents the most economic alternative.
The most important factor, which should be considered when designing

parts that are to be made by bending, is bend ability. This is related to the
ductility of the material and is expressed in terms of the smallest bend
radius that does not crack the material. Bend ability of a sheet is usually
expressed as 2T, 3T, 4T, etc. A 2T material has greater bend ability than a
3T material.
Another factor which should be considered when designing for bending is

spring back, which is caused by the elastic recovery of the material when the
bending forces are removed. One way of compensating for spring back is to
over bend the sheet. Another method is bottoming which eliminates the
elastic recovery by subjecting the bend area to high-localized stresses.
Designs Involving Joining Processes

The major function of a joint is to transmit stress from one part to another
and in such case the strength of the joint should be sufficient to carry the
expected service loads. In some applications, tightness of the joint is also
necessary to prevent leakage. Because joints represent areas of
discontinuities in the assembly, they should be located in low-stress regions
especially in dynamically loads structures.
Welding
Welding has replaced riveting in many applications including steel

structures, boilers, tanks, and motorcar chassis. This is because riveting is
less versatile and always requires lap joint. Also, the holes and rivets
subtract from strength, and a riveted joint can only be about 85%as strong,
whereas a welded joint can be as strong as the parent metal. Welded joints
are easier to inspect and can be made gas and liquid-tight without the
caulking which has to be done in riveted joints. On the negative side,
however, structures produced by welding are monolithic and behave as one
piece. This could adversely affect the fracture behavior of the structure. For
example, a crack in one piece of a multipiece riveted structure may not be
serious, as it will seldom progress beyond the piece without detection.
However, in the case of a welded structure, a crack that starts in a single
plate or weld may progress for a large distance and cause complete failure.
Another factor, which should be considered when designing a welded

structure, is the effect of size on the energy-absorption ability to steel. A
Charpy impact specimen could show a much lower brittle-ductile transition
temperature than a large welded structure made of the same material.
20
Guidelines for design of weldments
1.Welded structures and joints should be designed to have sufficient

flexibility. Structures that are too rigid do not allow shrinkage of the weld
metal, have restricted ability to redistribute stress, and are subjected to
distortions and failure.
2. Accessibility of the joint for welding, welding position and component

match-up are important elements of the design.
3. Thin sections are easier to weld than thick ones.
4. Welded section should be about the same thickness to avoid excessive

heat distortion.
5. It is better to locate welded joints symmetrically around the axis of an

assembly in order to reduce distortion.
6. Whenever possible the meet of several welds should be avoided.
7. Use weld fixtures and clamps to avoid distortion.
Adhesive Bonding
Adhesives represent an attractive method of joining and their use is

increasing in many applications. Some of main advantages in using
Adhesives are as follows:
1. Thin sheets and parts of dissimilar thickness can be easily bonded.

2. Adhesive bonding is the most logical method of joining polymer-
Matrix composites.
3. Adhesives are electrical insulators and can prevent galvanic
Action in joints between dissimilar metals.
4. Flexible adhesives spread bonding stresses over wide areas and
Accommodate differential thermal operation.
5. Flexible adhesives can absorb shocks and vibrations, which
Increases fatigue life.
6. The preparation of bonded joins requires no fastener holds, which
Gives better structural integrity and allows thinner gage materials to
be used.
The main limitations of adhesives are as follows:
1. Bonded joints are weaker under cleavage and peel loading than
under tension or shear.
2. Most adhesives cannot be used at service temperatures above 300
Degree C(600 degree F).
3. Solvents can attack adhesive-bonded joints.
4. Some adhesives are attacked by ultraviolet light, water, and ozone.
5. The designer should also be aware of the adhesive's impact resistance
And creep, or cold flow, strength.
21
Design of adhesive joints
The strength of the adhesive joint depends on the geometry, the direction of
loading in relation to the adhesive material, surface preparation, and
application and curing technique. As the bonded area limits the strength of
an adhesive joint, lab and double-strap joints are generally prepared to butt
joints. If the geometry constrains do not allow for such joints, a scarf or
double -scarf joint should be made.
When a lab joint is used to bond thin sections, tensile shear causes
deflection, and this results in stress concentration at the end of the lab.
Tapering the ends of the joints, gives more uniform loading throughout the
joint. Since adhesive joints are weaker under peeling forces, joint design
should avoid this type of loading.
Designs Involving Heat Treatment:

Heat treatment represents an important step in the sequence of processes
that are usually performed in the manufacture of metallic parts. Almost all
ferrous and many nonferrous alloys can be heat treated to achieve certain
desired properties. Heat treatment can be used to make the material hard
and brittle, as in the case of annealing.
Generally, hardening of steels involves heating to the austenitic temperature

range, usually 750 to 900 °C (1400 to 1650° F), and then quenching to form
the hard martensitic phase. The nonuniform temperature distribution that
occurs during quenching and the volume change that accompanies the
martenstic transformation can combine to cause distortions, internal
stresses, and even cracks in the heat treated part. Internal stresses can
warp or dimensional changes when the quenched part is subsequently
machined or can combine with externally applied stresses to cause failure.
Corrosion problems can also be aggravated owing to the presence of internal
stresses. These difficulties can be reduced or eliminated by selecting steels
with hardenability as they require a less cooling rate to achieve a given
hardness value. Manganese, chromium, molybdenum are commonly added
to steels to increase their hardenability.
Designs Involving Machining Processes

The following discussion illustrates some component shapes and features
which can cause difficulties in machining, take an undue length of time to
machine, call for precision and skill that may not be available, or which may
even be impossible to machine by standard machine tools and cutting tools.
1. The workpiece must have a reference surface, which is suitable for
holding it on the machine tool or in a fixture. This could be a flat base or
a cylindrical surface.
2. Whenever possible, the design should allow all the machining operations
to be completed without resetting or reclamping.
3. Whenever possible, the radii between the different machined surfaces
should be equal to the nose radius of the cutting tool.
4. If the part is to be machined by traditional cutting methods, deflection
under cutting forces should be taken into account. For the same cutting
22
force, the deflection is higher for thinner parts and for lower elastic
moduli. Under these conditions, some means of support is necessary to
ensure the accuracy of the machined part.
5. Features at an angle to the main machining direction should be avoided
as they may require special attachments or tooling. Fig 15
6. To reduce the cost of machining, machined areas should be minimum as
shown Fig 16
7. Cutting tools often require run-out space, as they cannot be retracted
immediately. This is particularly important in the case of grinding where
the edges of the grinding wheel wear out faster than the center. Fig 17
gives some examples to illustrate this point.
(a) (b) (c)
Fig 15 (a) Poor design as drill enters and exists at an angle to the surface.
(b) Better design, but drilling the holes need a special attachment.
(c) Best design.
Poor design Better Design
Added
materials to
reduce
machine area
Relief’s to
reduce
machined
areas
Fig 16 Some design details which can be introduced to reduce machining.
23
Fig 17 Some design details which can be introduced to give run-out for
grinding wheels.
The Materials Selection Process:

One of the most important requisites for the development of a satisfactory
product at a competitive cost is making sound economic choices of
engineering designs, materials, and manufacturing processes. The large
number of materials and the many manufacturing process available to the
engineer, coupled with the complex relationships between the different
selection parameters, often make the selection process a difficult task. A
rigorous and through approach to materials selection is, however, often not
followed in industry and much selection is based on past experience.
It is often said, “When in doubt make it stout out of the stuff you know
about.” While it is unwise to totally ignore past experience, the frequent
introduction of new materials and manufacturing process, in addition to the
increasing pressure to produce more economic and competitive products,
make it necessary for the engineer to be always on the lookout for possible
improvement. The reasons for reviewing the types of material and processes
used in making an existing product are:
1. Taking advantage of new materials or processes.

2. Improving service performance, including longer life and higher
reliability.
3. Meeting new legal requirements.
4. Accounting for changed operating conditions.
5. Reducing cost and making the product more competitive.
Selecting the optimum combination of material and process can be

performed at one certain stage in the history of a project; it should gradually
evolve during the different stages of product development. These are:
1. Analysis of the performance requirements.

2. Development of alternative solutions to the problem.
3. Evaluation of the different solutions.
4. Decision on the optimum solution
24
Analysis of the Material Performance Requirements:

Functional Requirements:
Functional requirements are directly related to the required characteristics

of the part or the product. For example, if the part carries a uniaxial tensile
load, the yield strength of the material can be directly related to the load-
carrying capacity of the product. For the evaluation process of the
characteristics of material properties like thermal shock resistance, wear
resistance, reliability etc., and simulation service tests are employed.
Processability Requirements:
The Processability of the material is a measure of its ability to be worked and

shaped in to a finished part. With the reference to a specific manufacturing
method, Processability can be defined as a castability,weldability,
machinability etc.,Ductility and hardenability can be relevant to
Processability if the material is to be deformed or hardened by heat
treatment respectively. The closeness of the stock form to the required
product form can be taken as a measure of Processability in some cases. The
material properties are closely related to functional requirements.
Cost:
Cost is usually the controlling factor in evaluating materials, because in

many applications there is a cost limit for a material intended to meet the
application requirements. When the cost limit is exceeded, the design may
have to be changed to allow the use of a less expensive material. The cost of
the processing often exceeds the cost of the stock material.
Reliability Requirements:
The reliability of the material can be defined as the probability that it will
perform the intended function for the expected life without failure. Material
reliability is difficult to measure, because it is not only dependent upon the
material’s inherent properties, but also greatly affected by its production and
processing history.
Though there are difficulties in evaluating reliability, it is often an important

selection factor that must be taken in to account. Failure analysis
techniques are usually used to predict the different ways in which a product
can fail, and can be considered as a systematic approach to reliability
evaluation.
Resistance to Service Conditions:
The environment in which the product or part will operate plays an

important role in determining the material performance requirements.
Corrosive environments, as well as high or low temperatures, can adversely
affect the performance of most materials in service. Whenever there is more
25
than one material involved in an application, compatibility becomes a

selection consideration. For example, In thermal environment, the coefficient
of thermal expansion of all the materials involved may have to be similar in
order to avoid thermal stresses. In applications where relative movements
exist between different parts, wear resistance of the materials involved
should be considered.
Cost per Unit Property Method:

In simplest cases of optimizing the selection of materials, one property
stands out as the most critical service requirement. In such simple cases the
cost per unit property can use as a criterion for selecting the optimum
material. Consider the case of a bar of given length (L) to support a tensile
force (F). The cross-sectional area (A) of the bar is given by:
A=F/S ()
Where S is the working stress of the material, which is related to its yield
strength by an appropriate factor of safety.
The cost of the bar is given by:
C′ = CρAL = (CρFL)/S
Where C = cost of the material per unit mass, and
ρ = Density of the material.
In comparing different candidate materials, only the quantity (Cρ)/S, which
is the cost of unit strength, needs to be compared, as F and L are constant
for all material. The material with the lowest cost per unit strength is the
optimum material.
When one material is considered as a substitute for an existing material, the
two materials a and b can be compared on the basis of relative cost per unit
strength (RC′):
RC′ = (C′) a
(C′) b
which is equal to C a ρ a S b
CbρbSa
RC′ less than unity indicates that the material a is preferable to material b.
Equations similar to () an () can be used to compare the materials on cost
basis.
Weighted Properties Method:

The weighted properties method can be used in optimizing materials
selection when several properties should be taken into consideration. In this
method each material requirement, or property, is assigned a certain weight,
depending on its importance. A weighted property value is obtained by
multiplying the numerical value of the property by the weighting factor (α).
The individual weighted property values of each material are then summed
to give a comparative materials performance index (γ). The material with the
highest performance index (γ) is considered as the optimum for the
application.
26
When evaluating a list of candidate materials, one property is considered at

a time. The best value in this list is rated as 100 and the others are scaled
proportionally.
B= scaled property = Numerical value of property x 100
Maximum value in the list
For properties like cost, corrosion or wear loss, weight gain in

oxidation, etc., a lower value is more desirable. In such cases, the lowest
value is rated as 100 and B is calculated as:
B= scaled property = Minimum value in the list x 100

Numerical value of property
For material properties that can be represented by numerical values,

applying the above procedure is simple. However, with properties like
corrosion and wear resistance, machinability and weldability, etc., are rarely
given and materials are usually rated as very good, good, fair, poor etc. In
such cases, the rating can be converted to numerical values using an
arbitrary scale. For example, a corrosion resistance rating of excellent, very
good, good, fair and poor can be given numerical values of 5,4,3,2 and 1
respectively. Then,
n
Material performance index,γ = ∑ B i α i
i=1
Where i is summed over all the n relevant properties.
In the cases where numerous material properties are specified, the digital
logic approach is used as a systematic tool to determine α. In this procedure
evaluations are arranged such that only two properties are considered at a
time. Every possible combination of the properties or performance goals is
compared and no shades of choice are required, only a yes or no decision for
each evaluation. To determine the relative importance of each properties or
goal a table is constructed, the properties or goals are listed in the left hand
column, and comparisons are made in the columns to the right, as shown in
the table.
Table 5.1 Determination of the relative importance of performance goals

using the digital logic method
Goals Number of possible decisions Positive Relative Emphasis

[N=n(n-1)/2] decisions Coefficient (α)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1
0
1 1 1 0 1 3 α 1 =0.3
2 0 1 0 1 2 α 2 =0.2
3 0 0 1 0 1 α 3 =0.1
4 1 1 0 0 2 α 4 =0.2
5 0 0 1 1 2 α 5 =0.2
Total number of positive =10 ∑α=1.0
decisions
27
In comparing two properties or performance goals, the more important is

given numerical one (1) and the less important is given zero(0).The total
number of possible decisions N=n(n-1)/2 , where n is the number of the
properties or goals under consideration. A relative emphasis coefficient or
weighting factor,α for each goal is obtained by dividing the number of
positive divisions for each goal (m) into the total number of possible
decisions (N). In this case ∑α=1.
However, if there are large numbers of properties to consider the importance

of cost may be emphasized by considering it separately as a modifier to the
material performance index (γ). In the cases where the material is used for
space filling, cost can be introduced on a per unit volume basis. A figure of
merit (M) for the material can then be defined as:
M=γ/(Cρ)
Where C= total cost of the material per unit weight (stock, processing,
finishing, etc.)
ρ= Density of the material
The weighted properties method can be used when a material is considered

as a substitute for an existing one. This is done by computing the relative
figure of merit (RM), which is defined as,
RM = M n /M c
Where Mn and Mc are the figures of merit of the new and existing materials
respectively. If the RM is greater than unity, the new material is more
suitable than the existing material.
The steps involved in the weighted properties method can be written in the
form of a simple computer program to select materials from the data bank.
An interactive program can also include the digital logic method to help in
determining weighting factors.
Limits On Properties Method:

In the limits on properties method, the performance requirements are
divided into three categories:
1. Lower limit properties

2. Upper limit properties
3. Target value properties
The limits on properties method are usually suitable for optimizing
material and process selection when the number of possible alternatives is
relatively large. This is because the limits, which are specified for the
different properties, can be used for eliminating unsuitable materials from
data bank. The remaining materials are those whose properties are above
the lower limits, below the upper, and within the limits of target values of the
respective specified requirements. After the screening stage, the limits on
properties method can be used to optimize the selection from among the
remaining materials.
28
As in the case of the weighted properties method, each of the requirements

or properties is assigned a weighted factor, α , which can be determined
using the digital logic method, as discussed earlier. A merit parameter, m,is
then calculated for each material according to the relationship:
⎛ Y ⎞ ⎛ X ⎞ ⎛ X ⎞
m = ⎜ ∑α ⎟ + ⎜⎜ ∑ α
i
⎟⎟ + ⎜⎜ ∑ α − 1 ⎟⎟ j k
⎝ X ⎠ ⎝
i j k
Y ⎠ ⎝
i 1
Y ⎠ j k
where l,u, and t stand for lower limit, upper limit, and target value
properties respectively.
n l ,n u ,and n t are the numbers of the lower limit, upper limit, and
target value properties respectively.
α i , α j , α k are the weighting factors of the lower limit, upper limit, and
X i ,X j and X k are the candidate material lower limit, upper limit, and
Y i ,Y j ,and Y k are the specified lower limit, upper limit, and target value
properties respectively.
According to the equation the lower the value of the merit parameter m, the
better the material.
As in the weighted properties method, the cost can be considered in two

ways:
1. Cost is treated as an upper limit property and given the appropriate
weight.
2.Cost is included as a modifier to the merit parameter as follows:
m´ = (CX/CY)m
Where CY and CX are the specified cost upper limit and candidate material
cost,
In this case the material with the lowest cost-modified merit parameter, m´,
is the optimum.
Case Study for Material Selection:

Materials for springs:
Springs come in many shapes as shown in the Fig 18, and have many
purposes: one thinks of axial springs, leaf springs, helical springs, spiral
springs, torsion bars. Regardless of their shape or use, the best material for
a spring of minimum volume is that with the greatest value of σ 2 / E , and
f
for minimum weight it is that with the greatest value σ 2 / Eρ .
f
29
Fig 18 Different kinds of springs.
The best material for any spring, regardless of its shape or the way in which
it is loaded, is that with the highest value of
σ 2f / E Or if weight is important, σ 2f / E .
The primary function of the spring is that of storing elastic energy and when
required releasing it again.The elastic energy stored per unit volume of
material stressed uniformly to a stress σ is
1σ2
Wv =
2 E
Where E is young’s modulus. It is W v that to be maximize. The spring will be
damaged if the stress σ exceeds the yield stress or the failure stress σ f ; the
constraint is σ<=σ f . So the maximum energy density is
2
1σ f
Wv =
2 E
Torsion bars and leaf springs are less efficient than axial springs because
much of the material is not fully loaded: the material at the neutral axis, for
instance, is not loaded at all. For torsion bars
2
1σ f
Wv =
3 E
30
And for leaf springs,
2
1σ f
Wv =
4 E
But this has no influence on the choice of the material. The best material for
springs is that the biggest value of
σ2f
M1 =
E
If weight rather than the volume, matters, we must divide this by the
density ρ (giving energy stored per unit weight) and seek materials with the
high value of
σ2f
M2 =
ρE
Fig 19 Materials for small springs. High strength (‘spring’) steel is good.
Glass, CFRP and GFRP all under right circumstances, make good springs.
31
Elastomers are excellent. Ceramics are eliminated by their low tensile

strength.
The Selection
The choice of materials for springs of minimum volume is shown in
the Fig 19 family lines of slope ½ link materials with equal values of
σ2f
M1 =
E
Those with the highest values of M 1 lie towards the bottom right. The
heavy line is one of the families; it is positioned so that a subset of materials
is left exposed. The best choices are a high0strength steel (spring steel) lying
near the top end of the line, and at the other end, rubber. But certain other
materials are suggested too: GFRP (truck springs), titanium alloys, glass and
Nylon.
Bibliography :
• Ashby,M.F. and Jones,D.R.H(1997;1998)Engineering materials parts 1
and 2 ,2nd editions. Pergamon Press, Oxford.
• Farag, M.M (1989) Selection of Materials and Manufacturing Processes
for Engineering Design, Prentice –Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
• Van Vack, L.H.(1982) Materials for Engineering , Addison – Wesley,
Reading, MA.
• Ashby,M.F,(1992)Materials Selection in Mechanical Design, 2nd edition
Butterworth-Heinemann , Oxford.
• Farag,M.M,(1997) Material Selection for Engineering Design, Prentice
Hall, Newyork.
32
Form Design of Castings and Weldments
FORM DESIGN OF CASTINGS AND WELDMENTS
Introduction
Good casting design requires maximum coordination of end use with those of
processing. Among significant processing costs are those associated with molding,
gating, and raisering. This chapter deals with achieving economy in the design of
casting, area of interest in cores .The object is to arrange the design shape of the
castings as to keep the need for these sand cores to a minimum, or to eliminate the
need for sand cores.
Redesign Of Castings Based On Parting Line

Considerations:
Design rules:
1. Reduce the number of parts where possible by designing one so
that it performs several functions.
2. Spaced holes in machined, cast or stamped part so that they can be
made in one operation with out weakening the tool.
3. Design for low labor cost operations when ever possible.
4. Dimensions should be made not from points in space but from specific
surfaces or points on part itself.
5. Dimensions should all be from datum line rather than variety of
points.
6. Once the functional requirements are fulfilled, lower the weight lowers
the cost.
7. Use general purpose tooling rather than special tooling.
8. Avoid sharp corners. use generous fillets and radii.
9. Design apart so that as many operations are performed on it with out
repositioning.
10.Design to avoid stepped parting lines in cast, molded or powder metal
components.
11. Design work pieces to achieve uniform thickness, with high shrinkage rates.
Parting Line
Both expandable and permanent moulds must separable in two or more parts
in order to permit with drawl of patterns.
The largest section of the casting should be located adjacent to the parting plane of
the mould and its size should be
reduced in moving to the extremities. Design must avoid over hangs or under cuts.
When parting line cannot be located at the largest dimension, either cores or loose
pieces must be provided, permit the with drawl which increases cost.The location of
parting line is dictated the shape of the casting .parting the casting as shown in fig1
(a) to (e) makes it possible to cast faces that are flat and parallel. The parting lines
shown in fig 1(f) and (g) necessitate that the faces be tapered in order to provide
draft.
1
SEVEN DIFFERENT PL LINES ARE POSSIBLE IN

PRODUCING SIMPLE CASTING
FIG.1(a,b,c,d,e)
fig1(f) Different Parting Lines fig 1(g)

Other special requirements are in fig1(a) to (f).for example the method of
parting in fig 1(a) provides normal draft in hole and on the sides of casting; the hole
sides are concentric. Any flash formed at the parting can be removed .Fig1 (b)
provides parallel sides and normal draft in the hole and on the sides of casting. It is
more difficult to maintain concentricity between the holes and the sides, because of
the possible misalignment of the mold half after the pattern has been with drawn.
Fig1(c),hole taper is reduced by 50%.Only a minimum of material need to be
machined from hole to provide perfect straightness, a possible advantage when
difficult to machine materials are involved. As in fig 1(b),misalignment of the mould
halves after the pattern has been withdrawn is a potential disadvantage.
Fig 1(d) is similar to1(c), except that taper remains same in the hole and is
reducedby50%on outer walls. In fig .1(e),taper is reduced by 50% both in the hole
and outer walls. Metal requirements in casting and machining are minimized to a
greater degree than in any one of the other designs. Fig.1(f) require taper on two
2
sides, and fig 1(g) provides sides that are parallel. These seven examples illustrate
the adaptability of parting line location.
fig 2(b)
fig 2(a)
For a bell-shaped casting of fig 2. Locating the parting line at the base of the
bell, as in fig 2(a), would eliminate the parting line reflection from the
body of the casting. However because the core cannot be vented at the top, tapped
gas may cause defects in casting metal.
Placing the casting on its side so that parting line is at right angles to the base, as in
fig.2(b) ,would permit the adequate venting of the core provide an improved means of
gating, and eliminate the need for second riser a parting line seam is unavoidable,
but it can easily removed.
Determination of parting line of moulds:

1>The parting line should be flat as far as possible and should be minimum in
number and should facilitate, ramming, assembly and reliability of core
arrangement.
2>mould should have minimum number of cores.
3>pattern should have minimum number of moving parts to avoid dimensional
errors.
Location of radii:
The casting seen in fig.3 shows how a minor design concession serves to
avoid possible mismatch and simplifies the removal parting line.Fig3(a) was
modified to eliminate radii and thus enabling parting line to located at top surface
of the casting as in fig3(b).
A similar concession applied to coring is shown in Fig.4 Here the possibility of
core shift may be a problem, but it can be avoided by eliminating the radius at the
end of the core. If such a radius is required, it can be provided easily by machining.
3
FIG(3) A RADIUS WHERE THE FLAT

FACE JOINS THE EDGES OF THE FIGURE 4THE RADIUS OF THE JUNCTION OF THE CORED HOLE AND
CASTING WOULD REQUIRE PL AS SAND CASTING FACE REQUIRES A SHAPED CORE, AS IN (A)
(A). SEAMS ARE MISMATCHED MAY MISMATCH COULD RESULT. ELIMINATION OF RADIUS AS IN (B)
RESULT BY ELIMINATING THE SIMPLIFIES THE CORE AND REMOVES THE POSIIBILITYOF
RADIUS, THE PL AS IN (B) MISMATCH
Bosses and Undercuts:

It is necessary to locate a boss some distance from the parting line. The section
shown in Fig. 4.1(a) illustrate the positioning a boss well below the flange whose
upper surface serves as a parting line. In this design a core is required to permit
removal of the pattern from the mould. In introducing a casting as shown, accurate
positioning of the core is difficult, and any shifting of core results in surface
irregularities. A less complicated design, shown in Fig4.1 (b) extends the boss to the
flange, eliminating the undercut and the need for core.
4
fig 4 .1 (a ) fig 4 .1 (b )
a n u n d ercu t crea ted b y a n iso la ted b oss o n sid e o f a sa n d ca stin g

req u ires a co re a s in (a ) o r co n tin u a tio n to fla n ge in as in (b )
Design Considerations:
Here the datum’s are being checked on the prototype casting. With the use of the
CAD systems the accuracy of the final casting can be to a fine tolerance. If economy
and best results are to be obtained, it is very important that the designer of castings
give careful attention to several requirements of the process and, if possible,
cooperate closely with foundry. Frequently, minor and readily permissible changes in
design will greatly facilitate and simplify the casting of a component and will reduce
the percentage of defects.
One of the first features that must be considered by a designer is the location of the
parting plane, an important part of all processes that use segmented or separable
moulds. The location of the parting plane can affect each of the following:-
1. The number of cores,
2. The use of effective and economical gating,
3. The weight of the final casting,
4. The method of supporting the cores,
5. The final dimensional accuracy, and
6. The ease of molding.
In general, it is desirable to minimize the use of cores. Often, a change in the

location of the parting plan can assist in this objective, as illustrated in Figure 5.
Note that the change also reduces the weight of the casting by eliminating the need
for draft. Figure 6 shows another example of how a simple design change eliminated
the need for a core.
The location of the parting plane can also be dictated by certain design features.
Figure 7 shows how the specification of round edges on a part can restrict the
location of the parting plane. The specification of draft can also fix the parting plane,
as indicated in Figure 8. This figure also shows that considerable freedom can be
5
provided by simply noting the need to provide for a draft or simply letting it be an
option of the foundry. Since mould closure may not always be consistent,
consideration should also be given to the fact that dimensions across the parting
plane are subject to more variation than those that lie within a given segment of the
mould.
Figure 5 Elimination of a core by changing the location of the parting plane
Controlling the solidification process is of prime importance in obtaining quality

castings, and this control is also related to design. Those portions of a casting that
have a high ratio of surface area to volume will experience more rapid cooling and
will be stronger and harder than the other regions. Heavier sections will cool more
slowly and, unless special precautions are observed, may contain shrinkage cavities
and porosity or may have large grain-size structures.
Ideally, a casting should have uniform thickness in all directions. In most cases,
however, this is not possible. When the section thickness must change, it is best if
these changes are gradual, as indicated in the various sections of Figure 9.
6
Figure 6 Elimination Of A Dry-Sand Core By A Change In Part Design
FIGURE 7
Effect Of Rounded Edges On The Location Of The Parting Plane
7
Figure 8 (top left) Location of the parting plane specified by draft (top right) Part with
draft unspecified (bottom) Various options in producing that part
Figure 9 Guidelines for section changes in castings
When sections of castings intersect, two problems can arise. The first is the
possibility of stress concentrators. This problem can be minimized by providing
generous fillets (inside radii) at all interior corners. Excessive fillets, however, can
cause the second problem, known as hot spots. Figure 10 shows that localized thick
sections tend to exist where sections of castings intersect. These thick sections cool
more slowly than the others and tend to be sites of localized, abnormal shrinkage.
When the differences in section are large, as illustrated in Figure 11, the hot-spot
areas are likely to result in serious defects in the form of porosity or shrinkage
cavities.
Defects such as voids, porosity, and cracks can be sites of subsequent failure and
should be prevented if at all possible. Sometimes cored holes, as illustrated in Figure
12, can be used to prevent hot spots. Where heavy sections must exist, an adjacent
riser can often be used to feed the section during shrinkage, as in Figure 13. If the
8
riser is properly designed, the shrinkage cavity will lie totally within the riser and
can be removed when the riser is cut off.
Intersecting can cause shrinkage problems and should be given special

consideration by the designer. Where sections intersect to form continuous ribs,
contraction occurs in opposite directions as the various ribs contract. As a
consequence, cracking frequently occurs during cooling. By staggering the ribs, as
shown in Figure 14, there is opportunity for slight distortion to occur, thereby
ensuring that high stresses are not built up.
Large unsupported areas should be avoided in all types of casting, since such
sections tend to warp during cooling. The warpage then disrupts the good, smooth
surface appearance that is so often desired. Another appearance consideration is the
location of the parting line. Some small amount of fin, or flash, is often present at
this location. When the flash is removed, or if it is considered small enough to leave
in place, a region of surface imperfection will be present. If this is in the middle of a
flat surface, it will be clearly visible. However, if the parting line is placed to coincide
with a corner, the “defect” line will go largely unnoticed.
Figure 10: "Hot spot”at section r2 caused by intersecting sections
9
Figure 11 Hot spot resulting from intersecting sections of various thickness
Figure 12: Method of eliminating unsound metal at the centre of heavy sections in
castings by using cored holes
10
Figure 13 Use of a riser to keep the shrinkage cavity out of a casting
Figure 14 Method of using staggered ribs to prevent cracking during cooling
11
Minimizing core requirements:

Cores are separate shapes, of sand, metal or plaster that are placed in the mold to
provide castings with contours, cavities and passages not otherwise practical or
physically obtainable by the mold.
Cores increase cost and tolerance requirements, they enable the foundry man to
cast intricate internal shapes not producible by any other process. In some
situations core cause severe problems during the pouring time. Some times due to
high temperature of the pouring metal the binder in the core may breakdown, or
sometimes the cantilevered cores may breakdown due heavy weight of the molten
metal, a larger tolerance is needed on dimensions at the unsupported end of the
core, because of the necessity for a small amount of slide clearance between the core
and the mold at the opposite end. This clearance permits a displacement of the core
when the molten metal enters the mould. The displacement is amplified as the core
extends into the casting, and has a pronounced influence on dimensional
discrepancies.
Designing to eliminate cores:

These problems led the foundry man to minimize the cores or to eliminate them
completely by redesigning the casting. A decision often depends on cost analysis.
An example shown in fig15. in the original design of this casting , fig.15(a) the core
is required to permit molding of the hook shape. The possible redesign shown in
fig.15(b) would permit easy removal of the pattern from the sand, eliminate the need
for a core, and effect a saving in molding cost. Figure 16 shows a sand cast malleable
iron wheel hub for which redesign eliminated a ring core and at the same time
provided a stronger casting.
fig 15(a) fig 15(b)
12
new design
original design
fig 16(a) fig 16(b)
IT IS RESULTED IN THE STRONGER , MORE ECONOMICAL PART.
As originally designed, fig16(a), the eight ribs and eight small bosses prevented
this casting from being molded with the parting line parallel to the axis of the hole.
Furthermore adjacent to the flange, the casting had a cross section smaller than
either the flange or the extreme end of the casting. The undercut section that was
thus formed prevented the pattern from being withdrawn from the mold in a
direction perpendicular to the mounting flange. A ring core , as shown was
necessary to produce the shape.
By revising the casting as shown in fig.16(b), the need for the ring core was
eliminated and the shape could be withdrawn easily from the mould. By broadening
the base of the tubular section the eight ribs were also eliminated. In the original
design , the small diameter of the tubular section at the junction with the flange
section was unable to withstand the forces of service. Eight strengthening ribs were
required , to assure satisfactory performance of the casting in application. As
redesigned, the broader base of the tubular section provided sufficient strength to
permit elimination of the ribs.
Coring versus drilling:

It is advisable to omit cores and to remove excess metal by other means. The
choice may be based on considerations of soundness, dimensional accuracy,
economy, or reducibility. For example , if a casting is to have one or more round
holes, these may be produced with greater accuracy or economy by subsequent
boring or drilling, rather than by core.
See the next pages for, some examples on design rules and minimization of core
requirements:
13
Design Considerations
14
15
16
17
For large castings which are difficult to mould, which are heavy and large are made
into or more castings and are joined after the castings are made. These components
are called as cast-weld components. This very large core eliminated and casting
simplify process.
Criteria and methods for cast weld components:

Several features of the cast-weld construction method play an important role in
its selection. The most prominent feature of the cast-weld construction method is
that it makes possible the production of components that are too large to cast in one
piece; it makes feasible the production of a part configuration that would be difficult
or even impossible to cast as a single high quality casting because of the laws of
molten metal feeding; in foundries with limited casting capacity, the designer can
make cast weld assemblies of castings that are within the foundry casting
capabilities; finally , materials of different compositions can be assembled in a one-
piece component. For example see fig 17.
18
Fig.17 Cast weld component.

Upper fig. of 17 shows the exaggerated view of the bottom cast-weld
component .
For successful cast-weld construction the methods of welding must be examined
for their capability of producing the desired chemical composition, physical and
mechanical properties, as well as ease and rate of welding. The weld engineer has
several processes that can be considered. These include:
1. shielded metal-arc welding(SMAW)

2. submerged arc welding(SAW)
3. Gas metal-arc welding(GMAW)
4. Gas tungsten-arc welding(GTAW)
5. Electro slag welding(ESW)
The rate of welding as related to the size of the weld to be made, determines to a
great degree the economics of the process. The manual arc process is most versatile,
but for large cast-weld construction it is limited in application because changing
electrodes and other interruptions typically limit the weld deposit rate to an average
of 0.9kg/h. the submerged arc process, on the other hand, due to its continuous
operation with wire electrodes, deposits metal at much higher rates, as do gas
shielded methods. Electroslag welding is accomplished at rates of approximately
14(kg/h) per electrode.
When joining components of different composition, choosing the correct method

is very important.
Example: stainless steel joined to carbon or low alloy steel is desired in certain
applications to achieve specific properties. The manual arc welding process is often
used in such instances with electrodes of the 300 series. However care must be
19
taken to have a minimum of penetration as carbide formation with mild or low alloy
steels will give an excessively brittle layer, which can result in early failure.
Distortion of an assembly is another major consideration in selecting a welding

process. Single pass procedures, such as electroslag welding , produce less
distortion than multipass processes in which each pass results in warpage. Unless
the setup compensates for distortion or a constraint is applied, multipass welds will
pull a weldment out of alignment. Considerable care must be used in the setup and
in the sequence of welding. Stress relief heat treatments after a number of weld
passes help avoid problems. Consequently, many weldments are never allowed to
cool to room temperature before being stress relieved.
Cast Weld Components
20
21
Use Of Weld Symbols:

Welding cannot completed as an engineering tool for conveying information from
the designer to the workman. These symbols provide the means of placing complete
welding information in drawings. Olden ways of representing is confusion because
of “far side” and “rear side” becomes same in designer point of view. So, in present
systems the is taken as basis of reference.
Any joining process the symbol contains “arrow side”, “other side” and “both
sides. T these are used herein to locate weld with respect to the joint. Appropriate
finish marks have been found to be necessary. However, recommendations as to
what finish marks have to be used are not strictly within the province of this
standard. When the American standards association adopts a system of finish
symbols, it will be desirable for all concerned to use the same system. The tail –
designating the welding specifications, procedure or other supplementary
information.
If welding operator knows the size and shape of the weld, he requires less
information. He know about process, identification of filler metal, whether or not
peening or root chipping is required, and other pertinent data must be known. If
nothing is specified at end of the tail then take depending on user requirements. If
notations are not used, the tail is omitted.
Elements of welding symbols:

This standard makes a distinction between the terms weld symbol and
welding symbol. The weld symbol is the ideograph
Used to indicate the desired type of weld. The assembled welding symbol consists of
following eight elements, or such of these elements as are necessary:
1. Reference line
2. Arrow
3. Basic weld symbols
4. Dimensions and other data
5. Supplementary symbols
6. Finish symbols
7. Tail
8. Specification, process, or other references
22
Basic Weld Symbols:
Arc and gas weld symbols:
Resistance weld symbols:
Supplementary symbols:
See next page for more symbols and information on uses of weld symbols.
23
24
25
Form Design
Of Injection Moulded Components:
Introduction
Thermoplastic materials are synthetic organic chemical compounds, which soften
or liquefy when they are heated and solidify when they are cooled. When cooled, they
are relatively tough and durable and suitable for a wide variety of product
applications.
The process:
These materials are formed to specific shape by injecting them when into a
mould from they their final shape as they cooled and solidify. The plastics normally
are received by the molder in granular form. They are placed in a hopper of an
injection-molding machine; from they are fed to a heated cylinder. As they heated in
a cylinder, they melt, plasticize. Atypical melting temperature is about 180C,
although this varies with different materials and molding conditions. The mold,
usually of steel, is clamped in the machine and water-cooled. A plunger force
plasticized material from into the mould. There it cools and solidifies the mold is
opened ,and the molded part with its attached runners is removed the process, with
the usual exception of part removal ,is automatic It requires about 45s/cycle,more or
less, with most of that time being devoted to the cooling of the material in the mould.
Very high pressure on the order of 70000 k pas. or more or require during injection.
26
Design recommendations:
Gate and ejector pin location:
The designer should consider the location of these elements since they
can impair surface finish. Ejector pins can usually be located on the under side of a
part if it has an outside and an under side. Gates can be located in a number of
locations as illustratedFig.18.1.
Center gating of round and cylindrical parts and near center gating of other large
area parts or desirable for trouble free mould filling.
Suggested wall thickness:

The recommended normal and minimum wall thickness for common
thermoplastics when injection molded. Generally, thinner walls are more feasible
with small parts rather than with large ones. The limiting factor in wall thinness is
the tendency for the plastic material in thin walls to cool and solidify before the
mould is filled. The shorter the material flow, the thinner the wall can be. Wall
should also be as uniform in thickness as possible. When changes in wall thickness
are unavoidable, the transition should be gradual, not abrupt.
Holes:
1. Holes are feasible in injection-molded parts but are a complicating factor in
mould construction. They also tend to cause flashing at the edge of the hole and
to cause “knit” or “weld” lines adjacent to it. Fig.18.2
2. The minimum spacing between two holes or between a hole and sidewall should
be one diameter. See fig 18.3.
3. Holes should be located three diameters or more from the edge of the part to
avoid excessive stresses. See fig 18.4.
4. A through hole is preferred to a blind hole because the core pin which produces
the hole can then be supported at the both ends, resulting in better dimensional
location of hole and avoiding a bent or broken pin.
5. Holes in the bottom of the part are preferable to those in the side since the latter
required retractable core pins.
6. Blind holes should not be more than two times diameters deep. If the diameter
is 1.5mm or less, one diameter is the minimum practical depth. See fig 18.5
7. To increase the depth of a deep blind hole, use steps. This enables a stronger
core pin to be employed. see fig 18.6
8. Similarly, for through holes, cutout sections in the parts can shorten the length
of a small diameter pin. See fig 18.7
Ribs:
1. Reinforcing ribs should be thinner than the wall they are reinforcing to prevent
sink marks in the wall. A good rule of thumb is to keep rib width to one half or
wall thickness.
2. Rib should not be more than one and half wall thickness high, again to avoid
sink marks.
3. Rib should be perpendicular to the parting line to permit removal of the part from
27
the mould.
4. Rib should have a generous draft.
5. Methods for disguising sink marks. See fig 18.8
Bosses: Bosses are protruding pads, which are used to provide mounting
surfaces or reinforcement around holes.
1. They would have generous radii and fillets.
2. The rules indicated apply as well to boss. See fig 18.9
3. Bosses in the upper portion of a die can trap gas and should be avoided if
possible.
4. Use a five degree taper for bosses, the same as with ribs.
5. If large boss are needed they should be hollow for uniformity of wall thickness.
Undercuts: Under cuts are possible with injection molded thermo plastic parts,
but they may require sliding cores or split moulds. External under cuts can be
placed at the parting line or extended to obviate the need for core pulls. See fig 18.10
Screw threads:
It is feasible, though a complicating factor, to mould screw threads in
thermo plastic parts.
1. Use a core, which is rotated after the molding cycle has been complicated. This
unscrews the part and unable it to be removed from the mould.
2. Put the axes of the screw at the parting line of the mould. This avoids a rotating
core but necessitates a very good fit between mould halves to avoid flash across
the threads. This suitable for external threads and higher cost and feasible.
3. Make the threads few, shallow, and of rounded form so that the part can be
stripped from the mould with out unscrewing. A coarse thread with a somewhat
rounded form is preferred for all screw threads because of ease of filling and
avoidance of farther edges even if it is removed by unscrewing. See figures
18.11,12,13.
Inserts:
Inserts are useful and practical to provide reinforcement where stress
exceeds the strength of the plastics material. Although they are economical, they are
not without cost and should be used only when necessary for reinforcement,
anchoring, or support .see. fig. 18.14,15,16,17
Lettering and surface decoration:

Lettering and other raised or depressed surface decorations and textures
are easily incorporated into plastic parts. Once the lettering has been incorporated in
the mould, each part will automatically show the lettering with few or no extra steps.
see fig 18.18,19.
Draft:
It is highly desirable to incorporate some draft or taper in sidewalls of the injection
molded parts to facilitate removal of the part from the mould. The following are
recommended minimum drafts for some common materials.
Polyethylane0.25degrees
28
Polystyrene 0.5degrees
Nylon 0to0.12degrees
Corners: radii and fillets:
Sharp corners should be avoided except at the parting line. They inter fear
with the smooth flow of material and create possibilities for turbulence with
attendant surface defects fillets and radii should be as generous as possible.
Surface finish:
High gloss finishes are feasible if the mould is highly polished and if
molding conditions are correct. Painting of most thermoplastics is feasible but is not
recommended if the color can be molded in to the part.
Flat surfaces:
Flat surfaces, although feasible are some what more prone to show
irregularities than gently curved surfaces. Since later also produce more rigid parts
they are preferable.
Mould parting line:
Even injunction molding shows the effect of the mould parting line, the
junction of the two halves of the mould .The part and the mould should be designed
go so that the parting occurs in an area where it does not adversely affect the
appearance or function o the part . Parting lines should be straight the two mould
halves should meet in one plane only this obviously provides more economical mould
construction, but it may not be possible if the part design is irregular. If it is not
possible to put the parting line at the edge of the part, cleaning parting line flash is
facilitated by having a bead or other raised surface at the parting line. See fig 18.20
Dimensional factors and tolerance recommendation:

Though surprisingly tight tolerance can be held when molding
thermoplastic parts, dimensions can not be held with the precession obtainable with
close tolerance machined metal parts, the reasons for these are
1. Material shrinkage including, variation and unpredictability in the shrinkage.
2. Plastics exhibits high thermal coefficient of expansion .As result if tolerances are
extreme designers should specify the temperature at which the measurements
should be taken. See fig 18.21,22
29
30
31
32
Problems:
1. A cast iron bearing bracket is shown in figure 18.23 indicate preferred parting
line and any necessary sand cores. Offer a design modification that will
reduce or eliminate the need for sand cores.
2. Indicate the parting line for steel forked leaver casting seen in figure 18.24
and also the necessary sand cores. Maintaining as nearly as possible, the
existing weight of casting , offer a design modification that will alleviate the
sand core requirements.
3. For the pedestal housing shown in figure 18.25 indicate the probable parting
line and any necessary sand cores, accepting that the probable parting line is
the one involving the minimum sand cores. Maintaining as nearly as possible,
the existing weight of casting, offer a design modification that will alleviate the
sand core requirements.
4. There are two possible parting lines for v belt pulley. Figure 18.26 indicate
both of this with the appropriate sand cores . Accept that v grooves are
machined from a solid rim. Maintaining as nearly as possible , the existing
weight of casting , offer a design modification that will alleviate the sand core
requirements
33
34
Fig 18.26
35
References:
1. Casting Design Hand Book –American Society For Metals

2. Hand Book For Product Design For Manufacturing –James G. Bralla
3. Welding Codes , Specifications And Standards –Jeffery D. Mouser
4. Steel Castings Hand Book – Steel Founders : Society Of America
36
Tolerance Analysis
GEOMETRIC TOLERANCES
Conventional Or Coordinate Tolerancing System:
Coordinate tolerance is a dimensioning system where a part feature is
located (or defined) by means of a rectangular dimension with the given
tolerance.
Geometric Tolerancing:
Geometric tolerance of a feature (point, line, axis, surface or medium plane)

specifies the tolerance zone within which the feature is required to be
contained.
The geometric tolerance feature provides a precise and brief method of

indicating brief geometric requirements on engineering drawings. The
symbols being internationally been accepted are very useful when overseas
manufacture is involved.
Geometric tolerancing is very useful especially when conventional
dimensioning and drawing methods are inadequate and doesn’t ensure that
parts will assemble satisfactorily after manufacture.
Basic Definitions
Maximum Material Condition (MMC)
It is that condition of a feature or a part, which contains the maximum
amount of material, e.g. minimum hole size or maximum shaft size. In
certain cases its use allows an increase in the specifies tolerance if it is
indicated that the tolerance applies to the feature at its MMC.
Straightness
It is the shortest distance between two points. The tolerance value is the
specified distance between two parallel straight lines.
Datum
A datum feature may be a plane or axis. For practical purposes the plane
surface or axis is used for manufacture or inspection.
Flatness
Flatness tolerance controls the deviation of the surface from the true plane
and is the space between the two parallel planes
Roundness
It is the condition where the feature is a continuous curved surface, any
point on the surface is at a constant distance from the centre or axis. The
roundness tolerance zone is the annular space between two co-planar,
concentric circles.
1
Tolerance Analysis
Cylindricity
It is a combination of parallelism, straightness and roundness, applied to the
surface of a cylinder. The cylindricity tolerance zone is the annular space
between two coaxial cylinders and its value is the radial distance between
them.
Concentricity
It is the relationship between two cylinders, which have the same axis or
common centre. Concentricity tolerance is the deviation of the axis from the
true position.
Squareness
It is the condition where a line, plane or surface lies at 90 degrees to
another. It is the space between the two parallel lines or surfaces.
Parallelism
This is the condition where two lines or surfaces are separated by a uniform
distance. Parallelism tolerances control the parallelism between the two lines
or surfaces and the tolerance zone is the distance between them.
Angularity
It defines the position between two lines or surfaces which are nor parallel
or perpendicular to each other.
Position
The positional tolerance controls the position between a feature and a datum
or from another feature. The tolerance value is the specified deviation from
the true position.
Symmetry
It is the feature where a feature is divided into identical parts by means of a
line or plane. Symmetry tolerances control the area between the parallel
lines or planes, which are parallel to the datum feature, and there value is
the distance between them.
Circular Run out

It is the permissible variation of position of any point fixed on a surface,
which occurs when a part is rotated through 360 degrees about its own axis.
The resultant indications include errors of other characteristics without
differentiating them. The combined errors must not exceed the stated
tolerance value.
Total Run out

The difference between simple Runout and total Runout is that in the
former, one measurement is taken during one revolution while in the later
the measuring instrument is moved along the component during several
revolutions.
2
Tolerance Analysis
TABLE 1: Symbols of toleranced characteristics

Type of Characteristics to be Symbols
Tolerμsance toleranced
Straightness
Flatness
FORM Circularity (Roundness)
Profile of any line
Profile of any surface
Parallelism
ORIENTATION Perpendicularity
Angularity
Position
LOCATION Concentricity and
coaxiality
Symmetry
Simple runout
RUNOUT
Total Runout
Benefits Of Geometric Dimensioning And

Tolerancing (GD&T)
Improves Communication:
GD&T can provide uniformity in drawing specification and
interpretations, thereby reducing controversy, guesswork and
assumptions. Design, production and inspection all in the same language
Provides Better Product Design:

The use of GD&T can improve your product design by providing
designers with the tool to “say what they mean” and by following the
functional dimensioning philosophy.
Increase Production Tolerance:

There are two ways tolerance are increased through the use of GD&T .
First under certain conditions, GD&T provides “bonus” or extra tolerance
for manufacturing. This additional tolerance can reduce the production
cost significantly. Second, by use of functional dimensioning, the
tolerances the tolerances are assigned to the part based upon its
functional requirements. This often results in a larger tolerance for
manufacturing. It eliminates the problem that results when designers
copy existing tolerances, or assign tight tolerances, because they don’t
know how to determine a reasonable tolerance. .
3
Tolerance Analysis
Table 2: Comparison Between Gd&T And Coordinating Tolerancing

DRAWING COORDINATE GEOMETRIC
CONCEPT TOLERANCING TOLERANCING
CONDITION CONDITION
Square or rectangular can use diameter
zones for hole locations symbols to allow
TOLERANCE round tolerance zones
ZONE SHAPE
RESULTS RESULTS
1.less tolerance 1.57%more tolerance
available for for hole location
hole. 2.lower mfg. costs.
2.higher mfg. costs
CONDITION CONDITION
1. Tolerance zone is 1.use of MMC
TOLERANCE fixed in size modifier allows
ZONE tolerance zone to
FLEXIBILITY increase under
certain conditions
RESULTS RESULTS
1.functional parts 1.functional parts
scrapped used
2.higher operating 2.lower operating
costs. costs
CONDITION CONDITION
1.implied datum allows 1.the datum system
EASE OF choice for set up during communicates one set
INSPECTION inspection of part. up for inspection
RESULTS RESULTS
1.multiple inspectors 1.clear instruction for
may get different inspection.
results. 2.eliminates disputes
2.good parts scrapped. over part acceptance.
3.bad parts scrapped
Flatness
Introduction:
This concept involved in defining the form of a part surface. Form controls
limit the flatness, straightness, circularity or cylindricity of part surfaces
form is a characteristic that limits the shape error of a part surface so (or in
some cases an axis or center plane) relative to its perfect counter parts. For
example, a form characteristic of a planar surface is flatness. The flatness
defines how much a surface can very from its perfect plane.
4
Tolerance Analysis
Figure 1 Flatness Symbol

Definition
Flatness is the condition of the surface having all of its elements in one
plane .A flatness control is the geometric tolerance that limits the amount of
flatness error a surface is allowed .the tolerance zone for a flatness control is
3 dimensional. It consists of 2 parallel planes within which all the surface
elements must lie the distance between the parallel planes is equal to the
flatness control tolerance value (Refer Fig 1 and Fig 2)
Flatness is measured by comparing a surfaces surface to its own true

counterpart. In case of flatness the first plane of the tolerance zone is
established by contacting the 3 high points of the controlled surface. The
second plane of the tolerance zone is parallel to the first plane and offset to
the flatness tolerance value. All the points of the controlled surface must lie
within the tolerance zone.
A flatness control is always applied to a planar surface. Therefore, a flatness

control can never use an MMC or LMC Modifier.
Figure 2 Flatness Tolerance Zone
Rule #1's Effect On Flatness.

Whenever this applies to a feature of size that consists of two parallel planes
(i.e. tab or slot), an automatic indirect flatness control exists for both
surfaces. This indirect control is a result of the interrelationship between
Rule#1(Perfect form at MMC) and the size dimension. When the feature of
5
Tolerance Analysis
size is at MMC, both surfaces must be perfectly flat. As the feature departs
from MMC, a flatness error equal to the amount of the departure is allowed.
Since Rule#1, provides an automatic indirect flatness control, a flatness

control should not be used unless it is a refinement of the dimensional limits
of the surface.
Figure 3 Rule#1 As An Indirect Flatness Control
Flatness Control Applications.

Some examples of when a designer uses a flatness control on a drawing are
to provide a flat surface (Refer Fig 4)
1. For a Gasket of Seal
2. To attach a mating part
3. For better contact with the Datum Plane.
Indirect Flatness Controls:

There are several geometric controls that can indirectly affect the flatness of
a surface. They are Rule#1, Perpendicularity, Parallelism, Angularity, total
run out, and profile of a surface; they also limit the flatness of a surface.
How ever indirect form controls are not inspected.
6
Tolerance Analysis
For a flatness control applications, the conditions are
¾ No datum references can be specified in the feature control frame.
¾ No modifiers can be specified in the feature control frame.
¾ The control must be applied to a planar surface.
¾ The flatness control tolerance value must be less than any other
geometric control that limits the flatness of the surface.
¾ The flatness control tolerance value must be less than the size tolerance
associated with the surface.
Figure 4 Flatness Control Applications.
Straightness Control
Introduction:
Cylindrical surfaces can have three different form characteristics:
Straightness, Circularity, and Cylindricity. Straightness defines how much a
line element can vary from a straight line. Form controls are used to define
the shape of a feature in relation to itself. Therefore they never use a datum
reference. The straightness form control, its symbol, and an example of
straightness are shown in Fig 5
7
Tolerance Analysis
Figure 5 Straightness Control
Straightness as a surface element control:

Definition:
Straightness is the condition where each line element (or axis or centerline)
is a straight line. A straightness control is a geometric tolerance that, when
directed to a surface , limits the amount of straightness error allowed in
each surface element. The tolerance zone for a straightness control( as a
surface line element control) is two dimensional; it consists of two parallel
lines for each line element of the surface. The distance between the parallel
lines is equal to the straightness tolerance value.
(Refer Fig 6)
Figure 6 Straightness As A Surface Line Element
The first line element of the tolerance zone is established by the two high
points of the line element of the surface. The second line element of the
tolerance zone is parallel to the first line element and offset by the
straightness tolerance value. A straightness tolerance zone may be located
anywhere in between the dimensional limits of the surface. All the points of
each controlled line element must lie within the tolerance zone.
8
Tolerance Analysis
When straightness is applied to surface element control, the following

conditions apply.
9 The tolerance zone applies to the surface elements.

9 The tolerance zone is two parallel lines.
9 Rule#1 applies.
9 The outer/inner boundary is not affected.
9 No modifiers may be specified.
9 The tolerance value specified must be less than the size tolerance.
Rule#1’s Effects on surface straightness.

This explains about the automatic indirect straightness control exist for the
surface line elements. The indirect control is the result of the
interrelationship between Rule#1 and size dimensions.
When the feature of size is at MMC, The line elements must be perfectly
straight. As the FOS departs from MMC, a straightness error equal to the
amount of departure is allowed.(Refer Fig 7)
Figure 7 Indirect Surface Straightness That Results From Rule#1
Definition of the Straightness as an

Axis/Center plane Control.
Straightness of an axis is the condition where an axis is an straight line.
Straightness of a center plane is a condition where each line element is a
straight line. A straightness control applied to a FOS is a geometric tolerance
that limits the amount of straightness error allowed in the axis or center
plane.
When a straightness control is applied to a diameter, a diameter symbol

modifier is shown in the tolerance portion of the feature control frame, and
9
Tolerance Analysis
the tolerance zone is a cylinder. The diameter of the cylinder is equal to the
straightness tolerance value. The axis of FOS lie within the cylindrical
tolerance zone.(Refer Fig 8)
Figure 8 Determining When A Straightness Control Is Applied To A FOS
When a straightness control is applied to a FOS(feature of Size), It can be

specified at RFS(by default), at MMC, or at LMC. (RFS is automatic when no
modifier is shown)
Whenever a straightness control is associated with the size dimensions of a

FOS, The following conditions apply.
9 The tolerance zone applies to the axis or centerplane.

9 Rule#1 is overridden.
9 The virtual condition (outer or inner boundary layer) is affected.
9 MMC or LMC modifiers may be specified.
9 The tolerance value may be greater than the specified tolerance.
Whenever Rule#1 applies to a FOS, It provides an automatic straightness

control for the axis of the center plane.
Note: Straightness is the only geometric tolerance that can override Rule#1.
Indirect straightness control:

There are several geometric controls that can indirectly affect the
straightness of an axis or center plane. They are cylindricity, total runout
and in some cases profile of a surface. When these controls are used, they
may affect the straightness of an axis or center plane of an FOS.
Circularity Control
Introduction:
Cylindrical surfaces can have three different form characteristics:

Straightness, circularity, and cylindricity. Circularity defines how much
circular elements can vary from a perfect circle. Form controls are used to
define the shape of a feature in relation to itself. Therefore they never use a
10
Tolerance Analysis
datum reference. The circularity control, its symbol, an example is shown in
the Figure 9
Figure 9 The Circularity Control
Circularity control:
Definition:
Circularity is a condition where all points of a surface of revolution, at any

section perpendicular to a common axis, are equidistant from that axis.
Circularity can be applied to any part feature with a diametrical (round)
cross section.
Figure 10 Circularity Control Example.
A circularity control is a geometric tolerance that limits the amount of

circularity on a part surface. It specifies that each circular element of a
feature’s surface must lie within a tolerance zone of two coaxial circles. It
also applies independently at each cross section element and at a right angle
to the feature axis. The radial distance between the circles is equal to the
circularity control tolerance value. See Fig 10.
11
Tolerance Analysis
A circularity control can only be applied to a surface; therefore, MMC, LMC,
diameter, projected tolerance zone, or tangent plane modifiers are not used.
Rule#1’s Effects on circularity:

Whenever Rule#1 applies to a FOS with a diametrical cross section, an
automatic indirect circularity control exists for its surface. This indirect
control is the interrelationship between Rule#1 and the size Dimension.
When a diameter is at MMC, its cross section elements must be perfectly

circular. As a diameter departs from MMC, a circularity error is
permissible, its cross section elements must lie between two coaxial circles,
one equal to the MMC of the diameter, the second radially smaller by the
size tolerance. Therefore, a diametrical dimension automatically restricts the
circularity of a diameter to be equal to its size tolerance.
Circularity application
A common reason for using a circularity control on a drawing is to limits the
lobbing (out of round) of a shaft diameter. In certain cases, lobbing of a shaft
diameter will cause bearings or bushings to fail prematurely. In the above
figures, the circularity control limits the maximum allowable amount of
circularity error of the shaft diameter. In this application, the following
statements apply:
¾ The diameter must be within its size tolerance.

¾ The circularity control does not override Rule#1.
¾ The circularity control tolerance must be less than the size tolerance.
¾ The circularity control does not affect the outer boundary of the FOS.
Fig 11 Circularity Application

Indirect Circularity Control:
There are several geometric controls that can indirectly affect the circularity
of a diameter; they are Rule#1, cylindricity, profile, and runout. When any of
these controls are used on a diameter, they also limits the circularity error of
the diameter. However, indirect circularity controls are not inspected. If it is
desired to have the circularity of a diameter inspected, a circularity control
should be specified. If a circularity control is specified, its tolerance value
12
Tolerance Analysis
must be less than the tolerance value of any indirect circularity control that
affects the diameter.
Cylindricity
Introduction :
Cylindricity defines how much a surface can vary from a perfect cylinder.
The cylindricity control, its symbol, and an example of a cylindricity control
are shown in Figure 12.
Figure 12 The Cylindricity Control.
Cylindricity Control
Cylindricity is a condition of a surface of revolution in which all points of the
surface are equidistant from a common axis. A cylindricity control is a
geometric tolerance that limits the amount of cylindricity error permitted on
a part surface. It specifies a tolerance zone of two coaxial cylinders within
which all points of the surface must lie. A cylindricity control applies
simultaneously too the entire surface. The radius. The distance between the
two coaxial cylinders is equal to the cylindricity control tolerance value. A
cylindricity control is a composite control that limits the circularity,
straightness, and taper of a diameter simultaneously. See Figure 13
A cylindricity control can only be applied to a surface; therefore, the

MMC,LMC, diameter, projected tolerance zone, or tangent plan modifiers are
not used.
13
Tolerance Analysis
Figure 13 Cylindricity Control Example.
Rule#1's Effects on Cylindricity

Whenever Rule #1 applies to a cylindrical FOS. an automatic indirect
cylindricity control exists for its surface. This indirect control is the result of
the interrelationship between Rule#1 and the size dimension. When the
diameter is at MMC, its surface must be perfectly cylindrical. As the
diameter departs from MMC, As the diameter departs from MMC, a
cylindricity error is permissible. Figure 14 illustrates an example of how
Rule#1 indirectly affects cylindricity.
Figure 14 illustrates that whenever a diameter is controlled by Rule#1, its

surface must lie between two coaxial cylinders, one equal to the MMC of the
diameter and the second radially smaller by the size tolerance. Therefore, a
diametrical dimension automatically restricts the cylindricity of a diameter
to be equal to its size tolerance.
Cylindrical Application
A common reason for a cylindricity control to be used on a drawing is to

limit the surface conditions (out of round, taper, and straightness) of a shaft
diameter. In certain cases, surface conditions of a shaft diameter will cause
bearings or bushings to fail prematurely. In Figure 22, the cylindricity
control limits the maximum allowable cylindricity error of the shaft diameter.
In this application, the following statements apply.
¾ The diameter must also be within its size tolerance.

¾ The cylindricity control does not override Rule#1.
¾ The cylindricity control tolerance must be less than the total size
tolerance.
¾ The cylindricity control does not affect the outer boundary of the FOS.
14
Tolerance Analysis
Indirect Cylindricity Controls :
cylindricity of a diameter; they are Rule#1, profile of a surface, and total
runout. When any of these controls are used on a diameter, they also limits
the cylindricity of the diameter. However, indirect cylindricity controls are
not inspected. If it is desired to have the cylindricity of a diameter inspected,
a cylindricity control should be specified. If a cylindricity control is specified,
its tolerance value must be less than the tolerance value of any indirect
cylindricity controls that affect the diameter.
Perpendicularity
Introduction
This lesson explains the concepts involved in defining the perpendicularity of
part features. Perpendicularity in one of the orientation controls.
Orientation controls define the perpendicularity (square ness), angularity,
Figure 14 Perpendicularity Control
and parallelism of part features. Orientation controls must contain a datum

reference. The perpendicularity orientation control and its symbol are shown
in Figure 14
Perpendicularity Control
Implied Right (90) Angles:
Wherever two lines on a drawing are shown at 90 degrees, they are at

implies 90degree angle. The tolerance for an implied 90 degree angle comes
from the title block tolerance ( on some drawings it is contained in the
general notes ). See Figure 15(Top). This method works satisfactorily for
some drawings, but it contains two shortcomings. First, the tolerance zone is
fan-shaped; it increases the farther it gets from the origin of the angle. The
second shortcoming is that it lacks a datum reference; the part could use
either side of the 90degree angle to begin the measurement, which may
affect functional relationships. In Figure 15(Bottom) , the part could be
inspected in two different ways: using the long side as the datum feature to
check the angular relationship of the short side, or using the short side as
the datum reference to check the angular relationship of the long side.
15
Tolerance Analysis
Figure 15 Implied Right(90 Degrees) Angles.
Definition of perpendicularity
Perpendicularity is the condition that results when a surface, axis, or
centerplane is exactly 90deg to a datum. A Perpendicularity control is a
geometric tolerance that limits the amount a surface, axis, or centerplane is
permitted to vary from being perpendicular to the datum.
Perpendicularity Tolerance Zones

The two common tolerance zones for a perpendicularity control are:
¾ Two parallel planes
¾ A cylinder
The following applications show these tolerance zones and discuss their use.
Perpendicularity Applications
Most perpendicularity application fall into one of three general cases/ refer
Figure 24)
2. . Perpendicularity applied to a surface
2. . Perpendicularity applied to a planar FOS
16
Tolerance Analysis
2. . Perpendicularity applied to a cylindrical FOS
Figure 16 Perpendicularity Applied To A Surface
a perpendicularity control is applied to a surface. This is the most common

application of perpendicularity. When perpendicularity is applied to a
surface, The following conditions apply:
2. . The shape of the tolerance zone is two parallel planes that are
perpendicular to the datum plane.
2. . The tolerance value of the perpendicularity control defines the
distance between the tolerance zone planes.
2. . All the elements of the surface must be within the tolerance zone.
2. . the perpendicularity tolerance zone limits the flatness of the
toleranced feature.
In Figure 25, a perpendicularity control is also applies to surface. In this
application, the perpendicularity control contains two datum references.
When two datum references are used in a perpendicularity control, the
tolerance zone is perpendicular to two datum planes, and all the conditions
from Figure 16 apply.
17
Tolerance Analysis
Figure 17 Perpendicularity With Two Datum References.
Indirect Perpendicularity Controls :

perpendicularity of a part feature. tolerance of position, runout, and profile
can limit perpendicularity; however, indirect perpendicularity controls are
not inspected. Their effect on perpendicularity is a result of the part surface,
axis, or centerplane being within the zone for the specified geometric control.
If it is desired to have the perpendicularity of a part feature inspected, a
perpendicularity control should be specified. If a perpendicularity control is
used, its tolerance value should be less than the tolerance value of any
indirect perpendicularity controls that apply.
Angularity
Introduction:
This lesson explains the concepts involved in defining the angularity of part
features. Angularity is considered one of the orientation controls.
Perpendicularity is used to control the orientation of surfaces that are
orientated by a basic angle (other than 90 deg) from the datum plane. The
angularity control and its symbol are shown in Figure 18
18
Tolerance Analysis
Figure 18 Angularity Control
Angularity Control
Definition
Angularity is the condition of a surface, center plane or axis being exactly at

a specified angle. An angularity control is a geometric tolerance that limits
the amount a surface, axis, or center plane is permitted to vary from its
specified angle
Angularity tolerance Zones

The two common tolerance zone shapes for an angularity control are:
i. Two parallel planes

ii. A cylinder
Angularity Applications
Most angularity applications fall into one of two general cases:
i. Angularity applied to a surface
ii. Angularity applied to a cylindrical FOS
When an angularity control is applied to a surface, the WCB of the

toleranced surface is not affected. When an angularity control is applied to a
FOS, the WCB of the FOS is affected. The WCB of a FOS that is toleranced
with an orientation control is oriented relative to the datum specified.
19
Tolerance Analysis
Figure 19 Angularity Applied To A Surface.
In Figure 19 an angularity control is applied to a surface; this is the most

common application of angularity. In an angularity application, the part
feature being controlled must be dimensioned with a basic angle relative to
the datum specified. When angularity is applied to a surface, the following
conditions apply:
¾ The shape of the tolerance zone is two parallel planes.

¾ The angularity control tolerance value defines the distance between
the tolerance zone planes.
¾ All the elements of the surface must be within the tolerance zone.
¾ The tolerance zone is oriented relative to the datum plane by a basic
angle.
¾ the angularity tolerance zone also limits the flatness of the toleranced
surface.
20
Tolerance Analysis
In Figure 28 an angularity control is applied to a diametrical FOS. Note the
use of the diameter modifier in the tolerance portion of the feature control
frame. When angularity is applied to a diameter, it controls the orientation of
the axis of the diameter.
Figure 20 Angularity Applied To FOS
In Figure 20, the following conditions apply:

¾ The tolerance zone is a cylinder.
¾ The angularity control tolerance value defines the diameter of the
tolerance cylinder.
¾ The axis of the toleranced feature must be within the tolerance zone.
¾ The tolerance zone is oriented relative to the datum plane by a basic
angle.
¾ An implied 90deg basic angle exists in the other direction.
Indirect Angularity Controls

There are several geometric controls that can indirectly affect the angularity
of a part feature: tolerance of position, total runout, and profile can limit
angularity. However, indirect angularity controls are not inspected; their
effect on angularity is a result of the part surface, axis, or centerplane being
within the tolerance zone for the geometric control. If it is desired to have the
angularity or a part feature inspected, an angularity control should be
specified. If an angularity control is used, its tolerance value should be less
than the tolerance value of any indirect angularity controls that apply.
21
Tolerance Analysis
Parallelism Control
Introduction:
Parallelism is considered one of the orientation controls. It is used to control

the orientation of surfaces that are parallel to the datum plane
Figure 21 Parallelism Control
Definition Of A Parallelism Control
Parallelism is the condition that results when a surface, axis or centre plane
is exactly parallel to the datum. A parallelism control is a geometric
tolerance that limits the amount of a surface ,axis ,or a centreplane is
permitted to vary from being parallel to the datum.
Implied Parallelism
Wherever two parallel surfaces are shown to be parallel on a drawing, the

size dimension of the surface controls the parallelism between the surfaces.
This method is satisfactory for some drawings, but has two shortcomings.
The first is that the parallelism requirement is the same value as the size
requirement. The second shortcoming is that there is no datum reference.
The part could be inspected from both sides. This would produce different
results by different inspectors. Fig 21
Parallelism Tolerance Zones
The two common tolerance zones for a parallelism control are:

1. Two parallel planes
2. A cylinder
Parallelism Applications
Most parallelism applications fall into two categories:

1. Parallelism applied to a surface
2. Parallelism applied to a diameter (MMC)
22
Tolerance Analysis
Figure 22 Implied Parallelism
Parallelism Applied To A Surface:

When parallelism is applied to a surface the following conditions apply:
Fig 22
¾ The tolerance zone is two parallel planes that are parallel to the
datum planes.
¾ Tolerance zone is located within the limits of the size dimensions.
¾ The tolerance value of the parallelism control defines the distance
between the tolerance zone planes.
¾ All the elements of the surface must be within the tolerance zone.
¾ The parallelism tolerance zone limits the flatness of the tolerance
features.
23
Tolerance Analysis
Figure 23 Parallelism Applied To A Surface.
Indirect Parallelism Controls
There are several geometric controls that can indirectly affect the parallelism
of a part feature: tolerance position , total runout and profile can limit
parallelism in certain cases. However indirect parallelism controls are not
inspected: there effect on parallelism is the result of part surfaces, axis ,or
centre plane. Being within the zone for the specified geometric control, if a
parallel control is used its tolerance value should be less than should be less
the value of any indirect parallelism control that apply.
Concentricity Control
Introduction:
Concentricity is a type of location control. The symbol for concentricity
control is shown in Fig 24

Figure 24 Concentricity Control.
24
Tolerance Analysis
Definition
Concentricity is the conditions where the median points of all diametrically
opposed elements of a cylinder (or a surface of revolution) are congruent with
the of a datum feature. A median point is the mid-point is the mid point of a
two-point measurement.
A Concentricity control is a geometric tolerance that limits the concentricity
error of a part feature. The tolerance zone for a concentricity control is three-
dimensional: it is a cylinder that is co-axial with the datum axis. The
diameter of the cylinder is equal to the concentricity control tolerance value.
The median points of corresponding located elements of the feature being
controlled; regardless of feature size must lie within the cylindrical tolerance
zone. When using a concentricity control, the specified tolerance and datum
reference always apply on an RFS basis. Fig 33
Figure 25 Concentricity Control Tolerance Zone.
Concentricity Application
Concentricity controls are used when the primary consideration is precise

balance of the part, equal wall thickness, or another functional requirement
that calls for equal distribution of mass. Before using the concentricity
control, the use of tolerance of position or run out should be considered.
When specifying concentricity, the form of toleranced diameter is allowed to
vary to a greater extent than if a run out control was used.
When concentricity is applied to diameter the following conditions apply:

( Fig 26)
¾ The diameter must meet its size and rule1 requirements.
¾ The concentricity control tolerance zone is a cylinder that is coaxial
with a datum axis.
¾ The tolerance value defines the diameter of the tolerance zone.
¾ All medians points of the toleranced diameter must be within the
tolerance zone
25
Tolerance Analysis
.
Figure 26: Concentricity Application.
Symmetry Control
Introduction:
Symmetry control is a type of location control. The symbol for symmetrical
control is shown in Fig 27

Figure 27 Symmetry Control.
Definition
Symmetry is similar to concentricity. The difference is that while
concentricity is used on surface of revolution, symmetry is used on planar
features of size.
Symmetry is the condition where the median points of all opposed elements
of two or more feature surfaces are congruent with the axis or centre plane
of a datum feature.
26
Tolerance Analysis
Fig 28 Symmetry Applications.
Symmetry Applications
Symmetry controls are used when a primary

consideration of symmetrical features is precise balance of the parts, equal
wall thickness or another functional requirements that call for equal
distribution of part mass.
When symmetry is applied to a slot the following conditions apply(Fig.28)
¾ The slot must meet its size.
¾ The symmetry control tolerance zone is two parallel planes
that are centered about the datum centre planes
¾ The tolerance value of the symmetry control defines the
distance between the parallel planes.
¾ All the median points of the toleranced slot must be within
the tolerance zone.
27
Tolerance Analysis
Figure 29 Symmetry Applications.
Circular Runout
Introduction
Runout is a composite control. A composite control controls the form,
location, and orientation of a part feature simultaneously ( in a single gage
reading). Runout controls are often used to control the coaxiality of
diameters. A runout control always requires a datum axis. There are two
types of runout controls: circular runout and total runout. Fig 38
Figure 30 Circular Runout Control
A runout control can be applied to any part feature that surrounds or is

intersected by the datum axis. A runout tolerance value specified in a
feature control frame indicates the maximum permissible indicator reading
(gage travel)of the considered feature, when the part is rotated 360 degrees
about its datum axis.
28
Tolerance Analysis
Establishing a datum axis for runout

There are three to establish a datum axis for a runout specification:
They are:
¾ A single diameter of sufficient length
¾ Two coaxial diameter a sufficient distance apart to create a single
datum axis.
¾ A surface and a diameter at right angles.
Functional design requirements and a part shape are considerations for

selecting one of these methods to establish a datum axis. Usually, the
feature used for the datum axis is the same features that locate the part in
the assembly. A single diameter is used when the diameter is long enough to
orient the part. Two coaxial diameters are used when they equally establish
the orientation of the parts. A surface primary, diameter secondary is used
when the surface orients the parts. When the surface is primary the
diameter should be very short.
Figure 31 Establishing The Datum Axis For Runout.
Definition
Circular run out is a composite control that affects the form, orientation and
location of circular elements (individually), of a part feature relative to a
datum axis.
A circular run out control is a geometric tolerance that limits the amount of
circular run out of a part surface. Circular run out applies independently to
each circular element of the diameter.
29
Tolerance Analysis
Figure 32 Circular Runout Tolerance Zone.
When the tolerance zone shape for a circular runout control is applied to a
diameter, it is easily visualized: it is two coaxial circles whose centers are
located on the datum axis. The radial distance between the circles is equal to
the run out tolerance value. Fig 40
Circular Runout Applications

Concentricity controls are used only in a few applications in the industry.
Concentricity is used when the primary consideration is balance of the part,
equal wall thickness (Fig 41)
For circular run out application the following conditions must apply:
¾ The diameter must meet its size requirements.
¾ The worst case boundary is affected.
¾ The runout control applies RFS
¾ Runout applies at each circular element of the toleranced diameter.
¾ The runout toleranced zone is radial distance between two coaxial
circles.
Figure 33 Circular Runout Applied to A Diameter.
30
Tolerance Analysis
Total Runout
Introduction
This explains the concept involved with the total runout control.Total runout
is not as common as circular runout. However it controls additional form
characteristics over circular runout Fig 34
Figure 34 Runout Controls

Definition
Total runout is a composite control that affects the orientation, form and
location of surface elements (simultaneously) of a diameter (or surface)
relative to a datum axis
A total runout control is a geometric tolerance that limits the amount of total
runout of a surface. It applies to the entire length of diameter
simultaneously. It is referred to as composite control because it affects the
orientation, form and location of part feature simultaneously. Total runout is
usually bused to control the location of diameter. When applied to diameter
it is used to control the circularity, taper, orientation and location of
diameter relative to the datum axis.
When applied to diameter, the tolerance zone shape for total runout can be
easily visualized: it is two co-axial cylinders whose centre located on the
datum axis. The radial distance between the two is the runout tolerance.
Fig 35
Figure 35 Total Runout

The radius of the largest cylinder is the radius of the surface element that is
farthest from the datum axis. The second cylinder is radially smaller from
the larger cylinder by the runout tolerance value. When verifying the total
31
Tolerance Analysis
runout of a diameter the dial indicator is kept on the surface element and
the part is rotated 360 degrees and the indicator is moved along the surface
diameter; it indicates the radial distance between the cylinders.
Condition For Total Runout Application

In Fig 36 Total runout application is illustrated. In this application the
following conditions apply.
¾ The diameter must meet its size requirements.
¾ The runout control applies RFS.
¾ The runout tolerance applies simultaneously to all elements of
diameter.
¾ The tolerance zone is the radial distance between two co-axial
cylinders.
Figure 36 Total Runout Applied To A Diameter.
Comparison Of Circular And Total Runout

Circular and total runout is used to tolerance coaxial diameters. Both
controls are similar but some significant differences exist. The chart below
illustrates the difference it
32
Tolerance Analysis
Table 3: Comparison of Circular and Total Runout
RUNOUT APPLIED TO DIAMETER
CONCEPT CIRCULAR RUNOUT TOTAL RUNOUT
Tolerance zone Two coaxial circles Two coaxial cylinders
Relative cost to
produce $ $$
Relative cost to $ $$
inspect
Part characteristics
being controlled Location Location
Orientation Orientation
Circularity Circularity
A part could pass a circular runout verification and fail a total runout
verification. Fig 44. The figure below shows two parts with zero circular error
and 0.1mm total runout. In each case, the straightness or flatness error of
the part surface would not be detected in a circular runout test but would
Refer Fig 37
Figure 37 Comparison Of Circular and Total Runout
33
Tolerance Analysis
Surface Control
Introduction
There are two types of profile control: profile of a line and profile of a
surface. Profile of a surface is considered to be the most powerful tool in
geometric tolerancing system. It can be used to control the size, form
,orientation and location of a part feature Fig 38
Figure 38 The Profile Of A Surface Control
Definition:
A profile of a surface control is geometric tolerance that limits the amount of
error the surface can have relative to its true profile. Common applications
for profile of a surface controls include controlling –either independently or
in combination- the size, location ,form and orientation of:
¾ Planar, curved and irregular surface.
¾ Polygons.
¾ Cylinders, surfaces of revolutions and cones.
¾ Coplanar surfaces.
Profile Used To Tolerance A Surface Location

Here is an example (Fig 39) of profile controls used to tolerance the location,
form and orientation of planar surfaces. This is the most common
application of profile. In this application the profile is applied to a planar
surface, and the following conditions apply:
¾ The profile callout is applied to a true profile.
¾ The true profile is related to the datum referenced with basic
dimensions.
¾ The tolerance zone is a uniform boundary centered around the true
profile.
¾ All elements of the profile must be within the tolerance zone

simultaneously.
¾ The tolerance limits the form, location and orientation of the surface.
34
Tolerance Analysis
Figure 39 Profile Used To Tolerance A Surface Location
Inspecting Profile of A Surface

There are many ways a surface could be inspected. One way is to use a
special gage as depicted in the diagram (Refer Fig 40). First, the part is
located in the datum reference frame. Then the dial indicator is used to
measure the distance between the toleranced surface and the true profile.
Depending on the dial indicator reading of the part surface, the part surface
will be determined to be in or out of the profile tolerance zone. The number
of points to be checked is determined by the inspection plan.
35
Tolerance Analysis
Figure 40 Inspecting Profile Of A Surface.
Profile Of A Line Control

Introduction:
The basic concept of profile of a line and surface are same. But differs in the
manner that line profile is 2D while surface is 3D. It is typically used as a
form control or in conjunction with a profile of a surface control. The symbol
for it is shown in Fig 41
Figure 41 The Profile Of A Line Control.
Definition:
The basic concepts of a profile of a surface and a line are same. The basic
difference is that the tolerance zone for the profile of a surface is three
dimensional while that of a line is two dimensional. A profile of a line control
is a geometric tolerance that limits the amount of error for line elements
relative to the true profile. The tolerance zone is same as that for surface
profile. The tolerance zone is two dimensional ; it is two uniform lines
applied at ant cross section of the surface. Profile of a line provides control in
one direction only. Therefore, profile of a line is often used as a part of a
multiple simple segment control of a surface.
Profile Of A Line And The Coordinate Tolerance Used To Control Form

Location
In this example, a profile of a line is used with a coordinate
tolerance. The coordinate tolerance locates the surface, and the profile call
out refines the form. The profile of a line control specifies two datum
references. Therefore the profile of a line control affects the form and
orientation of the line elements. ( Fig 42) the figure shows an example of a
36
Tolerance Analysis
profile of a line and a coordinate tolerance used to control the location ,
orientation and form.
9 In the figure the following conditions apply:

9 Profile callout is applied to a true profile
9 The coordinate tolerance locates the surface.
9 The profile of a line control refines the form and orientation of the line
elements in one direction.
Figure 42 Profile Of A Line Used With A Coordinate Tolerance
37
Case Studies
POKA-YOKE
Improving Product Quality By Preventing Defects
“Inadvertent mistakes increase work” is the success slogan of modern industries.
Poka-yoke is a technique of avoiding simple human error at work. Shigeo Shingo,
a Japanese Engineer developed this formidable tool for achieving zero defects
and eventually eliminating quality control inspections. In general “yokeru” is “to
avoid” and “poka” is “inadvertent errors”.
Types of Poka-Yoke devices

1. Source inspection to detect errors at their source-before they cause defects. An
example is an additional locator pin to prevent misalignment of the workpiece.
2. 100% inspection for defects using an inexpensive sensing device such as limit
switch
3. Immediate action to stop operations when an error is detected, such as an
interlocked circuit that automatically shut down the machine.
4. Guide pins, Error detection Alarms, Limit switches, Counters & Check lists
To survive in the competitive atmosphere of modern manufacturing, a company must
adhere strictly to standards. While customers must be satisfied with all aspects of
products & service.
Three Strategies for Zero Defects

1. Don’t make it- don’t make products you don’t need, follow JIT principle
2. Make it to withstand any use-build safeguard into production process to ensure
flexibility. Quality can be build thro’ poka-yoke, automation & work
standardization
3. Once you’ve made it, use it right away-ensure to produce continuous flow
production.
Kinds of Errors:
Forgetfulness, Errors due to misunderstanding, identification, errors made by
amateurs, Willful errors, and inadvertent errors, Errors due to slowness, Errors due to
standards, surprise errors and Intentional errors.
The Basic Function of Poka-Yoke

A defect exists in one or two states: Poka-Yoke has 3 basic functions to use against
defects-shut down, control and warning. Recognizing that a defect is about to occur is
called prediction and that detected which already has occurred is called detection.
Poke-Yoke Hints
1. Identify items by their characteristics
2. Detect deviation from procedures or omitted processes
3. Detect deviation from fixed values
1
Case Studies
Zero Defect Strategies for factories

ories
Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Level 5
Defect Defect Decrease Defects Zero
Situation
leaves do not Defect do not Defects
company leaves leave the
company process
Operation Operation Operation

Operation Operation
Processes
Improve
Errors Errors Errors Errors
Improve
Errors
Improve
Process
Defects Defects
Factory
Defects
Defects Inspections
Inspections Inspections Inspections
Non-
Non-
Defective
Non-
Non-
Defects Defective
Defective items Defect
items
items i
Prevent errors
Inspection Strategies Slogans

Lots of Strive for no Don’t let Don’t pass
complaints Defects Recur Defects on from becoming
defects &
defects
complaints
Close the More Intensify if Train workers Adopt zero defects

factory inspectors improvement production
No Judgment Informative Self check Source inspection

inspectio inspection inspection within process
Fig1 Zero Defect Strategies for factories
2
IDENTIFY &
8 PRINCIPLES OF BASIC IMPROVEMENT STUDY Education &
Role of management PROBLEMS discipline
Inspection
ORGANIZE eliminates defects
BUILD QUALITY INTO Poke-yoke
ZERO
PROCESS WORKER MISTAKE
FORMULATE
TEAM FOREMAN COMPANY- Policy
ADOPT QA
INADVERANT ERRORS & SYSTEM WIDE PLAN
DEFECTSCANBE
WORKER
THROUHLY
ELIMINATED
SUPERVISOR ACHIEVING
5 S: SEIRI,
PROMOTE ESTABLISH AND
WORKER SEITON,
STOP DOING IT WRONG & COMPANY TARGETS MAINTAIN-
SEISO,
START DOING IT RIGHT WIDE &FOLLOWUP ING ZERO
SEIKETSU,
TEAM FOREMAN POKAYOKE & DEFECTS
SHITSUKE*
ZERO THROUGH
WORKER COMPANY-
THINK ABOUT HOW TO WIDE POKA-
DO RIGHT YOKE
SECTION PLANT WORK IN
ZERO MISTAKE CHECK LIST
3
MANAGER MANAGER TEAMS &
STAY
WORKER
IMPLEMENT YOUR IDEA ACTIVE
TEAM FOREMAN ZERO MISTAKE

PROMOTION
WORKER CONFERENCE
WORK TOGETHER TO ASSEMBLY &
ELIMINATE MISTAKES PRODUCTION
SUPERVISOR
ESTABLISH
COMPANY
WIDE ZD
10 HEADS ARE BETTER WORKER TARGETS &
THAN ONE ASSIGNMENT OF
TEAM FOREMAN ZERO FOLLO MULTIPLE
PROCESSES
MISTA
SEEK TRUE CAUSE, USING WORKER VISUAL
5W’S & 1 H ZERO CONTROLS
MISTAK
Fig 2. A company wide mistake proofing, Zero Defect Effort

Case Studies
Case Studies
PROCESSING ERRORS
Fig 3. Work piece set into jig incorrectly
Fig 4. Counter sink was omitted
Fig 5. Wrong end of shaft inserted
4
Case Studies
Fig 6. Shaft Reversed end to end
Fig 7. Part Mounting in Jig Upside Down

Assembly Errors
Fig 8. Parts countersunk on wrong side
5
Case Studies
Fig 9. Shaft get scratched due to improper insertion into jig
Mounting Errors
Fig 10. Washer missed during assembly
Inclusion Of Wrong Items

6
Case Studies
Fig 11. Incorrect lenses assembled into final product
Mounting Error
Problem: Buttons mounting upside down
Before improvement: Buttons could be mounting upside down
After improvement
Fig 12. Buttons upside down

Insertion Errors
7
Case Studies
Fig 13. Plates mounted on wrong end of shaft
Assembly Omissions
Fig 14. Omitting Spring Washer
Processing Errors
8
Case Studies
Fig 15. Products not pierced
Measurement Errors-Pressing Omitted
Fig 16. Wrong Measurement
Omissions Of Operation
9
Case Studies
Fig 17. Heating Switch not turned off

Mismatched Jigs & Fixtures
Fig 18. Mismatch of top and bottom jig
10
Problem :
1. Suggest a suitable operation sequence for the stub carrier shown in Fig.20
and redraw the component incorporating features to facilitate manufacture. The
carrier is to be produced from a steel casting and the symbol indicates a ground
surface for the 30 mm diameter f8 limits.
2. The proposed machining procedure for the plate Fig 21

(1) Bore and face, reverse, face other side - turret.
(2) Drill and ream four 25 mm H8holes - drill, drill jig.
Suggest a design modification which will permit of an alternative
procedure to achieve a substantial reduction in machining time. State the
procedure for producing the modified design.
3. A Cast iron bearing bracket is shown in Fig 22. Indicate the preferred
parting line and any necessary sand cores. Offer a design modification that
will reduce or eliminate the need for sand cores.
Design for Manufacturing and Assembly
Tolerance Analysis
PROCESS CAPABILITY ANALYSIS

Definitions
Mean ( x ):
The arithmetic mean of a set of ‘n’ numbers is the sum of the numbers divided by ‘n’.
Mean is expressed algebrically,
X 1 + X 2 + X 3 + ......... + X n
x= ,
n
Where the symbol x represents the arithmetic mean.
X 1 , X 2 , X 3 ,..... X n , are the n values of the variate X
i.e., x=
∑x
n
If X1 occurs f1 times, X2 occurs f2 times, etc and finally Xn occurs fn times, then,
n = f1 + f 2 + f 3 + .......... f n
f X + f 2 X 2 + f 3 X 3 + ......... + f n X n
Then x= 1 1
f1 + f 2 + f 3 + ......... + f n
The mean is used to report average size, average yield, average percent defective etc.
Median:
When all the observations are arranged in ascending or descending order, then the
median is the magnitude of the middle case.
n +1
If n is odd, Median =
2
⎛n⎞ ⎛n ⎞
If n is even, Median is average of ⎜ ⎟ th and ⎜ + 1⎟ th value.
⎝2⎠ ⎝2 ⎠
Where n = No of observations.
Mode:
The mode of a set of data is the value which occurs most frequently.
Range(R):
In the control chart, the range is difference between the largest observed value and
the smallest observed value.
Variance ( σ 2 ):
It is defined as the sum of the squares of the deviations from the arithmetic mean
divided by the number of observations ‘n’.
1
Tolerance Analysis
Variance ( σ 2
)=
(x
1 ) (
2
) (
2
− x + x2 − x + xn − x )2
n
Sample problems
Example 1:
The no of orders received for a particular item on each day for five days are as
follows. Calculate the mode and variance.
1, 2, 0, 3, 2
Solution:
Mode = 2 (it occurs more than the other values)
This can be put more succinctly using the summation notation as;
Variance σ 2 =
1
n
(
∑ x−x )
2
It is possible to rearrange this formula in a way which makes the calculation of the
variance much easier in general.
Variance σ 2 =
1
n
2
()
∑ x 2 − x , To calculate x ,we use
1 + 2 + +0 + 3 + 2
Mean x = = 1.6
5
Using this formula, the variance for the data used above is calculated as follows:
1 2
Variance σ 2 = (1 + 22 + 02 + 32 + 22 ) - 1.62
5
18
= - 2.56
5
σ 2 = 1.04
Standard deviation = (σ )2
Standard deviation = (1.04) = 1.02
Example 2:
Calculate mean, variance, standard deviation for the given order size data.
2
Tolerance Analysis
Order Class Frequency fx fx2
size mark(x) (f)
range
1-10 5.5 1 5.5 30.25
11-20 15.5 2 31.0 480.50
21-30 25.5 4 102.0 2601.00
31-40 35.5 12 426.0 15123.00
41-50 45.5 13 591.5 26913.25
51-60 55.5 8 444.0 24642.00
61-70 65.5 8 524.0 34322.00
71-80 75.5 1 75.5 5700.25
81-90 85.5 1 85.5 7310.25
∑ f = 50 ∑ fx = 2285.0 ∑ fx 2 = 117122.50
2285
Mean x =
50
= 45.7
117122.5
Variance σ 2 = - (45.7) 2
50
= 253.96
Standard deviation = 253.96
= 15.9
Skewness:
The curve, which does not follow the shape of the normal curve. These generally
represent a purely temporary process condition, and serve as a guide to detecting the
presence of some unusual factor like defective material, or abnormal machining
conditions. (e.g.) tool chatter, tool vibration, etc.
These curves are like normal curves in that the frequencies decrease continuously
from the centre to extreme values, but unlike the normal curve they are not
symmetrical.
Figure 1 Skewed curves
3
Tolerance Analysis
Their extreme values occur more frequently in one direction from the centre than in
the other. They appear like “disturbed normal” curves and hence are called “skewed
curves”.
The normal distribution is the most commonly occurring symmetrical frequency
distribution. Positive skewness is also quite common, as for instance the shape of
the distribution of personal incomes. Another example is the distribution of the time
intervals between randomly occurring events, such as the arrival of customers at the
ends of a queue. Negative skewness is less common, but occurs, for instance, in the
distribution of times to failure of certain types of equipment.
Mean − Mode
Coefficient of Skewness=
σ
Several measures of skewness have been proposed, but are rarely used in practice.
The simplest way of describing skewness is to quote the mean, the median, and,
where possible the mode. For symmetrical distributions, these three measures will
approximately coincide. For positively skewed distributions, the mode will be less
than the median, which will in turn be less than the mean. This is very noticeable
for the distribution of personal incomes.
For negatively skewed distributions, these three measures will be in the reverse
order. The differences between the measures give some indication of the extent of
the skewness.
When the distribution is moderately, there is an approximate relationship between

the three measures, expressed as
Mean-Mode=3(Mean-Median).
Measure Of Skewness:
(A) Absolute Skeweness
(a) Absolute Sk = Mean-Mode

(when mode is not ill-defined)
(b) Absolute Sk = 3(Mean-Median)
(B) Relative Skewness
(a) Karl Pearson’s coefficient of Skewness.
Mean − Mode
σ
When mode is ill-defined
3( Mean − Mode)
σ
(b) Measure of Skewness based on moments:
4
Tolerance Analysis
With the help of moments Skewness can be determined, Karl Pearson suggested
β 1 as Measure of Skewness.
μ32
β1 =
μ23
For a symmetrical distribution β 1 = 0.
Moments (i) Moments about Mean
μ1 =
∑(X − X )
N
μ2 =
∑( X − X )2 = σ 2 or σ = μ2
N
μ3 =
∑ ( X − X )3
N
μ4 =
∑( X − X )4
N
In case of frequency distribution μ 1 =

∑ f (X − X ) =0
N
μ2 =
∑ f (X − X ) 2
= σ 2 , etc.
N
(ii) Moments about arbitrary origin A
μ 11 =
∑ ( X − A)
N
μ 21 =
∑ ( X − A) 2
N
μ 31 =
∑ ( X − A)3
N
μ 41 =
∑ ( X − A) 4
N
In a frequency distribution the moments about an arbitrary origin will be

calculated as follows:
μ 11 =
∑ fd × i or
∑ f ( X − A) × i
N N
∑ fd ∑ f ( X − A)
2 2
μ 21 = ×i2 or × i2
N N
5
Tolerance Analysis
μ3 1
=
∑ fd 3
×i 3
or
∑ f ( X − A) 3
× i3
N N
∑ fd 4 ∑ f ( X − A)
4
μ 41 = ×i4 or × i4
N N
⎛ X − A⎞
Where ‘ i ’ is the class interval and l= ⎜ ⎟.
⎝ i ⎠
Order to simplify calculations the moments are first calculated about an origin A.
They can then be converted with the help of the following relationships to obtain
moments about mean.
μ1= μ11-μ11 =0
μ2 = μ21-( μ11)2
μ3 = μ31-(3μ11 μ21)+2 ( μ11)3
μ4 = μ41-(4μ11 μ31)+6 ( μ11)2 μ21 -3( μ11)4
Example 3:
Calculate any measure of skewness from the following data:
X 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
f 12 27 29 19 8 4 1 0
Solution:
Since the question is to calculate any measure of skewness, we should prefer

Karl Pearson’s coefficient of skewness because it is considered to be the best
measure for calculating skewness. The formula is:
Mean − Mode
σ
Hence for calculating skewness we have to determine the values of mean,

mode and standard deviation.
Calculation of Coefficient of Skewness
X f x-2 fd fd2
d
0 12 -2 -24 48
1 27 -1 -27 27
2 29 0 0 0
6
Tolerance Analysis
3 19 +1 +19 12
4 8 +2 +16 32
5 4 +3 +12 36
6 1 +4 +4 16
7 0 +5 0 0
N=100 ∑ fd = 0 ∑ fd = 178
2
x = A+
∑ fd = 2 + (0 / 100 ) = 2
N
⎛ ⎛ ∑ fd 2 ⎞ ⎛ ∑ fd ⎞
2
⎞
Standard deviation σ = ⎜ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − ⎜ ⎟ ⎟
⎜⎝ N ⎠ ⎝ N ⎠ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
⎛ ⎛ 178 ⎞ ⎛ 0 ⎞ 2 ⎞
σ = ⎜⎜ − ⎟ = 1.78 = 1.334
⎜ ⎝ 100 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 100 ⎟⎠ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
Mode: Since the highest frequency is 29, by inspection the mode is the value
corresponding to the frequency 29 i.e. 2.
x =2 , Mo =2, σ =1.334
Substituting these values in the formula,
Mean − Mode 2−2

Coefficient of Skewness = = = 0.
σ 1.334
Example: 4
Calculate Karl Pearson’s co-efficient of skewness from the following data:
Size 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Frequency 10 18 30 25 12 3 2
Solution:
Calculation of Karl Pearson’s Coefficient of Skewness
Size Frequency x-4 fd fd2

x f d
1 10 -3 -30 90
2 18 -2 -36 72
7
Tolerance Analysis
3 30 -1 -30 30
4 25 0 0 0
5 12 +1 +12 12
6 3 +2 +6 12
7 2 +3 +6 18
N=100 ∑ fd = −72 ∑ fd = 234
2
Coefficient of Skewness= Mean − Mode

σ
Mean: x = A+ ∑ fd = 4 - (72/100) =3.28
N
⎛ ⎛ ∑ fd 2 ⎞ ⎛ ∑ fd ⎞ 2
⎞
σ = ⎜ ⎜⎜ ⎟− ⎟
⎜ ⎝ N ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ N ⎟⎠
Standard deviation
⎟
⎝ ⎠
⎛ ⎛ 232 ⎞ ⎛ − 72 ⎞ 2 ⎞
σ = ⎜⎜ − ⎟ =
⎜ ⎝ 100 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 100 ⎟⎠ ⎟
2 .28856
⎝ ⎠
= 1.152
Mode: Since the maximum frequency is 30, by inspection the mode is the value
corresponding to the frequency 30 i.e. 3.
x =3.28 , Mo =3, σ =1.518
Substituting these values in the formula,
Mean − Mode 3.28 − 3 = 0.184

Coefficient of Skewness = =
σ
1.518
Kurtosis:
The fourth momentum will provide a numerical value associated with the
peakedness or flatness of the data as it is a distributed about the mean also known
as “kurtosis”.
The following equation incorporates the fourth moment about the mean and the
fourth power of the samples standard deviation to measure kurtosis.
1 n
μ 4 = ∑ xi − x
n i =1
( ) 4
Kurtosis =
μ 4
4
s
The following equation is commonly used to calculate the zero based kurtosis in
statistical analysis computer programming.
8
Tolerance Analysis
4
1 n ⎛ xi − x ⎞
Zero-based kurtosis= ∑⎜ ⎟ −3
n i =1 ⎜⎝ s ⎟⎠
Note that the value of 3 is subtracted from the kurtosis value. This force the value to
be zero based, as opposed to be centered around the number 3. The common
approach to quantity kurtosis is that the normal peak distribution is centered about
the value 3. As the kurtosis deviates above or below 3. The peakedness or flatness
begins to take a numerical significance as described below.
Mesokurtic:
They are three general distributions types used to define nature of kurtosis. The
first is mesokurtic distribution as shown in the Figure 2. In it the data is normal
distributed about the mean the kurtosis will be equal to 3.
Figure 2 Mesokurtic distribution
Platykurtic:
The second is platykurtic distribution, shown in figure 3. In it the data is dispersed

bout the mean in a manner that is flat in nature: the kurtosis will be less than 3.
9
Tolerance Analysis
Figure 3 Platykurtic distribution
Leptokurtic:
The third is leptokurtic distribution, shown in figure 4. In the data is dispersed
about the mean in a manner that is very peaked in nature; the kurtosis will be
greater than 3.
Figure 4 Leptokurtic distribution
Measures Of Kurtosis:
Kurtosis are measured by the coefficient
μ4
β2 =
μ22
or γ 2 = β2 − 3
For normal distribution β 2 =3. If β 2 is more than 3 the curve is leptokurtic and if it
less than 3 the curve is platykurtic.
Example: 5
10
Tolerance Analysis
Calculate first four moments from the following data:
Also calculate the values of β 1 and β 2 and comment on the nature of the
distribution
X 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Y 5 10 15 20 25 20 15 10 5
Solution:
Calculation of moments
X f fX (X-4) f(X-4) f(x-4)2 f(X-4)3 f(X-4)4
0 5 0 -4 -20 80 -320 1280

1 10 10 -3 -30 90 -270 810
2 15 30 -2 -30 60 -120 240
3 20 60 -1 -20 20 -20 20
4 25 100 0 0 0 0 0
5 20 100 +1 +20 20 +20 2
6 15 90 +2 +30 60 +120 40
7 10 70 +3 +30 90 +270 10
8 5 40 +4 +20 80 +320 280
N=125 ∑fX ∑f(X-4) ∑ f(x-4)2 ∑ f(X-4)3 ∑ f(X-4)4
= 500 =0 =500 =0 =4700
x=
∑ fX 500
= =4
N 125
μ1 =
∑ f (X − X )
N
∑ f ( X − X ) = 0, N = 125
0
μ1 = =0
125
μ2 =
∑ f ( X − X )2 =
500
=4
N 125
μ3 =
∑ f ( X − X )3 = 0
=0
N 125
11
Tolerance Analysis
μ4 =
∑ f ( X − X ) 4 4700
= = 37.6
N 125
μ32 02
β1 = 3 = 3 = 0
μ2 4
Since β 1 is zero, the distribution is symmetrical

μ 4 37.6
β2 = = = 2.35
μ22 16
Since β 2 is less than 3, the distribution is platykurtic.
Example: 6
Using moments, calculate a measure of relative skewness and a measure of relative
kurtosis for the following distribution and comment on the result obtained:
Weekly Wages No. of Workers

(Rs)
70 but below 90 8
90 “ 110 11
110 “ 130 18
130 “ 150 9
150 “ 170 4
Solution:
Weekly
wages
(Rs) f m.p d fd fd2 fd3 fd4
70-90 8 80 -2 -16 32 -64 128

90-110 11 100 -1 -11 11 -11 11
110-130 18 120 0 0 0 0 0
130-150 9 140 1 9 9 9 9
150-170 4 160 2 8 16 32 64
N=50 ∑fd =-10 ∑fd2=68 ∑ fd3=-34 ∑fd4=212
12
Tolerance Analysis
μ 11 =
∑ fd × i = − 10 × 20 = −4
N 50
μ 21 =
∑ fd 2
× i2 =
68
× 400 = 544
N 50
μ 31 =
∑ fd 3 × i3 =
− 34
× 8000 = −5440
N 50
μ 41 =
∑ fd 4 ×i4 =
212
× 160000 = 678400
N 50
Moment about Mean
μ2 = μ21-( μ11)2 =544-(-4)2=528
μ3 = μ31-3(μ11 μ21)+2 ( μ11)3
= -5440-3(-4) (544) +2(-4)3
= 960.
μ4 = μ41-4(μ11 μ31)+6 ( μ11)2 μ21 -3( μ11)4
= 674800-4(-4) (-5440) +6(-4)2(544)-3(-4)4
= 642816
μ3 2
960 2
Skewness= β 1 = = = 0.08
μ23 528 3
μ 4 642816
β2 = = = 2.306
μ 2 2 278784
Since β 2 is less than 3, the distributions platykurtic.
Example: 6
Calculate coefficient of skewness by Karl Pearson’s method and the values of β 1
and β 2 from the following data:
Profits(Rs. Lakhs) 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60
0
No. of companies 18 20 30 22 10
13
Tolerance Analysis
Solution:
Calculation of Karl Pearson’s Coefficient of Skewness β 1 and β 2
Profits No. m.p (m-
(Rs. of 45)/10 fd fd2 fd3 fd4
Lakhs) cos m
d
f
10-20 18 15 -2 -36 72 -144 288
20-30 20 25 -1 -20 20 -20 20
30-40 30 35 0 0 0 0 0
40-50 22 45 +1 +22 22 +22 22
50-60 10 55 +2 +20 40 +80 160
N=100 ∑
fd = −14 ∑
fd = 154
2
∑
fd 3 = −62 ∑ fd 4
= 490
Karl Pearson’s Coefficient of Skewness= Mean − Mode

σ
Mean: x = A+
∑ fd × i
N
A=35, ∑ fd =-14 , N=100, i=10
14
x = 35+× 10 = 35 − 1.4 = 33.6
100
Δ1
Mode: Mode= L + ×i
Δ1 − Δ 2
By inspection mode lies in the class 30-40
L=30 Δ 1 = 30 − 20 = 10, Δ 2 = 30 − 22 = 8, i = 10
10
Mode= 30+ × 10 = 30 + 5.56 = 35.56
10 + 8
⎛ ⎛ ∑ fd 2 ⎞ ⎛ ∑ fd ⎞
2
⎞
Standard deviation σ = ⎜ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − ⎜ ⎟ × i ⎟⎟
⎜⎝ N ⎠ ⎝ N ⎠
⎝ ⎠
⎛ ⎛ 154 ⎞ ⎛ − 14 ⎞ 2 ⎞
σ = ⎜⎜ ⎟ −⎜ ⎟ × 10 ⎟ = 12.33
⎜ ⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
33.6 − 35.56
Karl Pearson’s Coefficient of Skewness= =-0.159
12.33
μ32
Calculation of β 1 =
μ23
We will have to calculate moments
14
Tolerance Analysis
μ 11 =
∑ fd × i = − 14 × 10 = −1.4
N 100
μ 21 =
∑ fd 2
×i2 =
154
× 100 = 154
N 100
μ 31 =
∑ fd 3 × i3 =
− 62
× 1000 = −620
N 110
μ 41 =
∑ fd 4 ×i4 =
490
× 10000 = 49000
N 100
μ2 = μ21-( μ11)2 =154-(-1.4)2=152.04
μ3 = μ31-3(μ11 μ21)+2 ( μ11)3
= -620-3(-1.4) (154) +2(-1.4)3
= 20.32
μ4 = μ41-4(μ11 μ31)+6 ( μ11)2 μ21 -3( μ11)4
= 49000-{4(-1.4) (-620)} +{6(-1.4)2(154)-{3(-1.4)4}
= 47327.516
μ 3 2 (21.32 )2 454.54
β1 = 2 = = = 0.00013
μ2 (152.04) 3514581.1
2
μ 47327.516
β 2 = 42 = = 2.047
μ2 (152.04 )2
Process Capability Analysis:

Statistical techniques can be helpful throughout the product cycle, including
development activities prior to manufacturing, in quantifying process variability, in
analyzing this variability relative to product requirements or specifications, and in
assisting development and manufacturing in eliminating or greatly reducing this
variability. This general activity is called process capability analysis.
Product capability refers to the uniformity of the process. Obviously, the variability
in the process is a measure of the uniformity of output. There are two ways to think
of this variability:
15
Tolerance Analysis
1. The natural or inherent variability at a specified time; that is,
“Instantaneous” variability.
2. The variability over time. ,
We present methods for investigating and assessing both aspects of process
capability.
It is customary to take the 6-sigma spread in the distribution of the product quality
characteristic as a measure of process capability. Figure 5 shows a process for which
the quality characteristic has a normal distribution with mean μ and standard
deviationσ . The upper and lower “natural tolerance limits” (UNTL & LNTL) of the
process fall at μ +3σ and0 μ −3σ , respectively. That is,
UNTL = μ + 3σ
LNTL = μ − 3σ
For a normal distribution, the natural tolerance limits include 99.73% of the variable,
or put another way, only 0.27% of the process output will fall outside the natural
tolerance limits. Two points should be remembered:
1.0.27% outside the natural tolerances sounds small, but this corresponds to
2700 nonconforming parts per million.
2. If the distribution of process output is nonnormal, then the percentage of
output falling outside μ ±3σ may differ considerably from 0.27%.
We define process capability analysis as an engineering study to estimate process
capability. The estimate of process capability may be in the form of a probability
distribution having a specified shape, center (mean), and spread (standard deviation).
For example, we may determine that the process output is normally distributed with
mean μ = 1.0 cm and standard deviation σ = 0.001 cm. in this sense, a process
capability analysis may be performed without regard to specifications on the quality
characteristic. Alternatively, we may express process capability as a percentage
outside of specifications. However, specifications are not necessary to perform a
process capability analysis.
Figure 5 Upper and Lower natural tolerance limits in the normal

distribution.
A process capability study usually measures functional parameters on the product,

not the process itself. When the analyst can directly observe the process and can
control or monitor the data-collection activity, the study is a true process capability
16
Tolerance Analysis
study, because by controlling the data collection and knowing the time sequence of
the data, interferences can be made about the stability of the process over time.
However, when we have available only sample units of products, perhaps supplied by
the vendor or obtained via receiving inspection, and there is no direct observation of
the process or time history of production, then the study is more properly called
product characterization. In a characteristic or the process yield (fraction conforming
to specifications); we can say nothing about the dynamic behavior of the process or
its state of statistical control.
Process capability analysis is a vital part of an overall quality-improvement program.

Among the major uses of data from a process capability analysis are the following:
1. Predicting how well the process will hold the tolerances.

2. Assisting product developers/designers in selecting or modifying a process.
3. Assisting in establishing an interval between sampling for process
monitoring.
4. Specifying performance requirements for few equipment.
5. Selecting between competing vendors.
6. Planning the sequence of production process when there is an interactive

effect of process on tolerances.
7. Reducing the variability in a manufacturing process.
Thus, process capability analysis is a technique that has application in many

segments of the product cycle, including product and process design, vendor
sourcing, production or manufacturing planning, and manufacturing.
Three primary techniques are used in process capability analysis: histograms or
probability plots, control charts, and designed experiments.
Six-Sigma:
Sigma ( σ ) is a character of the Greek alphabet which is used in mathematical
statistics to define standard deviation. The standard deviation indicates how tightly
all the various examples are clustered around the mean in a set of data.
Six Sigma is a business method for improving quality by removing defects and their
causes in business process activities. It concentrates on those outputs which are
important to customers. The method uses various statistical tools to measure
business processes. In technical terms, Six Sigma means that there are 3.4 defects
per million events. The main goal is continuous improvement.
Six Sigma is carried out as projects. Most common type is the DMAIC method
(Define, Measure, Analyze, Improve, and Control). First, the project and the process
to be improved are defined after which the performance of the process is measured.
The data is then analyzed and bottle-necks and problems identified. After analysis,
improvement program is defined and defects removed. This development program is
controlled by a management group. After DMAIC circle it is time to define a new
project.
17
Tolerance Analysis
Example: 7
This sample example at GE, illustrates how the concept of Six Sigma affects different
people.
Average Vs Variation
Customer expectations: 8 day order to Delay Cycle.
Internal Look
Existing Process After conventional

Delay Cycle (days) improvements (days)
20 17
15 2
30 5
10 12
5 4
16 Days (Average) 8Days (Average)
“Internal Calibration “= 16 – 8 = 8
Therefore improvement is 50%
GE employees claimed that they had achieved Six Sigma capability after improving
the delivery time for a medical product by 50% (brining it from an average of 16 days
to average of 8 days).But this effect was not reflected on the customer’s side as they
were still getting their products delivered at random as seen from the Figure 6
CUSTOMER LOOK
Figure 6
18
Tolerance Analysis
From the above Figure Customer feels no change
And once the feedback from the customer was heard, they modified the process to
reflect Six Sigma delivery for the customer which resulted in the following:
6Sigma Internal Process

7
9
9
8
7
8 Days (Average)
Here the internal look is same. But the customer feels Six Sigma (Figure 7).
CUSTOMER LOOK
Figure 7
Process Capability Ratios:

19
Tolerance Analysis
Use and interpretation of Cp

It is frequently convenient to have a sample, quantitative way to express process
capability.
USL − LSL
Cp = ----------------------------------------- (2-1)
6σ
Where USL and LSL are the upper and lower specification limits, respectively.
Usually, the process standard deviation σ is unknown and must be replaced by an
estimate σ . To estimate σ we typically use either the sample standard deviation S or
R /d2 (when variables control charts are used in the capability study). This results in
an estimate of the Cp, say
USL − LSL
Cp = --------------------------------------------- (2-2)
6σ
To illustrate the calculation of the Cp, The specifications on piston-ring diameter are
USL=74.05mm and LSL=73.95mm, and σ =0.0099.
Thus, our estimate of the Cp is
USL − LSL
Cp =
6σ
74 . 05 − 73 . 95
=
6 ( 0 . 0099 )
= 1 . 68
We assumed that piston-ring diameter is approximately normally distributed and the

cumulative normal distribution table in the appendix was used to estimate that the
process produces approximately 20PPM (Parts Per Million) defective.
The Cp in equation (2-1) has a useful practical interpretation, namely

⎛ 1 ⎞
P = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ 100 ---------------------------------------------- (2-3)
⎝ Cp ⎠
Is the percentage of specification band used up by the process. The piston-ring

process uses
⎛ 1 ⎞
P = ⎜ ⎟ 100
⎝ 1 . 68 ⎠
= 59 . 5 percent of the specification band.
Equation (2-1) and (2-2) assume that the process has both upper and lower
specification limits. For one-sided specifications, we define the Cp as follows.
USL − μ
C = (upper specification only)----------------- (2-4)
3σ
pu
μ − LSL
C = (lower specification only) ----------------- (2-5)
3σ
pl
20
Tolerance Analysis
Estimate CpU and Cp L would be obtained by replacing μ and σ in equation (2-4)

and (2-5) by estimate μ and σ , respectively.
The process capability ratio is a measure of the ability of the process to manufacture
product that means specification table 2.1 shows several values of Cp along with the
associated values of process fallout, expressed in defective are non-conforming parts
per million. This process fallout were calculated assuming a normal distribution of
the quality characteristics, and the case of two sides specification, assuming the
process mean is centered between the upper and lower specification limits. These
assumptions are essential to the accuracy of the reported numbers, and if they are
not true,
Table 2.1 Values of the Process Capability Ratio (Cp) and Associated
Process Fallout for a normal distribution process (in defective PPM)
A process fallout(in defective PPM)
Cp
One side Specifications Two-sided specifications
0.25 226,628 453,255
050 66,807 133,614
0.60 35,931 71,861
0.70 17,865 35,729
0.80 8,198 16,395
0.90 3,467 6,934
1.00 1,350 2,700
1.10 484 967
1.20 159 318
1.30 48 96
1.40 14 27
1.50 4 7
1.60 1 2
1.70 0.17 0.34
1.80 0.03 0.06
2.00 0.0009 0.0018
Then the table is invalid. To illustrate the use of table, notice, that the Cp of one
implies a fallout rate of 2700 PPM of two sides specifications, while the Cp of 1.5
implies fallout rate of 4 PPM of one side specification.
Table2.2 Recommended Minimum Values of the Process Capability Ratio (Cp)

Two-sided specifications One-sided specifications
Existing processes 1.33 1.25
New processes 1.50 1.45
Safety, strength, or
1.50 1.45
critical parameter,
21
Tolerance Analysis
existing process
Safety, strength, or
critical parameter, new 1.67 1.60
process
Table2.2 represents some recommended guidelines for minimum values of Cp the

bottle strength characteristics a parameter closely related to the safety of product,
bottles with inadequate pressure strength may fail and injury customers. This
implies that the Cp should be atleast 1.45 perhaps one way the Cp could be
improved would be increasing the mean strength of the bottles, say by pouring more
glass in the mould.
We point out that the values in the table 2.2 are only recommended minimum. In
recent years, many companies have adopted criteria for evaluating their processes
that include process capability objectives that are more stringent that those of
table2.2.
For example, Motorola’s “six-sigma” program essentially requires that when the
process mean in control, it will not be closer that six standard deviations from the
nearest specification limit.
This, in effect, requires that the process capability ratio will be least 2.0. Within
Motorola, this has become a corporate quality objective. Many other organizations,
including their suppliers and customers, have adopted similar criteria.
Process Capability Ratio for an Off-Center Process

The process capability ratio (Cp) does not take into account where the process mean
is located relative to the specifications. Cp simply measures the spread of the
specifications relative to the 6-sigma spread in the process. For example the top two
normal distributions in figure 2.8 both have Cp =2.0, but the process in panel (b) of
the figure clearly has lower capability than the process in panel (a) because it is not
operating at the midpoint of the interval between the specifications.
22
Tolerance Analysis
Figure 8 Relationship of Cp and Cpk
This situation may be more accurately reflected by defining a new process capability
ratio that takes process centering into account. This quantity is
C pk = min( C pu , C pl ) ---------------------------------------------- (2-6)
Notice that Cpk is just the one-sided Cp for the specification limit nearest to the
process average. For the process shown in figure 8a, we would have
C pk = min( C pu ,C pl )
USL − μ μ − LSL
= min( C = , C pl = )
3σ 3σ
pu
62 − 53 53 − 38
= min( C pu = 1 . 5 , C pl = = 2 .5 )
3( 2 ) 3( 2 )
Generally, if Cp= Cpk, the process is centered at the midpoint of the specifications,
and when Cpk < Cp the process is off-center.
The magnitude of Cpk relative to Cp is a direct measure of how off-center the process
is operating. Several commonly encountered cases are illustrated in figure 2.8. Note
in panel (c) of figure 2.8 that Cpk =1.0 while Cp=2.0. One can use table 2.1 to get a
23
Tolerance Analysis
quick estimate of potential improvement that would be possible by centering the
process. If we take Cp =1.0 in table 2.1 and read the fallout from the one-sided
specifications column, we can estimate the estimate the actual fallout as 1350 PPM.
However, if we can center the process, then Cp=2.0 can be achieved, and table 2.1
(using Cp=2.0 and two sided specifications) suggests that the potential fallout is
0.0018 PPM, an improvement of several orders of magnitude in process performance.
Thus, we usually say that PCR measures potential capability in the process, while
Cpk measures actual capability.
Panel (d) of figure 8 illustrates the case in which the process mean is exactly equal to
one of the specification limits, leading to Cpk = 0. As panel (e) illustrates, when Cpk <
0 the implication is that the process mean lies outside the specifications. Clearly, if
Cpk < -1, the entire process lies outside the specification limits. Some authors define
Cpk to be nonnegative, so that values less than zero are defined as zero.
Many quality engineering authorities have advised against the routine use of process
capability ratios such as Cp and Cpk (or the others discussed later in this section) on
the grounds that they are an oversimplification of a complex phenomenon. Certainly,
any statistic that combines information about both location (the mean and process
centering) and variability, and which requires the assumption of normality for its
meaning full interpolation is likely to be misused (or abused). Furthermore, as we
will see, point estimates of process capability ratios are virtually useless if they are
computed from small samples. Clearly, these ratios need to be used and interpreted
very carefully.
Manufacturing Process Capability Metrics:
Tolerances are always related to manufacturing processes or to materials used in the

manufacture of a product, and they must be designed in conjunction with the
application of the specific manufacturing process. If a tolerance band is determined
without considering a manufacturing process, there is great risk in having a
mismatch between the required tolerance and the capability of a given process- when
the engineer finally gets around to selecting one. It is a fundamental precept in
concurrent engineering to develop technology concepts or product-design concepts in
simultaneously with the necessary manufacturing processes to support the timely
and economic commercialization of the desired product.
Often during technology development it is necessary to invent and co develop the
manufacturing technology required to make the product. It is unwise to wait until
the tolerance design phase of a product-commercialization process to select or
optimize a manufacturing process. Capable manufacturing processes must be
aligned with the product concept as early as possible. Only in this way will there be
enough time develops necessary relationship between tolerances and manufacturing
processes. It is also essential to perform manufacturing-process parameter
optimization just as one would for design-component parameters.
The design engineer and the manufacturing engineer have to define a common
metric that quantifies the relationship that exists between the nominal design
specifications, their tolerances, and the variability associated with the measurable
24
Tolerance Analysis
output from the manufacturing process. The manufacturing engineer must also
provide tolerances on the manufacturing process parameters and raw materials to
help the team stay well within the tolerances assigned to the component being
manufactured. The focus on manufacturing process set-point tolerances should be
directed at keeping the component specifications as close to on-target as possible.
The manufacturing process capability index, typically expressed as Cp, Cpk, Cp(upper
limit), or Cp(lower limit), is the ratio of design tolerance boundaries to the measured
variability of the manufacturing process output response.
Cp is defined arithmetically as follows:
(USL − LSL)
Cp =
6σ
Where,
USL=Upper specification limit.
LSL= Lower specification limit.
6 σ stands for six times the short-term sample standard deviation of the production
measure of part quality in engineering units; the use of σ is really a misapplication
of the population parameter for a standard deviation. The true measure of variability
most often used in the alteration of cp is 6s(where σ is the sample standard
deviation).
25
Case Studies
REDESIGN TO SUIT MANUFACTURE OF

TYPICAL ASSEMBLIES
Introduction:
The objective of redesigning the component parts of an assembly such that they
are easier to handle and assemble and to minimize the total number of parts in
the assembly. After such an analysis is carried out on a product, it may be
found that some design proposals are not feasible or that their implementation
cost is very high. Besides the redesign proposals, other factors were considered
in this redesign project such as fabrication feasibility, product development
time, development costs, production cost, inventory, customer specifications,
etc. The examples and problems that follow are of complete designs of self-
contained units. In designing, or in re-designing for manufacture, there can
often be more than one solution, and the solutions offered here represent one
acceptable modified design. Variations in solution designs are possible but they
must be in terms of the principles of designing for manufacture. Quantity
production is assumed for the examples and problems.
Identifying uneconomical design:
Exercise: 1
Fig.1 shows the assembly of a simple type spur gear reduction unit where it
is accepted that the functional design is entirely satisfactory – that the
components shown will transmit the power/ speed involved, that the materials
specified are satisfactory. A list of parts is given in the following table.
The oilite bushes are of the self- lubricating type; the gear teeth are to be coated
with molybdenum disulphide prior to assembly, and replenished during routine
maintenance if necessary. For castings and forgings accept the convention that
machined surfaces are shown with sharp corners, unmachined surfaces are
shown with rounded corners. To identify uneconomical features in Fig. The
following considerations are applied; recognize
a. Unnecessarily large machined areas
b. Unnecessary amount of small tolerance machining
c. Difficult or unduly lengthy machining features
d. Slightly dissimilar components that could be standardized
e. Machined features restricted to one particular process
f. Feasibility of assembly and dismantling
g. For casting, sand cores that may be eliminated
From these considerations the following list emerges:
1.Item 1
a. Base has an unnecessarily large machined area
b. With base as mould parting line, internal and external sand cores are
needed for the circular bosses
c. spot facing of holding-down holes restricts machining to one process
2. Item 2
a. Joint face has unnecessarily large machined area
b. Counter-bored holes for screw heads and unnecessary amount of machining
(screw heads can be allowed to project)
3. Item 9,10,11
1
Case Studies
three slightly different types of bearing bush- standardize one type, if

possible.
4. Item 3,4,5,6
items 1 and 6 and items 4 and 5 differ only in presence or absence of the
boss- standardize on boss type
5. Assembly/dismantling
Assembly of lay shaft is difficult; the outer circlips could prove impossible to
manipulate; the bushes would have to be pressed into position last and in
dismantling would have to be removed first. Because the bushes, items 9 and
10, must be fitted first, it is not possible to assemble the input and output
shafts.
Table – 1. parts list : simple type spur gear reduction unit.
Item no. Description Material Quantity Remarks

1 Box C.I 1
2 Cover plate C.I 1
3 Gear, 30T, 10 D.P.,20 0.4 carbon 1 M.A.O
p.a. steel
p.a. steel
p.a. steel
p.a. steel
7 Input/ output shafts 0.4 carbon 2 M.A.O
steel
8 Layshaft 0.4 carbon 1 M.A.O
steel
9 Bearing bush Oilite 2 M.A.O
12 Key, 8 x 7 x 20 2 B.O
13 Key, 6 x 6 x 25 2 B.O
14 Circlip, 30 dia., 2 B.O
external
15 Cheese – head screw, 4 B.O
M 4 x 15
M.A.O – machined all over ; B.O – bought out ;
Modifying the design:

When redesigning for manufacture the external features and dimensions of the
unit should remain unaltered; conversely, the internal features may be adjusted
in any way to meet manufacturing requirements, provided the functional
features of the design are not impaired. Whenever an assembly or dismantling
difficulty is present in a proposed design it is essential that the difficulty be
removed, even if, as sometimes happens, the modified design appears to be
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more expensive. A unit that proves impossible to assemble or dismantle is

expensive – an expensive failure. Fig.2 Shows an acceptable modified design of
the spur gear reduction unit where,
a. The machined base is reduced to small facings encompassing the holding –
down bolt holes
b. The castings can be obtained without the need for sand cores
c. The holding – down bolt hole bosses can be machined by several different
processes
d. One type of bearing bush used throughout
e. Splitting the box on the shafts axis permits easy assembly/dismantling, and
hence permits..
f. Amalgamation of gears with shafts which eliminates and appreciable
amount of small tolerance machining- circlips and keys
The number of listed parts is reduced from fifteen to seven.
Exercise 2:
Fig.3shows the proposed design of an internal type reduction gear where the
input is via a vee belt pulley. Functionally, the design is satisfactory and the list
of parts is given in the following table. An identification of uneconomical design
features is based upon the considerations applied to the spur gear.
a. Unnecessarily large machined areas
1. Item 2 does not require whole of the joint face to be machined-cast a
relief in the central area
b. Unnecessary amount of machining
1. Item 3, assuming a forging or casting, omit machining on outside “non-
working” surfaces
2. Items 5 and 6, omit recesses in side faces
3. Item 1, omit counter bores for bearing bush flanges by shortening
casting bosses to bottom of counterbore length
c. Unnecessary amount of small tolerance machining
1. Items 3 and 4, the bores and mating shaft diameters, keyways and
washer recess diameters can all be eliminated by amalgamating gears
with shafts (made possible by (g) assembly/dismantling)
d. Difficult or unduly lengthy machining features
1. Items 3, cutting of internal gear teeth cannot be effected up to a face; a
run-out (undercut) is required
e. Slightly dissimilar components could be standardized
1. Bearing bushes and keys with appropriate mating shaft diameters to
have common size
2. Items 18, 20, 21, standardize on one type and length of screw
f. Machined features restricted to one particular process
1. Items 7 and 8, keyways modified to run-out
g. Feasibility of assembly and dismantling
1. Not possible to assemble both items 3 and 4. A modification to make the
right-hand (section view) wall removable – instead of the top plate – will
provide an easy assembly and also permit the amalgamation noted in c(1)
h. Sand cores for castings
1. Item 1, with the base as the mould parting line, internal and external
sand cores are required. If the same parting line were to be retained then
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the bosses should be continued to the base, but modification g(1) will
eliminate need for sand cores.
Fig.4. shows the unit redesigned for manufacture, incorporating the
modifications enumerated above. The removable side of the box is dowelled to
ensure the location between the gears. Relief in the side faces of output spur
gear (item 5) would be cast/forged and left unmachined; they serve to reduce
the facing time of the side faces. Raised bosses instead of spotfacing for the
holding-down bolt holes would be the preference of the production engineer
because sporfacing required a rather lengthy cutting tool or a special “back
facing” cutting tool.
Table – 2. Parts list: internal type reduction gear unit.

1 Box C.I 1
2 Cover plate C.I 1
3 Internal spur gear 0.4 carbon steel 1 M.A.O
4 Spur gear 0.4 carbon steel 1 M.A.O
5 Spur gear 0.4 carbon steel 1 M.A.O
6 Vee belt pulley C.I 1 M.A.O
7 Input shaft 0.4 carbon steel 1 M.A.O
8 Output shaft 0.4 carbon steel 1 M.A.O
9 Bearing shaft Oilite 2 M.A.O
10 Bearing shaft Oilite 2 M.A.O
11 Key, 8 x 7 x 22 1 B.O
12 Key, 6 x 6 x 22 1 B.O
13 Key, 6 x 6 x 24 1 B.O
14 Key, 8 x 7 x 25 1 B.O
15 Washer, 6 x 28 1 B.O
dia.
16 Washer, 6 x 28 2 B.O
dia. C/sk
17 Washer, 6 x 30 1 B.O
dia.
18 Cheese – head 1 B.O
screw, M 6 x 15
19 C/sk head screw, 2 B.O
M6x8
20 Hexagonal head 1 B.O
screw, M 6 x 15
21 Cheese – head 4 B.O
screw, M 6 x 20
M.A.O – machined all over ; B.O - bought out ;
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Exercise 3:
Redesign the fractional –horsepower DC motor(old DC motor)such the following
requirements are incorporated.
(i) To facilitate assembly
(ii) Parts reduction
(iii) Cost effective
(iv) Compatible with automotive market
(v) Inclusion of radio frequency interference (RFI)
Study Of Old Motor Design:

Fabricated parts are defined as those parts, which cannot be disassembled to
produce discrete parts. Assemblies are composed of fabricated parts and other
subassemblies. The old DC motor consists of five main subassemblies as well
as the required fasteners as shown in figure 5.The motor assembly therefore, is
analyzed according the following tasks.
1) Armature subassembly
2) Opposite commutator end cap assembly (without brushplate).
3) Comm end cap subassembly (with brushplate).
4) Magnet/flux ring subassembly.
5) Brushplate subassembly
6) Final assembly.
1) Armature subassembly
The armature laminations, fibres, wires etc., are manufactured using hard
automation and will be considered as a single unit for the DFA analysis. The
parts, which comprise the armature, are stacked along the principal axis and a
built-up in tolerances occurs which affects the bearing-to-bearing distance.
Therefore, during final motor assembly process the bearing-to-bearing distance
is set by adding nylatron washers of varying thickness to each end of the
armature shaft. It is the addition of these washers and the oil throw washers,
together with the armature, which will be considered to be the armature
subassembly task.
2) Opposite-comm-end, OCE, endcap assembly(without brushplate)

The following is a parts list for the old OCE end cap subassembly
d. Four rivets
e. Oil catcher
f. Gasket
g. Oiled felt
h. Metal spring
i. Spherical bearing
j. OCE end cap
The oil catcher is positioned on the riveting fixture by locating pins through the
rivet holes. Next, the gasket, oiled felt, spring and bearing are placed on the oil
catcher. The end cap is then inverted and the rivet holes are located on the
same pins as the oil catcher. An automatic riveting process feeds and rivets the
assembly in one stroke. Both felt and bearing are lubricated before assembly.
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1. Comm-end, CE, end cap (with brushplate)

The parts in this subassembly are identical to the previous subassembly
with the exception that the comm.-end end cap has slightly different
features and the brushplate is added (fig.)
a. Brushplate and ground terminal
b. Four rivets (for brushplate)
c. Subassembly
d. Four rivets
e. Oil catcher
f. Gasket
g. Oiled felt
h. Metal spring
i. Spherical bearing
j. CE end cap
The assembly process is also identical to the opposite-comm-end end cap
assembly with the exception of the brushplate subassembly, which is riveted
at another machine. A ground terminal from one of the brushes is placed
over one of the four locating pins. The brushplate itself and the comm-end
end cap are then placed over the same pins. All four rivets are automatically
inserted and fastened in a single stroke. The rivet makes the electrical
connection from the ground terminal to the motor casing.
2. Magnet and flux ring subassembly
a. Magnet clamp
b. Two permanent magnets
c. Steel flux ring
Prior to assembly, the flux ring must be phosphate coated. The magnets are
fastened to the flux ring by an epoxy adhesive. A needle- nosed plier is used
to squeeze the spring clamp and insert it into position inside the flux ring.
When released, it securely holds the magnets in position as the glue cures.
When partially cured, the magnet clamp is removed and the motor is
assembled. Then, the density is checked, and the glue is left to cure for
another eight hours.
3. Brushplate subassembly
Referring to Fig.7, the following parts are assembled together to form the
brushplate subassembly:
a. Ground terminal
b. Brushplate
c. Two brush tubes
d. Two terminal clips
e. Two springs
f. Two brushes with pigtails
g. Two retainer clips
The brushplate is aligned in a jig and a brush is positioned so that the pigtail
extends through the slot in the brush tube. The spring is then placed in the
brush tube and the brush is pushed in the tube, compressing the spring. A
retainer clip is pressed on to the tube to hold the brush inside the tube. The
pigtail is then hooked under the terminal clip and the process is repeated for
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the second brush. In a previous operation, a ground terminal has been crimped
on one pigtail.
4. Final assembly
During the final assembly process, the following subassemblies and parts are
assembled:
aa. Armature
bb. Nylatron washers
cc. Oil throw washers
dd. Nylatron washers
a. Leads/strain relief grommet
c. CE end cap
d. Armature subassembly
e. Brush clip
f. Flux ring
g. Mounting bracket
h. OCE end cap
i. Two bolts
j. Two washes
k. Two nuts
l. Roll pin
The final assembly process requires four stations and seven workers. At the
first station, the power leads are fed through the hole in the comm-end endcap
and soldered to the brushplate. Conveyor, to the next station where they are
placed in a fixture, then passes the assembled endcaps. Washers of varying
thicknesses are added to both ends of the armature to obtain the precise
bearing-to-bearing dimension ‘A’ (fig.8). The armature is removed from the jig
and oil throw washers are fitted to each end of the shaft. The comm-end shaft is
inserted into the comm-end end cap bearing and the retainer clips on the brush
tubes are removed.
At the next station, the flux ring is inserted around the armature and into the
comm-end end cap and the mounting bracket is added. The mounting bracket
is added with the side stamped ‘S’ facing the shaft end. The opposite comm-end
end cap is fitted to the armature and bolts are inserted from the comm-end end
cap side. Nuts and washers are added and the nuts are torqued down.
Thereafter, the finished assembly moves to the final station. The assembly
undergoes inspection at the final station. Endplay is checked and changed if
required and the motor is set aside and ‘run-in’. After the roll pin is inserted in
the shaft, the motor goes to the test station where torque, speed and current
are measured using a computer. If it passes the tests, the motor is packed and
prepared for shipping. Should the motor not have sufficient torque or speed, it
is returned for remagnetization.
The total assembly process also includes non-value-added operations such as
refilling boxes of parts and moving the subassemblies and parts on the shop
floor. By reducing the number of parts, inventories, parts flows and other
industrial engineering operations will be simplified.
Old DC motor design analysis:-
The evaluation of the old DC motor for ease of manual assembly and design
efficiency was done using a design for assembly, DFA, methods developed by
Boothroyd and Dewhurst (1983). This method involves estimating the manual
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handling time for each part in the assembly and estimating the manual
assembly time for each operation in the total assembly based on the part design
and assembly characteristics. The manual handling time is based on the
symmetry and size of the parts as well as ease with which the parts a be
grasped and manipulated. Considerations are given to such part characteristics
as flexibility, special tools or the requirement of two hands for manipulation.
The operation time is based on how easily the parts can reach their desired
location, the fits involved, the requirement of special tools and the number of
hands required for the job. Consideration is also given to operations such as
gluing and welding. It should be noted that the times obtained from the charts
should not be interpreted absolutely. These times are based on general design
attributes and should serve only as a relative indicator when comparing two
designs.
The result of the analysis is a design efficiency, which is defined as the ratio of
the ‘theoretical time’ for an assembly containing a ‘theoretical’ number of parts
to the total assembly time derived from the DFA analysis of the actual product:
Theoretical assembly time
Design efficiency = ---------------------------------
DFA assembly time
The theoretical time is calculated as the time taken to assemble a ‘theoretical’
part (three seconds) times the number of ‘theoretical’ parts in the assembly. The
theoretical number of parts is determined by asking three questions:
1. Does this part move relative to another?
2. Do the mating parts have to be made of different materials?
3. Do the parts have to be separate to allow servicing before/after assembly?
If the answer to any of these questions is ‘yes’, then that part cannot be
eliminated. An additional question is asked if there is a repetition of the
assembly:
4. To how many of these parts does this apply?
The numerical answer to this question is the theoretical number of parts.
Therefore, the formula for design efficiency is,
3 x theoretical minimum number of parts
Design efficiency = ------------------------------------------------------
DFA assembly time
It should be noted that even the best redesigns do not always reduce the
number of parts to the minimum theoretical number for various reasons. The
motor was taken apart and analysed using these manual handling and manual
insertion considerations. The overall characteristics of the old motor design are
as follows:
* total estimated assembly time : 424.4 seconds
* overall design efficiency : 14.8 %
* best design efficiency : 30 % (CE endcap subassembly)
* worst design efficiency : 13 % (armature subassembly)
* total number of parts : 56 ( including armature components )
Redesigned Features Of The New DC Motor:

The DFA analysis highlighted the problem areas of the old motor design from
the handling and assembly standpoint. Through creativity, design for assembly
methods and many brainstorming sessions, several ideas matured into the new
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motor design shown in fig. It was ensured through market surveys that the new
design was compatible with customer specifications for material and function
as well as process feasibility. As with the old DC motor analysis, the redesigned
motor has been separated into a number of subassemblies to enable a closer
comparison between the two designs. The DFA analysis of handling and
assembly times was carried out. The overall results are shown in the following
summary:
* total estimated assembly time : 171.0 seconds
* overall design efficiency : 26.3 %
* best design efficiency : 37 % (CE end cap subassembly)
* worst design efficiency : 15.5 % (armature subassembly)
* total number of parts : 18 ( including armature components )
Flux ring subassembly:

The following lists the parts comprising the redesigned flux ring:
a. Mounting brackets
b. Flux ring
c. Magnets
The gluing process has been changed slightly in the new motor. Rather than
using a spring clamp to hold the magnets against the housing during curing, a
jig is used. The jig enables the magnets to be easily positioned and clamped to
the flux ring. In the new motor, the flux ring forms the casing. The mounting
brackets are placed in a jig and automatically spot-welded in place. The
machine performs all welds simultaneously. This was the only subassembly in
which the design efficiency decreased after the redesign since the number of
parts was increased with the addition of the mounting brackets is to the
subassembly. The method of securing the mounting bracket is more time
consuming than the old process; however, it offers more flexibility in dealing
with model-to-model variations in mounting bracket design.
Opposite comm-end end cap:

The spherical bearings were replaced by sealed bearings, to be included as part
of the armature subassembly. Therefore, the number of parts in the opposite-
comm-end end cap was reduced to a single-stamped metal pat. Consequently,
this part will be introduced at the final assembly station and can no longer be
classified as a subassembly.
Armature subassembly:-
a. Armature
b. Sealed bearings
The usage of the sealed bearings has not only eliminated the oil throw washers
and washers on the armature subassembly, but also has eliminated the many
hard-to-handle components of the bearing in the end cap subassemblies. The
bearings are symmetric and therefore easy to handle; however, they are difficult
to align on the shaft and due to the required interference fit, they cannot be
manually pressed on to the shaft. An adequate jig will not only relieve this
problem, but will also allow a better control of the bearing-to-bearing dimension
in the new design. Additionally, the new bearings are less noisy and last longer.
As with the old DC motor, the armature will be considered as pre-assembled for
the purpose of the DFA analysis.
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Comm-end end cap subassembly:
Most of the design changes have been made in this area. The parts comprising
the comm-end end cap subassembly are;
a. comm-end end cap
b. Brush/pigtail
c. Spring
d. Power connector
The comm-end end cap is an integrated brushboard and end cap made from a
special plastic material. The brush tubes are also molded on to end cap along
with the necessary supports and sockets for the actuating springs and RFI
package. The RFI package is not considered for the purpose of comparison to
the old DC motor, which was not RFI suppressed. The flexible power leads of
the old motor have been replaced with a power socket. This socket is separate
from the end cap and therefore will provide more flexibility to varying customer
requirements while standardizing its assembly to the comm-end end cap. The
torsional brush springs will resist nesting and tangling, and therefore reduce
handling time. Also, the brush springs double as a brush clip. After insertion of
the armature bearing into the comm-end end cap, the brushes are pushed into
the commutator to establish necessary contact. This makes the brush actuation
a much simpler process and the open design of the comm-end end cap also
allows easy access for this operation.
Final motor assembly:

Each step in the final assembly has been reduced to a simple series of value-
added operations (with the exception to the brush actuation). The motor has
been designed so that no reorientation is required during the assembly and all
components from a stacked assembly. The following parts comprise the final
assembly;
a. CE end cap subassembly
b. Armature subassembly
c. Flux ring subassembly
d. OCE end cap
e. Ground rivet
f. Roll pin
The comm-end end cap possesses a deep enough bearing seat that after the
bearing (and attached armature) is inserted, no support mechanisms are
needed to hold the armature upright for subsequent processes. In the final
assembly, the mounting bolts, nuts and washers have been eliminated and
replaced with a process whereby the flux ring is crimped to the end caps. Since
a rigid ground terminal is moulded into the connector instead of the flexible
leads and terminal clips of the old DC motor design, the terminal is always
properly located when the casting is placed on the end cap. The ground
connection to the casing is made with a push rivet. The riveting process is an
extra operation and the motor is handled in the same manner as for the crimp
operation.
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Discussions:
From the DFA analysis, the design interdependence between the assembly
components became clear. This also aids the tooling designers in selecting the
appropriate features on which to locate when the fixtures, pallets and fixed
tooling are designed. The same thought patterns used in the DFA analysis can
also be applied to the design of the assembly equipment to make them simpler
and more serviceable. Together, the reduced number of assembly operations
and the smaller inventory of the redesigned motor, a tighter, more efficient
assembly line than old DC model is possible. This will also lower the change
over time and cost between models once batch production is implemented. Cost
savings associated with the redesign can increase the manufacturer’s share in
the functional-horsepower DC motor market.
Problem 1:
An intermediate reduction gear unit shown in Fig.9.Flexible couplings is keyed
with the ends of input and output shafts. The functional design of the unit is
satisfactory in that the components used will the transmit the power/speed
involved.
• The unit is to be serviced periodically. Prior to assembly the bearings

are charged with grease applied directly, onto the interference fit ring –
never through the other ring.
• Because of depreciation of the “fit” caused by the repeated removal and
refitting, it is important to strive to arrange a design so that the
interference fit ring, once fitted, and does not need to be removed
during subsequent dismantling and reassembly of the unit.
Then,
o Identify design features not in accordance with the principles of
designing for manufacture.
o Marinating the essential functional features of the design, re-design the
unit to meet the requirements of manufacture.
Table – 3 .parts list : intermediate reduction gear unit.

1 Body C.I 1
2 End plate C.I 1
3 Internal gear shaft 0.4 carbon 1 M.A.O
steel
4 Spur gear shaft 0.4 carbon 1 M.A.O
steel
5 Cover/clamp plate C.I 1 M.A.O
6 Cover/clamp plate C.I 1 M.A.O
7 Inter distance piece M.S 1 M.A.O
8 Outer distance piece M.S 1 M.A.O
9 Clamp ring M.S 3 M.A.O
10 S.R.R.B., 30 mm, 3 Normal group
medium series B.O
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11 S.R.R.B., 30 mm, 1 Normal group

medium series B.O
12 Cheese- head screw, 7 B.O
M 6 x 18
M 6 x 25
14 Felt ring, 28 dia. shaft 1 B.O
Problem 2:
A multi-disc industrial type clutch is shown in fig. where the driving shaft, item
3, is shown mounted on a single row rigid ball bearing which is supported in
the end of the driven shaft, item 1. This driven shaft, which is combined with a
spur gear, is shown mounted on a suitable bearing which provides the axial
“fix” for the shaft. These bearings are to be charged with grease prior to
assembly and replenished during routine maintenance. This maintenance will
include periodic renewal of the friction discs, and to facilitate this procedure the
whole of the driving portion of the clutch- after the fitted bolts, item 13, have
been removed – can be moved approximately 300 mm to the right.
The driven shaft (item 1), obviously, is assembled from right to left – dismantled
to the right (after certain components have been removed from the left- hand
portion of the shaft). The clutch is shown in the “drive” position, i.e. the
actuator, item 7, has been moved to the left (by an operating device) and
thereby has depressed the central roller of the two-link chain, item 17. This
results in forcing the pressure ring, item 5, to the left, thus exerting the
required axial pressure, via the pressure plate system, items 10,11,12 on to the
driving friction discs and driven steel discs; there are three chain links, equally
disposed.
Accepting that the bearings are to be charged with grease prior to assembly and
replenished during maintenance, and that the rotating ring of a bearing is to be
an interference fit ( a stationary ring, normally, is a sliding fit ), then:
1. identify faulty design features
2. retaining the same functional design features and component materials,
redesign the clutch to facilitate manufacture and maintenance.
Table – 4 . parts list : mult-disc industrial type clutch.

Item no. Description material Quantity Remarks
1 Gear shaft Steel 1 M.A.O
2 Case C.I 1 M.A.O
3 Drive shaft Steel 1 M.A.O
4 Core Steel 1 M.A.O
5 Pressure ring Steel 1 M.A.O
6 Screwed adjusting Steel 1 M.A.O
ring
7 Actuator Steel 1 M.A.O
8 Reaction ring Steel 1 M.A.O
9 Clamp/cover plate C.I 1 M.A.O
10 Outer disc Steel 3 M.A.O
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11 Pressure plate Steel 1 M.A.O (spot

welded with
item 10)
12 Pressure stud M.S 1 M.A.O
13 Fitted bolt Steel 6 M.A.O
14 Friction disc 3 B.O
15 S.R.R.B.B., 40 mm 1 Group 3 B.O
medium series
16 S.R.R.B.B., 60 mm 1 Normal group

medium series B.O
17 Two- link chain 3 B.O
18 Freeing spring 3 B.O
19 Key, 14 x 9 x 52 1 B.O
20 Circlip, external 2 B.O
21 Washer 1 B.O
22 Hexagonal nut, 6 B.O
M 15
23 Lock washer 6 B.O
24 C/sk head screw, 1 B.O
M 8 x 10
25 Cheese-head screw, 4 B.O
M 6 x20
M 6 x 25
27 Key, 12 x 8 x 120 1 B.O
Problem 3:
The bevel gear and chain wheel drive unit, as shown in fig. is intended for
quantity production and the proposed design is functionally satisfactory in that
the components used will transmit the power/speed involved. All bearings will
be charged with grease prior to assembly; and the bevel gear teeth will be
coated with molybdenum disulphide. The chain wheel cavity will be protected
from the ingress of foreign matter by positioning the right- hand face of the unit
tight against a machined facing on the machine.
A feature of the angular contact bearings – matched unit is that when the inner
and outer rings are positively axially clamped, the outside faces of both rings
are exactly in line; this feature enables a precise axial positioning of the shaft to
be achieved, which is important with regard to the teeth meshing requirements
of the bevel gears. The teeth meshing requirements when these bevel gears are
assembled are shown diagrammatically in fig. The vertex of each bevel gear-
shown by a dot – when coincidental with the mating bevel gear centre
represents a condition of no backlash between the teeth; when the vertex of the
bevel is in the position 0.06 mm short of the mating bevel gear centre a
condition of maximum permissible backlash exists. These assembly conditions
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are to be achieved by appropriate machining limits on the relevant component

dimensions – fitting or adjusting is not permitted.
• comment of the manufacturing aspect of the design

• where necessary, effect a design modification to achieve a design for
manufacture
Indicate by the dimension lines only (omitting fig.), the component features
relevant to the teeth meshing requirements; quote a suitable tolerance for these
features.
Table - 5 . parts list : bevel gear and chain wheel drive unit.
1 Body C.I 1 M.A.O

2 Cover plate C.I 1 M.A.O
3 Bevel gear shaft 0.4 carbon 1 M.A.O
steel
4 Bevel pinion shaft 0.4 carbon 1 M.A.O
steel
5 Chain wheel 0.4 carbon 1 M.A.O
steel
6 Clamp/ cover plate C.I 1 M.A.O

7 Abutment plate C.I 1 M.A.O
8 Cover plate C.I 1 M.A.O
9 Clamp /cover plate C.I 1 M.A.O
10 Outer distance piece M.S 1 M.A.O
11 Inner distance piece M.S 1 M.A.O
12 Lock ring M.S 1 M.A.O
13 Lock ring M.S 1 M.A.O
14 Distance piece M.S 1 M.A.O
15 Distance piece M.S 1 M.A.O
16 Angular contact 2 30 mm, medium
bearing matched unit series B.O
with pre-load
17 S.R.R.B.B. one seal 1 Normal group
type, 30 mm, medium B.O
series
18 S.R.R.B.B., 30 mm, 1 Normal group
medium series B.O
19 Key, 8 x 7 x 35 1 B.O
20 Hexagonal head screw, 8 B.O
M 6 x 20
21 Cheese- head screw, M 4 B.O
6 x 12
22 Cheese- head screw, M 4 B.O
6 x 20
M.A.O - machined all over ; B.O – bought out ;
14
ANALYSIS OF RELIABILITY OF ENGINEERING
DESIGN
Reliability is a new concept, barely three decades old and is primarily due to the
complexity, sophistication and automation inherent in modern technology. It
has been established that the reliability, which is a measure of quality, is an
essential element at each stage of the equipment manufacturing procedure
through design and production to final delivery to the user.
Reliability can be defined in the following ways:
1. The reliability of a component (or a system) is the probability that the
component (or a system) will not fail for a time t.
2. The reliability of a system is called its capacity for failure –free operation
for a definite period of time under given operating conditions.
3. Reliability is the probability of an item performing its intended function
over a given period of time under the operating conditions encountered.
Some important terms:

i. Failure rate (λ)
It is the ratio of total number of failures during the test interval to the
total test time.
λ = f/t
ii. Mean time between failure (m)
It is the reciprocal of the constant failure rate.
m = 1/λ = t/f
iii. Mean time to failure (MTTF)
If we have a life-test information on n items with failure times t1, t2….. tn
Then n
MTTF = 1/n Σ ti
i=1
iv. Reliability function

Let a fixed number (N) of components be repeatedly tested. There will be,
after a time t, n components, which survive the test and m components, which
fail.
The Reliability (or probability of survival) expressed as a fraction at any time t,
during the test is
R (t) = n/N
The probability of failure or unreliability at any time t, can be expressed as
F (t) = m/N
It is clear that at any time, t,
R (t) + F(t) = 1
because R (t) & F (t) are mutually exclusive events.
v. Density function, f(t)
The probability that a random trial yields a value of t within the interval
from t1 to t2 , is
t2
∫ f (t) dt
t1
then f(t) is the density function for the continuous random variable.
vi. Distribution function, F (t)
The distribution function, F (t) is the probability that in a random trial,
the random variable is not greater than t, thus,
t
F (t) = ∫ f (t) dt
-∞
F (t) is recognized as unreliability function, when speaking of failures.

vii. Reliability, R (t)
The reliability is given by
R (t) =1-F (t)
In integral form, R (t) can be expressed as
∞
R (t) = ∫ f (t) dt
t
viii. Hazard Rate, Z (t):

It is also called as instantaneous failure rate, defined as the ratio of
density function, f (t) to the reliability function, R (t).
Z (t) = f (t)/R (t).
1. A shaft on two supports is shown. The distance between the supports is

L. Assume that the axis for the left bore in the housing is the reference axis
(which means that the left bore surface is taken as the datum). Then the
position of the shaft axis with respect to the bore axis is determined by the
eccentricities of the bearing outer ring, balls, inner ring and shaft plus the
magnitude of a clearance in the bearing (clearance between the balls and the
rings after the bearing is mounted on the shaft). The latter, however is
neglected here for the sake of simplicity. Assume that the system of balls in a
bearing can be treated as a ring, the tolerances of which are equal to those for
an individual ball.
2
Figure 1.1
Then the eccentricity vector for the left support ēl is determined by the equation
4
ēl = Σ ēi ………… 1
i=1
where ē1 , ē2 , ē3 and ē4 are the eccentricities for the outer ring, balls, inner ring
and shaft respectively. Similarly the eccentricity for the right support is
determined by
5
ēr = Σ ēi ………. 2
i=1
where ē1 , ē2 , ē3 , ē4 and ē5 are the eccentricities for the bore, outer ring, balls,
inner ring and shaft respectively. (It is assumed here that the housings for the
two bearings cannot be bored with one setup, which means that the right bore
may have a displaced geometric axis with respect to the left). The statistical
means for the eccentricity magnitude in equations 1 and 2 are related to the
tolerance by equations 3 and the Rayleigh distribution parameters are found
from equation 4.
μe = Δ / 4 , ……….. 3
where μe - mean of eccentricity magnitude

Δ - tolerance
σi = [(2/ π)^ ½] x [Δi /4] ……….. 4
where σi - distribution parameter

Δ - tolerance for each outside diameter of a ring
3
The resultant vector of eccentricities with respect to the datum is
ē = ēl + ēr ……….. 5
The distribution of [ē ] is given by
9
σ2 = Σ σi2 …………. 6
i=1
The probability that a misalignment angle α = e/L exceeds a specific magnitude

α* is
*
P(α > α*) = ∫ f(e) de …………. 7
e*
where e* = α*L
As an illustration, consider a numeric solution. The following nominal

dimensions are given :the shaft diameter at both supports is ds = 40 mm,
housing diameter at both supports db = 80 mm. Assume that the same type of
bearing is used at both supports and neglect the effect of ball tolerances.
Consider for simplicity a transition type fit for both housing and shaft interfaces
with the bearing rings. The following dimensions are assigned :
Shaft at two supports
ds = 40 +0.002
-0.014
Bore of the bearing
db = 40 +0.016
-0
Outer diameter of the bearing
Db = 80 +0.003
-0.016
Diameter of the housing
4
Dh = 80 +0.019
-0
Then the corresponding tolerances are
Shaft Δs = 0.016 mm
Bore of the bearing Δb1 = 0.016 mm
Outer diameter of the bearing Δb2 = 0.019 mm
Diameter of the housing Δh1 = 0.019mm
The calculation of corresponding σi , according to eqn. 4 and σ eqn. 6 gives
σ2 = 0.006415 σ = 0.08
For L = 300 mm the probability of exceeding various angles of misalignment is

calculated using equation 7
The probability P (α > 0) = 1, while the probability P (α > 0.001) = 0.00088. In

this particular case the probability of a significant misalignment is small.
This illustrates how the tolerances of various dimensions of different

components in a system affect the probability of exceeding a specific angle of
misalignment. However, the reliability of a bearing operating at a given speed
and load under the condition of misalignment is a property of the bearing itself.
Thus the bearing reliability is conditional, the condition being in this case the
probability of a specific position of the shaft. Note also that in this example two
bearings are operating in similar conditions as far as misalignment is
concerned. This may be a common cause for failure, other parameters being
independent.
2. A single lip seal separating a rotating shaft from the stationary case is
shown. This type of a seal is usually used for retaining lubricants in machines
having rotating and/or oscillating shafts. Various polymer materials are used
for seal elements. The function of the seal is determined by its ability to
maintain a constant radial pressure between the sealing element and the shaft.
Anything causing a decrease in this pressure affects leakage and thus seal
failure. Consider factors affecting the radial lip seal performance.
5
OIL
Figure 2.1 Lip Seal On Rotating Shaft
1. Temperature : It affects oil viscosity and properties of the sealing

material. If temperature increases, the viscosity of the oil goes
down, and the oil film between the lip and the shaft becomes
thinner. This leads to increased friction losses and thus to
increase local temperature. The variation of temperature affects
the sealing material as well: Thermal expansion during
temperature rise and stress relaxation during temperature fall,
speed up the process of material ageing. Thus temperature control
is important from the point of view of seal reliability. Temperature
at the lip of the seal is affected by
• Ambient temperature
• Temperature of the oil
• Friction coefficient between seal and shaft
• Initial preload by a garter spring
• Conductivity of materials
2. Wear: Wear at the contact point of the seal directly affects its
functioning. The rate of the wear depends on
• Coefficient of friction at the seal- shaft interface
• Pressure exerted by the garter spring
• Pressure due to the seal-shaft fit
• Pressure caused by the oil
• Shaft surface finish
• Shaft surface hardness
• Speed of rotation
• Shaft oscillations
6
• Abrasion resistance of the seal material
3. Fatigue: Fatigue manifests itself in a gradual deterioration of the

seal material, which loses its elastic properties. As a result, a seal
cannot follow the shaft displacements, an event that constitutes
seal failure. Factors affecting fatigue are:
• Fluctuating temperature
• Chemical environment
• Oscillating shaft
• Pressure at the seal-shaft interface
Not all the above factors are equally important in seal reliability. To
assign some weight to these factors would require more specific data about the
design and the seal. Note that seal reliability is affected by the process of
assembly as well, since it can simply be damaged while assembled. In practical
situations, experience accumulated in industry is used as a guide.
This shows how complicated it is to access the reliability of a component

in an operating system. Again, there are factors associated with the component
itself and with the system in which this component operates, and factors that
are external to the system. Given the complexity of physical processes and
uncertainties associated with these processes and the system, true reliability is
impossible to predict for a component in many situations previously
unencountered. True reliability will reveal itself when the product is in service.
In the mean time, at the detail design stage, use of design experience and
analytical and experimental methods will increase the relative level of reliability.
3. A brake hoist is shown. Two springs are exerting forces on the

corresponding shoes, thus keeping the brake normally locked. To unlock the
brake, a hydraulic actuator is used.
a. Draw a reliability diagram of the brake considering only components

indicated.
b. Draw a reliability diagram if the brake is normally unlocked but
becomes locked when hydraulic pressure is decreased. Explain the
difference between the two cases.
7
Figure 3.1 Brake Hoist
In the first case, the brake is normally locked, thus both the springs are
exerting forces on the corresponding shoes. To unlock the brake, the hydraulic
actuator that is used must retract both the springs and thereby both the shoes,
so the reliability diagram consists of all the components in series system.
Therefore if one of the components fails, the brake does not unlock.
In the second case, the brake is normally unlocked but becomes locked
when hydraulic pressure is decreased. This is possible even if one brake shoe
fails to lock the other shoe locks the brake. But for the above situation to be
true all the components that lock the individual brake shoes must be in series.
6 5 4 3 2 1
Figure 3.2 Reliability Diagram
5 3 1
6 4 2
Figure 3.3 Reliability Diagram
8
4. Three possible configurations of gear reduction boxes are shown.
Assuming that the input output characteristics of all boxes are identical,
a. Discuss the reliability advantage and disadvantage of every configuration
and
b. Draw the reliability diagram for each configuration considering only such
components as gears
Figure 4.1 Gear Configurations
In the first case, the failure of any one of the elements of the
system will lead to failure of the system. So all the components in the
system (the bearing 1, input shaft, gears, output shaft and bearing 9 are
in series. The above system has a reliability advantage over the others by
having the least number of components.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Figure 4.2 (a)
2 3
1 6 7
4 5
8
Figure 4.3 (b) 9
9
5 6
1 2 3 4 9
7 8
Figure 4.4 (c)
In the second case the reliability is increased by having a redundant set

of gears from the input shaft to the midddle shaft. So reliability in speed
reduction is enabled to a greater extent than the previous case. But since there
is only one set of gears from the middle shaft to the final output shaft, failure of
this set of gears may also lead to a system failure. So reliability is reduced due
to the above mentioned reason.
In the third case , reliability is reduced at the intial stage itself where
there is only one set of gears from the input shaft to the middle shaft. After this
the reliability is increased with the redundant set of gears from middle shaft to
the output shaft.
5. Two possible configurations of spur gear - support system are shown:

a. Discuss the reliability advantages and disadvantages of both
configuration
b. Draw the reliability diagram of the gear-bearings-shaft system
c. Discuss the influence of the system on the bearings reliabilty
Figure 5.1 Spur Gear Support System
10
B
S G
Figure 5.2 Reliability Diagram (A)
S G
Figure 5.3 Reliability Diagram (B)
In both the cases, the presence of a redundant bearing enables the

system to function even in the event of failure of one of the bearings. The
reliability of the spur gear support system depends on the position of the
bearing and the shape of the gear.
In the first case, the cross-section of the gear is irregular thereby

allowing a difference in contact pressure. i.e., both the bearings are not working
under similar load conditions.
In the second case, the load on the bearings is same, so reliability is

more. Further, the end support provided by the side of the bearing is placed in
such a way that its failure will not affect the working of the system to a great
extent unlike the first case.
11
6. Two concentric springs make up a support. Both the springs are known
to be in a state of random failure with the rates h1 = 0.005 failures/kilocycle
and h2 = 0.008 failures/kilocycle for the inner and outer springs respectively.
Each of the two springs is capable of withstanding the fluctuating load.
However, if the inner spring fails, the failure rate of the outer one becomes h2* =
0.012 failures/kilocycle; if the outer spring fails the failure rate of the inner one
becomes h1* = 0.0075 failures/kilocycle. What is the reliability function of the
support from 0 to 400 kilocycle?
Figure 6.1 Concentric Springs

Failure rates
Inner spring h1 = 0.005 failures/kilocycle

Outer spring h2 = 0.008 failures/kilocycle
t = 400 kilocycles
Probability of both the springs operating successfully
P1 (t) = exp [- (h1+ h2) t]

= exp [- (0.005 + 0.008)400 ]
= 0.00551
Probability of outer spring failing
P2 (t) = { exp ( - h1* t) - exp [ - (h1+ h2 ) t ]}[ h1 / ( h1 + h2 - h1*)]

= 0.04427 * 1.4545
= 0.06439
Probability of the inner spring failing
P3 (t) = { exp ( - h2* t) - exp [ - (h1+ h2 ) t ]}[ h1 / ( h1 + h2 - h2*)]

= 0.002719 * 5
= 0.01359
12
Reliability function
R(t) = P1 (t) + P2 (t) + P3 (t)

= 0.00551 + 0.06439 + 0.01359
= 0.083
7. The failures of 15 shock absorbers were recorded. The results (in Kilocycles)
were as follows : 2.5,3.5,4,6.5,7,9.5,10.5,14,17,19,21,24,27,32 and 36. If it
known that the shock absorbers were in a state of random failure, what would
the 95 and 99 percent two sided confidence limits on the mean life be?
15
The estimation of the mean life is μχ* = 1/15 Σ ti
i=1
= 1/15 (2.5+3.5+…………+32+36)
= 15.6 Kilocycles
The chi-square values from tables are
95 percent confidence (α = 0.05), 2n = 30
χ2 [1-(α/2), 2n] = χ2 (0.975, 30) = 16.791
χ2 [(α/2), 2n] = χ2 (0.025, 30) = 46.979
χ2 [1-(α/2), 2n] = χ2 (0.995, 30) = 13.787
χ2 [(α/2), 2n] = χ2 (0.005, 30) = 53.632
Then the 95 percent confidence limits for μχ are
μχ(U) = 2n μχ / { χ2 [1-(α/2), 2n]}

= (30 *15.6) / 16.791
= 27.8
μχ(L) = 2n μχ / { χ2 [(α/2), 2n]}

= (30 *15.6) / 16.791
= 9.999 ≈ 10
Then the 95 percent confidence limits for μχ are 10.0 ≤ μχ ≤ 27.8
Then the 99 percent confidence limits for μχ are
μχ(U) = 2n μχ / { χ2 [1-(α/2), 2n]}

= (30 *15.6) / 13.787
= 33.94
μχ(L) = 2n μχ / { χ2 [(α/2), 2n]}
= (30 *15.6) / 53.632
= 8.72
13
Then the 99 percent confidence limits for μχ are 8.72 ≤ μχ ≤ 33.94
It is seen how an increase in the confidence level (1-α) widens the confidence
interval. A probability that the true mean is within the specified limits is higher
if the range is wider.
8. For the data given in the previous problem determine

a. 95 percent low confidence limit for the 10 Kilocycle reliability and
compare it with the estimated reliability for this number of cycles.
b. 95 percent two sided confidence limit for the number of cycles at
which 15% of the shock absorbers will have failed.
a. The estimated reliability is given by

R*(t) = exp (- t / μλ*)
R*(10) = exp (- 10 / 15.6)

= 0.526
where as the lower confidence limit is
R (10) = exp (- 10 / μλ(L))
= exp (-10/10)
= 0.368
Thus there is a 95% chance that the true reliability after10 Kilocycles
would be as low as 0.368, which is much smaller than the estimated
value 0.526.
b. The estimated number of cycles for the reliability level of 0.85 is

tp* = μλ* ln [(1-p)-1]
t0.15 = 15.6 ln[(1-0.15) -1]
= 2.53 Kilocycles
The confidence limits for tp are
μλ(L) ln [(1-p)-1]≤ tp ≤ μλ(U) ln [(1-p)-1]
10 ln [(1-0.15)-1] ≤ tp ≤ 27.8 ln [(1-0.15)-1]
1.6 Kilocycles ≤ tp ≤ 4.5 Kilocycles
14
9. Consider the data given in problem 7. Do they fit the exponential
distribution and if so, what is the value of the parameter λ? Let us take Δti = 5
Kilocycles. Note that in this case n = 15, carry out the calculations and plot the
results on the weibull paper.
Table 9.1 Parameter values:
ti Kilocycles Ns(ti) F(ti) R(ti) f(ti) h(ti)

<5 12 0.176 0.824 - -
5-10 9 0.370 0.630 0.0388 0.062
10-15 7 0.5 0.5 0.026 0.052
15-20 5 0.63 0.37 0.026 0.07
20-25 3 0.76 0.240 0.026 0.108
25-30 2 0.825 0.175 0.013 0.074
30-35 1 0.89 0.11 0.013 0.118
35-40 0 0.955 0.045 0.013 0.288
Where F(ti) = 1 – [(Ns(ti)+ 0.7)/(N +0.4)] , here N = 15
R(ti) = 1- F(ti)
f(ti) = d[R(ti)- R (ti+1)]/dt
h(ti) = f(ti) / R (ti)
It is seen that a straight line approximates the failure data fairly accurately,
except for the last point. For the comparison h(t) is calculated in the above
table, and the results are shown in the plot. It is seen that h(t) has a small
upward trend if it was not the last point (the out-of-sequence point can be due
to the small size of the recorded data).The simplest way to find λ is to use the
equation
λ = - t/ (ln R (t))
= - t/ (ln 1-F (ti)),
for any point t =ti that lies on the straight line. Let us take ti =20 Kilocycles and
the corresponding F (ti) = 0.63
Then,
λ = - t/ (ln 1-F (ti)),
= 20/0.994
= 20.1 Kilocycles
This estimation gives λ larger than the mean μλ* = 15.6 Kilocycles in problem 7.
At the same time for μλ* = 15.6, the constant hazard value h* = 0.064 and
approximates only the initial part of the failure times well.
This discrepancy between the two values of λ estimated by two methods,

graphical and numerical may be due to the errors in plotting and interpretation
of data on graph, to the assumption that the data can be described by
exponential distribution (in fact, it cannot be), or both.
15
Figure 9.1 Weibull Plot
16
10. Failures of 20 shafts operating at a constant stress level were reported.
The decimal logarithm, log K, of the no. of cycles to failure was distributed as
follows: 4.2, 4.4, 4.58, 4.6, 4.7, 4.76, 4.81, 4.86, 4.88, 4.96, 4.98, 4.99, 5.02,
5.12, 5.17, 5.25, 5.36, 5.4, 5.49 & 5.78. 1. Take the interval ∆t = ∆(log K) = 0.2
and plot the reliability, failure density and hazard functions. Does it look like
log K is normally distributed? 2. Assume that log K is a normally distributed
variable and that the mean and standard deviation can be approximated by the
average and an unbiased variance, respectively. What no. of failures should be
expected in a population of 100 products with similar shafts in similar
conditions during the first 100 kilocycles? 3. What are the 95 percent
confidence limits for the no. of failures during the first 100 kilocycles?
The test and reliability data are given in the table as follows. Plots of R (ti), f
(ti), h (ti) are as shown in the figure below. Although h(t) function is
increasing, which means that qualitatively a normal distribution for log K
would not be contradictory, the f(t) function for the assumed ∆t does not give
an indication that the normal distribution is a good fit.
The average value of log K is

20
μ*log K = 1/20 Σ (log K)i
i=1
= 4.96
and the variance of log K is

20
S2log K = 1/19 Σ (log K - μ*log K)2
i=1
= 0.146
and according to the assumption σ = S log K = 0.382.
The number of failures during 100 Kilocycles is
Nf (number of cycles < 105) = N0F(100) = N0Φ(z100)
Table 10.1 Parameter Values:
Ti = log K Ns F(ti) R(ti) f(ti) h(ti)

4.2-4.4 18 0.083 0.917 - -
4.4-4.6 16 0.181 0.819 0.49 0.6
4.6-4.8 14 0.279 0.721 0.49 0.68
4.8-5.0 8 0.574 0.426 1.48 3.47
5.0-5.2 5 0.721 0.279 0.74 2.65
5.2-5.4 2 0.868 0.132 0.74 5.60
5.4-5.6 1 0.917 0.083 0.25 3.01
5.6-5.8 0 0.966 0.034 0.25 7.35
17
Where F(ti) = 1 – [(Ns(ti)+ 0.7)/(N +0.4)] , here N = 20
R(ti) = 1- F(ti)
f(ti) = d[R(ti)- R (ti+1)]/dt
h(ti) = f(ti) / R (ti)
Where
z100 = (log 105 – log K*) / σ = 0.105
From the normal table (B-1) Φ(0.105) = 0.5596, so Nf = 56 shafts. At the

same time, if F(ti = 5.0) = 0.574 is used from the test data directly, without
implying a normal distribution, the no. of failed shafts is 57, which is in a
good agreement with the result based on mathematical model
The confidence interval on the population mean is given by
μ*log K – t α/2 , v [ Slog K / √ 20 ] ≤ μ log K ≤ μ*log K + t α/2 , v [ Slog K / √ 20 ]
For α = 0.05 and v = n-1 = 19 the t value from the tables( B -3) is t 0.025,19 =
2.093, then
4.781 ≤ μ log K ≤ 5.138
The confidence interval on the variance is
[(n-1)S2 log K ] / χ2 α/2 , v ≤ σ2 ≤ [(n-1)S2 log K ] / χ2 1 - α/2 , v
For α = 0.05 and v= n-1, the χ2 values are (table B-2)
χ2 0.025, 19 = 32.852 and χ2 0.975, 19 = 8.907
then,
0.084 ≤ σ2 ≤ 0.311
The corresponding limits for z100 are
-0.247 ≤ z100 ≤ 0.756
From the normal table( B-1 ), Φ ( -0.247) = 0.401 and Φ ( 0.756) = 0.7764
Thus there is a 95 percent confidence that the no. of failed shafts may be within
the limits
40 ≤ N f ≤ 78
This indicates that the margin of uncertainty if N f = 56 would be taken as a

target in planning the maintenance schedules.
18
Figure 10.1 Reliability, failure, and hazard functions for shafts
19
11. Consider the data in problem 9 for 20 failed shafts, and (1) Make a
weibull probability plot, (2) estimate the parameters of the distribution, (3) find
out the nature of the failure rate, and (4) find out whether the distribution is
close to normal, an assumption made in problem 9.
(1) The plot is constructed on the basis of data in table 10.1 assuming δ = 0.
It looks like a straight line fits the experimental points, and thus the
Weibull distribution can be assumed to be appropriate in this case.
(2) The estimation of β can best be accomplished by taking any two points
that lie on a straight line (F1, t1) and (F2, t2).
Then
β = [ln ln (1- F2)-1 - ln ln (1- F1)-1 ] / [ln t2- ln t1]
Taking from table 10.1(F1, t1) =(0.083,4.3) and (F2, t2) = (0.966,5.7) gives
β = [1.218- (-2.466)] / [1.74-1.46]

= 13.08
The θ is found from the plot for F(t) = 0.632; t = θ = 5.0. Here δ = 0, since the
line is sufficiently straight.
(3) Since β > 1, the failure rate is increasing.
(4) The distribution would be close to normal if β ≅ 3.44. In this case it is

much greater. Thus the assumption made in problem 9 does not seem to
be satisfactory
20
Figure 11.1 Weibull Plot
21
12. Failures of dc motors in specified intervals of days are given in table
12.1. Assuming that the dc motors were in a state of random failure,
what is the 95 percent, two-sided confidence interval for the mean life?
Determine the number of days at which 10 percent motors will have
failed.
Table 12.1 Failure Of Dc Motors:
Interval
0-200 200-400 400-600 600-800 800-1000
Number of 5 3 2 2 1
failures
Table 12.2 Probability of Failure:
Days Mid point Number of Probability of
failures failure (Pi)
0-200 100 5 0.384
200-400 300 3 0.230
400-600 500 2 0.153
600-800 700 2 0.153
800-1000 900 1 0.077
Expected mean time to failure is

n
m = Σ ti Pi
i=1
= {100(0.384) + 300(0.230) + 500(0.153) + 700(0.153) + 900(0.077)}

m = μλ* = 360.3
χ2 [1-(α/2), 2n] = χ2 (0.975, 26) = 13.844
χ2 [(α/2), 2n] = χ2 (0.025, 26) = 41.923
μχ = 2n μχ / {χ2 [1-(α/2), 2n]}
= (26 *360) / 13.844
= 676.1 days
μχ = 2n μχ / {χ2 [(α/2), 2n]}
= (26 *360) / 41.923
= 223.2 days
Then the 95 percent confidence limits for μχ are 223.2 ≤ μχ* ≤ 676.1
22
2. 10% failure P =0.1
Time to failure tp = μλ* ln [(1-p)-1]
= 360 ln (1-01) –1
= 37.92 days
23
Design of Manufacture and Assembly
Selective Assembly
SELECTIVE ASSEMBLY
Interchangeability
Interchangeability or random assembly is an assembly technique in which all
the components assemble with any other mating components. For example,
M12 bolts of any manufacturer mate with all M12 nuts, even of other
manufacturer.
H-h H H+h S-s S S+s

(a) Hole (b) Shaft
Fig.1 Normal distributions for interchangeable parts
Here (as shown in fig (1)), all shafts are matable with all holes, thereby
conforming the requirements. To fulfill our requirements, the spread of the
normal distribution (tolerance limit) is to be very small which needs the higher
degree of machinability.
Selective Assembly
If the tolerance limit of a mating part is very high, in the case of fully
interchangeability, the demanded accuracy of assembly may not be obtained.
Thus we go for selective assembly technique, where all the parts are measured,
graded and grouped according to the size, and finally corresponding groups are
assembled together, as shown in fig (2).
A4 A5 B4 B5
A3 A6 B3 B6
A1 A2 A7 A8 B1 B2 B7 B8
H-h H H+h S-s S S+s
Fig.2 Grouping of components in normal distribution for selective assembly
Here, the holes falling under the groups A1, A2, …etc., are respectively
assembled with the shafts falling under groups B1, B2, …etc.
1
Selective Assembly
H5
S5
H4
S4
S3
H3
S2
S1
H2
H1
Fig.3 Limits of sizes of groups of a hole and a shaft
Let us segregate the holes and shafts by H1, H2, …etc., and S1, S2, …etc., which
denotes the limits of size, as shown in fig (3). Let us consider,
th - Total tolerance for hole
ts - Total tolerance for shaft
gh - Group tolerance for hole
gs - Group tolerance for shaft
C - Mean fit
` c - Maximum permissible variation from mean fit
C = C ± c, is the fit
B - Basic fit
Model I
1. Only two mating components are involved.
2. Both components are produced to same tolerance. So, th = ts
3. These components are graded into equal number of groups (n) according to
their sizes. So, gh = gs
4. Corresponding groups are assembled.
2
Selective Assembly
Hole
gh Shaft
(1)
C
(1) gs
th
gh (2)
(2) ts
gs
gh
(3)
gs
(3)
C
Fig.4 Model I (th = ts)
In the fig (4), the total tolerance is graded into three groups, in which, group (1)
shafts are assembled with group (1) holes, and so on. The tolerance range may
be graded into any desired number of groups.
Working Procedure
1. Make out design requirements as follows,
Fit, C= C ± c (+ve value for clearance, -ve value for interference)
2. Determine the values of H1,H2…etc., and S1,S2…etc., as follows.

For holes, make H1 = B, where B is a prefered basic size.
Then
H2 = B + c
H3 = B + 2c….etc.,
Hn = B + (n - 1) × c …(1)
where n is the number of limits required, and the number of groups is (n -1)
Similarly for shafts,
S1 = H1 - C = B - C
S2 = H2 - C = B - C + c…etc.,
Sn = Hn - C = B - C + (n - 1) × c …(2)
3. Choose the number of groups, such that the overall tolerances th and ts, are
just satisfactory for the machining process likely to be used. This facilitates
3
Selective Assembly
the matching of quantities in the various groups (generally we take three

number of groups for our convenience).
4. Decide the tolerances for geometry. Geometry tolerances are necessary to

ensure the minimum difficulties in grading the parts at inspection. These
tolerances should cover:
¾ For cylinders - cylindrical form i.e., cylindricity, roundness (circularity),
ovality, parallelism and straightness as appropriate.
¾ For gaps and tongues - straightness and parallelism.
Geometry tolerances should not be greater than the following,
Cylindricity or roundness g/4 wide
Ovality g/2 on diameter
Straightness on cylinder g/2 diameter
Straightness of gap or tongue g/2 wide
Parallelism of cylinder g/2 on diameter
Parallelism of surfaces of gaps and tongues g/2 on width
Tolerances for ovality, parallelism and straightness are preferred to those
for cylindricity and roundness.
Model II
1. Only two mating components are involved.
2. The holes are manufactured to an increased tolerance (th) and graded into
groups with group tolerance (gh)
3. Then the shafts are manufactured in groups, so as to have a required fit
with hole groups available.
4. The total tolerance of hole is not equal to total tolerance of shaft i.e. th ≠ ts,
usually th>ts
5. Corresponding groups are assembled.
Hole
gh (1) Shaft
C
(1) gs = ts
th
gh (2)
(2) gs = t s
gh (3)
gs = t s
(3)
Fig.5 Model II (gs = ts)
4
Selective Assembly
Fig (5) is constructed for three groups, but may be graded into any
desired number of groups.
Working Procedure
1. Make out design requirements as follows,
Fit, C= C ± c (+ve value for clearance, -ve value for interference)
2. Assign values such that gh + gs = 2c. Determine the values of H1, H2, …etc.,
S1, S2, …etc., as follows
Make H1 = B ( where B = Basic size )
H2 = B + gh …….. etc.,
Hn = B + (n-1) gh …(3)
where n is number of the limits.
S1 = H1 - C + 1 (gh - gs)
2
S2 = H2 - C + 1 (gh - gs)
2
and Sn = Hn - C + 1 (gh - gs) …(4)
2
Choose the number of groups, such that the overall tolerance (th) is just
satisfactory for the machining process likely to be used. This facilitates the
matching of quantities in the various groups (generally we take three
number of groups for our convenience).
3. Decide the tolerances for geometry. Geometric tolerances for the shafts may
be covered by the normal geometrical requirements associated with the
limits of size and this is usually the case. If, however, it is considered
necessary to give separate tolerances for geometry, refer section 2.1.1.
Model III
1. Here more than two components form an assembly.
2. Here ‘n’ number of components are to be assembled with ‘n’ dimensional
requirements imposed on the assembly such as the endplay (Z).
3. Design provision is made for selecting one or more of the components at
assembly, so as to conform to the assembly requirements, as circlip washer
(dimension X) in fig(6). Here all the components are assembled together and
the assembly dimension is measured, such as dimension Y. The required
washer is then selected from previously graded groups, so as to attain the
end play, Z
5
Selective Assembly
Z
X
A B C D E Y
F
Fig.6 Model III (assembly of more than two components)
Working Procedure
1. Make out design requirement as, Z = Z ± z
2. Make provision in the design for some component(s) to be selected at

assembly. Choose one, which can be manufactured easily to a small
tolerance, such as flat washer. Let the design size of the relevant dimension
X, be denoted by X , and the tolerance by ± dx.
3. Design the sizes for the functional dimensions and develop a loop equation
for the dependent dimension, Y. In fig (6),
Y=F-A-B-C-D-E …(5)
=X+Z
Note: Y = Z + X
4. Decide the tolerances for the functional dimensions, so as to suit the

production.
5. Calculate the probable sum Py of the tolerances contributing to the

variability of Y (equation 5).
6. Fix the group limits for Y. Here, we calculate the number of groups and
group tolerance, where group tolerance is given by,
Group tolerance = ± (z - dx)
Group limits for Y are as follows,
6
Selective Assembly
For Group 0, Y - (z - dx) and Y + (z - dx)

For Group 1, Y + (z - dx) and Y + 3(z - dx)
For Group 3, Y + 3(z - dx) and Y + 5(z - dx)
In general, for Group N (odd), Y + N(z - dx) and Y + (N + 2)(z - dx)
For Group 2, Y - (z - dx) and Y - 3(z - dx)
For Group 4, Y - 3(z - dx) and Y - 5(z - dx)
In general, for Group n (even), Y - (n - 1)(z - dx) and Y - (n + 1)(z - dx)
Number of groups should be selected to cover the range ±Py
7. Fix the group limits for X, as follows

For Group 0, X ± dx
For Group 1, X + 2(z - dx) ± dx
For Group 3, X + 4(z - dx) ± dx
In general, for Group N (odd), X + (N + 1)(z - dx) ± dx
For Group 2, X - 2(z - dx) ± dx
For Group 4, X - 4(z - dx) ± dx
In general, for Group n (even), X - n(z - dx) ± dx
The number of groups selected should correspond to that chosen for Y.
8. Seperate tolerances for the geometry are not likely to be necessary, and the
normal geometrical requirements associated with limits of size will usually
suffice.
Laminated Shims – Control of axial ply

A device for obtaining larger component machining tolerance, when a critical
assembly is required, is the laminated shim. This particular type of shim has
the advantage of quickly and accurately providing the assembly requirements.
No second stage machining is involved. Only one shim is needed per unit
assembly, thus providing an advantage over other shim systems where a range
of several shim thicknesses must be available.
Laminated shims consist of sheets of brass foil, either 0.051 mm or 0.076 mm

thick, bonded together and cut to any required shape. These bonded sheets are
supplied in thicknesses of 0.397 mm, 0.794 mm, 1.191 mm, 1.588 mm and
2.381 mm, and the required thickness of shim for a particular assembly is
obtained by merely peeling off one or more laminations (fig (7))
Laminations
Fig.7 Laminated Shims
7
Selective Assembly
The choice of lamination thickness, either 0.051 mm or 0.076 mm, is usually

determined by the assembly tolerance involved, thus:
¾ If the assembly tolerance is 0.051 mm, use 0.051 mm laminations.
¾ If the assembly tolerance is 0.076 mm, or more, use 0.076 mm
laminations.
It is necessary, for the purpose of the subsequent calculations, to decide the

minimum shim thickness – to decide how many laminations may safely be
removed to leave a shim thickness, that will not easily buckle or crease. This
safe minimum thickness can vary, depending upon the overall size and shape of
the shim used.
Examples
Example 1 (Fig E1)
Item 1
Transition Fit
Item 2
Fig E1
Following the section 2.1.1, we have, C= +0.005 ± 0.007 mm

Take B= 8.89 mm
H1 = 8.89
H2 = 8.89 + 0.007 = 8.898
H3 = 8.89 + 0.015 = 8.905
So th = 0.015 and gh = 0.007
Similarly,
S1 = 8.89 - 0.005 = 8.885
S2 = 8.885 + 0.007 = 8.893
S3 = 8.885 + 0.015 = 8.900
So ts =0.015 and gs = 0.007
Here,
th = 0.015 corresponds to IT 7 (High quality reaming)
ts = 0.015 corresponds to IT 7 (High quality grinding)
8
Selective Assembly
These tolerances are considered satisfactory and hence number of groups is

two. The geometric tolerances chosen are for ovality and parallelism on
diameter and each should not be greater than 0.004 mm. So choose 0.003 mm
Item 1 Sort into following groups, and

assemble with corresponding groups
of item 2
Group 1 --- 8.885 to 8.893
Group 2 --- 8.893 to 8.900
8.885 dia MAX OVALITY 0.003

+0.015 PAR TOL 0.003 on dia
8.890 dia MAX OVALITY 0.003

+0.015 PAR TOL 0.003 on dia
Sort into following groups, and

assemble with corresponding groups
of item 1
Group 1 --- 8.890 to 8.898
Group 2 --- 8.898 to 8.905
Item 2
Fig E2
9
Selective Assembly
Example 2 (Fig E3)
Item 1
Sliding Fit
Item 2
Fig E3
Following the section 2.1.1, we have, C= +0.002± 0.002 mm

Take B= 36.0 mm
H1 = 36.000
H2 = 36.000 + 0.002 = 36.002
H3 = 36.000 + 0.004 = 36.004
H4 = 36.000 + 0.006 = 36.002
So th= 0.006 and gh= 0.002
S1 = 36.000 - 0.002 = 35.998
S2 = 35.998 + 0.002 = 36.000
S3 = 35.998 + 0.004 = 36.002
S4 = 35.998 + 0.006 = 36.004
So ts =0.006 and gs = 0.002
By referring to data regarding grade
th = 0.006 corresponds to IT4 viz., lapping process
ts = 0.006 corresponds to IT4 viz., lapping process
These tolerances are considered satisfactory and hence number of groups is 3.

Following the section 2.1.1, the geometric tolerances are chosen for ovality and
parallelism on diameter and each should not be greater than 0.001
10
Selective Assembly
MAX OVALITY 0.001
MAX OVALITY 0.001

PAR TOL 0.001 on dia

Item 1
Item 2
36.000 dia
+0.006
+0.00
35.998
dia
6
Sort into following groups, and Sort into following groups, and
assemble with the corresponding assemble with the corresponding
groups of item 2 groups of item 1
Group 1 --- 36.000 to 36.002 Group 1 --- 35.998 to 36.000
Group 2 --- 36.002 to 36.004 Group 2 --- 36.000 to 36.002
Group 3 --- 36.004 to 36.006 Group 3 --- 36.002 to 36.004
Fig E4
Example 3 (Fig E3)

Let C be ± 0.010 ± 0.006mm
B be 36.0mm
Let gh be 0.004 viz. IT3 corresponding approximately to high quality lap.
Thus 2c = 0.012
Hence from equation (3) of section 2.2.1
gh = 0.012 - 0.004 = 0.008
H1 = 36.000
H2 = 36.000 + 0.008 = 36.008
H3 = 36.000 + 0.016 = 36.016
So th=0.016
S1 = 36.000 - 0.010 + 1 (0.008 - 0.004) = 35.992
2
S2= 36.008 - 0.008 = 36.000
ts = gh = 0.004
th = 0.016 corresponds to IT6, viz., fine grind
ts = 0.004 corresponds to IT3, viz., high quality lap
11
Selective Assembly
These tolerances are considered satisfactory and hence number of groups is 2.

Following section 2.2.1, the geometric tolerances are chosen for ovality and
parallelism on diameter and each should not be greater than 0.004
MAX OVALITY 0.004

Item 1
Item 2
35.992 dia
36.000 dia
+0.012
+0.016
Sort into following groups, and Sort into following groups, and
assemble with the corresponding assemble with the corresponding
groups of item 2 groups of item 1
Group 1 --- 36.000 to 36.008 Group 1 --- 35.992 to 35.996
Group 2 --- 36.008 to 36.016 Group 2 --- 36.000 to 36.004
Fig E5
Example 4 (Fig E6)

Expandise (Collet)
Spiral Bevel Gear Blank
Machine Table
Draw Bar
Fig E6
12
Selective Assembly
Given data: Collet diameter = 100 mm

Fit requirement ( C ± k) is 0.060 ± 0.010 mm
Solution:
Let we take IT 8 (fine boring) grade of tolerance for hole, and IT 4 (lapping) for
expandise.
To avoid inadequate clamping and overloading of collet, we have to segregate

the total tolerances into number of groups in such a way that those should
satisfy our fit requirements
2k = gh + gs
In this problem (Model II) we know, ts = gs = 0.010 mm
∴ gh = 2k - gs = 2 × 0.010 – 0.010 = 0.010 mm
Next we have to find number of groups of holes, number of groups of shafts.
Number of groups of holes = th/gh = 0.060/0.010 = 6
Number of groups of shafts = ts/gs = 0.010/0.010 = 1
100.060
100.050
100.040 100.000
99.990
100.030
99.990
100.020
99.980
100.010 99.980
100.000 99.970
99.970
99.960
99.960
99.950
99.950
99.940
Fig E7
Corresponding individual
Groups of holes
groups of shaft
100.000 to 100.010 99.940 to 99.950
100.010 to 100.020 99.950 to 99.960
100.020 to 100.030 99.960 to 99.970
100.030 to 100.040 99.970 to 99.980
100.040 to 100.050 99.980 to 99.990
100.050 to 100.060 99.990 to 100.000
Minimum tolerance for each mating group is 0.050

Maximum tolerance for each mating group is 0.070
This limit is satisfying the fit requirements (0.060 ± 0.010 mm). So chosen
groups are correct.
13
Selective Assembly
Example 5 (Fig E8)

Y
Fig E8
A B C D E
Let Z = 0.020 ± 0.016 mm for controlled pre-load on bearing.

∴ Z = 0.020; and z = 0.016
The washer dimension X, in fig E8 is to be selected at assembly. The dimension
Y will be measured and components are graded accordingly. And then the
washer will be selected from the appropriate group having the same number.
Following the section 2.3.1, we have
-Y–F+A+B+C+D+E=0
Y=A+B+C+D+E–F
Making desired values as follows,
F = 68.00 C = 40.00
A = 3.20 D = 10.00
B = 10.00 E = 8.00
Hence Y = 3.20 and since Y = X + Z then X = 3.18
The corresponding tolerances are
± df = ± 0.05 ± dc= ± 0.05
± da = ± 0.05 ± dd = ± 0.012
± db = ± 0.012 ± de = ± 0.05
± dx = ± 0.004
Following the section 2.3.1
± Py = ± 1.35 d f2 + d a2 + d 2b + d c2 + d d2 + d e2 = 0.137 (taking p = 0.45)
From section 2.3.1, group limits are given as follows, for Y values,
Group tolerance = ± (0.016 - 0.004) = ± 0.012
And the group limits are as follows
14
Selective Assembly
For Group 0 --- 3.188 and 3.212

For Group 1 --- 3.212 and 3.236
For Group 3 --- 3.236 and 3.260
For Group 5 --- 3.260 and 3.284
And for even groups,
For Group 2 --- 3.188 and 3.164
For Group 4 --- 3.164 and 3.140
For Group 6 --- 3.140 and 3.116
Following the section 2.3.1, for value of X
For Group 0 --- 3.176 and 3.184
For Group 1 --- 3.200 and 3.208
For Group 3 --- 3.224 and 3.232
For Group 5 --- 3.248 and 3.256
And for even groups,
For Group 2 --- 3.152 and 3.160
For Group 4 --- 3.128 and 3.136
For Group 6 --- 3.104 and 3.112
Measure Y and grade into groups as below and select washer X of same group
number.
Group Limits for Group Group Limits for group
0 3.188 3.212 2 3.164 3.188
1 3.212 3.236 4 3.140 3.164
3 3.236 3.260 6 3.116 3.140
5 3.260 3.284
Fig E9
15
Selective Assembly
Washer should be graded on dimension X into groups as under, and included in

assembly of same number
Group Limits for Group Group Limits for group
0 3.176 3.184 2 3.152 3.160
1 3.200 3.208 4 3.128 3.136
3 3.224 3.232 6 3.104 3.112
5 3.248 3.256
Example 6
For the steering box unit in fig E10, the minimum shim thickness will be set at
0.229 mm. The nominal sizes of the involved component dimensions are shown
in fig E11 and it will be assumed that a machining tolerance of at least 0.305
mm is required per for each component dimension – a total tolerance of 0.914
mm minimum. This total required tolerance is obtained by adding the assembly
tolerance, namely 0.102 mm, to the shim tolerance, i.e. maximum shim
thickness minus minimum shim thickness.
Drop arm to have

vertical freedom
COVER PLATE
BOX
DROP ARM
Fig E10 Automobile

Steering Box
16
Selective Assembly
COVER PLATE
DROP ARM
Nominal C
Nominal A
19.050
6.350
Nominal B
25.400
BOX
Fig E11 Nominal Sizes
A 1.191 mm thick shim, composed of fifteen 0.076 mm laminations, has a

maximum thickness of 1.143 mm, therefore the shim tolerance is 1.143 mm
minus 0.229 mm, i.e. 0.914 mm, and hence total component tolerance is 1.016
mm.
This tolerance may be distributed thus:

Let tolerance for dimension A be 0.330 mm
Let tolerance for dimension B be 0.330 mm
Therefore tolerance for dimension C be 0.356 mm
Then, set the limits for two of the dimensions – say A and B – and proceed to
determine the limits for dimensions C, as follows.
Establish, in diagrammatic form, the conditions – maximum or minimum – of

the components and the assembly result (the vertical freedom):
a) When a maximum shim is used
b) When a minimum shim is used [fig E12]
17
Selective Assembly
C max
Shim max
Assembly min
C min
Shim min
B min Assembly max
A max
B max
A min
Left Side: Right Side:

Conditions when maximum shim Conditions when minimum shim is
is used, i.e. A and C maximum, B used, i.e. A and C minimum, B
minimum, resulting assembly will maximum, resulting assembly will be
be minimum maximum
Fig E12 Extremes of conditions
19.380 mm 25.730 mm
Let limits for A= and B =
19.050 mm 25.400 mm
Then, to determine limits for C, from fig E12,
Cmax = (shimmax + Bmin ) – ( Amax + Assemblymin )

= ( 1.143 + 25.400) – ( 19.38 + 0.102)
= 7.060 mm
or
Cmin = (shimmim + Bmax ) – ( Amin + Assemblymax )
= (0.229 + 25.73) – (19.05 + 0.203)
= 6.706 mm
The assembly procedure for the unit would be to bring the components together
and to measure the gap between the cover plate and box face (fig E13). The
minimum gap that can result is 0.025 mm. Therefore, fitting a minimum shim,
18
Selective Assembly
0.229 mm, will result in a vertical movement of the drop arm of 0.203 mm
(maximum), (fig E13).
Minimum measured gap

(0.025 mm)
Shim thickness
(0.229 mm)
C min
B max Resulting vertical

movement (0.203 mm)
A min
B max = 25.730
C min + A min = 6.706 + 19.050 = 25.756
Fig E13
The conditions when a maximum shim, 1.143 mm is fitted are shown in fig E14
The instruction drawing, for the assembly procedure, illustrates how to
determine the required thickness (fig E15).
Maximum measured gap

(1.041 mm)
Shim thickness
C max (1.143 mm)
Resulting vertical
B min
movement (0.102 mm)
A max
B min = 25.400
C max + A max = 7.061 + 19.380 = 26.441
Fig E14
19
Selective Assembly
Gap
Assemble drop arm and plate with box -

Press down on plate - Measure gap
Required shim thickness = Measured gap = +0.203
+0.102
Fig E15
Exercise
1. Specify the algorithm, in the form of a flow chart, for deciding the number of
groups in selective assembly for the case when the total tolerance on the
shaft component equals to its group tolerance (gs = ts)
2. Give three examples of components/ assemblies which call for selective
assembly.
3. Components segregated into different groups of sizes in the selective
assembly process will not be equal in number. Justify.
20
Tolerance Analysis
SURFACE FINISH
Tolerance specifications are imposed on dimensions to ensure
functional and assembly requirements of mating parts. Tolerances determine
to a large extent the manufacturing processes required to produce the part.
Surface quality is another important factor that affects the performance of
mating parts relative to each other as well as choice of manufacturing
processes. Tolerances and surface quality are interrelated in the sense that
both are direct outcomes of manufacturing processes. A manufacturing
process such as lapping and honing that produce small tolerances also
produce smooth surfaces. Therefore in specifying tolerances a designer
should consider the requirements of surface finish in addition to functional
and assembly requirements. For example an interference fit made on a
rough surface may have a reduced area which results in subsequent
reduction of the interference force between mating parts. Higher surface
quality results in higher production costs. Thus designer would normally
leave a surface as rough as is feasible.
Surface finish can be evaluated quantitatively by using various measures.

The most popular measures are surface roughness and waviness. The
measure of the irregularities over a sampling length is defined as surface
roughness, whereas the measure of large variations over a wavelength
defines the waviness of the surface.
There are three methods of calculating the surface roughness R

of a surface. Let us define an imaginary mean surface such that the total
variations (measured by the sum of the areas between the mean surface and
profile of the actual surface) above the mean surface are equal to that
beneath it.
The roughness average Ra measures the average of the absolute

displacement (variation) relative to the mean surface:
⎛1⎞ L
Ra = ⎜ ⎟ ∫ | y | dx
⎝ L⎠ 0
Where IyI is the absolute value of the roughness function y(x). The
roughness average Ra is also known as arithmetic average (AA). It is usually
measured using a planimeter.to calculate the area below and above the
mean surface.
Ra values are usually expressed in micrometers or micro

inches and its value can vary quite considerably without affecting the
surface functions.
Another measure of surface roughness is given by the RMS
(root mean square) value Rq which is still an averaging method and is given
by:
1
Tolerance Analysis
⎛1⎞ L 2
Rq2 = ⎜ ⎟ ∫0 y dx
⎝ L⎠
The third method of roughness is given by the maximum peak -

to - valley height Rmax. Sometimes Rmax is evaluated at various locations
over the length of the surface and an average is calculated.
Y Root Mean Square roughness Rq
Mean surface
Length
Fig 1 Root Mean Square Roughness (Rq)
2
Tolerance Analysis
Roughness Measures
The table below recommends the specifications of surface roughness for
functional processors. These values given are only a guide and a designer
can make his own selection depending upon the process. However from the
point of production economy it is better not to specify values finer than that
are really necessary for satisfactory functioning of the process.
Guide to surface finish from various process μm
ROUGHNESS HEIGHT RATING,
Process 50 25 12.5 6.3 3.2 1.6 0.8 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.05 0.025 0.012
Flame cutting
Snagging
Sawing
Planing,Shaping
Drilling
Chemical milling
Electric Discharge machining
Milling
Broaching
Reaming
Electron Beam
Laser
Electro chemical
Boring, Turning
Barrel finishing
Electrolytic Grinding
Roller Burnishing
Grinding
Honing
3
Tolerance Analysis
Guide to surface finish from

various process (contd…)
ROUGHNESS HEIGHT RATING,

in μm
process 50 25 12.5 6.3 3.2 1.6 0.8 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.05 0.025 0.012
Electropolish
Polishing
Lapping
Super finishing
Sand casting
Hot Rolling
Forging
Permanent Mold Casting
Investment casting
Extruding
Cold rolling, Drawing
Die casting
The ranges shown are typical of the process listed ->' average application
Higher or lower values may be obtained under special conditions ->' less frequent application
4
Tolerance Analysis
Relationship between Attainable Tolerance Grade and
Various Machining Processes.
Machining Tolerances.
The deviations resulting from different machining operations vary somewhat

from shop to shop and with the type and conditions of the equipment used.
It is helpful for the engineering department to have records for the variations
that can be maintained by the various machines in the factory. Less will be
known for the parts that are sublet and the work done by the outside
vendors.
The variations in these tables are about what might be expected from good
equipment in the hands of experienced workers. The newer and more precise
equipment should give smaller variations, but on the other hand, worn
machinery will not give the results as good as the tables. The prospects for
the proper dimensioning will improve as more precise information on the
capabilities of production machines becomes available to the design
department.
The following table illustrated below gives you a guideline for calculating IT
grades for various machining processes.
For grades 5 to 16, standard tolerance unit i, is i = 0.45 3√ D + 0.001 D

where i in microns; and D (Dia) in mm.
IT
Grade 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Values 7i 10i 16i 25i 40i 64i 100i 160i 250i 400i 640i 1000i
Grades Of
Holes Manufacturing Processes Used
H5 Fine Boring,Fine Grinding,Honing
H6 Fine Boring,Honing,Handreaming
H7 Internalgrinding,Broaching, Reaming
H8 Boring, Machine Reaming
H9 Boring,Reaming
Not For Diameter Fits: Used For Milled Widths,
H90 Drilled Holes
Not Used In Fits: Punching, Course Drilling
H11 Drawn Recesses
5
Tolerance Analysis
Normal Dimensional Tolerances and Surface finish
attainable from Traditional Machining Process
Commercial
Surface
Machining Commercial Tolerance finish
Operations attainable in mm in μm
Drilling +/- 0.075 1.6-3.1
Reaming +/-0.025 0.8-1.6
Counter boring +/-0.10 1.6-3.1
Recessing +/-0.25 1.6-3.1
Tapping Class 2
Boring +/-0.025 1.6-3.1
Broaching +/-0.15 0.8-1.6
Rough Turning +/-0.13 1.6-3.1
Finish Turning +/-0.05-0.013 0.4-1.6
Form tool turning
rough +/-0.13 1.6-3.1
Form tool turning
fine +/-0.025-0.05 0.4-1.6
Roller shaving 0.025 0.4-1.6
Skiving 0.025-0.05 0.2-0.8
Die head turning Class 2-3
Single point
threading class3
Roll treading Class 2-3
Slotting +/-0.13-0.25 1.6-3.1
Other milling +/-0.13 1.6-3.1
Burnishing +/-0.013 0.15-0.25
6
Tolerance Analysis
attainable from Non-Traditional Machining Process.
Normal
Normal surface
Tolerance attainable from Dimensional finish in
Non Traditional Process tolerances μm
Laser beam Machining +/-0.025 2.5
+/-0.006-
Electro-chemical honing 0.0125 0.1-0.8
Electrical discharge
machining +/-0.05 1.6-3.2
Electrical discharge grinding +/-0.005 0.4-0.8
Electrochemical machining +/-0.05 1.6
Electrochemical discharge
machining +/-0.025 0.13-0.75
Electrochemical grinding +/-0.025 0.4

attainable in various hole-making processes.
Normal
Normal Surface
Dimensional Finish
Process Tolerances mm in μm
Turning +/-0.025 0.4-6.3
Drilling +0.15-0.025 1.6-6.3
Milling +/-0.05 0.8-6.3
Planing &
Shaping +/-0.13 1.6-12.5
Broaching +/-0.025 0.8-3.2
7
Tolerance Analysis
Relationship between Tolerance Grades and Machining
Processes.
Tolerance Grade (IT number)
Machining 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Process
Lapping & √ √
Honing
Cylindrica √ √ √
l grinding
Surface √ √ √ √
Grinding
Diamond √ √ √
Turning
Diamond √ √ √
Boring
Broaching √ √ √ √
Powder √ √ √
Metals-
Sizes
Reaming √ √ √ √ √
Turning √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Powdered √ √ √ √
Metal-
sintered
Boring √ √ √ √ √ √
Milling √ √ √ √
Planing & √ √ √ √
Shaping
Drilling √ √ √ √
Punching √ √ √ √
Die √ √ √
casting
√: Attainable grade.
8
Design for manufacture and assembly
Tolerance charting technique
TOLERANCE CHARTING TECHNIQUE

Structure And Setup Of Tolerance Chart
GEAR-SHAFT
1. MAT,-KETOS TOOL STEEL
2."G" SURFACES TO BE SQUARE AND
CONCENTRIC WITHIN .0005 T.I.R.
(EXCEPT GEAR)
+.000 TYP
3.CENTERS PERMITTED
.500 .500 4.HARDEN RC 60-65 +.000
-.001
12 T O.D.-1.167-.001
5.GEAR DATA:
+.000
.5
2.000 12 P P.D.-1.000 -.002
20° P.A. .0003 T.C.E.
OP.10
W/S
TURRET OP.60 ROUGH CUT TEETH
LATHE D
A OP.70 DEBURR
B C
3 2 OP.80 HARDEN
OP.90 LAP CENTRES
4
OP.20 OP.100
HARDINGE NORTON
CHUCKER A CYL. GRND
C B B C
8
9 24
OP.30
NORTON OP.110
CYL. GRND C B A NORTON
CYL. GRND B A
C
14
29
OP.40
NORTON OP. 120 FINISH GRIND GEAR O.D.
CYL. GRND OP. 130 GRIND TEETH-FROM CENTERS
B C
OP. 140 INSPECT
17
OP. 50 ROUGH GRIND GEAR O.D.
1
Initial Installation of Process Data into

Chart
Consider the chart with respect to the process sketches of Fig.2 and the
blueprint of the part in Fig1. The most important features to note are:
1. The piece is shown cut away because it is symmetrical about its

centerline. In addition, it is shown with the long hub facing to the right as it
is in the blueprint. This is coincidental-it might have been shown reversed
and the outcome would have been the same. However, this is the end that
would be normally brought out the stock stop on a turret lathe, as the
Operation 10 sketch shows, so showing it this way satisfies the orientation
of the piece in the blanking operation. Also notice that the piece is drawn to
scale. This too is unnecessary. Presentation of the piece -part sense is the
thing that counts in the chart. Suppose the gear face widths were actually
.100 instead of.500 and the chart diagram were drawn to a scale of 1:1. The
result would be that the generous distance between planes B and C that now
exist would reduce to.100 .The difficulty of adding an arrow and a dot, and a
line number between, as would be required for lines 3,8,14,17,24, and 29 is
apparent. Therefore, we exaggerate the part outline whenever necessary so
that sufficient room is available for the addition of the dot and the arrow.
This permits rapid vertical scanning to be done by eye without having to
pause to figure out what is out going on.
2. Once the sketch is made, the vertical lines A, B, C and D is drawn to the
bottom of the chart. These lines are the planes of all surfaces that are
measured axially on the part. Every plane that is shown on the blueprint
must be shown on the chart layout. When blueprint dimensions locate the
plane and the process will produce the dimensions.
3. Stemming from the diameters on the part are leader lines that support
ballooned dimensions. The numbers in the balloons correspond to the
operations wherein diameters are machined. Since diameters either increase
in size numerically if they are internal, or decrease in size numerically if they
are external as material is removed in subsequent operations, the use of the
ballooned operation number is sufficient to keep track of the sequence of
diameter changes.
Note: Under certain condition of angle or radii involvement with diameters

concentric with an axis, diameter changes will affect length dimensions. This
is treated in detail later on in Chapters 11,12,and 13.
4. Under the column headed OPER. NO. are listed all the operations that are
vital for the construction of the chart, and for each cut shown by a heavy
black dot to arrow line in the chart the ditto mark or the operation number
is shown so that any cut in the chart can be associated with the operation
number in which it is performed. Although four cuts were taken in
Operation 10, there are only three dimensions shown. The fourth cut is the
actual facing off cut done on the bar end after it was brought out to stock
stop. Facing off the bar end before performing any of the other cuts would
2
not import a dimension to the part but dose clean up the end with a tool set
to stops that are tied in to the other tools and stops used on machine.
In effect, the facing tool cut on the bar end established a datum surface for
the dimensions to the produced in that operation. To indicate that the bar
was faced off, an arrow is shown coming in from space outside the piece and
also indicates that the bar end was positioned by a machine locator or stock
stop.
Note: If, for some reason, the bar were not to be faced off but only brought
out to a stop, we would recommend that a triangle be shown against the bar
end to denote that the bar was located from the end.
5.In the REV.NO. Column one would insert a revision number to correspond
to the revision number on the operation sheet whenever the sheet, based on
the tolerance chart, was changed for whatever reason at all.
6.In the MACHINE USED column is listed the machine on which an

operation is to be performed.
7. In the MACHINE TO column are listed the dimensions and tolerance for
every cut made on the part axially.
8. In the BLANCE DIM. Column are listed all dimensions that must be
determined during the layout of the chart on the basis of previously given
machining dimensions. These balance dimensions are needed to compute
either stock removals or to determine the value of a blueprint dimension and
its tolerance when it was not machined on the blueprint.
9. In the LINES INVOLVED column are listed all the additions and
subtractions necessary to arrive at a balance dimension or to compute the
stock removal.
Note: A balance dimension is the sum of difference of two numbers only, or

two line values only. This is a vital point that the entire text explanation is
based upon on the violated will wreck the mechanics of the technique. For
example, line five of the chart is a balance dimension with a value of. 1.02 9
+-.011.The LINES INVOLVED column tells us that this value was computed
by subtracting line 2 value of .993 +- .001 from line 4 value of 2.022 +- .010.
10. In the STOCK REMOVAL column is listed the amount of stock removed
by the cut of the same line. Obviously, there will be no stock removals shown
on lines occupied by balance dimensions. For every cut shown there must be
a corresponding stock removal value. There are cases, however, as in the
type of cuts made in operation 10 of the chart where the cutters are
plunging into solid bars and there is no problem of whether or not there is
stock coming off. For length dimensions machine out of the solid bar, the
stock removal is equal to the machining dimension itself. In these cases of
cutter plunging in to a solid bar or surface, the word “SOLID” is put in the
mean column of the stock removal to indicate that stock removal was
considered and not ignored.
3
11. Below the last operation cut a heavy black line is drawn and BLUEPRINT
is printed in under the MACHINE TO column. Under this are listed all the
lengths shown in the print with their full tolerances. On the other side,
under the BALANCED DIMENSION column, is printed the word
RESULTANTS. Under this will be recorded a summary of the process results
for all the B/P dimensions recorded on the left side. In a properly made
chart the tolerance on the RESULTANT value must never exceed the
tolerance on the BLUEPRINT value. This summary is also useful for
verifying that every cut was accounted for and in a complicated chart it is
useful to have the line number shown to the right of the resultant value to
indicate at what point up in the chart the blueprint value was achieved.
12. Left for last is a description of the representation of the machining cuts
in the chart. Compare the Operation 10 sketch with the Operation 10 times
1,2,3, and 4 in the chart. Sketch 10 shows three dimensions only by notice
that all part outline lines are in heavy black since this is the blanking
operation and every surface shown is machined in this operation. We
already mentioned in the discussion of STOCK REMOVALS that the bas is
faced off but no dimension of the part results. Therefore, in the sketch for
operation 10 only three dimensions are shown. Conventional drafting
practice requires that two arrows be shown to limit the boundaries of the
dimension, so all sketches show two arrows to define a length. In the chart,
however, the arrow shows the surface machined and the dot denotes the
surface from which the machined surface is measured. Sketch length
number 2 has two arrows – one on the part end and the other on the gear
shoulder. In the chart this same length is shown on line 2 with the dot on
plane D – the end was machined on line 1 by a facing tool – and the arrow
on plane C. Similarly, sketch length 3 is shown on line 3 of the chart with
the dot on plane C and the arrow on plane B, thus showing us that once
shoulder C is established, line 3 cut will be measured.
Analysis of Centrality and its Incorporation

in the Tolerance Chart
Centrality
Condition of being central, or, involves the idea of deviation or error from
being truly central.
4
2.005
.439 1.995
.436 .605
.595
NOTE:
+- .0005
1-THE .3125 BORE
MUST BE CENTRAL TO
1.404 X-X SURFACES
1.396 WITHIN .002 T.I.R.
1.502 1.127
1.498 1.123
A TOLERANCE CHART IS REQUIRED TO ESTABLISH THE MACHINING DIMENSIONS THAT
APPLY TO THEIS END VIEW OF A PART. THOSE OPERATION SKETCHES THAT AFFECT THIS
VIEW HAVE BEEN EXTRACTED FROM THE COMPLETE OPERATION SHEET AND SHOWN
BELOW, STOCK REMOVAL .003 MIN UNDER WORST CONDITIONS OF TOLERANCE BUILDING.
ASSIGN TOLERANCES TO EACH MACHINING CUT AS SHOWN IN TABLE
OPERATION LINE NO. TOLERANCE OPERATION LINE NO. TOLERANCE
30 1 +- .005 80 14 +- .002 NOTE:

" 2 +- .005 " 17 +- .001 ASSUME
ALL CUTS
" 3 +- .005 " 20 +- .001 MADE FROM
SOLID IN
" 4 +- .005 110 24 +- .001
OP. 30
" 5 +- .005 " 27 +- .002
60 11 +- .002 150 31 +- .001
4
14 17
5
20
2.40
OP. 30 OP. 80
OP. 150
1 31
2
3
1.80
NOTE:
OP. 80 OP. 110 IN THE EVENT THE ASSIGNED
TOLERANCES PRODUCE
8.00
RESULTANTS WHOSE
11
TOLERANCES EXCEED THE B/P

LIMITS, DO NOT ALTER THE
ASSIGNED TOLERANCES BUT
BUILD THE COMPLETE SET OF
MACHINING DIMENSIONS ANYWAY.
5
6
Design Feature To Facilitate Machining

Introduction
Screw threads, blind holes and ground surfaces are frequently appearing
features in a component design.
External Screw Threads
The preferred representation of an external screw thread, length view is by

double full lines, drawn fairly close together. The end view or circular view is
shown by full circle for the outside diameter - thread major diameter - and
almost completed (inner) circle for the thread minor diameter. The spacing of
the double lines will widen suitably for an increasing screw diameter.
Refer Fig. 1
If the screwed diameter is shown adjacent to the shoulder,, it is accepted

that the mating screwed path is required to engage right up to the shoulder,
and to achieve this the run-out must be cleared away. This is done by
introducing an Z undercut feature. Refer Fig. 2
MAJOR/ OUTSIDE
DIAMETER-d
(IMPLIED) EFFECTIVE
FULL THREAD DEPTH
Fig-1-REPRESENTATION OF AN
EXTERNAL SCREW THREAD
7
6 (3P)
Ø13.00 M16.00
(g) (d)
2X45°
(p)
Fig. 2-UNDERCUT AND CHAMFER EXTERNAL

SCREW THREAD ADJACENT TO SHOULDER
For an external screw thread, adjacent to a shoulder, on a component

subject to very high stressing where an undercut may be unacceptable
because of weakening a corner area, the mating screwed component may be
cleared. In this case, counter bore the screwed hole to outside (major) thread
diameter or just larger and countersink to ensure clearance with the shaft
corner fillet. Refer Fig. 3
COUNTERSINK-
SUFFICIENT TO CLEAR
SHAFT MAXIMUM
CORNER FILLET
COUNTER BORE-
OUTSIDE DIAMETER
OR LARGER
3P
Fig-3-ALTERNATIVE TO UNDERCUT
ON EXTERNAL SCREW THREAD
8
Internal Screw Threads
The preferred representation of an internal screw thread is shown in Fig. 4.

a) Section View.
b) External View.
(a) SECTION VIEW (b) EXTERNAL VIEW
Fig-4-REPRESENTATION OF AN
INTERNAL SCREW THREAD
Large size screwed holes for which taps are not available, may have the
thread cut by a single point screw cutting tool or by an internal chasing tool.
Either method requires a tool run-out, which is provided by an undercut.
Refer Fig.5. For small size Tap drill is used. Refer Fig. 6.
R
G
UNDER CUT
DIAMETER
F
UNDER WIDTH
(F1 OR F2 OR F3)
Fig-5-UNDERCUT FOR BLIND

(BORED) SCREWED HOLE
9
(IMPLIED) FULL THREAD

DEPTH
TAP DRILL
DIAMETER
6P
L+6P
TAP DRILL DEPTH
Fig-6 BLIND DRILLED
TAPPED HOLE
Length of the thread engagement

1) Normal Length – specifying maximum and minimum lengths
2) Short Length – specifying maximum length
3) Long length – specifying minimum length
If the length of engagement between two parts is less than the specified
minimum length, the “short length” range is used. Refer Fig. 7.
AVAILABLE SPACE FOR

CIRCULAR NUT = 6.5 mm
SCREWED DIAMETER =78mm
Fig-7-CONDITIONS REQUIRING THE

'SHORT LENGTH' THREAD
When no length restriction exists, and there is no requirement for a “long

length“ thread engagement then a suitable choice is made from the “normal
length” range. The standard length of M6 hexagonal head screws in this
region are10, 12, 16, 18, 20 mm. Refer Fig. 8.
10
COVER PLATE
Fig-8-CONDITIONS SUITABLE FOR

'NORMAL LENGTH' - 'MINIMUM' THREAD
A similar part assembly is shown in Fig. 9, but now the ball bearing shown
is submitted to a moderate thrust load which results in tensile loading on
the clamping plate securing screws, thus leading to use of “normal length“ –
maximum thread engagement. For the condition shown in Fig.10 where a
heavy thrust load against the screw exists, the “long length” thread
engagement will be required.
8 CLAMPING/COVER PLATE
MODERATE
THRUST LOAD
Fig-9-CONDITIONS REQUIRING
'NORMAL LENGTH - MAXIMUM' THREAD
11
CLAMPING/COVER PLATE
HEAVY
THRUST LOAD
Fig-10-CONDITIONS REQUIRED FOR

'LONG LENGTH' THREAD
Ground Surfaces
The bearing stud requires certain mm diameter to be ground and the

grinding is done adjacent to the shoulder. Refer Fig.11. Therefore an under
cut-a run-out for the leading corner edge of the grinding wheel must be
provided. The depth of the undercut should be kept to a minimum, but still
ensure positive clearance. The appropriate machining limits should be
shown in brackets, on the component drawing as in Fig.11. Grinding of
external diameter may be done on a centre grinding machine or a centerless
grinding machine. Center holes are needed for a center grinding operation
and therefore should include in the component design.
M20x1.5-6G
112 29.980(M/C 30.28

29.947 SIZE 30.13)
30 GROUND
17
1x45°
60
4.5
CENTER HOLES
(No 4)
Ø17.8
Ø40
1x45°
Ø28.056
Ø28.035
1x45°
U/CUT:
3 WIDE x29.64
29.34
Fig-11-BEARING STUD
REDESIGNED FOR MANUFACTURE
12
Corner Chamfers
The guide way block shown in Fig. 12 requires two faces at right angles to be
ground. One undercut, providing a grinding wheel run-out for each surface
is shown. This undercut may be machined by planing, shaping, slotting or
milling. For a milling operation the component would be rotated 45°,thus
requiring suitable positioning equipment.
REMOVE SHARP CORNERS
24.980(M/C 25.28)
24.947 SIZE 25.13)
GROUND
GROUND
60
U/CUT: 4WIDE x
0.45 DEEP
60 200
24.980(M/C 25.28
24.947 SIZE 25.13)
Fig-12-GROUND FLAT SURFACE

ADJACENT TO A STEP
+2
38 -0
+2
33 -0
C/SK:90°x1.5
Ø24.6DRILL
Ø25.03
Ø25.00
Fig-13-25mm H8 BLIND HOLE
13
Problem 1
Fig 14 shows the partially completed drawing of the end of a mild steel shaft
in which a screwed hole, 50mmdia ,1.5 mm pitch is required. The mating
screwed part engages 20 mm deep and is to lock on the hole bottom. A 20
mm hole is required through the component axis. No tap is available.
Complete the drawing of the shaft end.
50
Ø40
Ø80
Fig. 14-SHOW 20 mm HOLE AND 50 mm SCREWED HOLE
Problem 2
A shaft is to be manufactured from 0.4 carbon steel to the sizes shown in
fig15. The 30mm and the 25mm dia are to be ground. Prepare a production
detail drawing for the shaft.
60 DIA x 20
-0.020 +0.013
-0.053 -0.008 +0.03
30 DIA x 70 25 DIA x 25
M 6 AXIAL HOLE
MATING PART TO
ENTER 10 mm DEEP
RECESS: 40 DIA x 10
Fig. 15-PREPARE A PRODUCTION DETAIL DRAWING
14
Datum Features- Functional And

Manufacturing
Functional Datum
A Datum feature – a locating or a positioning feature. It can be a face (a

surface) or the centerline of a hole. A functional datum feature is a face or a
hole in a component, which is of importance to the function of the
component in the machine. Refer Fig. 1&2.
Ø39.975
Ø39.936
15.027
15.000
Ø60
2x45°
35.3 15.00
35.0 14.85
Fig-1-TWO FUNCTIONAL
LINEAR DIMENSIONS
FACES RELATED TO DATUM FACE
FUNCTIONAL DATUM FACE
FUNCTIONAL DIMENSIONS
Fig-2-THE LINEAR FUNCTIONAL

FEATURES
15
Manufacturing datum
The manufacturing datum face for the turning operation is the right hand
end face of the component – a change of the datum face. When the datum
face is changed there is, inevitably, a reduction in tolerance in one or more
dimensions. Ref. Fig 3.
Changing the Datum
The procedures to be followed when changing the datum face are given
below,
1) Decide the required manufacturing datum face.

2) Decide the required manufacturing dimension(s) [which also involves
deciding the omitted dimension(s)].
3) Determine the tolerance for each of the (new) manufacturing dimension.
4) Set suitable limits for all, but one of the required dimensions.
5) Determine the limits for the final dimensions
Then applying this procedure for the stud:

1. The manufacturing datum face, fro both processes, is the right hand end
face.
2. Dimension L for turning; dimension G for groove depth, the 35.3~35.0
dimension omitted. Fig.3
3. Tolerance of omitted dimension is 0.3. Let tolerance (limits) for G remain
as 0.15. Therefore, tolerance L is 0.15.
4. Limits for G remain unaltered, i.e.15.00, 14.85.
5. Determine limits for L as follows.
To ensure that the limits of omitted dimension 0 are not exceeded, use is
made of a diagrammatic representation of the limits of L and G in terms of
the limits of 0 where it is seen that
a. When 0 is minimum, then L is minimum and G is maximum
b. When 0 is maximum, then L is maximum and G is minimum
Hence,
L min = 35.0 + 15.0 = 50.0 mm
and
L max = 35.3 + 14.85 = 50.15 mm
Verification that the limits of dimension 0, although now omitted from the
drawing, will not be exceeded, is shown in diagrammatic representation.
Fig.6 Shows the stud re-dimensioned to suit the requirements of the

operation sequence. The tolerance reduction that occurs when the datum
face is changed is shown in the new dimension for the turning operation,
where the tolerance of 0.15mm is half the tolerance of the omitted
dimension.
16
DIMENSION(NEW) FOR
TURNING DIAMETER
L
O G MANUFATCURING DATUM FACE
DIMENSION (RETAINED EX. LIMITS)

FOR GROOVE DEPTH
DIMENSIONS OMITTED BUT THE LIMITS

35.3 MUST BE GUARENTED BY G & L
35.0
Fig-3-THE REQUIRED DATUM FACE

AND DIMENSIONS
L MAXIMUM
L MINIMUM
O MINIMUM G MAXIMUM
O MAXIMUM G MINIMUM
TOLERANCE:0.15
Fig. 4- ENSURING THE OMITTED

DIMENSION/LIMITS ARE NOT EXCEEDED
17
RESULTING SIZE
=30.0mm 50
15.00 ABOVE C :
A COMPONENT TURNED
TO LOW LIMIT-
GROOVE CUT TO HIGH
LIMIT
BELOW C :
A COMPONENT TURNED
TO HIGH LIMIT-
GROOVE CUT TO LOW
14.85 LIMIT
RESULTING SIZE
=30.3mm 50.15
Fig. 5-OMITTED DIMENSIONS/LIMITS ARE ENSURED
60
50.15
50.00
Ø39.975
39.936
15.027
15.000
Ø60
2x45°
15.00
14.85
STUD-MS- ALL OVER
Fig. 6-STUD RE-DIMENSIONED TO SUIT MANUFACTURING SEQUENCE
18
For the pin component two machining processes are

involved:
a. Turning, i.e. turn, face and chamfer
b. Drilling, i.e. drill and ream
and the SEQUENCE of the processes is turning first, drilling second.
The overall length of the pin is functionally important and therefore a direct,
small tolerance dimension is required for the turning operation. In showing
this small tolerance overall length dimension, one of the increment lengths
will have to be omitted from the drawing and the dimension to be omitted is
determined by the tolerance consideration, namely to obtain the largest
possible tolerance.
Because it is the tolerance of the omitted dimension that determines the

tolerance for the shown dimensions, then, when possible, it is the dimension
with the largest tolerance that is omitted. Therefore, for the pin, the
25.09~24.91 dimension is the omitted dimension. Fig.7
DIMENSION (NEW LIMITS)

FOR TURNING OPERATION
MANUFACTURING L
DATUM FACE
DIMENSION
RETAINED-NEW DIMENSION OMITTED-
25.09
LIMITS) FOR BUT LIMITS 24.91
DRILLING OPERATION R O MUST BE GUARANTEED
BY L AND R
Fig. 7-THE REQUIRED DATUM FACE AND DIMENSIONS
The tolerance for L and R is 25.09 minus 24.91 equals 0.18, and if the
tolerance is equally distributed then
Tolerance for L and R = 0.09 each
Set suitable, new limits for R:
Let R : 25.06~24.97
To determine the limits for L: from the diagrammatic representation of the
three dimensions – in terms of the omitted dimension 0 it is seen that :
a. When 0 is minimum, then L is minimum and R is maximum
b. When 0 is maximum, then L is maximum and R is minimum
There fore
L min = 24.91 + 25.06 = 49.97 mm
and
L max = 25.09 + 24.97 = 50.03 mm
Fig.8 Shows the pin re-dimensioned for manufacture; tolerance reduction
has resulted.
19
Component Design-Machining
Consideration
Two aspects of designing.
1) Designing for function.
2) Designing for production.
Twist Drills – Standard length.
Standard twist drill – the jobber series, the stub series, the Morse taper
shank series and the long series.
The machining consideration for twist drills is length – the length of the
flutes, the need to ensure that the length of a standard drill is sufficient for
an intended drilling operation. The production detail drawing of the shaft is
shown in Fig. 1.
20
600
2 - 8.5 DIA HOLES ON
17 277 24 60 PCD
24 250
Ø35.015
20+2 34.990
+2
14
2 - M8 HOLES
CHAMFER: 1.5x45°
Ø25.013
Ø30 Ø80 Ø30 24.992
Ø25.015
24.992
FIG. 1-PRODUCTION DETAIL DRAWING FOR SHAFT
End Milling Cutters
The shaft in Fig. 2 has two 8 mm keyways in the flange face for two keys,
which are to be a tight fit. Normally, an end milling cutter or a key-seating
cutter produces such a key but because the cutter holder cannot approach
nearer than the end of the shaft, a cutter length of at least 180 mm would be
needed. An 8 mm diameter of such a length would be completely
impracticable, and therefore an alternative machining process is required,
namely shaping or slotting. For such reciprocating cutting tool action a run
out for the tool is required. To enable the keyways to be machined, run-out
holes are drilled. The holes are drilled from the left hand side of the shaft.
Ref Fig.3
21
215 8.000
4.1 15 160 7.964
25 4.0
Ø30.029
42
30.008
Ø24.980
24.947 SQ19.98
19.94
120 DIA
Ø24.980
24.947
20
CHAMFERS: 1.5x45°
42
8.000
7.964
FIG. 2-A MACHINING CONSIDERATION - CUTTING THE KEYWAYS
2 - 10mm DRILL HOLES FOR

TOOL RUN-OUT
37
37
Fig. 3-DESIGN FEATURE TO PERMIT

SHAPING/SLOTTING KEYWAYS
Drilling – Entry and Run-out

Twist drills should enter, and break through, normal to the surface to
be drilled. Drilling at an angle to a surface can use deflection of the drill,
possibly resulting in drill breakage.
A modified design where the drilling is normal to the surface is shown in Fig
4.
Equally undesirable is the required drilling process for the screw holes in
the housing is shown in fig 5.The entry of the drill is normal to the surface
but, on leaving, the drill would “break out”, if in metal-half in space. The
drill would deflect away from the metal.
For this example several design modifications are considered, in terms of
varying conditions.
22
First, an obvious feature to change is the pitch circle diameter of the

screw holes: a smaller P.C.D. to bring the holes wholly into body material-a
longer P.C.D. to position the holes solely in flange thickness. If, for good
reason, neither of these changes possible, then:
Fig. 4-MODIFIED DESIGN - DRILLING

NORMAL TO SURFACES
1) If the housing is produced from casting, with the outside surfaces

unmachined, and the body wall thickness is relatively thin, then four
local bosses may be added to obviate drill breakout. Refer Fig 6.
FLANGE DIA
PCD OF SCREW HOLES
DRILL(AND TAP)
'BREAK OUT'
BORE
BODY DIA
Fig. 5-MODIFIED DESIGN - DRILLING NORMAL
TO SURFACES
23
FOUR LOCAL BOSES THIN WALL

ON CASTING
Fig. 6-THIN WALL CASTING-

BODY EXTERIOR UNMACHINED
2) If the housing is produced from a similar casting but having a suitably

thick body wall, then four local packets may be cast to provide a clear
drill run-out. Fig. 7.
FOUR LOCAL POCKETS SUITABLY THICK WALL

IN CASTING
Fig. 7-THICK WALL CASTING -

BODY EXTERIOR UNMACHINED
3) If the housing is to be machined all over, and as a suitably thick body

wall, an undercut may be machined (in the turning process) to provide a
clear drill run-out Fig. 8.
24
MACHINED UNDERCUT IF WALL

IS SUITABLY THICK
Fig. 8-COMPONENT MACHINED

ALL OVER-THICK WALL
4) If the housing is machined all over but as a thin body wall ( too thin for
under cutting ) , then a circular shaft material may be left. To obviate
drill break out. The component of course, requires a second turning
process to remove the surplus material. Fig. 9.
MACHINED TO CHAIN-DOTTED
COUNTER IN TURNING
PROCESS-SURPLUS REMOVED THIN WALL
AFTER DRILLING/TAPPING
Fig. 9-COMPONENT MACHINED

ALL OVER-THIN WALL
Keyways-Sunken and Run-out

Sunken keyways in a shaft can be machined only with a key seating or slot-
drilling cutter. These cutters have two or sometimes three teeth. An open-
end keyway, at the end of a shaft, can be machined by an end-milling cutter,
which can have six or more teeth. The rate of metal removal for these cutters
is in terms of the number of cutter teeth. More teeth allow a faster
machining time, and, therefore when possible, open-end key ways should be
25
shown. The rigid hand keyway in Fig 10 can be altered to open end –the key
will be retained by the axial clamping washer and screw (Fig11)
SUNKEN KEYWAYS
asss
GEAR: AXIALLY EECURED

BY SCREW/WASHER
Fig. 10-SUNKEN KEYWAYS - MACHINING RESTRICTION

TO KEYSEATING CUTTER
END KEYWAY: CHANGED TO OPEN

END - PERMITS MACHINING BY
KETSEATING OR END MILLING
Fig. 11-OPEN END KEYWAY - PERMITS END MILLING

(REDUCING MACHINING TIME)
Dowels and Dowelling Procedure

Dowels are used to obtain location between two or more mating parts.
Usually the requirement is to obtain a precise location between the mating
parts although sometimes dowels are used for an approximate location. The
machining procedure for each of these requirements can differ.
For a precise location, when the two parts must assembly together
repeatedly with a complete absence of play pr shake between them, the
26
machining, which consists of drilling and reaming, is individual to each unit

–as distinct from mass production method.
Consider a bevel gear unit, where the bevel pinion is mounted in the box.
The bevel gear is mounted in the removable cover and the teeth meshing
requirements call for a precise dowel location. The dowels will be needed, two
being the maximum ever used; sometimes one is sufficient depending upon
the particular design involved.
The dowels are made a press fit in one component –in this design, the cover
plate –and a tight push fit in the mating component. When the dowels holes
in one of the components are blind holes, as in the gear box, means of
avoiding an air lock should provided: in this design a slight flat ,either filed
or ground, along the dowel length satisfactory .A further design feature
which facilitates the segment of the dowels into the dowel holes during
Assembly is to one dowel longer, by approximately one diameter; it is much
easier to engage one tight push fit dowel than two dowels simultaneously.
To achieve the required locational precision of the dowel holes a both

components, the reaming to size must be done when both components are
screwed together and the usual practice is to drill holes 0.5 mm. Less than
final size in the upper or outer component only (in this example the holes are
drilled in the cover plate ).Then , with the upper (outer )component secured
in the working position and the previously drilled holes serving as guidance,
the same size holes are drilled into the lower component, followed by the
final reaming to size.Refer Fig-12.
CLEARANCE HOLES IN PLATE FOR

SCREW BODY DIA AND HEAD DIA
PLATE
BODY
Fig. 12-CHEESE HEAD SCREWS ACCOMODATE

TOLERANCES OF THE HOLE CENTRES
Countersunk Head Screws

The basic requirement for countersunk head screws is that the head should
fit into the countersunk hole with as great a degree of flushness as
possible… to achieve this it is necessary for the dimensions of both the head
27
of the screw and the countersunk hole to be controlled within prescribed

limits.
Such a degree of accuracy in the fitting of the screw head must surely be a
requirement for very special conditions only because, normally, the function
of a screw is to fasten two or more components surely together – the
“flushness” of the screw head is of no importance.
When two or more countersunk head screws are involved the centers of
screwed holes, along with the mating centers of the countersunk holes, must
be exactly identical, otherwise the heads of all the screws will not fit
correctly. But all dimensions must have a tolerance – no matter how small –
and therefore the hole centers cannot be guaranteed ‘EXACT’.
Because of these uncertainties the use of countersunk head screws should

be restricted to design conditions where there is a space restriction –
prohibiting the use of to other types of screws - and where only ONE screw is
involved, as in the bearing clamping washer.
An alternative design for securing the plate with the body is to use cheese-
head screws with the screw heads fitting in a counterbore (Fig.12). Precise
lateral location of the holes is not necessary because the plate holes give
clearance with the screw body and head diameters.
Reduction of Machined Areas

In the interest of economy in manufacture, component design should keep
machining time to a minimum. This designing consideration can results in a
reduction of machined areas (in the case of castings / stamping) or
reduction in the amount of small tolerance, smooth surface finish machining
.The relieving of the base by a cast step will facilitate the machining process.
The bore of the bearing bracket is machined, the full length, to H8 limits to
receive a bearing bush, which is to be a press fit in the bore .since small
tolerance machining takes longer –because of the accuracy involved –a
reduction in the length of machined surface is economically desirable. A cast
relief in the central area of the hole achieves such a reduction.
Similarly, relief in the central areas of both hole and outside diameter of the
bearing bush reduces the machining time. The relief for machining the
bearing bush from solid bar and from a casting, are shown in (a)and(b)
respectively in Fig 13.
28
d+1mm
D-1mm APPROX.
RELIEF DIAMETERS:
RELIEF DIAMETERS:
LARGE TOLERANCE -
ROUGH SURFACE FINISH
D AS CAST (UNMACHINED)
(a) MACHINED FROM SOLID BAR (b) MACHINED FROM CASTING

HOLE COREDSOLID BAR
Fig. 13- REDUCTION IN SMALL TOLERANCE-

SMOOTH SURFACE FINISH- MACHINING
Simplification by Amalgamation
Design assemblies and sub-assemblies should be critically analyzed with
regard to the possibility of achieving economy by amalgamating two or more
components into a one piece unit for example take the gear shaft assembly
as shown in Fig. 14
SHAFT MACHINED FROM A FORGING-

LEFT UNMACHINED IN THESE AREAS
. .
FIG. 14-DESIGN SIMPLIFICATION BY AMALGAMATION -

REDUCTION IN MACHINING
The central gear is keyed with the shaft, and serves, along with the two
distance pieces, to help in the axial clamping of the inner rings of the ball
bearings against the abutment face provided by the shaft flange. By an
amalgamation of the shaft with the gear and the two distance pieces, an
appreciable amount of machining is eliminated : gear bore and keyway, all
surfaces of the distance pieces, shaft key fit diameter and keyway;
29
Provision for Holding the Workpiece

For turning operations the component may be produced from lengths of
bright or black bar stock which would be held in a colletor a three jaw
chuck. Or the work piece may be mounted between centers and therefore
would require center holes at each end. Or components machined from
castings or forgings would be held in a three-jaw or a four-jaw chuck,
depending upon the shape of the component.
It is necessary to ensure that a component can be easily and accurately

located and gripped in the chuck jaws. For the turning and facing of the
170mm. Diameter the cover plate will be held in a three-jaw chuck, but it is
not possible to grip on the 200mm. Diameter and keep the chuck jaws clear
of the cutting tool.
Because of the fine sandblasting of the convex surface, which has some
importance regarding the finished appearance, it is not acceptable to add
some projection to this surface for the purpose of holding. Therefore a
suitable holding device will have to be devised in the concave area – the
inside. A design modification to provide a “grip” medium for the chuck jaws
is shown in Fig.15. a recess, incorporated in the casting, permits an
internal grip by the chuck jaws, and the cast contour provides free access for
the turning and facing tools.
RECESS TO CLEAR CHUCK

JAWCORNER
FLAT FACE TO 'SQUARE'

THE WORKPIECE
CHAMFER TO KEEP
FACING TOOL CLEAR
OF JAW
CHUCK JAW
FIG. 15- A 'CAST - IN' FEATURE TO HOLD THE WORKPIECE
Surface Grinding
The larger sizes of reciprocating table or rotary table surface grinding
machines are used for the machining of flat surfaces on a large component
or a large number of small components. The preferred type of components
30
for this process are those which lie flat and are stable without the need for
packing or supporting.
For the lever shown in Fig.16 the proposed machining processes. The lever
is manufactured in batches of 100 and is eminently suitable for a surface
grinding process – if it can be laid flat on lever surface. A circular boss
added to the 38mm diameter end of lever will achieve the requirements for
surface grinding both faces, and this added boss will be removed
automatically during the milling process.
The milling fixtures are not now required. All the components will be placed
on the table of even a medium size machine and only one component need
be checked for size during grinding. The time for machining the boss faces
is now greatly reduced.
BOSS - 14mm DIA (APPROX)
INCORPORATED IN CASTING -
DISAPPEARS DURING DRILLING OP
MACHINING ALLOWANCE
Fig. 16-DESIGN FEATURE TO EXPEDITE THE MACHINING
31
True Position theory
TRUE POSITION THEORY
Tolerances of Position
Tolerances Of Position State The Permissible Variation In The Specified Position Of
Feature In Relation To Some Other Feature Or Datum.
Tolerances of position refer to true position, concentricity and symmetry.
The course of the discussion on positional tolerancing, more detail on maximum material
condition, datums, basic dimensions, and the interrelationship of positional and form
tolerancing will be introduced.
Position tolerances involve features of size and relationships of centerlines, centre

planes, axes, etc. At least two features are required, one of which is a size feature, and
before position tolerancing is valid. Where function or interchangeability mating part
features is involved, the MMC principle may be introduced to great advantage. Perhaps
the most widely used and best example of the application of this principle is true
position.
Of true position and the maximum material condition concept provide some of major
advantages of the geometric tolerancing system.
Definition:
True position is a term used to describe the perfect (exact) location of a point, line, or
plane (normally the center) of a feature in relationship with a datum reference or other
feature.
True Position Tolerance

A true position tolerance is the total permissible variation in the location of feature about
its true position. For cylindrical features (holes and bosses) the true position tolerance is
the diameter (cylindrical) of the tolerance zone within which the axis of the feature must
lie, the centre of the tolerance zone being at the True position. For other features (slots,
tabs, etc.) The true position tolerance is the total width of the tolerance zone within
which the center plane of the feature must lie, the center plane of the zone being at the
true position.
True Position Theory

We shall now examine the true position theory as typically applied to a part for purposes
of function or interchangeability. As a means of describing this theory we shall first
compare the true position system with the bilateral or coordinate system.
Imagine a part with four holes in a pattern, which must line up with a mating part,
to accept screws, pins, rivets, etc. to accomplish assembly, or four holes in a pattern
to accept the pins, dowels, or studs of a mating part to accomplish assembly.
1
The top figure at the right shows tile part with a hole pattern dimensioned and
toleranced using a coordinate system. The bottom figure shows the same part
dimensioned using the true position system. Comparing the two approaches, we find
the following differences:
1. The derived tolerance zones for the hole centers are square in the coordinate system
and round in the true position system.
2. The hole center location tolerance in the top figure is a part of the coordinates (the
50.000mm and the 45.000mm dimensions). In the bottom figure, however, the
location tolerance is associated with the hole size dimension and is shown in the
feature control symbol at the right. The 50.000mm and 45.000mm coordinates are
retained in the true position application, but are stated as BASIC or exact values.
For this comparison, the 0.126mm square coordinate tolerance zone has been converted
to an equivalent 0.172mm true position tolerance zone. The two tolerance zones are
super- imposed on each other in the enlarged detail.
The black dots represent possible inspected centers of this hole on eight separate piece
parts. We see that if the coordinate zone is applied, only three of the eight parts are
acceptable. However, with the true position zone applied, six of the eight parts appear
immediately acceptable.
The true position diameter shaped zone can be justified by recognizing that the .007
diagonal is unlimited in orientation. Also, a cylindrical hole should normally have a
cylindrical tolerance zone.
50 ± 0.125 7 ±0.075
45
±0.125
0.126
0.126
0.126
0.328
0.178
.0063
0.126
0.063
0.126
50.000 7 ±0.075
.178 DIA
..178
.6.925 MMC SIZE
45.000
.328
7.075 HIGH
Fig-1 Comparision of Co-ordinate and True Position Systems
2
Closer analysis of the representative black dots and their position with respect to desired
exact location clearly illustrates the fallacies of the coordinate system when applied to a
part such as that illustrated.
Dot in the upper left diagonal corner of the square zone, and the dot on the left side of
the square zone are in reality at nearly the same distance from the desired hole center.
However, in terms of the square coordinate zone, the hole on the left unacceptable by a
wide margin, whereas the upper left hole is acceptable.
Then, that a hole produced off center under the coordinate system has greater
tolerance if the shift is on the diagonal, and not in the horizontal or vertical section.
Realizing that the normal function of a hole relates to its mating feature in any direction
(i.e., a hole vs. a round pin). We see that the square zone restriction seems unreasonable
and incorrect. Thus the true position tolerance zone, which recognizes and accounts for
unlimited orientation of round or cylindrical features as they relate to one another, is
more realistic and practical.
In normal applications of true position principles, the tolerance is derived of course, from
the design requirement, not from converted coordinates. (The maximum material sizes of
the features (hole and mating component) are used to determine this tolerance).
Thus the 0.178mm true position tolerance of Fig. 1 would normally be based on the MMC
size of the hole (6.025mm). As the hole size deviates from the MMC size, the position of
the hole is permitted to shift off its "true position" beyond the original tolerance zone to
the extent of that departure. The "bonus tolerance" of 0.328mm illustrates the possible
true position tolerance should the hole be produced, for example, to its high limit size of
7.075mm
Although we have considered only one hole to this point in the explanation the same
reasoning applies to all the holes in the pattern. Note that true position tolerancing is
also a non-cumulative type of control in which each hole relates to its own true position
and no error is accumulated from the other holes in the pattern.
True position tolerancing is usually applied on mating parts in cases where function and
interchangeability are the considerations. It provides greater production tolerances,
ensures design requirements, and provides the advantages of functional inspection
practices as desired.
Functional gaging techniques. Familiar to a large segment of industry through many
years. of application, are fundamentally based on the true position concept. It should be
clearly understood, however, that functional gages are not mandatory in fulfilling true
position requirements.
Functional gages are used and discussed in this text for the dual purpose of explaining
the principles involved in true position tolerancing and also to introduce the functional
gage technique as a valuable tool. A functional gage can be considered as a simulated
master mating part at its worst condition.
True position, although a positional tolerance, also includes form tolerance elements in
composite. For example, as shown in the illustration, ‘perpendicularity is invoked as part
of the control to the extent of the diameter zone, actually as a “cylindrical” zone, for the
depth of the hole. Further, the holes in the pattern are parallel to one another within the
true position tolerance. Various other elements of form are included as a part of the
composite functional control provided by true position tolerancing.
3
True Position System
The example at the right further clarifies the true position theory; two of the holes on the
part shown in the previous examples are enlarged to illustrate the actual effect of feature
size variation on the positional location of the features.
Fig.2 shows the two 7 ±0.075 mm holes at a MMC size (or the low limit of their size
tolerance) of 6.925 mm and with their centers perfectly located in the 0.178mm diameter
true position tolerance zone. The drawing illustrates the mating part situation
represented by a functional or' fixed pin. The gage pins are shown undersize an amount
equal to the positional tolerance of 0.178; i.e. at 6.725mm diameter. This represents the
maximum permissible offset of the holes within their stated positional tolerance then the
hole is at MMC size of 6.925mm.
Fig.3 shows the two 6.925mm MMC holes offset in opposite directions to the maximum
permissible limits of the 0.178mm true position tolerance zone. Note that we illustrate
the worst condition: the edges of the holes are tangent to the diameters of the simulated
mating part or gage pins. The holes are within tolerance and, as can be seen, would
satisfactorily pass the simulated mating part condition as represented by the gage pins.
7 ±0.075
4 HOLES
43.75
⊕ 0.178
0.178 DIA TRUE

POSITION TOL ZONE
50.000
6.925 6.000 DIA
Fig – 2 Perfect hole location at MMC
43.75
0.178 DIA TRUE POSITION

TOL ZONE
50.000
6.925
Fig – 3 Holes offset at MMC
In Fig. 4 the 7 ±0.075mm holes have been produced to the opposite, or high limit
(minimum or least material condition) size of 7.075mm. It can now be seen that when we
retain the same offset and tangency of the holes and mating part of the gage pins as
shown in Fig - 3, the produced centers of the holes are allowed to shift beyond the
4
original 0.178mm tolerance zone to a resulting .328 diameter tolerance zone still
providing an acceptable situation.
43.75
0.178
0.328 DIA TRUE POSITION
TOL ZONE
0.15
50.000 0.328
7.075
Fig -4 Holes offset at Hole high limit size ( Min material condition )
The foregoing illustrates the interrelationship of size and position tolerances, which is
utilized in true position dimensioning and tolerancing.
Although in this example we have used only two of the holes, the same reasoning applies
to all the holes in the pattern; similarly, each individual hole could be offset within its
tolerance zone in any direction around 360° and provide an acceptable situation.
It should be noted that a functional or fixed pin gage such as the one used here to
explain the true position theory could be used only to check the positional location of the
holes. Positional tolerance can be added as the holes increase in size or depart from
MMC size within their size tolerance range. Hole size tolerance, however must be held
within the tolerances specified on the drawing and must be checked individually and
separately from the positional check.
The "diameter" or cylindrical tolerance zone callout has been used in this illustration and
in all others in this text. Note, however, that the "radius” callout may also be used. See
GENERAL RULES section, "Shape of Tolerance Zone for Positional or Form Tolerance.”
Merits of True Position:

1. It represents logical tolerance zone.
2. By true position tolerancing, cumulative errors of dimensions eliminated.
3. By true position measurements not only the dimensional offsets, the tilt or angular
error, which can be allowed, are measured.
Tolerance diameter
tan θ = -------------------------------------
Width of the plate.
4. The bonus tolerance can also be predicted in true position tolerancing. Bonus
tolerance is the extra tolerance, which is available due to variation the material condition
of the hole.
5
Mating Parts – Floating Fastener
True position tolerancing techniques are most effective and appropriate in mating Part
situations. The illustrations on page 8, in addition to demonstrating the calculations
required, also emphasize the importance of decisions at the design stage to recognize and
initiate the true position principles.
The mating parts shown in the illustration on page 8 are to be interchangeable. Thus the
calculation of their true position tolerances should be based on the two parts and their
interface with the fastener in terms of MMC sizes.
The two parts are to be assembled with four screws. The holes in the two parts are to line
up sufficiently to pass the four screws at assembly. Since the four screws (“fasteners”)
are separate components, they are considered to have some “float” with respect to one
another. The colloquial term, “floating fastener” application, has been popularly used to
describe this situation.
The calculations are shown in the upper right corner of the illustration on page 8. Also,
note that, in this case, the same basic dimensions and true position tolerances are used
on both parts. They are, of course, separate parts and are on separate drawings.
The true position tolerance calculations are based on the MMC sizes of the holes and the
screws. The maximum material basis then sets the stage for maximum producibility,
interchangeability, functional gaging (if desired), etc., at production. As seen from the
illustration, part acceptance tolerances will increase as the hole sizes in the parts are
actually produced and vary in size as a departure form MMC. From the 0.4mm diameter
tolerance calculated, the tolerance may increase to as much as .0.55mm dependent upon
the actually produced hole size. It should be noted that clearance between the mating
features (in this case hole and screw) is the criterion for establishing the true position
tolerances.
Simultaneously with these production advantages, the design is protected since it has
been based upon the realities of the hole and screw sizes as they interrelate at assembly
and in their function. Thus, as parts are produced, assembly is ensured, and the design
function is carried out specifically as planned.
A possible function gage is also shown in the illustration on page 8. The 4.750mm gage
pin diameters are determined by the MMC size of the hole, 5.15.mm, minus the stated
true position tolerance of 0.400mm. In our example, the same functional gage can be
used both parts. Functional gages are, of course, not required with true position
application, but they do, however, provide an effective method of evaluation where
desired.
Referring to the true position tolerance calculations, if more than two parts are
assembled in a floating fastener application, we must determine the true position
tolerance to ensure that any two parts and the fastener will mate properly. Calculate
each part to mate with the fastener using the illustrated formula and MMC sizes.
The calculation on the illustrated parts on page 8 shows a balanced tolerance application
in which the total permissible true position tolerance of the holes on the two parts is the
same, i.e., 0.400mm. The total true position tolerances can, however, the distributed as
desired: for example, if one part specifies only 0.250mm of the 0.4mm tolerance available
6
for each part, 0.15mm may be added to the specified true position tolerance of the
mating part.
Distribution of the tolerance may, if desired, be adjusted as shown as shown below:
(If specified on one part) 0.250DIA 0.250 DIA (May be

specified
on
mating
part)
Originally calculated tol 0.400 0.400

If tol assigned as above (-) 0.250 (+) 0.150
____
Tol unused 0.150 0.550
The clearance holes on these parts are all specified as same size. Where they are
specified different sizes, the total true position tolerance is equal to the average diametral
clearance between mating holes and fasteners. As example is shown below:
MMC hole 5.000

MMC fastener 4.750 0.250 + 0.4
____ ___________ = 0.325
0.250 2
Other part
MMC hole 5.150
MMC fastener 4.750 0.325 DIA
____
0.400 (specified on both parts)
Or, each part can be calculated separately for the allowable positional displacement
based on the difference between the MMC of the hole and fastener. If one part in our
example had 5.075 ±0.075mm – 4 holes specified, the method below would be used:
MMC hole 5.000

MMC fastener 4.750 0.250 DIA
____
0.250
Other part
MMC hole 5.150
MMC fastener 4.750
____ 0.400 DIA
0.400
The true position tolerance calculation method illustrated assumes the possibility of a
zero interference-zero clearance condition of the mating part features at extreme
tolerance limits. Additional compensation of the calculated tolerance values should be
considered as necessary relative to the particular application.
7
Formulas used as a basis for the true position floating fastener calculation are:
To calculate true position tolerance with fastener and hole size known:
T=H-F
Where T = tolerance, H = MMC hole, and F = MMC fastener
Where the hole size or fastener size is to be derived from an established true position
tolerance, the formula is altered to:
H=T +F
F=H -T
5.225±0.075
4 HOLES CALCULATION
37.500 MMC of holes - 5.150
⊕ 0.4 MMC of fastener
M5 screw 4.750 Max (-) -4.750
–––––––
31.250 Positional TOL - 0.400
FOR ALL HOLES ON
BOTH PARTS
37.5 5.225 ±0.0175

⊕ 0.4 Dia PART ACCEPTANCE TOL
PART HOLES AT LOW
LIMIT 5.150mm(MMC)
POSITIONAL TOL 0.400 DIA
31.250
PART HOLES AT HIGH
LIMIT 5.3
4.750 5.150 MMC

4 PLACES 0.400 TOL
37.500 4.750 PIN
31.250
Fig- 5 Mating Parts - Floating Fastener
8
Mating Parts- Fixed Fastener
When one of two mating parts has “fixed fastener”, such as the threaded studs in this
example, the “fixed fastener” method is used in calculating true position tolerances.
The term “fixed fastener” is a colloquialism popularly used to describe this application.
Both the term and the technique are applied to numerous other manufacturing
situations such as locating dowels and holes, tapped holes, etc.
The advantages of the MMC principle as described in the foregoing “floating fastener”
application also apply here. However, with a “fixed fastener” application, the difference
between the MMC sizes of mating features must be divided between the two features,
since the two mating features must share the total true position tolerance. In this
example, the two mating features (actually four of each in each pattern) are the studs
and the clearance holes. The studs must fit through the holes at assembly.
Again, we see that the clearance of the mating features as they relate to each other at
assembly determines the true position tolerances. When one feature is to be assembled
within another on the basis of the MMC sizes and “worst” condition of assembly, the
clearance, or total tolerance, must be divided for assignment to each of the mating part
features. In this case, the derived 0.4 mm was divided equally, with 0.2 mm diameter
true position tolerance assigned to each mating part feature (stud and hole). The total
tolerance of 0.4 mm can be distributed to the two parts as desired, so long as the total is
0.4 mm (e.g., 0.250+0.150, 0.275 +0.125, etc). This decision is made at the design stage,
however, and must be fixed on the drawing before release to production.
Application of the MMC principle to situation of this type guarantees functional

interchangeability, design integrity, maximum production tolerance, functional gaging (if
desired), and uniform understanding of the requirements.
As the part features of both parts are produced, any departure in size from MMC will
increase the calculated true position by an amount equal to that departure. Thus, for
example, the true position tolerance of the upper part could possibly increase up to 0.35
mm, and that of the lower part up to 0.325 mm dependent upon the amount of departure
from their MMC sizes. However, parts must actually be produced and sizes established
before the amount of increase in tolerance can be determined.
Functional gages (shown below each part in the illustration) can be used for checking
and, although their use is not a must, they provide a very effective method of evaluation
if desired. Note that the functional gages resemble, the mating parts; as a matter of fact,
functional gages simulate mating parts at their worst condition.
The functional gage pins of the upper part are determined by the MMC hole size minus
the stated true position tolerance. Gage tolerances are not shown, although they may be
imagined to be on the order of (4.953 + 0.005 - .000) mm for pin size, and ±0.005 mm on
between pin locations. Local gage practices would prevail.
The functional gage on the lower part of the illustration contains holes instead of pins.
The gage hole sizes are determined by the MMC (O.D.) size of the 10-32 pins plus the
stated true position tolerance. The tolerances are similar to those of the above pin gage.
9
Tolerances on the order of (4.948+. 0002 - .005) mm for hole size, and ±0.005 mm
between holes could be applied, depending on local gage practices.
It should be noted that the term MAJOR DIA is used beneath the true position callow on
the lower part. In the absence of a this special notation of exception, ANSI Y14.5 Rule 4
would have invoked the tolerance on the basis of the pitch diameter of the threads. The
major diameter (or O.D.) of the thread was the desired criterion in this example.
5.225 ±0.075 –4 HOLES

37.5
⊕ 0.2 DIA CALCULATIONS
MMC OF HOLE = 5.15
MMC OF STUD =(-) 4.75
0.40
31.250
POSITIONAL TOL = 0.2
FOR ALL HOLES
& STUDS
5.15MMC
4.95 ) 0.2 TOL PART ACCEPTANCE TOL
37.5 4.95PIN PART HOLES AT LOW
LIMIT 5.150mm(MMC)
POSITIONAL TOL= 0.2 DIA
31.250 PART HOLES AT HIGH

LIMIT 5.3
37.5
0.2 DIA
31.250
PART ACCEPTANCE TOL

4.75MMC PART STUDS AT HIGH
4.950 +)0.2TOL LIMIT 4.750mm(MMC)
37.500
4.95PIN POSITIONAL TOL= 0.2 DIA
PART STUDS AT LOW

LIMIT 4.625 EST
31.250 POSITIONAL TOL 0.325 DIA
Fig- 6 Mating Parts- Fixed Fastener
The calculations on these parts illustrate a balanced tolerance application in which the
total permissible true position tolerance of the two parts is equally divided, for example,
0.200mm on each part. The total true position tolerance can, however, be distributed as
desired, as discussed earlier.
10
If more than two parts are assembled in a fixed fastener application, each part containing
clearance holes must be calculated to mate with the part with the fixed features.
The true position tolerance calculation method illustrated assumes the possibility of a
zero interference – zero clearance condition of the mating part features at extreme
tolerance limits. Additional compensation of the calculated tolerance values should be
considered as necessary relative to the particular application.
Formulas used as a basis for the true position fixed fastener (or locator) calculations are:
H–F MMC hole = H

T = _____ MMC fastener = F
2 (Or pin, dowel, etc)
Tolerance = T
Where the hole size or fastener (or pin, dowel, etc) size is to be derived from an
established tolerance, the formula is altered to:
H = F + 2T
F = H - 2T
Mating Parts – Fixed Fastener

This illustration shows true position tolerancing applied to two mating parts with a
round hole pattern. The same reasoning applies here as in the preceding examples except
that the basic dimensions are angular (45° angles, 8 places) and a diameter (the 37.500
mm diameter).
These two parts again are of the fixed fastening type, the studs of the lower part being
the fixed elements. To determine the positional tolerances for each part, the MMC of the
hole and the MMC of the stud are used to determine the total positional tolerance. This is
divided by two to give the positional tolerance value for each part. The total value may be
divided as desired, as previous described.
Note again how the positional tolerance increases as the holes in the upper part and the
studs in the lower part depart from their MMC sizes, that is, when the holes get larger
and the pins get smaller during the production process.
Functional gages are shown in the illustration for parts. Note that the pins in the upper
gage are calculated to the MMC or low limit of the holes in the part (which is 4.675 mm
in this case) minus the positional tolerance (.063 mm), resulting in the 4.612 mm gage
pin size.
The lower gage is calculated in reverse, using the MMC or high limit of the studs, 4.550
mm plus the positional tolerance, resulting in the 4.612 mm gage hole size.
These calculations illustrate a balanced tolerance application in which the total

permissible true position tolerance of the two parts is equal divided, for example, 0.063
mm on each part. The total true position tolerance can, however, be distributed as
desired, for example, 0.050 mm on one part, 0.075 mm on the other, etc., so long as it
totals the tolerance calculated (in this case 0.125 mm).
11
The true position tolerance calculation method illustrated here and in preceding
examples assumes the possibility of a zero interference – zero clearance condition of the
mating part features at extreme tolerance limits. Additional compensation of the
calculated tolerance value should be considered as necessary relative to the particular
application.
CALCULATIONS
MMC OF HOLE = 4.675
4.75 ±0.075 MMC OF STUD =(-) 4.550
8 HOLES 0.125
⊕ 0.063 DIA
POSITIONAL TOL =0.063
FOR ALL HOLES
& STUDS
4.675 MMC 37.500

PART ACCEPTANCE TOL
0.063 TOL PART HOLES AT LOW
4.612 PIN LIMIT 4.675mm(MMC)
POSITIONALTOL=.0625DIA
PART HOLES AT HIGH
LIMIT 4.825
POSITIONAL TOL 2.125DIA
37.500
4.50 ±0.005
8 PLACES PART ACCEPTANCE TOL
⊕ 0.063 DIA PART STUDS AT HIGH
LIMIT 4.550mm(MMC)
POSITIONAL TOL= .063DIA
PART STUDS AT LOW

4.530 MMC 37.500 LIMIT 4.450
0.063 TOL POSITIONAL TOL 0.163 DIA
4.613HOLE
37.500
Fig- 7 Mating Parts- Fixed Fastener
12
Example : 1
Using the fixed fastener formula calculate the position tolerance
Values for the clearance holes & the tapped holes.
13
Example: 2
` Using the floating fastener formula, calculate the position tolerance

values for the clearance holes in both the parts.
(Assume the MS fasteners to be perfect)
14
MMC With Respect To A Center Plane And Related

To A Datum Feature
True position relationships are normally associate with round holes or features and
establish a cylindrical tolerance zone around theoretically exact axes. The cylindrical
tolerance zone is not applicable to slots, dial markings, tabs, etc., for which
noncumulative tolerance and MMC aspects of true position may also be desired.
Such features may be allowed to vary with respect to a true position center plane rather
than an axis. The true position tolerance zone is a total wide zone with one half the total
tolerance assigned to each side of the true position center plane.
In this example, we present two mating parts in order to illustrate the calculations and
relationships. The top part could be either a thin metal part or a type of drive shaft with
three tab projections. The mating part below might be a sleeve or collar, which must fit
the upper part. The side views are not shown.
Both parts have corresponding datum reference diameters, which are related, in turn, to
the true position features of each part. The datums are identified by the letter A in the
datum identification symbol. The true position feature control symbol for the top part
(Example 3) reads, “these features (3 tabs) must be at true position with respect to
datum A (at MMC) with in 0.150 mm total wide zone with the feature at MMC size.”
Although the symbol used is the same as that for cylindrical zones, there is no confusion,
since the drawing always clearly shows the feature being dimensioned.
The feature control symbol for the bottom part (Example 4) reads, “these features (3
slots) must be at true position with respect to datum A (at MMC) within 0.150 mm total
wide zone with the feature at MMC size.”
Note that the tolerance zones are not cylindrical but are total widths (parallelepiped)
equally disposed about, and parallel to, the center plane as established by the 120 °
basic angles and extending the full depth and length of the produced feature.
The width of the tolerance zone is always total and is equally disposed on either side of
the basic true position center plane. In this case, the total wide zone is 0.150 mm, with
0.075 mm each side of the basic center plane.
The calculations of the true position tolerance zone for mating parts of this type are
shown at the upper right. They are based on the same reasoning as previously discussed
for “fixed fasteners” using cylindrical features. The tolerance zone in this case are,
however, not cylindrical.
As in any true position calculation, the MMC sizes of the two mating features are used to
determine their individual positional tolerances. The MMC width of the tab, 6.250 mm, is
subtracted from the MMC width of the slot, 6.550 mm, giving a combined clearance of
0.3 mm. This is divided by the fixed factor 2 to give the total tolerance zone for each
mating part feature at MMC. As previously discussed on round feature true position
calculations, the total combined tolerance (in this case 0.3 mm) may be divided as
desired in other combinations, (e.g., 0.2 and 0.1, 0.175 and 0.125 mm etc).
15
In example 3, the notation “Part Acceptance Tolerance” indicates that the total positional
tolerance zone increases from 0.150 to 0.275 mm the actually produced tab width
reduces from MMC of 6.250 to 6.125 mm.
The same is true for Example 4. The slot width positional tolerance increases to 0.275
mm as the slot is produced to the high limit size of 6.675 mm simulated gages are also
shown.
Example-3
CALCULATIONS
MMC WIDTH OF SLOT =6.55
20 ±0.125 MMC WIDTH OF TAB =6.25
25 ±0.075 =0.30
TOTAL WIDE TOL ZONE =0.150
FOR SLOTS 8 TABS AT MMC
+ 0.000 (0.075 EACH SIDE OF BASIC
6.25 - 0.125
TRUE POSITION CENTER
PLANE)
0.150 TOTAL
37.500
+0.000 PART ACCEPTANCE TOL
-0.075 TAB WIDTH AT MMC
0.150 6.250(HIGH LIMIT)
0.075 TOTAL WIDE ZONE
TAB WIDTH AT LOW LIMIT
0.075
6.125
6.400 6.250 MMC POSITIONAL TOL =0.275
PART TOL TOTAL WIDE ZONE
+0.150
POSITIONAL
37.500 TOL
6.400
Example-4
57.50 25.375± 0.075 PART ACCEPTANCE TOL

±0.125 SLOT WIDTH AT MMC
6.55 (LOW LIMIT)
6.55 +0.125 TOTAL WIDE ZONE
-0.000
SLOT WIDTH AT HIGH
0.150 TOTAL
LIMIT = 6.675
POSITONAL TOL =0.275
37.625 +0.075 TOTAL WIDE ZONE
-0.000 0.150
37.625 0.075
0.075
6.400
16
MMC – Non Cylindrical Part Features
This illustration shows a pair of mating parts involving non-cylindrical features. Part 1 is
to fit with in the opening of part 2.
Part 1 has a width of (25 + .000), - 0.150 mm which is to fit within the (25.125 + 0.075), -
.000 mm opening width on part 2. Simultaneously, the (12.500 + 0.100), -.000 mm slot
on part 1 is to fit onto the (12.375 + .000 -0.075) mm projection on part 2.
The (12.500 + 0.100), -.000 mm slot on part 1 has a true position feature control symbol
which states, “this feature is to be at true position with respect to datum A when datum
A is at MMC size, within 0.125 mm MMC size of the feature”. The width of the part is
established as datum A.
Part 2 has an identical true position feature control symbol on the (12.375 + .000), -
0.075 mm dimension, and the (25.125 + 0.075), - .000 mm opening is established as
datum A.
Figure 8 (a) shows the relationship of these two parts as they would appear if both parts
were produced perfectly at the feature MMC sizes. Note the common center or median
planes established on both parts. The parts are assembled in Fig. 8 (b).
Figure 9 (a) illustrates the slot feature on part 1 offset the maximum permissible amount
of 0.063 mm at the extreme of the 0.126 mm total tolerance zone when the part is at
MMC size. Also, the mating projection of part 2 (b) is shown offset in the opposite
direction the maximum permissible amount of 0.063 mm at the extreme of the 0.126 mm
total tolerance zone when the part is at MMC size.
Figure 9 (b) shows the assembly of the two parts. They still assemble satisfactorily.
Figure 9 also emphasizes that the 0.126 mm total tolerance zone, as stated in the symbol
boxes on parts 1 and 2, applies at the MMC size of the features and is the maximum
tolerance permissible under this condition.
Figure 10 illustrates the increase in the permissible total true position tolerance zone as
the feature sizes depart from MMC to the opposite extreme of MINIMUM (or LEAST)
MATERIAL CONDITION. For part 1 (Fig .10a), with the slot at its high limit size of
12.600 mm and the datum width at its low limit of 24.850 mm, the permissible true
position tolerance zone becomes 0.376 mm total or a 0.188 mm offset off the median
plane of the slot with respect to the datum median plane.
For part 2 in Fig. 10 (b), with the projection at its low limit of 12.300 mm and the datum
opening width at its high limit of 25.200 mm, the true position tolerance zone becomes
0.276 mm total or a 0.138 mm offset off the median plane of the projection with respect
to the datum median plane.
17
(a) (b)
(a)
(b)
Fig-8 Perfect true position at MMC
(a)
Fig –9 True Position Tol zone at MMC (b)
(b)
Fig –10 True Position Tolerance Zone at Min. Material Condition
18
Figure 10 (b) shows the assembly of the two parts under these conditions. They still
assemble satisfactorily with considerably more clearance as a result of the feature size
variation to size limits opposite MMC, or their MINIMUM MATERIAL CONDITION.
From this illustration it is evident that true position MMC applications permit greater
tolerance and ensure a satisfactory fit of mating parts. For example, the possible
tolerance on part 1 has been increased from 0.125 to 0.375 mm, and on part 2 from
0.125 to 0.275 mm. The actual tolerance to be realized is, of course, dependent upon the
sizes to which the concerned features are actually produced.
MMC Calculations to Determine Tolerance

In this example we present the calculated required to determine the true position
tolerance for the mating parts shown in the previous example.
Since one part is to fit within the other, the first step is to determine the clearance of the
features and which feature is to receive the true position tolerance. In this case, it
seemed more functional to control the true position of the slot in part 1 and the true
position of the projection in part 2. The clearance of the two mating part features is to be
0.125 mm minimum. The projection on part 2 is 12.375 mm and the slot on part 1 is
larger at 12.500 mm. these are MMC sizes, or the largest projection possible on part 2
and the smallest slot possible on part 1.
The width features on both parts are also given 0.125 mm clearance at MMC size of the
features and are selected as the datum features for each part.
Under the subheading, TRUE POSITION TOLERANCE CALCULATIONS, the 12.375 mm

MMC size of the projection o part 2 is subtracted from the 12.500 mm MMC size of the
slot on part 1. This results in a difference of 12.500 mm. Next the 25 mm MMC datum
projection feature of part 1 is subtracted from the 25.125 mm MMC datum slot of part 2,
resulting in a difference of .125 mm.
The .125 mm result of the first calculation and the 0.125 mm result of the second
calculation are added to give the 0.250 mm total combined true position tolerance for
both parts and their interrelated features. This total tolerance is then divided to establish
the required true position tolerance on each individual part. How we allocate the total
tolerance is optional, so long as it totals the calculated combined tolerance, in this case
0.250 mm
For the purposes of this example, the 0.250 mm total tolerance was divided evenly, with
0.125 mm selected as the true position tolerance for the 12.500 mm slot on part 1 and
the 12.375 mm projections on part 2. These two figures, 0.125 plus 0.125, total 0.250
mm and comply with the 0.250 mm allowable total combined true position tolerance
calculated.
Once the true position tolerance is established for both mating part features based on
their relationship to each other and to common datum axes, possible extra true position
tolerance for each part may be determined as shown in the lower half of the figure.
19
To do this calculation, we must first determine the relationship of one mating part
feature to another and, then, we must consider each of these part features individually
with respect to the size variations, which could occur within their size tolerances. As has
been shown, the size of features affects their location tolerances, and it is this fact that
makes true position tolerancing advantages, since it permits economical product with
greater tolerances and ensures assembly of the mating parts.
On part 1, the permissible tolerance may be increased from 0.125 mm up to 0.375 mm
and on part 2 the permissible tolerance may be increased from 0.125 up to 0.275 mm.
The actual tolerance permissible in each case is, of course, dependent on the actual sizes
of the features as produced.
This method of calculating true position tolerance assumes the possibility of zero
clearance – zero interface fits of mating part features if all at extreme tolerance limits. It
also assumes parallel orientation or permissible float of one part to the other at
assembly. Additional compensation of the calculated tolerance values should be
considered as necessary for any particular application or where additional datum
orientation may restrict this float.
+0.075
+ 0.000
25.125-0.000
25.00 -0.150
12.5 +0.100
-0.000
0.125 TOTAL 12.375+0.000
-0.075
0.125 TOTAL
True Position Tolerance Calculations

MMC size slot (part 1) = 12.500 TOTAL tolerances
MMC size projection (part 2) = (-)12.375 To be divided as desired
0.125 -- -- -- 0.125 To establish required true
MMC size datum slot (part 2) = 25.125 (+)0.125 Position tolerance on each
MMC size datum projection = (-) 25.000 0.250 Individual part.“can be any
_______ Combination which total 0.250”
(part 1) 0.125
E.g., selected 0.125 mm for part 1 and 0.125 mm for part 2.
20
Extra Tolerance For Each Part

Part 1
Permissible slot true position tolerance as feature size depart from MMC:
Stated true position tolerance with slot at 12.500 MMC= ------------------------- 0.125
Plus total 12.500mm slot size tolerance ------------------------------------------ + 0.100
True position tolerance with datum width at 25 mm MMC = ------------------- 0.225
Plus total 25 mm datum width size tolerance ------------------------------- + 0.150
Total true position tolerance with slot and datum width at 0.375
Minimum material condition (largest slot, smallest datum width) =
Part 2
Permissible projection true position tolerance as feature sizes depart from MMC:
Stated true position tolerance with projection at 12.375mm MMC= -------- 0.125
Plus total 12.375 mm projection size tolerance ------------------------------- + 0.075
True position tolerance with datum opening at 25.125 mm MMC = ---------------- 0.200
Plus total 25.125mm datum slot size tolerance -------------------------------- + 0.075
Total true position tolerance with projection and datum opening 0.275
At Minimum material condition (smallest projection, largest
datum opening) = ----------------
Definitions:
Virtual Condition:
A constant boundary produced by the combined effects of the MMC Size
and geometric tolerance. It represents the worst-case condition of assembly at MMC.
Virtual Hole Size:

This is the maximum size of the gage pin, which enters the hole with true
position errors at maximum material condition.
Virtual Hole Size = Dia of the hole at MMC - True position error
Virtual Shaft Size:

This is the maximum size of the gage pin, which accepts the shaft with
true position errors at maximum material condition.
Virtual Shaft Size = Dia of the shaft at MMC - True position error
Projected Tolerance Zone:

A projected tolerance zone applies to a hole in which a pin, stud, screw etc., is to be
inserted. It controls the perpendicularity of the hole to the extent of the projection from
the hole and as it relates to the mating part clearance. The projected tolerance zone
extends above the surface of the part to the functional length of the pin, stud and screw
relative to its assembly with the mating part.
21
The projected tolerance zone method prevents the condition shown in the figure-11
where interference could possibly exist with conventional true position tolerancing. The
variation from perpendicularity of the bolt passing through the mating part is of concern.
Therefore the location and perpendicularity of the tapped hole is of the importance in so
far as it affects this extended portion of the bolt. The projected tolerance zone method
figure -12 eliminates this interference.
Fig – 11 Interference with conventional

True Position Tolerance
22
With this method, we can use conventional "fixed fastener" calculations to determine the
true position tolerance. Furthermore, specifying by this method means that gaging
techniques will simulate the mating part relationship, and the projected perpendicularity
error will, therefore, be accounted for in the tolerance and in the gaging.
Fig –12 Elimination of interference with the Projected

Tolerance Zone method
23
Zero True Position Tolerancing
Zero true position tolerancing is a technique adaptable to situation requiring functional
interchangeability and maximum tolerance advantage in the feature size, form and
position interrelationships. Where mating parts and features are simply to mate up or
“GO” and tangent contact of the mating features could occur, zero tolerancing is
technically acceptable.
However in some conditions, zero position tolerancing is not appropriate. For example,
where specific running clearance, fit or similar special mating feature conditions are
required, zero position tolerance will not, in general, be technically applicable. There are
other considerations, also, which require evaluation to determine whether or not zero
true position tolerancing is applicable. It is an optional method of stating many common
true position mating part requirements.
True position tolerances are usually established on the basis of MMC size relationships of
mating part features. The feature sizes are the criterion with which the process of
developing true position tolerances starts. The designed clearance between the mating
components is the basis for the true position tolerances, which are stated on the drawing
and applied in the manufacture. When the features specified by the true position
tolerances are actually produced, any size departure from the MMC size (ex. enlarging
the size of a hole) adds to the permissible true position tolerance.
In zero true position tolerancing the same principles apply, except that the true position
tolerancing stated is always a fixed “zero”, with all the tolerance placed on the same
dimension. This, of course, assumes that the actually produced feature will show some
deviation from the MMC, which is then added to the “zero” tolerance to give a working
position/form tolerance.
It can be stated that in either conventional or zero methods of true position tolerancing,
size, form and position variations are considered simultaneously as a composite value.
This is really the fundamental principle (along with the MMC principle) on which
functional true position tolerancing is based. The reason for this is the fact that related
mating part features perform their function in the space limitations provided, regardless
of whether that space is derived from size, form, or position variation.
In the use of zero true position tolerancing a situation arises when a produced part with
a true position hole pattern might be acceptable to a functional gauge, yet be reject able
on the basis of a low limit “GO” size violation, with the result that functionally good parts
might be scraped. As stated true position tolerance may be use only for form and position
variations.
Conventional true position tolerancing the stated size tolerance can be used for size, form
and true position variables as the feature size departs from MMC, whereas a stated true
position tolerance may be used only for form and position variables. Size tolerance
variation of the features from MMC size can thus add to the true position tolerance; but
according to standard practices unused true position variations cannot be added to size
tolerance.
The above principle is best described by referring to the CONVENTIONAL TP

APPLICATION example. The notation at the bottom of the illustration states that if the
hole is produced in perfect location, its size will be permitted to exceed the low limit
24
6.375(MMC) size down to the virtual size of 6.250. The virtual size is developed from the
MMC size of the hole, 6.375, minus the stated true position tolerance, 0.125. This is, of
course also the functional gage pin size, and represents the mating part feature at its
“worst” condition of assembly.
Further analysis of zero tolerancing, however, reveals drawbacks that tend to temper
some of its advantages.
1. For the less experienced and uninitiated user, zero tolerancing represents a
psychological barrier; the zeros may give a false impression of the “perfection”
expected.
2. The designer may feel that he is relinquishing excessively broad discretion to
the production departments, thus abdicating design responsibilities in favor of
production such as large size tolerances
In Fig.1, one of the holes illustrated in the .000 methods, example is shown with
reference to the gage pin (or simulated mating part component). It is seen that the zero
true position specification requires a perfect part (perfect form and perfect position) when
at MMC, or virtual size.
Fig.1 Zero True Position Method
25
Fig. 2 Conventional Tp Method

Since there must be some clearance between the hole and the inserted mating
component or they will not assemble, there is an immediate deviation from the perfect
“zero - clearance - zero -interference” situation and some tolerance is acquired.
Fig 2 illustrates the “conventional” method and the established true position tolerance.
The tolerance of 0.125 will permit either position or form error (or a combination of both)
to this extent when the feature is at MMC. With the same size gage pin as in Fig 1, we
see that true position tolerance of 0.125 plus the size tolerance of 0.005 is equivalent to
the 0.250 size tolerance obtained by zero method in Fig 1.
+0.000 +0.038
As an example imaging 6.250-0.038 on the locating dowels, and 6.300-0.000 on the locating
holes. Using the convention true position “fixed fasteners” method, the calculations are,
MMC size hole - 6.300
MMC size dowel - 6.250
-----------
0.050
-----------
0.025 -TP tol. On both hole and dowel
The actual true position tolerance in production on both parts would be somewhere
between 0.025 and 0.050 (increase due to MMC departure). A functional gage pin size to
check the holes between 6.275(hole MMC 6.300, minus TP 0.025 which gives 6.275).
26
Since the gage pin represents the worst condition (virtual size) of the mating dowel at
6.275, the hole size could be acceptable functionally at 6.275; yet this exceeds the stated
hole size low limit.
The dowel size, too, could be functional at 6.275 which represents the mating part hole
at the worst condition (virtual size).this exceeds the stated dowel size high limit.
However, the 0.000 TP method can provide more total tolerance and yet guarantee proper
control if stated as,
-0.000 +0.063
6.275 -0.063 (Dowel) and 6.275-0.000 (Hole)
Comparison of two methods in terms of the full tolerance range difference between the
hole and dowel which determines usable size, form, and position tolerance as shown
below
Conventional True Position Application Compared With .000 True Position

Tolerances
27
Fig. 3 True Position (Conventional) As Drawn
Table 1:
ACCEPTABLE TRUE POSITION TOLERANCES
ACTUAL FEATURE TP TOL

SIZE
6.375 0.125
6.400 0.150
6.425 0.175
4.450 0.200
6.475 0.225
6.500 0.250
Interpretation
Assuming The Gage Pin Represents The Worst Mating Condition, As Position Location
Approaches Perfect, It Is Evident That The Hole Size Could Go Down To 6.250 (0.125
Below ,6.375 Low Limit Of Hole ) And Still Pass The Gage Pins. However, Parts Below The
Low Limit Hole Size Of 6.375 Would Be Rejected On Size, But They Are Good Parts.
28
True Position
Fig.4 Zero True Position as Drawn
29
Fig.5 Interpretation
Fig.6 Virtual Size Gage
30
Table 2:
Acceptable Zero True Position Tolerances
ACTUAL TP TOL
FEATURE SIZE
6.250 0.000
6.275 0.025
6.300 0.050
6.325 0.075
6.350 0.100
6.375 0.125 MMC
6.400 0.150
6.425 0.175
6.450 0.200
6.475 0.225
6.500 0.250 LMC
Functional Gauge
Functional gauge is the one of the application of true position tolerancing, used for
checking the functional worthiness of the component. If the sizes and the relative
positions of the features are to be inspected, the most widely used method is to use the
functional gauge.
Fig.6 Functional Gauge
31
Fig 6 shows the functional gauge to be used for this purpose and the component to be
inspected. The size of the holes and their relative positions are to be checked for
acceptance.
The component is inserted over the gauge and it is passed through the gauge, the
component is accepted otherwise the component is rejected.
Datum ‘A’ is called primary datum on which the peg should be located. Datum
‘B’ is called the secondary datum which represents the position of peg from certain
datum generally from itself.
+0.0
Now the pin size is 500-5.0
For IT grade 6, the tolerance value for dia 502.1 is given by 9µm.A value of 0.125 can be
obtained in jig boring machine.
The true position value is given as

+0.250
5.025-0.000
This method is used when the inspecting quantity is large. As it is expensive to produce a
functional gauge it cannot be used for job shop type production.
Paper Layout Gauging

The paper layout gauging technique has been used for inspecting the components of job
shop type, one of the applications of true position tolerancing, by overlapping the
component diagram with that of blue print diagram. When the inspecting quantity is less
then it is best to use paper layout gauging. The term, ‘paper’ is used to indicate that the
technique has been used to inspect the components with paper.
The technique for measurement of paper layout gauging is as follows. The tolerances are
drawn in one of the transparent sheet. The tolerance zones are obtained from the blue
print diagram. The component is measured and the axis of the features is marked on
other layer. Now both these layers are overlapped. Both the tolerance zone and axis is
visible. On overlapping if the axis of the features lies within tolerance zones, then the
component is accepted, if not the paper containing component axis is moved until the
axis come within their respective tolerance zones. If the component hole centre does not
lie within their true position tolerance zones, it is said that the component is rejected
32
Fig.7 Jig Plate

The figure 7 shows the blue print drawing of jig plate. In this jig plate four holes are to be
drilled by means of a machining technique. The axis positions as well as the diameter of
the four holes of the component are measured.
Fig.8 Component Dimensions Of Jig Plate
33
The figure 8 shows the component dimensions of the first sample of the jig plate. All the
hole size lie within the limit (upper and lower limit).
Upper limit = 6.4262 mm
Lower limit = 6.2738 mm
To verify whether the hole position are within the true position tolerance zone,
PAPER LAYOUT GAUGING technique is used. The maximum material condition of the
(MMC) of the jig plate is arrived as 0.1778 mm. That is when the jig plate is having the
maximum material, the sizes of the holes are minimum. It is the maximum material
condition. In this state there is no bonus tolerance for the true position tolerance zone.
The true position tolerance zones of the holes are drawn on the layer. The positions of
these tolerance zones are the blue print drawing dimensions. The layer is named as
‘MASTER’. The centers of the holes on the component have been drawn on a different
layer by name ‘COMPONENT’. The Master layer remains stationary and the Component
layer is moved or rotated to bring the centers of the holes within their respective true
position tolerance zones. The component layer is moved in x and y directions, so that all
the four component hole centers has been brought within their respective true position
tolerance zones.
Fig.9 Hole Centres Within Tolerance Zone
Here, in this case the component dimensions are conformed with the blue print
drawing dimensions and the component is ACCEPTED.
34
Compound Assembly
Fig.10 Gauge Pin And Hole Assembly
The compound assembly in the figure shows the pin and the hole. The gage pin is
of dia A and its peg of dia B should be placed in hole of dia C and dia D. The datum face
X on A coincides with datum face Y on C. The axis passes through the centre line of pin
and hole. The datum X and Y both have the true position tolerance with tolerance T1 and
T2 respectively at MMC.
Let us consider the worst-case condition of assembly. The position of the peg is offseted
or tilted in the opposite manner in pin and hole. The worst-case analysis is done to
calculate the maximum misalignment in the assembly.
35
Fig.11 Tolerances in Hole and Pin

Peg B is offset by a distance T1/2 in positive direction and hole D is offset by a
distance T2/2 in negative direction from the central axis. By calculating the
tolerance values the maximum misalignment can be,
A1/2 + T1/2 + B/2 ≤ C/2 -T2/2 + D/2

= A + T1 + B ≤ C -T2 - D
Rearranging,
T1+T2+WC = (C-A) + (D-B) ,

Where Wc=Working clearance
Which means, the maximum misalignment is equal to the sum of
tolerances.
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Case Studies
VALUE ANALYSIS AND DESIGN RULES TO

MINIMIZE COST OF A PRODUCT
Introduction
In 1961, Miles, the founding father of value engineering(VE) defined value
analysis(VA) as”; An organized creative approach, which has for its purpose the
efficient identification of unnecessary cost, i.e., cost which provides neither
quality nor use, life, appearance or customer features”. Value engineering
should not be confused with modern or traditional cost reduction analyses; it is
more comprehensive. Based on function analysis, the process concentrates on a
detailed examination of utility, rather than on a simplistic examination of
components and component cost. The improvement of value is attained without
any sacrifice in quality, reliability or maintainability. Collateral gains are often
realized in performance, productivity, parts availability, lead time and quality.
Steps to problem-solving and value analysis

Creative problem-solving techniques are the tools an individual from mental
fixity. Up to a point, the human mind is superior to the most elaborate
computer. It can store almost infinite number of data, but regrettably, it can
only process and integrate up to about seven bits of these data simultaneously.
Because of our mind’s limitations, we find the following idea generation
checklist helpful, in applying, either the analytical or the creative approach to
problem solving, and developing greater personal creative ability;
• Establish a specific time and place for creative thinking.

• Set a deadline or quotes for creative ability.
• Write down ideas as they occur.
• Go through the elements of the problem several times.
• Take notes of observations.
• Suspend judgement-don’t jump or be led into false conclusions.
• Rearrange the elements of the problem-get a new viewpoint.
• Take a break, when you are stuck.
• Discuss your problem with others; let it incubate.
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Case Studies
Additional checklist for value analysis of

products
Eliminate/combine
Can it be eliminated entirely?
Can part of it be eliminated?
Can two parts be combined into one?
Is there duplication?
Can the number of different length, colours, and types be reduced?
Standardize/simplify
Could a standard part be used?
Would a modified, standard part work?
Does the standard contribute in cost?
Is it too complex?
Can connections be simplified?
Is it over-detailed or over-specified?
Challenge/identify
Does it do more than is required?
Does it cost, more than it is worth?
Is someone else buying it at a lower cost?
What is special about it?
Is it justified?
Can tolerances be relaxed?
Have drawings and specifications been coordinated?
Maintain/operate
Is it accessible?
Are service calls excessive?
Would you like to own it and pay for its maintenance?
Is labour inordinate to the cost of materials?
How often is it actually used?
Does it cause problems?
Have users established procedures to get around it?
Requirements/cost
Are any requirements excessive?
Can less expensive materials be used?
Is it proprietary?
Are factors of safety too high?
Are calculations always rounded off on the high side?
Would higher gauge materials work?
Could a different finish be used?
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Case Studies
Cost reduction through value engineering

case study on tap switch control assembly
This section summarizes the VE study carried out on tap switch control
Assembly used on distribution transformers, as illustrated in fig. The objectives
of study were to bring down cost, simplify design and find an alternative to high
cost material, without detriment to quality and reliability.
Fig 1. Transformer tap control switch – before value analysis

1. The problem
Transformer is one of the major products manufactured in a wide range, in
national and international markets. In order to improve market and continue to
have profit in the high inflation word, VE study was carried out on “tap switch
control assembly”, used on distribution and power transformers.
The main function of this unit is to facilitate the adjustment of turn ratio of
primary to secondary windings of the transformer. Fig 1 shows the present
design of the tap switch control assembly.
2. The objective
The objectives of this study were to bring down cost, simplify design, and to
find alternatives to high cost material, without detriment to quality and
reliability.
3. The team
As value engineering is inherently a team task, a group was formed consisting
of personnel from all disciplines, such as design, manufacturing, quality
assurance, marketing and value engineering to achieve the set goal. Team
members were given training to enable them to use value-engineering
techniques more effectively and meticulously during the study.
4. The methodology
The value engineering study was carried out in a systematic and organized
way, as per VE job plan, consisting of information phase, functional analysis
phase, functional-cost-worth analysis, creative phase, evaluation phase,
recommendations and implementation. These are now discussed.
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Case Studies
a. Information phase
In this phase, team members collected all the relevant information about the
items under study. The study of drawings, material specifications, designs, and
processes cost, procurement and quality problems, as also in-house and field
complaints were made in detail. The tap switch control assembly is a
subassembly used in all distribution and power transformers. It is often
required to change the turn ratio of primary to secondary windings of
transformers, to adjust
b. Functional analysis phase
The results of a value engineering exercise, generating good alternatives for
achieving the desired functions at optimum cost, mostly depends on how well
the functional analysis done. The functional requirement of the tap switch
assembly as a whole is analyzed and recorded as below:
Verb Noun Basic/Secondary

Facilitates Tap change Basic
Transmits Rotation Basic
Prevents Leakage Basic
Indicates Position Secondary
Facilitates Locking Secondary
Prevents Rusting Secondary
Further, the details of the functions of each component in the assembly were
analyzed and listed (annexure B).
c. Function-cost-worth analysis
In this phase, the team found the worth of each item of the subassembly. After
identifying the desired functions of each item, the team established the worth of
each item, depending on its essential function. While establishing the worth,
the definition of value, i.e., the lowest price one has to pay to reliably
accomplish a given function, was used as the basis.
The estimated worth was also based on other on other factors such as:
• State of art
• The accuracy of the available information
• Thoroughness of the functional analysis of the item
• An uncommon amount of commonsense
• The experience and subject knowledge of team members
Critically examining the present design, the following points can be made:
1. The basic function of oil-tight gland (switch boss assembly) is to prevent
oil leakage and provide support to the spindle (shaft).
2. Item 12, “switch boss”, is welded to the transformer tank. It is bigger in
size, because it has to accommodate brass plug which has lesser worth
(see fig.).
3. Item 13, “plug” is made out of brass. Its function is to position the oil
seal. The cost of the brass plug is about 40 % of the total cost of the
subassembly. When compared to its basic function, the worth of the plug
is much less.
4. The stopper provided on anodized aluminum plate is made out of brass
material to resist corrosion.
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Case Studies
5. Spindle is machined in order to get smooth surface where the oil seal
comes into contact with it.
With the above information the team members analyzed function cost worth
of each item of the subassembly and arrived at the value gap in each item,
as given in annexure C.
d. Creative phase
The poor value (hidden cost) areas, identified earlier, were subjected to
brainstorming, to find out alternative ways of accomplishing the functions.
Criticisms and evaluation are avoided in the brain storming session, to prevent
the premature death of potentially good ideas. Even wild ideas were noted down
in line with basic VF principles.
During the brain storming session, a large number of ideas were generated for
each item to perform the same function. Help was taken from experts who were
involved in similar design and process. Vendors were contacted to contribute
alternative ideas. In all, 35 ideas were generated for items of the subassembly;
these are listed in annexure D.
e. Evaluation phase
The alternative ideas suggested during the creative phase were refined and
analyzed with a view to ascertain, whether they could achieve the desired
functions. This was carried out in two stages: In the first stage, all suggestions
were studied and those, which could not be adopted because of quality,
reliability or other basic reasons, were eliminated, and the others were
shortlisted.
In the second stage, the ideas shortlisted after first evaluation were critically
studied and discussed with the concerned personnel, for feasibility and
practicability of production. Thus, the ideas were further shortlisted after first
evaluation were critically studied and discussed with the concerned personnel,
for feasibility and practicability of production. Thus, the ideas were further
shortlisted and assigned for feasibility ranking matrix.
For judging the ideas, the following designs were considered:

A function
B cost
C maintainability
D quality and reliability
E space
Each of these design criteria was given a weightage factor. This was carried out
as follows: each of the above criteria was compared with others, and depending
on their relative importance, three categories were formed, viz. major, medium,
and minor.
A score of 3,2and 1 respectively was assigned to each of the levels. The details
are as follows:
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Case Studies
Weight age analysis Points

Major difference 3
Medium difference 2
Minor differences 1
Paired comparison
B C D E SCORE
A B2 A2 A1 A3 6
B B2 B1 B3 8
C D2 C2 2
D D3 5
E 1
Example:
Note that the function A and quality D are closely connected with the weightage
factor 3.
Weightage for each criterion
A: function 6
B: cost 8
C: maintainability 2
D: quality and
reliability 5
E: space 1
The following short listed ideas for the brass for the brass plug were taken for
evaluation:
a. M.S. cover plate instead of plug to hold oil seal
b. Nylon plug
c. Internal circlip to hold oil seal
d. Handle itself as coverplate for oil seal
Feasibility ranking
A B C D E Score Rank
Design 6 8 2 5 1
ideas
A 1/6 2/16 1/2 1/5 3/3 32 IV
B 3/18 2/16 2/4 2/10 1/1 49 II
C 1/6 2/16 2/4 1/5 2/2 33 III
D 2/12 3/24 3/6 2/10 3/3 55 I
Note: 2/16 means score of 16 is achieved as 2 x 8 in row of a column of B.
Similarly, the shortlisted ideas for other components were also evaluated.
6
Case Studies
f. Recommendations
Based on the feasibility ranking of ideas, team members made the following
recommendations:
• eliminate brass plug, and its function has to be obtained by redesigning
the handle suitably.
• Standard bright bars of shorter length to be used without machining
O.D. for spindle.
• Switch boss has to be redesigned to lesser width.
• Stopper to be redesigned with internal thread and to be made out of
aluminium rod.
Fig.2 Transformer tap control switch – after value analysis
g. Implementation
Fig 2 shows the proposed design of the tap switch control assembly.
One prototype was built, as per VE team recommendation and tested for its
performance and reliability. Based on the test results, thorough discussions
were held with the concerned department, i.e., production shop, design
office, quality assurance and sales and servicing, and their comments were
obtained. Five more assemblies were made as per the proposed design and
sent for field trails. After successful field trials and ensuring that quality and
reliability were unaffected, the proposed designs were introduced in regular
production.
Benefits of value engineering
1. Cost benefits
a. Cost of subassembly before value engineering Rs 165.00
b. Cost assembly after value engineering Rs 85.00
(ref. Annexure E for cost benefit on each item) ____________
c. Savings per subassembly Rs 80.00
d. Expected annual savings Rs. 96,000.00
2.Other benefits
a. simplified design
b. reduction in assembly time
b. reduction of components and less inventory
7
Case Studies
Annexure A: Bill of material

Component No. per Bought or material Cost per Cost per
assembly made piece assembly
Handle 1 B.O Aluminium 20.00 20.00
casting
Spindle 1 B.O Steel bright 12.00 12.00
bar
Brass plug 1 B.O Brass (Hex) 67.00 67.00
Switch boss 1 B.O Mild steel 26.00 26.00
Dial plate 1 B.O Aluminium 16.25 16.25
plate
Switch 2 B.O Brass 4.00 8.00
stopper
Oil seal 1 B.O Rubber 12.00 12.00
Hardware - B.O Steel 3.75
Total 165.00
Annexure B : function analysis

Component Basic Basic Secondary Secondary
function-verb function- function-verb function-
noun noun
Handle Changes Position Prevents Rust
Provides Grip Locates Handle
Transmits Rotation
Spindle Transmits Rotation Prevents Rust
Connects Mechanical Locates Handle
Plug Positions Oil seal Provides Support
Prevents Rust
Guides Spindle
Switch boss Guides Spindle Connects Mechanical
Holes Oil seal Prevents Leakage
Holds Dial plate
Dial plate Indicates Position Facilitate Locking
Holds Stopper
Prevents Rust
Switch Restricts Over travel Prevents Rust
stopper
Oil seal Prevents Leakage Reduces Friction
Hardware Connects Parts Prevents Rust
Withstands Operative
forces
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Case Studies
Annexure C : function-cost-worth analysis

Component Present Functions Functions Functions Worth Value
cost - - (Rs) gap
-verb Noun BS
Handle 20.00 Transmits Rotation 15.00 5
Changes Position B
Provides Grip B
Spindle 12.00 Transmits Rotation B 8.00 4
Locates Handle S
Brass plug 67.00 Holds Oil seal B 6.00 61
Prevents Rust S
Switch boss 26.00 Holds Spindle B 16.00 10
Seats Oil seal B
Dial plate 16.25 Indicates Position B 15.00 1.25

Holds Stopper S
Facilitates Locking
Switch 8.00 Restricts Over travel B 2.00 6
stopper
Oil seal 12.00 Prevents Leakage B 12.00 0
Hardware 3.75 Connects Parts B 3.75 0
Prevents Rust S
Annexure D : Through brainstorming

Item Ideas generated
Handle 1. Cast iron handle
2. Extended boss in handle for positioning the oil
seal
3. M. S. fabricated handle, with plating
4. Spindle and handle one piece made of
aluminium or cast iron
5. Spindle and handle one piece made of DMC or
polymer
Spindle 1. Standard bright bar for spindle
2. Short length spindle
3. Made out of DMC
4. Aluminium rod
5. Polymer rod
6. Bakelite rod
Brass plug 1. M.S. coverplate instead of plug to hold oil seal
2. M.S. plug with plating
3. Plastic plug
4. Nylon plug
5. Internal circlip to hold oil seal
6. Die cast aluminium
7. Hard rubber plug
8. Spring loaded pressure plate
9. Handle itself as coverplate for oil seal
10. Threaded wooden plug
9
Case Studies
11. Eliminate brass plug from the assembly

12. Dial plate itself as coverplate
Switch boss 1. Lesser boss width
2. Cast iron switch boss
3. Put switch outside the oil
Dial plate 1. Fibre reinforced plastic or plastic painted plate
2. Sticker on tank wall instead of displate
3. Bakelite plate with engraving
Switch stopper 1. Mold steel plated stopper
2. Internal threaded stopper
3. Internal threaded aluminium stopper
4. Small dia. Stopper
5. Steel screws instead of special stopper
6. DMC with metal inserts
Annexure E : Benefits Of Value Engineering
Tap switch control assembly

Items Before VE – Rs. After VE – Rs.
Handle 20.00 22.00
Spindle 12.00 8.00
Brass plug 67.00 -
Switch boss 26.00 16.00
Dial plate 16.25 16.25
Switch stopper 8.00 2.00
Oil seal 12.00 12.00
Hardware 3.75 3.75
Total 165.00 80.00
Reference:
1. A.K.Chitale, R.C.Gupta, “Product design and Manufacturing”, Prentice-
Hall.
2. Phadke M.S., "Quality Engineering Using Robust Design" Prentice Hall,
Englewood Cliffs,
New Jersey, 1989.
3. Taguchi G. System of Experiment Design " Ed. Don Clausing UNIPUB /
Kraus Int. Pub. New York Vol.1 and 2, 1987.
4. J.Kroffmaier , “Optimizing engineering designs.”, McGraw-Hill book
company , 1993.
10
Zero True Position Tolerancing
Zero true position tolerancing is a technique adaptable to situation requiring
functional interchangeability and maximum tolerance advantage in the feature
size, form and position interrelationships. Where mating parts and features are
simply to mate up or “GO” and tangent contact of the mating features could
occur, zero tolerancing is technically acceptable.
However in some conditions, zero position tolerancing is not appropriate. For

example, where specific running clearance, fit or similar special mating feature
conditions are required, zero position tolerance will not, in general, be
technically applicable. There are other considerations, also, which require
evaluation to determine whether or not zero true position tolerancing is
applicable. It is an optional method of stating many common true position
mating part requirements.
True position tolerances are usually established on the basis of MMC size
relationships of mating part features. The feature sizes are the criterion with
which the process of developing true position tolerances starts. The designed
clearance between the mating components is the basis for the true position
tolerances, which are stated on the drawing and applied in the manufacture.
When the features specified by the true position tolerances are actually
produced, any size departure from the MMC size (ex. enlarging the size of a
hole) adds to the permissible true position tolerance.
In zero true position tolerancing the same principles apply, except that the true
position tolerancing stated is always a fixed “zero”, with all the tolerance placed
on the same dimension. This, of course, assumes that the actually produced
feature will show some deviation from the MMC, which is then added to the
“zero” tolerance to give a working position/form tolerance.
It can be stated that in either conventional or zero methods of true position

tolerancing, size, form and position variations are considered simultaneously as
a composite value. This is really the fundamental principle (along with the MMC
principle) on which functional true position tolerancing is based. The reason for
this is the fact that related mating part features perform their function in the
space limitations provided, regardless of whether that space is derived from
size, form, or position variation.
In the use of zero true position tolerancing a situation arises when a produced
part with a true position hole pattern might be acceptable to a functional gauge,
yet be reject able on the basis of a low limit “GO” size violation, with the result
that functionally good parts might be scraped. As stated true position tolerance
may be use only for form and position variations.
Conventional true position tolerancing the stated size tolerance can be used for
size, form and true position variables as the feature size departs from MMC,
whereas a stated true position tolerance may be used only for form and position
variables. Size tolerance variation of the features from MMC size can thus add
206
to the true position tolerance; but according to standard practices unused true
position variations cannot be added to size tolerance.
The above principle is best described by referring to the CONVENTIONAL TP

APPLICATION example. The notation at the bottom of the illustration states that
if the hole is produced in perfect location, its size will be permitted to exceed the
low limit 6.375(MMC) size down to the virtual size of 6.250. The virtual size is
developed from the MMC size of the hole, 6.375, minus the stated true position
tolerance, 0.125. This is, of course also the functional gage pin size, and
represents the mating part feature at its “worst” condition of assembly.
Further analysis of zero tolerancing, however, reveals drawbacks that tend to

temper some of its advantages.
1. For the less experienced and uninitiated user, zero tolerancing
represents a psychological barrier; the zeros may give a false
impression of the “perfection” expected.
2. The designer may feel that he is relinquishing excessively broad
discretion to the production departments, thus abdicating design
responsibilities in favor of production such as large size tolerances
In Fig.1, one of the holes illustrated in the .000 method, example is shown with
reference to the gage pin (or simulated mating part component). It is seen that
the zero true position specification requires a perfect part (perfect form and
perfect position) when at MMC, or virtual size.
Fig.1 Zero True Position Method
207
Fig. 2 Conventional Tp Method

Since there must be some clearance between the hole and the inserted mating
component or they will not assemble, there is an immediate deviation from the
perfect “zero - clearance - zero -interference” situation and some tolerance is
acquired.
Fig 2 illustrates the “conventional” method and the established true position
tolerance. The tolerance of 0.125 will permit either position or form error (or a
combination of both) to this extent when the feature is at MMC. With the same
size gage pin as in Fig 1, we see that true position tolerance of 0.125 plus the
size tolerance of 0.005 is equivalent to the 0.250 size tolerance obtained by zero
method in Fig 1.
+0.000 +0.038
As an example imaging 6.250-0.038 on the locating dowels, and 6.300-0.000 on the
locating holes. Using the convention true position “fixed fasteners” method, the
calculations are,
MMC size hole - 6.300
MMC size dowel - 6.250
-----------
0.050
-----------
0.025 -TP tol. On both hole and dowel
208
The actual true position tolerance in production on both parts would be

somewhere between 0.025 and 0.050 (increase due to MMC departure). A
functional gage pin size to check the holes between 6.275(hole MMC 6.300,
minus TP 0.025 which gives 6.275).
Since the gage pin represents the worst condition (virtual size) of the mating
dowel at 6.275, the hole size could be acceptable functionally at 6.275; yet this
exceeds the stated hole size low limit.
The dowel size, too, could be functional at 6.275 which represents the mating
part hole at the worst condition (virtual size).this exceeds the stated dowel size
high limit.
However, the 0.000 TP method can provide more total tolerance and yet
guarantee proper control if stated as,
-0.000 +0.063
6.275-0.063 (Dowel) and 6.275-0.000 (Hole)
Comparison of two methods in terms of the full tolerance range difference
between the hole and dowel which determines usable size, form, and position
tolerance as shown below
Conventional True Position Application Compared With .000 True

Position Tolerances
209
Fig. 3 True Position (Conventional) As Drawn
Table 1:
ACCEPTABLE TRUE POSITION TOLERANCES
ACTUAL FEATURE TP TOL

SIZE
6.375 0.125
6.400 0.150
6.425 0.175
4.450 0.200
6.475 0.225
6.500 0.250
Interpretation
Assuming The Gage Pin Represents The Worst Mating Condition, As Position
Location Approaches Perfect, It Is Evident That The Hole Size Could Go Down
To 6.250 (0.125 Below ,6.375 Low Limit Of Hole ) And Still Pass The Gage Pins.
However, Parts Below The Low Limit Hole Size Of 6.375 Would Be Rejected On
Size, But They Are Good Parts.
210
True Position
Fig.4 Zero True Position as Drawn
211
Fig.5 Interpretation
Fig.6 Virtual Size Gage
212
Table 2:
Acceptable Zero True Position Tolerances
ACTUAL TP TOL
FEATURE SIZE
6.250 0.000
FUNCTIONALLY
6.275 0.025 SATISFIED GAUGE
6.300 0.050 PIN SIZE ACCEPTED
6.325 0.075 BY ZERO TRUE
6.350 0.100 POSITION TOL.
6.375 0.125 MMC
6.400 0.150
6.425 0.175
6.450 0.200
6.475 0.225
6.500 0.250 LMC
Functional Gauge
Functional gauge is the one of the application of true position tolerancing, used
for checking the functional worthiness of the component. If the sizes and the
relative positions of the features are to be inspected, the most widely used
method is to use the functional gauge.
Fig.6 Functional Gauge
213
Fig 6 shows the functional gauge to be used for this purpose and the
component to be inspected. The size of the holes and their relative positions are
to be checked for acceptance.
The component is inserted over the gauge and it is passed through the gauge,
the component is accepted otherwise the component is rejected.
Datum ‘A’ is called primary datum on which the peg should be located. Datum
‘B’ is called the secondary datum which represents the position of peg from
certain datum generally from itself.
+0.0
Now the pin size is 500-5.0
For IT grade 6, the tolerance value for dia 502.1 is given by 9µm.A value of
0.125 can be obtained in jig boring machine.
The true position value is given as

+0.250
5.025-0.000
This method is used when the inspecting quantity is large. As it is expensive to

produce a functional gauge it cannot be used for job shop type production.
Paper Layout Gauging

The paper layout gauging technique has been used for inspecting the
components of job shop type, one of the applications of true position
tolerancing, by overlapping the component diagram with that of blue print
diagram. When the inspecting quantity is less then it is best to use paper layout
gauging. The term, ‘paper’ is used to indicate that the technique has been used
to inspect the components with paper.
The technique for measurement of paper layout gauging is as follows. The

tolerances are drawn in one of the transparent sheet. The tolerance zones are
obtained from the blue print diagram. The component is measured and the axis
of the features is marked on other layer. Now both these layers are overlapped.
Both the tolerance zone and axis is visible. On overlapping if the axis of the
features lies within tolerance zones, then the component is accepted, if not the
paper containing component axis is moved until the axis come within their
respective tolerance zones. If the component hole centre does not lie within
their true position tolerance zones, it is said that the component is rejected
214
Fig.7 Jig Plate

The figure 7 shows the blue print drawing of jig plate. In this jig plate four holes
are to be drilled by means of a machining technique. The axis positions as well
as the diameter of the four holes of the component are measured.
Fig.8 Component Dimensions Of Jig Plate
215
The figure 8 shows the component dimensions of the first sample of the jig
plate. All the hole size lie within the limit (upper and lower limit).
Upper limit = 6.4262 mm
Lower limit = 6.2738 mm
To verify whether the hole position are within the true position tolerance
zone, PAPER LAYOUT GAUGING technique is used. The maximum material
condition of the (MMC) of the jig plate is arrived as 0.1778 mm. That is when
the jig plate is having the maximum material, the sizes of the holes are
minimum. It is the maximum material condition. In this state there is no bonus
tolerance for the true position tolerance zone.
The true position tolerance zones of the holes are drawn on the layer. The
positions of these tolerance zones are the blue print drawing dimensions. The
layer is named as ‘MASTER’. The centers of the holes on the component have
been drawn on a different layer by name ‘COMPONENT’. The Master layer
remains stationary and the Component layer is moved or rotated to bring the
centers of the holes within their respective true position tolerance zones. The
component layer is moved in x and y directions, so that all the four component
hole centers has been brought within their respective true position tolerance
zones.
Fig.9 Hole Centres Within Tolerance Zone
Here, in this case the component dimensions are conformed with the
blue print drawing dimensions and the component is ACCEPTED.
216
Compound Assembly
Fig.10 Gauge Pin And Hole Assembly
The compound assembly in the figure shows the pin and the hole. The
gage pin is of dia A and its peg of dia B should be placed in hole of dia C and
dia D. The datum face X on A coincides with datum face Y on C. The axis
passes through the centre line of pin and hole. The datum X and Y both have
the true position tolerance with tolerance T1 and T2 respectively at MMC.
Let us consider the worst-case condition of assembly. The position of the peg is
offseted or tilted in the opposite manner in pin and hole. The worst-case
analysis is done to calculate the maximum misalignment in the assembly.
217
Fig.11 Tolerances in Hole and Pin

Peg B is offset by a distance T1/2 in positive direction and hole D is offset by a
distance T2/2 in negative direction from the central axis. By calculating the
tolerance values the maximum misalignment can be,
A1/2 + T1/2 + B/2 ≤ C/2 -T2/2 + D/2

= A + T1 + B ≤ C -T2 - D
Rearranging,
T1+T2+WC = (C-A) + (D-B) ,

Where Wc=Working clearance
Which means, the maximum misalignment is equal to the sum
of tolerances.
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Design For Manufacture And Assembly

Examples for Calculation of Axial Movement in Assembly:

gear-running fit on stud

bearing bush-press fit in gear

gear to have an axial freedom

Fig.1-Carrier wheel assembly

The attainment of assembly limits requires the allocation of appropriate limits

Fig.2 –Represents functional and non-functional dimensions

above CL:conditions for

below CL:conditions for

Fig.3- Represents assembly conditions

Stud minimum =Bush maximum+0.12=30.09+0.12=30.21 mm

drop arm to have

Fig.-4 Automobile steering box

Fig.-5 Relevant component dimensions and nominal sizes

'C' maximum=('B' minimum)-('A' maximum+0.12)

max.vertical movement min.vertical movement

Fig.6-Represents assembly conditions

Fig.7- Plate to have a specified axial movement.

The plate shown in fig .7 is to have an axial freedom of movement in between

Fig.8 –Shows the relevant dimensions.

‘P’ max=’S’min+10.15=10.00+10.15=20.15 mm (or)

The shaft assembly of the intermediate transmission unit shown in fig .9 is

Fig.9- Shaft assembly

Fig.10-Componenets nominal sizes.

= 80.00 + (2*5.00) + 0.18 =90.18 mm

F max. H maximium F max.

condition for min.

conditon for max.

Fig.11-The extreme conditions.

Secondary machining operations

In high volume machining of complex parts the need to optimize throughout is

The alternative method to avoid the secondary machining operations is

condition for min.

conditon for max.

Fig.12 Extreme conditions.

Set limits for ‘A’ in between 90.00 mm and 90.06 mm

=90.06 + 0.06 = 90.12 mm

0.15 mm. 0.15 mm.

CUTTER SET TO HIGH

F MIN. H MINIMUM F MIN.

Fig-13-To ensure a minimum cut of 0.15 mm.

By using the shims we can avoid second stage machining operations.

Benefits of Laminated shims

Examples of laminated shims

Example Problem on Shims

tolerance, namely 0.101 mm to the shim tolerance, i.e., maximum shim

drop arm to have

Fig-15 Automobile steering box

Fig-16 Relevant component dimensions and nominal sizes

Limits for B=in between 25.4 mm and 25.730 mm

Now limits for C

Variations in a dimension occur despite of keeping production conditions as

Types of Tolerance Specification:

For ease of calculation, bilateral tolerancing should be used. Unilateral tolerance

Arithmetic or Sure-Fit Law

Fig 1 Length of simple part expressed with bilateral tolerance

Fig 2 Piece parts

Assembly When Some Parts Double Back on Others

σa 2 = Σ σt 2 = 30.0222 + 30.0382 +3*0.0822