Wind

Wind and Earthquake Engineering

 WIND
• Wind is the term for air in motion.
• Wind is the flow of gases on a large scale.
• Wind is caused by differences in pressure. When a difference in pressure
exists, the air is accelerated from higher to lower pressure. Near the Earth’s
surfaces, friction causes the wind to be slower.
TERRESTIAL SPHERE

• LATITUDES – also known as Parallels, are small circles parallel to the equator. Its
measure is from 0° to 90 °.
• EQUATOR – great circle perpendicular to the meridians.
• LONGITUDE – the angle east or west from a reference meridian to another meridian
that passes through that point.
• MERIDIAN – great circle passing through the north and south poles, connecting points
of equal longitude.
• PRIME MERIDIAN – the meridian passing through Royal Observatory, Greenwich
England.
The Earth rotates 360° in 24 hrs or every hour (15°).
Therefore, every 15° involved of longitude has a time
difference of one hour. The mean radius of the Earth
is 6373 km (3959 miles), usually taken as 6400 km
(4000 miles).
GLOBAL ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION

POLAR FRONT – In meteorology, the transition region separating warmer tropical air from
colder polar air in the mid-latitudes.
TYPHOONS, HURRICANES, CYCLONES

TROPICAL CYCLONE – Generic term for a non-frontal synoptic scale low-pressure

system over tropical or sub-tropical waters with organized convection (i.e. Thunderstorm
Activity) and definite cyclonic surface wind circulation (Holland 1993).
 The Philippine Public Storm Warning Signals

PSWS No. 1 Meteorological Conditions:

A tropical cyclone will affect the locality.
Winds of 30-60 kph may be expected in
at least 36 hours or intermittent rains
may be expected within 36 hours. (When
the tropical cyclone develops very close
to the locality a shorter lead time of the
occurrence of the winds will be specified
in the warning bulletin.)
Impact of the Winds:
Twigs and branches of small trees may be broken. Some banana plants may be tilted or
downed. Some houses of very light materials (nipa and cogon) may be partially unroofed.
Unless this warning signal is upgraded during the entire existence of the tropical cyclone,
only very light or no damage at all may be sustained by the exposed communities. Rice
crop, however, may suffer significant damage when it is in its flowering stage.
Precautionary Measures:
When the tropical cyclone is strong or is intensifying and is moving closer, this
signal may be upgraded to the next higher level. The waves on coastal waters
may gradually develop and become bigger and higher.
The people are advised to listen to the latest severe weather bulletin issued by
PAGASA every six hours. In the meantime, business may be carried out as usual
except when flood occur. Disaster preparedness is activated to alert status.
PSWS No. 2

Impact of the Winds:

A tropical cyclone will affect the the
locality. Winds of greater than 60 kph
and up to 100 kph may be expected in
at least 24 hours.
Impact of the Winds:
Some coconut trees may be tilted with few others broken. Few big trees may be
uprooted. Many banana plants may be downed. Rice and corn may be adversely
affected. Large number of nipa and cogon houses may be partially or totally
unroofed. Some old galvanized iron roofings may be peeled off. In general, the
winds may bring light to moderate damage to the exposed communities.
Precautionary Measures:
The sea and coastal waters are dangerous to small sea crafts. Special attention
should be given to the latest position, the direction and speed of movement and the
intensity of the storm as it may intensify and move towards the locality. The general
public especially people traveling by sea and air are cautioned to avoid
unnecessary risks. Outdoor activities of children should be postponed. Secure
properties before the signal is upgraded. Disaster preparedness agencies /
organizations are in action to alert their communities.
PSWS No. 3
Meteorological Conditions:
A tropical cyclone will affect the locality.
Winds of greater than 100 kph up to 185
kph may be expected in at least 18 hours.

Impact of the Winds:

Many coconut trees may be broken or destroyed. Almost all banana plants may be
downed and a large number of trees may be uprooted. Rice and corn crops may suffer
heavy losses. Majority of all nipa and cogon houses may be unroofed or destroyed and
there may be consi-derable damage to structures of light to medium construction. There
may be widespread disruption of electrical power and communication services. In general,
moderate to heavy damage may be experienced, particularly in the agricultural and
industrial sectors.
Precautionary Measures:
The disturbance is dangerous to the communities threatened/affected.
The sea and coastal waters will be very dangerous to all sea crafts. Travel is very
risky especially by sea and air. People are advised to seek shelter in strong
buildings, evacuate low-lying areas and to stay away from the coasts and river
banks. Watch out for the passage of the "eye" of the typhoon indicated by a
sudden occurrence of fair weather immediately after very bad weather with very
strong winds coming generally from the north. When the "eye" of the typhoon hit
the community do not venture away from the safe shelter because after one to
two hours the worst weather will resume with the very strong winds coming from
the south. Classes in all levels should be suspended and children should stay in
the safety of strong buildings. Disaster preparedness and response
agencies/organizations are in action with appropriate response to actual
emergency.
PSWS No. 4
Meteorological Conditions:
A very intense typhoon will affect the
locality. Very strong winds of more
than 185 kph may be expected in at
least 12 hours.

Impact of the Winds:

Coconut plantation may suffer extensive damage. Many large trees may be
uprooted. Rice and corn plantation may suffer severe losses. Most residential and
institutional buildings of mixed construction may be severely damaged. Electrical
power distribution and communication services may be severely disrupted. In the
overall, damage to affected communities can be very heavy.
Precautionary Measures:
The situation is potentially very destructive to the community. All travels and
outdoor activities should be cancelled. Evacuation to safer shelters should have
been completed since it may be too late under this situation.
With PSWS No. 4, the locality is very likely to be hit directly by the eye of the
typhoon. As the eye of the typhoon approaches, the weather will continuously
worsen with the winds increasing to its strongest coming generally from the north.
Then a sudden improvement of the weather with light winds will be experienced.
This means that the eye of the typhoon is over the locality. This improved weather
may last for one to two hours depending on the diameter of the eye and the speed
of movement. As the eye moves out of the locality, the worst weather experienced
before the lull will suddenly commence. This time the very strong winds will come
generally from the south. The disaster coordinating councils concerned and other
disaster response organizations are now fully responding to emergencies and in full
readiness to immediately respond to possible calamity.
MEASUREMENT OF WIND

ANEMOMETER – or windmeter is a
device used for measuring wind speed,
and is a common weather station
instrument.

WEATHER VANE, WIND VANE OR

WEATHERCOCK – an instrument for
showing the direction of the wind. They
are typically used as an architectural
ornament to the highest point of a
building.
WIND’S VELOCITY VARIES WITH HEIGHT
Near the earth’s surface, friction causes the wind to be slower. At heights of
approximately 1200 ft (366m) above ground, the wind speed is virtually unaffected by
surface friction, and its movement is solely dependent on prevailing seasonal and local
wind effects.
During daytime:
WIND

high pressure
low pressure (air mass is densed)
(air mass is lighter)
MOTION OF WIND IS TURBULENT

For structural engineering purposes, velocity of wind can be considered as having 2

components: a mean velocity that increases with height, and a turbulent velocity that
remains the same over height.

THE SPEED OF WIND IS CONSIDERED TO VARY

WITH RETURN PERIODS
RETURN PERIOD – also known as mean recurrence interval (MRI) is a statistical
measure of how often an event of a certain size is likely to happen. The return period
has an inverse relationship with the probability that the event will be exceeded in any
one year. For example, a 10 yr wind of 67 mph has a 1/10 or 10% chance of being
exceeded in any one year and a 50 yr wind of 67 mph has a 1/50 (2%) chance of being
exceeded in any one year.
gust pressure = p’
mean pressure = p

Variation of wind velocity with time

VELOCITY
(V)
V = Average wind

TIME (t)
The general expression for probability P that a design wind speed will be exceeded at
least once during the exposed period of n years is given by: P = 1 – (1 – Pa)n

where: Pa – annual probability of being exceeded (reciprocal of the

mean recurrence interval)
n – exposure period in years

Example 1:

What is the probability that a design wind speed of 67 mph corresponding to a 50 year
return period be exceeded at least once in 100 years? In 50 years?

P = 1 – (1 – Pa)n 100 yrs: P = 1 – (1 – 0.02)100 = 87%

Pa = 1/5 = 0.02 50 yrs: P = 1 – (1 – 0.02)50 = 64%
DESIGN WIND SPEED

- The value usually reported in the United States, until the publication of the American Society
of Civil Engineers’ ASCE 7-95 standard, was the average of the velocities recorded during the
time it takes a horizontal column of air 1m long to pass a fixed point.
- The fastest mile is the highest velocity in one day.
- The annual extreme mile is the largest of daily maximum.
- Furthermore, since the annual extreme mile varies from year to year, wind pressures used
in design are based on a wind velocity having a specific mean recurrence interval. Mean
recurrence intervals of 20 and 50 years are generally used in building design, the former
interval for determining the comfort of occupants in tall buildings subject to wind storms,
and the latter for designing lateral resisting moments.

- BASIC WIND SPEED, V. Three – second gust speed at, m above the ground in Exposure C
(See Section 207.5.6.5) as determined in accordance with Section 207.5.4 and associated with
an annual probability for 0.02 being equated or exceeded. (50 years mean recurrence interval)
GUST SPEED – brief increases in wind velocity
- friction near the ground surface
VORTEX SHEDDING
- a vortex (plural: vortices) is a spinning, often turbulent flow of fluid.
- any spiral motion with closed streamlines as vortex flow.
- the motion of the fluid swirling rapidly around a centre is
called a VERTEX.

SHED - to diffuse or rotate.

WIND

movement
SIMPLIFIED TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOW OF WIND
equivalent load due to
vortices

WIND

building deflection

equivalent load due to

vortices
VORTEX SHEDDING PHENOMENON
Tacoma Narrows Bridge, Washington USA (1940)
- twisted and vibrated violently under 40 mi/hr (60 km/hr) winds
DYNAMIC NATURE OF WIND
- Unlike the mean flow, which can be considered as static, wind loads
associated with gustiness or turbulence changes rapidly and even abruptly
creating effects much larger than of the same loads were applied gradually.
- Windloads, therefore, need to be studied as if they were dynamic in nature.
STATIC – constant magnitude and density.
DYNAMICS – change in through time.
- The time it takes a building to cycle through a complete oscillation as known
as a period.
- If the wind gust reaches its maximum value and vanishes in a time much
shorter than the period of the building, its effects are dynamic.
- On the other hand, the gusts can be considered as static loads if the wind load
increases and vanishes in a time much longer than the period for the building. For
example, a wind gust that develops to its strongest intensity and decreases to zero
in 2 seconds is a dynamic load for a tall building with a period of, say, 5 to 10
seconds, but the same 2-second gust is a static load for a low-rise building with a
period of less than 2 seconds.

CLADDING PRESSURES
- The design of cladding for lateral loads is of major concern to architects and
engineers.
- Although the failure of exterior cladding resulting in broken glass maybe of less
consequence than the collapse of a structure. The expense of replacement and
hazards passed to pedestrians require careful consideration.
RESPONSE OF CONCRETE BUILDINGS TO WIND FORCES

Diaphragms receive edge loading

from the windward wind and
distribute the loads to shear walls

Wind pressure Shear walls receive

applied to the loads from the
windward wall diaphragms and
transfer the loads to
the foundation.
BUILDING CODE

National Structural Code of the Philippines, Volume I by

Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines
(ASEP)

1st Edition, 1972

2nd Edition, 1981
3rd Edition, 1987
4th Edition, 1991
5th Edition, 2001
6th Edition, 2010
OCCUPANCY – purpose for which a building is used or intended to be used.
Table 10.3.1 : Occupancy Category

I. Essential Facilities – emerging and surgery

- fire and police stations, public school buildings, hospitals,
evacuation centers
II. Hazardous Facilities – houses or structures housing toxic or explosive chemicals or
substances
III. Special Occupancy Structures – single-storey school buildings, mental hospital, jail, prison
IV. Standard Occupancy Structure – others
V. Miscellaneous Structures – private garages, car ports, sheds and fences.

Section 106.5: As – built Drawings

• As-built drawings to provide such services to document the work as usually constructed
• Adjustment of designs
 SECTION 207 – WIND LOADS

• Main-Wind-Force Resisting System (MWFRS)

- not be less than 0.5 kPa multiplied by the area of the building projected onto a vertical
plane normal to the assumed in direction
• Components and Cladding
- not be less than a net pressure of 0.5 kPa acting in either direction normal to the surface.
• Building Envelope
- cladding, roofing, exterior wall, glazing, door assemblies

Allowed Procedure:
1. Method 1: Simplified Structure
2. Method 2: Analytic Structure
WINDWARD LEEWARD
3. Method 3: Wind Tunnel Procedure SIDE SIDE

MWFRS/CNC – less than 0.5 kPa

• Building, enclosed – not comply with requirements for open or partially enclosed buildings
• Building, open – 80% open
• Building, flexible – slender buildings that have a fundamental natural frequency less than 1Hz
• Building, sample diaphragm – both windward and leeward wind loads are transmitted through
floor and roof diaphragms to the same vertical MWFRS.
 METHOD 1: SIMPLIFIED PROCEDURE
For Method 1 to be applicable:
Sec. 207.4.1.1 For MWFRS

1. Simple diaphragm building

2. Low-rise building
3. Enclosed building
4. Regular shaped building
5. Not a flexible building
6. The building does not have response characteristics making it subject to
across wind loading, vortex shedding, and other similar phenomena.
7. The building has approximately symmetrical cross-section in each
direction with roof angle, θ=45°
8. The building is exempted from torsional load cases
 METHOD 1: SIMPLIFIED PROCEDURE
For Method 1 to be applicable:
Sec. 207.4.1.2 For Components and Cladding

1. Mean roof height h ≤18m

2. Enclosed building
3. Regular shaped building
4. The building does not have response characteristics making it subject to
across wind loading, vortex shedding, and other similar phenomena.
5. The building has approximately symmetrical cross-section in each
direction with roof angle, θ=45°
 METHOD 1: SIMPLIFIED PROCEDURE
Design Procedure:
1. Basic Wind Speed, V – 3 sec gust speed at 10 m above the
ground in exposure C.
- Table 207.1 (Provinces)
- Wind directionality factor in Table 207.2

2. Importance Factor, Iw – degree of hazard or danger to human life

- Table 207.5.5
I Essential 1.15
II Hazard 1.15
III Special Occupancy 1.15
IV Standard Occupancy 1.0
V Miscellaneous 0.87
 METHOD 1: SIMPLIFIED PROCEDURE
3. Exposure – determined from natural topography,
vegetation and constructed facilities
- Section 207.5.6
B – urban and suburban areas
C – open terrain
D – flat, unobstructed areas
- near shorelines or seas
4. Height and Exposure Adjustment Coefficient (λ)
Ps = λ Kzt Iw Ps9

where: Ps – combined design wind pressure

Ps9 – simplifies design wind pressure for
Exposure B at h = 9m and Iw = 1.0
Kzt – topographic factor (Section 207.5.7)
1. Determine the wind loads for the building
described below using Method 1 of NSCP
2010.

2 Story House
Location: Sampaloc, Manila
Girts and Purlins span
between rigid frames: 6.0m
Girt spacing: 1.2m 6m
Purlins spacing: 0.6m
Roof slope: 30°

60m
40m