BRM Book by Rabbani

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NOTES FOR BRM

Created by Naveed Rabbani
CHAPTER: 1 OVERVIEW OF BUSINESS RESEARCH
DEFINITIONS OF RESEARCH
Research is the specific process of finding solutions to a problem thorough study and analysis of the
situation and data.
Research: In the broadest sense of the word, the definition of research includes any gathering of data,
information and facts for the advancement of knowledge.
Business Research is an organized, systematic, data-based, critical, objective, scientific inquiry or

investigation into a specific problem, undertaken with the purpose of finding answers or solution to it.
(Uma Sekaran)
Business Research can be described as systematic and organized effort to investigate a specific problem
encountered in the work setting, which needs a solution. (Uma Sekaran)
Business Research is the systematic process of gathering, recording and analyzing data for effective
decision making.
Business Research is the systematic investigative process employed to increase or revise current
knowledge by discovering new facts. It is divided into two general categories: 1) Basic research is inquiry
aimed at increasing scientific knowledge and 2) Applied research is effort aimed at using basic research
for solving problem or developing new processes, products or techniques. (Business Dictionary)
Research Methods: Research methods provide the knowledge and skills to solve the problems and meet
the challenges of a fast-paced decision- making environment.
TYPES OF BUSINESS RESEARCH

Research can be undertaken for two different purposes as following:
TYPES OF BUSINESS RESEARCH
Applied Research Basic Research
Applied Research: Applied research undertaken to solve a current problem faced by the manager in the
work setting. Applied research done with the intention of applying the results of the findings to solve
specific problems being experienced in the organization.
Understand the applied research with the help of various examples.

o A particular product may not be selling well and the manager might want to find the reason for this in
order to take corrective action.
o A home products company such as Procter & Gamble might conduct research for manufacturing a
detergent with improved cleaning abilities.
o Apple (Cell Phone Company) might conduct research for manufacturing a new version of I-Phone with
more innovative application and features.
Applied research can help make a decision about the following, including a variety of other business and
management decisions:
o Pricing a new product
o What to pay employees

o How many products to offer
o How many employees to hire
o Where to locate a new retail store
Applied research can be used to collect information about markets, competitors, and customers.
For example, research can help pinpoint the optimal business location and the size of markets. It can also
be used to monitor competitive actions. Customer research determines customer loyalty, customer
satisfaction, and customer preferences.
Basic Research: Basic research also known as fundamental or pure research. Basic research undertakes
mainly to increase the understanding of certain problems that commonly occur in organization. Most basic
research is conducted by professors in academic institutions (i.e. colleges and universities), by the
government, or by consulting firms. Few business organizations will engage in pure research related to
business problems.
For example: A university professor may be interested in investigating the factor that contributes the
absenteeism as a matter of mere academic interest. After gathering information on this topic from several
institutions and analyzing the data, the professor may identify factors such as inflexible work hours,
inadequate training of employees and low morale as primarily influencing absenteeism. Later on, a manager
who encounters absenteeism of employees in his organization may use this information to determine if
these factors are relevant to those particular work settings for problem solving.
THE MANAGER AND THE CONSULTANT–RESEARCHER

As a manager, you will often need to engage a consultant to study some of the more complex, time-
consuming problems that you might encounter. It is thus important to be knowledgeable about how to
locate and select a researcher, how to effectively interact with the consultant.
The Manager Researcher Relationship: During their career, it often becomes necessary for manager to
deal with consultant. When the manager is knowledgeable about research then the interactions between the
manager and researcher become more meaningful, purposeful and beneficial both to the organization and
the researcher alike.
The manager has to inform the researchers what types of information could be provided
to them and more important, which of their records would not be made available to them. Such record
might include the personal files of the employees or the ones with certain trade secrets. Managers who are
very knowledgeable about research can more easily foresee what information the researchers might require
and if certain documents containing such information cannot be made available, they can inform the
research team about this at the outset. It is vexing for researchers to discover at a late stage that the company
will not let them have certain information. If they know the constraints right from the beginning, the
researchers might be able to identify alternate ways of tackling the problems and to design the research in
such a way as to provide the needed answers.
INTERNAL CONSULTANTS/RESEARCHERS
Some organizations have their own consulting or research departments, which might be called the
management services department, the organization and methods department, R & D, or by some other
name. Such a unit within the organization would be useful in several ways and enlisting its help might be
advantageous under some circumstances, but not in others. The manager often has to decide whether to use
internal or external researchers. To reach a decision, the manager should be aware of the strengths and
weaknesses of both and weight the advantages and disadvantages of using either, based on the needs
of the solution.
Advantages of Internal Consultants/Researchers

The major advantages of internal consultants/researchers are as follows:
1) Less Time: The team would require much less time to understand the structure, environment, function
and work systems of the organization.
2) Cost Effective: The internal team might cost considerably less than an external team for the department
enlisting help in problem solving, because they will need less time to understand the system due to their
continuous involvement with various units of the organization. The internal team would be ideal for the
low complexity problems.
3) Availability after Research: They would be available for implementing their ideas and
recommendations after the research findings are accepted.
4) Understanding with Employees: The internal team would stand a better chance of being readily
acceptable by the employees in the organization.
Disadvantages of Internal Consultants/Researchers

The major disadvantages of internal consultant/researcher are as follows:
1) Limited Ideas: Certain organizational biases of the internal research team might in some instances make
the findings less objective and consequently less scientific.
2) Less Involvement: There is scope for certain powerful coalitions in the organization to influence the
internal team to conceal, distort, or misrepresent certain facts. In other words, certain vested interests could
dominate, especially in securing a sizable portion of the available scant resources.
3) Not Perceived as Experts: There is also a possibility that even the most highly qualified internal
research teams are not perceived as “experts” by the staff and management, and hence their
recommendations do not get the considerations and attention they deserve.
4) Lack of up-to-date Knowledge: In view of their long tenure as internal consultants, the internal team
may quite possibly fall into a stereotyped way of looking at the organization and its problems. This would
inhibit any fresh ideas and perspectives that might be needed to correct the problems.
EXTERNAL CONSULTANT/RESEARCHERS
The disadvantages of the internal research teams turn out to be the advantages of the external teams, and
the former’s advantages work out to be the disadvantages of the latter.
Advantages of External Consultants/Researchers: The major advantages of external

consultants/researchers are as follows:
1) Credibility: The external team may be perceived as having more credibility for people of the
organization. They possess certain evaluation research skills and knowledge that the internal evaluator may
not. They have exposure to a wider range of issues, methods and practices that would be useful to
incorporate
2) Adequate Experience: The external team can draw on a wealth of experience from having worked with
different types of organizations that have had the same or similar types of problems.
3) Up-to-date Knowledge: The external teams, especially those from established research and consulting
firms, might have more knowledge of current sophisticated problem-solving models through their periodic
training programs, which the teams within the organization may not have access to.
Disadvantages of External Consultants/Researchers: The major disadvantages of external

consultants/researchers are as follows:
1) High Cost: The cost of hiring an external research team is usually high and is the main deterrent, unless
the problems are very critical.
2) Additional Fees: The external team also charges additional fees for their assistance in the
implementation and evaluation phases.
3) Time Consuming: The external team takes considerable time to understand the organization to be
researched. They seldom get a warm welcome, nor are readily accepted by employees. Departments and
individuals likely to be affected by the research study may perceive the study team as a threat and resist
them.
CHAPTER: 2 SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
Scientific research or investigation focuses on solving problems, pursues a step-by step logical, and
rigorous (careful) method to identify the problem, gather data, analyze them and draw valid conclusions
from them. Scientific research is not based on experience and intuitions. Scientific research also helps to
state their findings with accuracy and confidence. This helps various other organizations to apply those
solutions when they encounter similar problems. The terms scientific research applies to both applied
and basic research. Applies research may or may not be generalizable to other organization due to
differences in such factors as size, nature or work, characteristics of employees and structure of the
organization.
THE HALLMARKS OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

Scientific Research focuses on solving problems and pursues a step-by-step logical, organized, and
rigorous (exact) method to identify the problems, gather data, analyze them, and draw valid conclusions.
Organizations may not always be involved in the scientific research due to various reasons like simple
problems which can solved with previous experience, time contingency, lack of knowledge, resource
constraints etc. However the scientific research performed in a rigorous and systematic way leads to
repeatable and comparable research findings. It also enables the researchers to arrive at accurate,
dependable and subjective findings.
The hallmarks or main distinguishing characteristics of scientific research may be as follow:
Purposiveness
Parsimony Rigor
Hallmarks of
Generalizability Scientific Research Testability
Objectivity Precision and Replicability

Confidence
1) Purposiveness: The manager has started the research with definite aim or purpose. The purpose of the
research should be clearly mentioned in an understandable and unambiguous manner. Failure to mention
the purpose clearly will raise doubts in the minds of stakeholders of the research.
2) Rigor: Rigor means carefulness, scrupulousness (accuracy) and the degree of exactness in research
investigation. In order to make a meaningful and worthwhile contribution to the field of knowledge,
research must be carried out rigorously. Conducting a rigorous research requires a good theoretical
knowledge and a clearly laid out methodology. This will eliminate the bias; facilitate proper data collection
and analysis, which in turn would lead to sound and reliable research findings.
3) Testability: Research should be based on testable hypotheses developed after a careful study of the
problems involved. The scientific research should enable the testing of logically developed hypotheses to
see whether or not the data collected support the hypotheses developed. Several descriptive and inferential
statistical analysis will indicate whether the hypothesis is substantiated (verify) or not.
4) Replicability: Research findings would command more faith and credence if the same results are
evolved on different set of data. The results of the test hypothesis should be supported again and again
when the same type of research is repeated in other similar circumstances. This will ensures the scientific
nature of the research conducted and more confidence could be placed in the research findings. It also
eliminates the doubt that the hypotheses are supported by chance and ensures that the findings reflect the
true state of affairs.
5) Precision and Confidence: Precision (accuracy) refers to the closeness of the findings to “reality” based
on a sample. It reflects the degree of accuracy or exactitude of the results on the basis of the sample to what
exactly is in the universe. The confidence interval in statistics is referred here as precision.
Confidence refers to the probability that our estimations are correct. It is also important that we can
confidently claim that 95% of the time our results would be true and there is only a 5% chance of our being
wrong. This is also known as confidence level. In research, it’s usually referred to as a significant level of
0.05 (p = 0.05)
If the precision and confidence levels of the research findings are higher, then the findings of the research
study would be more scientific and useful. Precision and confidence can be attained through appropriate
scientific sampling design.
6) Objectivity: Research finding should be factual, database and free from bias. The conclusion drawn
should be based on the facts of the findings derived from the actual data and not on the basis of subjective
or emotional values. Business organizations will suffer a greater extent of damage if a non-data-based or
misleading conclusion drawn from the research is implemented. Scientific approach ensures objectivity of
research. For instance, if we had a hypothesis that stated greater participation in decision making
will increase organizational commitment, and this was not supported by the results, it makes no sense.
7) Generalizability: Generalizability refers to the scope of applicability of the research findings in one
organizational setting to other settings. Obviously, the wider the range of applicability of the solutions
generated by research, the more useful the research is to users. For instance, if a researcher`s findings that
participation in decision making enhances organizational commitment are found to be true in a variety of
manufacturing, industrial, and service organizations, and not merely in the particular organization studied
by the researcher, then the generalizability of the findings to other organizational settings is enhanced. The
more generalizable the research, the greater its usefulness and value. However, not many research findings
can be generalized to all other settings, situations, or organizations.
8) Parsimony: Research needs to be conducted in a parsimonious i.e. simple and economical manner.
Simplicity in explaining the problems and generalizing solutions for the problems is preferred to a complex
research framework. Economy in research models can be achieved by way of considering less number of
variables leading to greater variance rather than considering more number of variables leading to less
variance. Clear understanding regarding the problem and the factors influencing the same will lead to
parsimony in research activities. The sound understanding can be achieved through structured
and unstructured interview with the concerned people and by undertaking a study of related literature in
the problem area.
THE HYPOTHETICO-DEDUCTIVE METHOD

Scientific research pursues a step-by-step, logical, organized and rigorous method to find a solution to a
problem. The hypothetico-deductive method provides a useful, systematic approach to solving basic and
managerial problems. The hypothetico-deductive method is an approach to research that begins with a
theory about how things work and derives testable hypotheses from it. It is a form of deductive reasoning
in that it begins with general principles, assumptions, and ideas, and works from them to more particular
statements about what world actually looks like and how it works. The hypotheses are then tested by
gathering and analyzing data and the theory is then either supported or refuted by the results.
The seven-step process in the hypothetico-deductive method is given below:

Identify a Broad Problem

Interpretation of Area Define the Problem
Data Statement
Hypothetico-Deductive
Data Method Develop
Analysis Hypothesis
Data Determine
Collection Measures
1) Identify a Broad Problem Area: Identify a broad problem area is the first step of the hypothetico-
deductive method. In business research context, the manager is always sensitive to and aware of what is
happening in and around the workplace. Changes in attitudes, behaviors, communication patterns and
styles, and a score of other verbal and nonverbal cause can be readily picked up by managers who are
sensitive to the various nuances (shade). When there is indeed a problem in the situation, the manager may
not understand what exactly is happening, but can definitely sense that things are not what they should be.
For instance, a drop in sales, frequent production interruptions, incorrect accounting results, low morale
of employees in their work, customer switching, and the like, could easily attract the attention of the
manager and catalyze the research project.
2) Define the Problem Statement: Scientific research starts with a definite aim or purpose. Problem
statement describes the general objective of the research. Gathering initial information about the factors
that are possibly related to the problem will help us to narrow the broad problem area and to define the
problem statement.
3) Develop Hypothesis: In this step variables are examined as to their contribution or influence in
explaining why the problem occurs and it can be solved. A scientific hypothesis must meet two
requirements. First, hypothesis must be testable. A famous example of hypothesis that is testable is the
hypothesis that “GOD created the earth.” Second, hypothesis must also be falsifiable. It must be possible
to disprove the hypothesis. There is always a possibility that future research will show that it is false.
4) Determine Measures: Measurement is the assignment of numbers or other symbols to characteristics

or attributes of objects according to the pre-specified set of rules. Unless the variables in theoretical
framework are measured in some way, we will not be able to test our hypothesis. To test the hypothesis
“female are impulsive buyer than male”, we need a reliable and valid measurement scale.
5) Data Collection: Data collection methods are an integral part of research design. There are several data
collection methods, each with its own advantages and disadvantages. The use of appropriate data collection
methods can greatly enhance the value of research. Data collection methods include interviews,
questionnaire, observation, and projective tests.
6) Data Analysis: Hypotheses are tested through appropriate statistics analysis according the nature and
requirements of data. Several descriptive (mean, median, mode, standard deviation) inferential (correlation,
regression) and others (ANNOVA) statistical tools can be applied for data analysis.
7) Interpretation of Data: In the last step, we must decide whether our hypotheses are supported or not
by interpreting the meaning of the result of the data analysis.
CHAPTER: 3 THE BROAD PROBLEM AREA & PROBLEM STATEMENT
LITERATURE REVIEW
A literature review is a step-by-step process that involves the identification of published and unpublished
work from secondary sources on the topic of interest.
A good literature review provides the foundations for developing a comprehensive theoretical framework
from which hypothesis can be developed for testing.
In sum, a good literature review ensures the following:
o The research effort is relative to existing knowledge

o The research findings are related to the findings of others.
o The problem statement can be made with precision and clarity.
o Important variables that is likely to influence the problem situation.
o Testability and replicability of the findings of the current research are enhanced.
o The researcher is able to provide arguments for the relationships between the variables.
o The background is available to enable you to look at a problem from a specific angle.
HOW TO APPROACH THE LITERATURE REVIEW

The first step of the literature review involves the identification of the various published and unpublished
materials that are available on the topic of interest.
Data Sources: The quality of literature review depends on the cautions selection and reading of books,
academic and professional journals, reports conferencing proceeding, unpublished manuscripts, and the
like. Academic books and journals are the most important and useful sources of information.
However, other sources such as reports and even newspapers may also be valuable because they can provide
you with specific, real world information about markets, industries or companies.
Literature reviews include the following sources:
Books
Unpublished Manuscripts Theses
Conference Proceedings DATA Reports

SOURCES
The Internet Journals
Newspapers
1) Books: Textbooks are useful sources of theory in a specific area. An advantage of textbooks is that they
can cover a broad range of topic. Textbooks offer good starting points from which to find more detailed
sources. A downward of textbooks is that they tend to be less up to date than other sources such as journals
reports and newspapers.
2) Theses: PhD theses is one of the most reliable and useful sources of data. PhD theses often contain a
useful and reliable review of the literature in a specific area. Theses offer good starting points and provide
useful findings and insights for a specific topic.
3) Reports: Government departments and corporation carryout a large amount of research. Their published
findings provide useful sources of specific market, industry or company information.
4) Journals: Bothe academic and professional journals are important sources of up-to-date information.
Article in academic journals have generally been pre-reviewed. This means that the articles have subject to
the scrutiny of experts in the same field before being accepted for publications. Review article are very
useful because they provide an overview of all important search in a specific area.
The names of some reliable journals include the followings:
▪ The Journal of Marketing
▪ Journal of Marketing Research
▪ African Journal of Marketing Management
▪ Africans Journals of Business Management
5) Newspapers: Newspapers provide up-to-date information. They are useful source of specific market,
industry or company information. Note that opinions in newspapers are not always unbiased.
6) The Internet: The interned is one of the most useful sources of data. You can search for the details of
books, journals articles and conference proceedings as well as the specialized data such as company
publications and reports. The number of newspapers, magazines and journals that is available electronically
is growing rapidly. Search engines such as Google, AOL and Yahoo can help you to find relevant
information. For instance, Google Scholar can help you to identify academic literature such as research
papers, theses, books, abstracts and articles from academic publishers and universities.
7) Conference Proceedings: Conference proceedings can be useful in providing the latest research.
Conference proceedings are very up-to-date and valuable sources especially in a new and unique area of
research.
8) Unpublished Manuscripts: Unpublished manuscripts may define as any information source that is not
officially released by an individual, publishing house or other company. Examples of unpublished
manuscripts may include papers accepted for publications but still “in press”. Unpublished manuscripts are
often very up-to-date.
EVALUATING THE LITERATURE

A good literature review needs to include references to the key studies in the field. For this reason, articles
and books that are often cited by others must be indicated in your literature review even if these articles
and books were written thirty or even forty years ago. Of course, most recent work should be incorporated
in your literature survey. Recent work will build on the broader and more up-to-date information that older
work,
To assess the quality of the recent research, you should concentrate on the following questions:
o Is the variable appropriate?
o Is the sample size appropriate?
o Is there a theory that guides the research?
o Will the study make a contribution to the field?
o Are the research designs appropriate for the study?
o Are the measures of the variables valid and reliable?
o Has the author presented the limitations of the study?
o Do the conclusions result from the findings of the study?
o Do the conclusions give a clear answer to the main research questions?
o Has the author used the appropriate quantitative or qualitative techniques?
Furthermore, the quality of the journal that published an article can also be used as an indicator of the
quality of an article. Important questions in this respect are:
Is the journal peer-reviewed?
What is the impact factor of the journal?
Impact Factor: The impact factor of a journal can be viewed as the average number of citation in a year
given to those papers in the journal that were published during a given period. (Usually the two proceedings
years)
DOCUMENTING THE LITERATURE REVIEW

The purpose of the literature review is to help the researchers to develop good problem statement. A
review of the literature identifies and highlights the important variables and documents the significant
findings from earlier research that wills serve as the foundations.
There are there well-known methods of citing reference in the literature review as followings:
▪ APA Style (American Psychological Associations)
▪ Chicago Manual of Style (SMS or SMOS)
▪ Turabian’s Manual Style
Format FOR Text Citations (APA)

The text citations in the APA Style consist of the author's last name and the year of publication of the work
cited. No punctuation is used between the name and the date. Note: APA style requires authors to use the
past tense or present perfect tense when using signal phrases to describe earlier research, for example,
Rabbani (2000) found or Rabbani (2000) has found... or Smith (2005) reported; Smith (2005) has argued.
Single Author: Rabbani (2013) has shown …………..
Two Authors: In recent studies of IBB (Rabbani, 2013; Jalees, 2012) it has been …………
Format FOR Text Citations (SMS)

The text citations in the Chicago Manual of Style consist of the author's last name and the year of
publication of the work cited. No punctuation is used between the name and the date.
Single Author (Rabbani 2013) Multiple Authors (Rabbani and Amin 2013)
FORMAT FOR REFERENCING ARTICLES

There are there well-known formats for referencing articles as followings:
Visit the site for reference guideline: http://www.bibme.org/citation-guide/APA/journal
FORMAT FOR REFERENCING ARTICLES
APA Style Chicago Style Turabian’s Style MLA Style
1) APA Style (2001): APA citation style refers to the rules and conventions established by the American
Psychological Association for documenting sources used in a research paper. APA provides a disciplinary
standard to facilitate clear communication and easy reference in the field.
APA Specimen format for referencing: (Journal Article)

1) Author’s Name: Rabbani, N. (First: Last name, Second: first alphabet of first name)
2) Publication Year: 2013
3) Article Title: The Effect of Demographic Factors on Impulsive Buying Behavior
4) Journal Name: Asian Journals of Business Management Studies
5) Volume Number: 30
6) Issue Number: 3
7) Page Number: 31 - 40 (Page: start and page: end)
Last Name, N. (Year Published). Article Title. Journal name, Volume number, Page Numbers.
Rabbani, N. (2013). The Effect of Demographic Factors on Impulsive Buying Behavior. Asian Journals of
Business Management Studies, Vol. 30, No. 3, pp. 31- 40.
Rabbani, N. (2013). The Effect of Demographic Factors on Impulsive Buying Behavior. Asian Journals of
Business Management Studies, 30 (3), 31- 40.
2) Chicago Manual of Style (2003) (SMS or SMOS): The Chicago Manual of Style is used in some social
science publications and most historical journals. It remains the basis for the style guide of the American
Anthropological Association.
Chicago Style format for referencing: (Journal Article)

1) Author’s Name: Rabbani Naveed (Last Name, First Name)
2) Article Title: The Effect of Demographic Factors on Impulsive Buying Behavior
3) Journal Name: Asian Journals of Business Management Studies
4) Volume Number: 30
5) Issue Number: 3
6) Publication Date: 2013
10 | P a g e Created by Rabbani
7) Page Number: 31 - 40 (Page: start and page: end)

8) URL or DOI: http://www.ajbms.org/ or Digital Object Identifier (DOI)
A DOI is a permanent ID that, when appended to http://dx.doi.org/ in the address bar of an Internet browser,
will lead to the source. If no DOI is available, list a URL
Last Name, First Name. "Article Title." Journal Name Volume Number (Year Published): Page Numbers.
URL or DOI
Rabbani, Naveed. “The Effect of Demographic Factors on Impulsive Buying Behavior.” Asian Journals
of Business Management Studies Vol. 30 No. 3 (2013): pp. 31- 40.
3) Turabian’s Style (2007: The journal article example of Turabian’s style is given below.
Rabbani, Naveed. “The Effect of Demographic Factors on Impulsive Buying Behavior.” Asian Journals of
Business Management Studies Vol. 30 No. 3 (2013): pp. 31- 40.
4) MLA Style: The Modern Language Association (MLA) establishes values for acknowledging sources
used in a research paper. The journal article example of MLA style is given below.
Medium.
Rabbani, Naveed. “The Effect of Demographic Factors on Impulsive Buying Behavior.” Asian Journals
of Business Management Studies Vol. 30 No. 3 (2013): pp. 31- 40. Print
PROBLEM STATEMENT
The problem statement introduces the key problem that is addressed in the research project. After the
interviews and the literature review, the researcher is in position to narrow down the problem from its
original broad base and define the issue of concern more clearly.
Problem Statement: A problem statement is a clear, precise (accurate) and succinct (brief) statement of
the specific issue that a researcher wishes to investigate. There are three key criteria to assess the quality
of the problem statement.
-- It should be relevant.
-- It should be feasible.
-- It should be interesting.
Examples of well-defined problem statements
1) What network system is best suited for UBL?

2) Has the new advertising message resulted in enhanced recall?
3) How has the new packaging affected the sales of the product?
4) How do price and quality rate on consumers’ evaluation of products?
5) What are the effects of store image on consumer impulsive buying behavior?
6) What are the effects of downsizing on the long-range growth patterns of companies?
7) How can sales promotion influence the tendency of consumer impulsive buying behavior?
8) Does expansion of international operations result in an enhancement of the firms’ image and value?
9) What are the specific factors to be considered in creating a data warehouse for a manufacturing
company?
10) Does consumer demographic factors influence the purchase of grocery item in the context of impulsive
buying behavior?
RESEARCH PROPOSAL
The research proposal is a written statement of the research design. It always includes an explanation of
the purpose of the study and detailed, systematic outline of a particular research methodology.
Developing a good Research proposal: Quality writing is critical in all good proposals. It should be clear,
concise, and free of jargon. There should be no spelling or grammatical errors, and the proposal should be
easy to read. Sloppy proposals and proposals laden with jargon do not provide a positive image. Proposals
that are well-written and attractive are a pleasure to read, and they make a good impression with reviewers.
The plan should be easy to read, complete and accurate. There should be no misspellings, improper
grammar, or mistakes in data.
ELEMENTS OF RESEARCH PROPOSAL

A good proposal has nine elements, and each is important in an effective presentation. The specific format
and content of the elements may vary, depending on requirements in the research proposal
Title Page
Bibliography Abstract
Budget Table of
Elements of Research Contents
Proposal
Time Frame Introduction
Literature
Research Design
Review
.
1) Title Page: On the title page, state your topic of interest and personal data, such as name, supervisor
name, roll number, university name etc. Title should be accurate, descriptive and comprehensive, clearly
indicating your research area.
2) Abstract: Abstract is the brief summary of the proposal. The abstract allows a busy executive to
understand quickly the essentials of a proposal without having to read the details. The abstract must be
written in single paragraph. This section must start with two or three sentences about the importance of the
study. It should be briefly explain the essential components of proposal such as purpose, methodology,
findings, limitations and key terms.
3) Table of Contents: A list of the parts of a proposal organized in the order in which the parts appear.
Very brief proposals with few sections ordinarily do not need a table of contents. Long and detailed
proposals require a table of contents. The table of contents should list all major parts of the research
proposal.
4) Introduction: Introduction generally includes the problem statement, purpose of the research, and
significance of the research. It should give enough background to enable an informed layman to place your
particular research problem in a context of common knowledge.
Problem Statement: A problem statement is a clear, precise and statement of the specific issue that a
researcher wishes to investigate. Under this heading, the main idea of research is discussed
comprehensively with all the possible and relevant issues added to it. This section is written in a very
critical manner.
Objective/Purpose of the Study: This section must be dedicated to identifying the main objectives of the
study through numbers or bullets. A study should have at least three to four objectives, set after reviewing
the previously carried out researches on a similar subject.
The objectives should be phrased in positive terms (e.g., to develop, to determine, to measure) rather than
broad generalities, such as, to investigate, to study.
Significance of the Study: This section make the proposed study different and unique from the previously
studies on a similar subject. In this regard, differences based on approaches, subject areas and methods can
be taken into consideration.
5) Literature Review: A literature review is a step-by-step process that involves the identification of
published and unpublished work from secondary sources on the topic of interest. This is the most critical
part of a proposal. The section critically represents the findings of previously carried out researches.
6) The Research Design: This is a very important part of research and should receive a lot of attention.
This component is designed to identify the exact road map of a research study. In simple words, a researcher
defines how he would conduct the proposed research study. The research design generally includes the
sampling design, data collection method and data analysis.
The Sampling Design: This section is designed to clearly discuss the sampling design (probability and
non-probability) will be used in research proposal. What is the appropriate sample size for this study?
Data Collection Method: Data collection methods are an integral part of research design. The use of
appropriate data collection methods can greatly enhance the value of research. In this section, the methods
of data collection (interviews, questionnaire, and observation) will be discussed in sophisticated manner.
Data Analysis: Under this heading, hypotheses are tested through appropriate statistics analysis according
the nature and requirements of data. Several descriptive statistics (mean, median, mode, standard deviation)
and inferential statistics (correlation, regression and SEM) can be applied for data analysis.
7) Time Frame-work: This section is designed to clearly discuss the consumption of time expected by
each and every action of the study. In this regard, a chapter-wise or action-wise schedule can be proposed
as per the convenience of the students and his/her supervisor. In addition, Gantt chart (a bar chart stating
the starting and finishing dates of proposed actions) can also be drawn for the sake of better representation
of project management within an applicable time frame.
8) Budget: Research work also needs money to be carried out. The estimation of the required budget is
essential to understand whether the expenses on the research project are affordable for the researcher or
not. The project budget should include clear and reasonable estimates of the costs of each element of the
project, and there should be enough supporting information to indicate how the estimates were developed.
Base salaries for all staff, standard charges for computer use, and allowable travel costs are a few examples
of useful background information.
9) Bibliography: A bibliography is a listing of work that is relevant to the main topic of research arranged
in alphabetical order of the last name of authors. Theses citations have the goals of crediting the authors
and enabling the readers to find the work cited. At least some of them should be recent publications,
indicating that you are aware of the current discourse in your area of research.
GUIDELINE FOR RESEARCH PROPOSAL WRITING

Title Page: All text on the title page is centered vertically and horizontally. The title page has no page
number and it is not counted in any page numbering.
Page Layout: Left margin: 1½" - Right margin: 1" - Top margin: 1" - Bottom margin: 1"
Page Numbering: Pages are numbered at the top right. All pages are single sided. All text should be in
double-spaced, and the bibliography may be in single-spaced.
Font Style and Size: Time new roman and Arial is generally acceptable.. The size of font should be 12.
Generally, the same font must be used throughout the manuscript, except tables and graphs.
CHAPTER: 4 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK & HYPOTHESIS DEVELOPMENT
DEFINITIONS OF VARIABLES
Variable: A variable is anything that can take on differing or varying values. The values can differ at
various times for the same object or person, or at the same time for different objects or persons.
(Uma Sekaran)
Variable: A variable is anything that may assume different numerical values. (W. Zikmund)
Variable: A variable is something that can be changed, such as a characteristic or value.
Examples of variables are sales, commitment, buying behavior, production units, absenteeism, and
motivation.
Sales: One sales executives of the insurance company may sell 01 insurance policy per day, a second might
sell 02 per day, a third might sell 03 per day. In this case, the number of insurance policies sell has taken
on different values. So it’s variable.
Production Units: One worker in the manufacturing department may produce one unit per minute, a
second might produce two per minute, a third might produce five per minute. In this case, the number of
units produced has taken on different values. So it’s variable.
Absenteeism: Today, three members in sales department may be absent; tomorrow, six members may not
show up for work; the day after, there may be no one absent. In this case, the number of absent days has
taken on different values. So it’s variable.
TYPES OF VARIABLES
Four main types of variables are including the following:
TYPES OF VARIABLES
Dependent Independent Moderating Mediating

Variable Variable Variable Variable
1) Dependent Variable (DV): A dependent variable is also known as a criterion variable, response
variable, measured variable, explained variable, outcome variable, experimental variable, and output
variable. It is called dependent because it "depends" on the independent variable. The dependent variable
is the variable of primary interest to the researcher. The researcher’s goal is to understand and explain its
variability.
For Instance: A manager is concerned that the sales of a new product, do not meet with his expectations.
The dependent variable (DV) here is sales. Since the sales of the product can vary-can be low, medium or
high. Sales are the main focus of interest to the manager. For Instance: Owner of the private organization
is concerned that the employees are not loyal to the organization and switch their loyalty to other
institutions. The dependent variable (DV) in this case would be organizational loyalty.
2) Independent Variable (IV): An independent variable is also known as a predictor variable, controlled
variable, manipulated variable, explanatory variable, and exposure variable. Independent variable is one
that influences the dependent variable in either a positive or negative way. When the independent variable
is present, the dependent variable is also present, and with each unit of increase in the independent variable,
there is an increase or decrease in the dependent variable also. For Instance: A production manager
strongly believes that adequate training will increase the production level of the workers.
Independent Variable Dependent Variable
Training Production
Diagram of the relationship between the independent variable (training) and dependent variable
(production)
3) Moderating Variable: The moderating variable is one that has a strong contingent (conditional) effect
on the independent and dependent variables relationship. The presence of a third variable (the moderating
variable) modifies the original relationship between the independent and the dependent variable.
In general terms, a moderator is a qualitative (e.g., gender, race, class) or quantitative (e.g., level of reward)
variable that affects the direction or strength of the relation between an independent and a dependent
variable. For Instance: A production manager strongly believes that four-day work-week will lead to
higher productivity, especially among younger workers.
Independent Variable (IV) Dependent Variable (DV)
Working Hour Productivity

(Four Day Work Week)
Moderating Variable (MV)
Age
(Younger Worker)
Diagram of the relationship among the three variables: Independent variable (working hour), dependent
variable (productivity) and moderating variables (age).
4) Mediating Variable: A Mediating variable is also known as intervening variable. A mediating variable
is one that surfaces between the time the independent variables start operating to influence the dependent
variables and the time their impact is felt on it. The mediating variables surfaces as a function of
independent variable operating in any situations and help to conceptualize and explain the influence of the
independent variables on the dependent variables. For instance: The management of a bank wishes to
study the effect of promotion on savings. They predicting that promotion campaign will increase saving
activity, especially when free prizes are offered. The results come from enhancing the motivation to save.
Independent Variable Mediating Variable Dependent Variable
Promotion Campaign Motivation to Save Saving Activity
Moderating Variable
(MV)
Free Prizes
Diagram of the relationship among the four variables: IV (Promotion Campaign), DV (Saving Activity),
mediating variable (motivation to save), and moderating variables (Free Prizes).
RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS
Research hypotheses are the specific testable predictions made about the independent and dependent
variables in the study. Usually the literature review has given background material that justifies the
particular hypotheses that are to be tested. Hypotheses are described in terms of the particular independent
and dependent variables that are going to be used in the study.
DEFINITIONS RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS

Hypothesis can be defined as logically conjectured (guess, assume) relationship between two or more
variables expressed in the forms of testable statements. (Uma Sekaran)
Hypothesis is an unproven proposition or suppositions that tentatively explain certain facts or phenomena.
(W.G. Zikmund)
Hypothesis is a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables. A hypothesis is
a specific, testable prediction about what you expect to happen in your study.
The Role of Hypothesis: in research, a hypothesis serves several important functions. It guides the
direction of the study.
What is a Strong Hypothesis? A strong hypothesis should fulfill five conditions.

o It should be testable.
o It should be better than its rivals.
o It should be adequate for its purpose.
o It should be based on your research topic.
o It should be include independent, dependent or others relevant variables.
FORMATS OF HYPOTHESES STATEMENTS

Important format of hypotheses statements are given below:
1) If-then Statements: These hypotheses can be set either as propositions or in the form of if-then
statements.
The two formats can be seen in the following examples.
o Employees who are more healthy will take sick leave less frequently.
o If employees are more healthy, then they will take sick leave less frequently.
2) Directional Hypotheses: Directional hypothesis predicts the nature of the effect of the independent
variable on the dependent variable. These hypotheses can be stating the relationship between two variables
or comparing two groups, terms such as positive, negative, more than, less than, and like are used. These
hypotheses are directional because the direction of the relationship between the variables
(positive/negative, less than/more than) is indicated.
The three formats can be seen in the following examples.

o Women are more motivated than men.
o There is a positive relationship between compensation and job satisfaction.
o The greater the stress experienced in the job, the lower the job satisfaction of employees.
3) Non-directional Hypotheses: Non-directional hypothesis predicts that the independent variable will
have an effect on the dependent variable, but the direction of the effect is not specified. Non-directional
hypotheses are those that do assume a relationship or difference, but offer no indication of direction of
these relationships or differences. It may be conjectured that there would be a significant relationship
between two variables. We may not be able to say whether the relationship would be positive or negative.
The two formats can be seen in the following examples.
o There is a relationship between compensation and job satisfaction.
o There is a difference between the satisfaction level of male and female.
Null Hypotheses: The null hypothesis (Ho) is used for testing. It is a statement that no difference exists
between the parameter and the statistic being compared to it. The null hypothesis in respect of group
differences stated in the example women is more motivated than men would be:
Ho: uM = uW OR Ho: uM – uW = 0
The Alternate Hypothesis: The alternate hypothesis (H1) which is the opposite of the null, is a statement
expressing a relationship between two variables or indicating differences between groups. The alternate
hypothesis in respect of group differences stated in the example women is more motivated than men would
be: HA: uM < uW OR HA: uW > uM = 0
The Steps to be followed in hypothesis testing are:

▪ State the null and the alternate hypothesis.
▪ Choose the appropriate statistical test.
▪ Determine the level of significance desired (p = .05, or more, or less).
▪ See if the output results from computer analysis indicate that the significance level is met.
▪ When the resultant value is larger than the critical value, the null hypothesis is rejected, and the alternate
accepted. If the calculated value is less than the critical value, the null is accepted and the alternate
rejected.
Null hypothesis states that there is no relationship between the two variables being studied (one variable
does not affect the other). It states results are due to chance and are not significant in terms of supporting
the idea being investigated.
Alternative hypothesis states that there is a relationship between the two variables being studied (one
variable has an effect on the other). It states that results are not due to chance and that they are significant
in terms of supporting the theory being investigated.
TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE (Questions for Review and Critical Thinking)

Classify each of the following general examples as dependent, independent, mediating or moderating
variables.
1) Study predicting that stress affects heart rate in humans.
2) Study predicting that high school sports build character.
3) Study examining if perspective taking improves with age.
4) How do changes in work space affect employee reaction?
5) Study examining if TV violence increases aggression in children.
6) Are younger siblings treated better by their parents than older siblings?
7) Study predicting that peoples will walk faster on hot days versus cold days.
8) Study predicting that alcohol drinking will decrease people's reaction time while driving.
Classify each of the following business examples as dependent, independent, mediating or

moderating variables.
1. A bank manager wants to increase the performance of employees in a particular branch.
2. A marketing manager believes that limiting the availability of product increase product desirability.
3. Manager believes that good supervision & training will increase the production level of the workers.
4. A marketing manager believes that selecting physically attractive spokespersons and models to endorse
their products increase the persuasiveness of a message.
5. A production manager finds that off-the-job classroom training has a great impact on the productivity
of the employees. However, he also observes that employees over 60 years of age do not seem to drive
many benefits and do not improve with such training.
6. A marketing manager finds the intensity of e-business adoption is positively associated with sales
performance. What’s more, when market uncertainty (the rate of change in the compositions of
customers and their preference) is high, this positive effect is strengthened.
7. Failure to follow accounting principles causes immense (huge) confusion, which in turn creates a
number of problems for the organization. Those with vast experience in bookkeeping are able to avert
the problems by taking timely corrective actions. List and label the variables in this situation, explain
the relationship among the variables and illustrate these by means of diagrams.
8. The manager observes that the morale of employees in company is low. He thinks that if working
conditions are improved, pay scales raised, and vacation benefits made attractive, the morale will be
boosted. He doubts, however, if an increase in pay scale would raise the morale of all employees. His
conjectures (guess) is that those that have supplemental incomes will just not be “turned on” by higher
pay, and only those without side incomes will be happy with increased pay with a resultant boost in
morale. List and label the variables in this situation, explain the relationship among the variables and
illustrate these by means of diagrams.

A production manager is concerned about the low output levels of his employees. The articles that he has
read on job performance frequently mention four variables as being important to job performance.
(1) Skill required for the job, (2) rewards, (3) motivation and (4) satisfaction. In several of the articles it
was also indicated that only if the rewards were attractive to the recipients did motivation, satisfaction and
job performance increase, not otherwise. On the bases of given situation, you have to identify the following:
1) Define the problem statement
2) Evolve a theoretical framework
3) Develop at-least six appropriate testable hypotheses
WHAT IS RESEARCH DESIGN?

A research design encompasses the methodology and procedures employed to conduct scientific research.
in other words, the research design is a blueprint (draft, outline) for the collection, measurement, and
analysis of data based on the research questions of the study.
The research design of a study defines the following:
o Purpose of the Study (Exploratory, Descriptive or Casual)

o Types of Investigation (Causal or Correlation)
o Research Interference (Minimal, Moderate or excessive Interference)
o Study Setting (Contrived or Non-contrived)
o Unit of Analysis (Individuals, Dyads, Groups, Organizations, Culture)
o The Time Horizon of Study (Cross-sectional or Longitudinal)
o Sampling Design (Probability or Non-probability Sampling)
o Data Collection Method (Interview, Questionnaire, Physical Measurement and Unobtrusive)
o Statistical Data Analysis (Descriptive Statistics or Inferential Statistics)
CHAPTER: 5 ELEMENTS OF RESEARCH DESIGN

ELEMENTS OF RESEARCH DESIGN

Each elements or components of research design offer several critical choice points. Research study
depends on how carefully the researcher chooses the appropriate design alternatives.
ELEMENTS OF RESEARCH DESIGN
Purpose of Types of Research Study Measurement

Study Investigation Interference Setting and Measure
- Exploratory - Casual - Minimal - Contrived - Items

- Descriptive - Correlation - Moderate - Non-contrived - Scaling
- Casual - Excessive - Coding
Unit of Sampling Time Data Data

Analysis Design Horizon Collection Analysis
- Dyads - Probability - Cross-sectional - Items - Descriptive

Statistics
- Groups - Nonprobability - Longitudinal - Scaling - Inferential
- Individuals - Coding Statistics
1) PURPOSE OF THE STUDY (Exploratory, Descriptive or Casual)

Exploratory Study: Exploratory study is more qualitative in nature. The objective of exploratory study is
to gather preliminary information that will help define problems. An exploratory study is undertaken when
no or insufficient information is available for a specific problem. In such cases, extensive preliminary work
needs to be done to gain familiarity with the phenomena in the situation, and understand what is occurring,
before we develop a model for comprehensive investigation. Exploratory study can be done by interviewing
individuals, projective techniques, case studies and through focus group. Applied Research is often
exploratory because there is need for flexibility in approaching the problem. In addition there are often data
limitations and a need to make a decision within a short time period.
Descriptive Study: Descriptive study is more quantitative in nature. The objective of descriptive study is
to describe. Descriptive studies are often designed to collect data that describes the characteristics of
persons, events or situations. In this study the researcher exactly knows what has to be studied and where
to look for the solution. Secondary data and literature review are available in this study.
For Example: A bank manager wants to have a profile of the individual who have loans payment
outstanding for 6 months and more. The profile will include details of their average age, earning, nature of
occupation, full-time/part-time employment status. This might help him to elicit further information or
decide right away on the types of individual who should be made ineligible for loans in future.
Causal Study: Causal studies also known as hypothesis testing. Causal studies are at the heart of the
scientific approach to research. In a causal study, the researcher is interested in delineating (define, explain)
one or more factors are causing the problem. This is undertaken to find out whether any relationship exists
between two variables - one being the cause and the other being the result.
For Example: A marketing manager wants to know if the sales of the company will increase if he increases
the advertising budget. Here, the manager would like to know the nature of the relationship that may be
established between advertising and sales by testing the hypothesis. “If advertising is increased, then sales
will also go up.”
EXAMPLES OF BUSINESS PROBLEMS
Exploratory Study Descriptive Study Casual Study

(Ambiguous Problems) (Aware of partially defined (Clearly defined problem)
problem)
Did last years product growth

Absenteeism is increasing and Which of the two training
rate have an impact on our
we don’t know why. programs is most effective?
company stock price?
Has the average rate for savings Will buyer purchase more of
Would people be interested in
and loans increased in the past our products in a new
our new product idea?
decade? package?
Has the average rate of fabric Will buyer purchase more of
Job satisfaction is decreasing
production increased in the last our products, if advertising is
and we don’t know why.
five year? increased?
Case Study: Case Study involve in depth, contextual (background) analysis of matters relating to similar
situations in the organizations. Case Studies that are qualitative in nature are useful in applying solutions
to current problems based on past problem-solving experiences. They are also useful in understanding
certain phenomena, and generating further theories for empirical testing.
2) TYPES OF INVESTIGATION (Causal or Correlation)

Casual Study: In a causal study, the researcher is interested in explaining one or more factors are causing
the problem. This is undertaken to find out whether any relationship exists between two variables - one
being the cause and the other being the result.
For example: A casual study question: “Does smoking cause cancer”?
Correlation Study: In a correlation study, the researcher is interested to explaining the important variable
associated with the problem.
For example: A correlation study question: “Are smoking and cancer related”?
“Are smoking, drinking and chewing tobacco associated with cancer”?
3) RESEARCH INTERFERENCE (Minimal, Moderate and Excessive Interference)

Minimal Interference: A correlation study is conducted in the natural environment of the organization
with minimum interference by the researcher with the normal flow of work. For example, if a researcher
wants to study the factors influencing training effectiveness (correlations study), collect the relevant data,
and analyze them to come up with the findings.
For example: A hospital administrator wants to examine the relationship between the perceived (supposed)
emotional support in the system and the stress experienced by the nursing staff. In other words, he wants
to do a correlation study. Here the researcher will collect the data from nurses (through questionnaire or
interview) to indicate how much emotional support they get in the hospital and to what extent they
experience stress.
Moderate Interference: (Field experiment)
Excessive Interference: (Lab experiment)
3) STUDY SETTING (Contrived or Non-contrived)

Contrived: In contrived settings, the organizational research can done in the artificial environment where
work proceeds. Most rigorous causal studies are done in contrived lab settings.
Non-contrived: In non-contrived settings, the organizational research can done in the natural environment
where work proceeds normally. Correlation studies are invariably (always) conducted in non-contrived
settings. Correlation studies done in organizations are called field studies.
Field Study: (Non-contrived settings with minimal researcher interference)

In a field study, the researcher goes to a research site and observes and asks questions, but does not change
anything. For instance, it's like a naturalist observing wildlife without doing anything like setting out food
to attract animals, or making obstacles to see how the animals react.
For instance: A bank manager wants to analyze the relationship between interest rates and bank deposits
pattern of clients. He tries to correlate the deposits into the different kinds of accounts (such as current,
savings or fix deposit accounts) as interest rate change. This is a field study where the bank manager has
merely taken the balance in various types of account and correlated them to the changes in interest rates.
Research here is done in a non-contrived setting with no interference with the normal work routine.
Field Experiment: (Non-contrived settings but with researcher interference to moderate extent)
In a field experiment, the researcher makes changes in the independent variable to see how it affects the
dependent variable, but otherwise you leave everything in its natural state.
For instance: The bank manager now want to determine the cause and effect relationship between the
interest rate and the inducement (incentives) it offers to clients to save and deposit money in the bank. He
selects four branches within a 60 miles radius for the experiment. For one week only, he advertises the
annual rate for new certificates of deposit received during that week in the following manners. The interest
rate will be 9% in one branch, 8% in another, and 10% in the third. In the fourth branch, the interest rate
remains unchanged at 5%. Within the week, he will be able to determine the effects, if any, of interest rates
on deposits mobilizations. This is a field experiment. Just interest rate is manipulated, and other all activities
occurring in the normal and natural work environment.
Lab Experiment: (Contrived settings with researcher interference to an excessive degree)

In a lab experiment, the researcher makes changes in the independent variable, and then controls all the
other variables so that only the variable of interest could possibly affect the outcome.
For instance, if you are interested in the effects of seeing an inspirational film on taking a math test, you
can recruit some experimental subjects to come to your theatre, then randomly assign half to see the film,
and the other half to see some other film, then give them the test right after the films.
4) UNIT OF ANALYSIS (Individuals, Dyads, Groups, Organizations, Culture)

The unit of analysis refers to the level of aggregation of the data collected during the subsequent data
analysis stage.
Individuals: If researcher focuses on how to raise the motivational levels of employees in general. Here
the unit of analysis is the individual. He will be looking at the data gathered from each individual and
treating each employee’s response as an individual data source.
Dyads: If the researcher is interested in studying two-person interactions, then the unit of would be the
Dyads. Analyses of husband-wife interaction in families and supervisor-subordinates relationship in the
workplace are the examples of dyads.
Groups: If the researcher is interested in studying group effectiveness, then the unit of analysis would be
the group.
Organizations: If the researcher is interested in studying the proportion of the workforce employed by the
healthcare, transportation, telecom, and manufacturing industries. Then the unit of analysis would be the
organizations.
Culture: If the researcher is interested in studying organizational traditions, norms and values, then the
unit of analysis would be the Culture.
5) THE TIME HORIZON OF STUDY (Cross-sectional or Longitudinal)

Cross-sectional Study: Cross-sectional studies also know as one-shot study. Cross-sectional studies can
be done in which data are gathered just once, perhaps over a period of days or weeks or months, in order
to answer a research question. For example: Data were collected from customer during the month of April
2013 to study their tendency of buying behavior. Data with respect to the particular research had not been
collected before, nor will they be collected again for this research. Here the time horizon of study is the
cross-sectional or one shot.
Longitudinal Study: Longitudinal Studies can be done in which data are gathered more than one time in
order to answer the research question. For example, the researcher might measure job satisfaction and
commitment of the employees before and after a promotion. Here the time horizon of study is the
Longitudinal.
EXERCISE 01
For each situation, decide whether the research should be exploratory, descriptive or causal:
1) Estimating prices for Dell stock 2 year in the future
2) Identifying target market demographics for a shopping center
3) Leaning the extent (level, scope) of job satisfaction in a company
4) Investigating customer reactions to the unique idea of new product
5) Establishing the functional relationship between advertising and sales
6) Learning how many organizations are actively involved in the just-in-time production
EXERCISE 02
A foreman of Textile Company thinks that the low efficiency of the machine tool operators is directly
linked to the high level of heat and fumes emitted in the workplace. He would like to prove this to his
supervisor through a research study.
Critically think about the above scenario and respond to the following questions:
1) What would be the unit of analysis? Why?

2) Would this be a causal or correlation study? Why?
3) Is this an exploratory, descriptive, or causal study? Why?
4) Would this be a cross-sectional or longitudinal study? Why
5) What kind of study would this be: field study, field experiment, or lab experiment? Why?
EXERCISE 03
A marketing department of the pharmaceutical company has a high turnover rate. Employees of this
department have a shorter average tenure than those of other departments in the company. Skilled and
experienced marketing staffs are leaving and the employee population contains a high percentage of novice
(trainee) staff. The company has no idea what is going on and wants to know more about what is
happening.
Critically think about the above scenario and respond to the following questions:
1) What would be the unit of analysis? Why?

2) Would this be a causal or correlation study? Why?
3) Is this an exploratory, descriptive, or causal study? Why?
4) Would this be a cross-sectional or longitudinal study? Why
5) What kind of study would this be: field study, field experiment, or lab experiment? Why
CHAPTER: 6 MEASUREMENT: SCALING, VALIDITY, RELIABILITY
WHAT IS MEASUREMENT?
In everyday usage, measurement occurs when an established yardstick is used to verify the height, weight,
or another feature of a physical object. How well you like a song, a painting, or the personality of a friend
is also a measurement.
In a dictionary sense, to measure is to discover the extent, dimension, quantity, or capacity of something,
especially by comparison with a standard. We measure casually in daily life, but in research, the
requirements are rigorous.
Concepts used in research may be classified as objects or as properties. Objects include the things of
ordinary experience, such as tables, people, books, and automobiles. Properties, on the other hand, are the
characteristics of the objects. A person’s physical properties may be stated in terms of weight and height.
Psychological properties include attitudes and intelligence. Social properties include leadership ability,
class affiliation, or status. These and many other properties of an individual can be measured in a research
study.
DEFINITIONS OF MEASUREMENT:
Measurement is the assignment of numbers or other symbols to characteristics or attributes of objects
according to the pre-specified set of rules. (Uma Sekaran)
Measurement is specific process used to discover the extent, dimension, quantity, or capacity of something
(objects or properties), especially by comparison with a standard. (Rabbani)
HOW VARIABLES ARE MEASURED?

Data representing several demographic characteristics of the office personnel are also easily obtained by
asking employees simple, straightforward questions, as:
o How long have you been working in this organization?
o How long have you been working on this particular assignment?
o What is your job title?
Certain types of information can also be obtained from the company records, as the absenteeism of
employees or their objective performance in terms of the number of products produced or the rejects during
the course of each month. However, even such objective data might, in some cases, call for careful
interpretation while making managerial decisions.
SCALES
A scale is a tool or mechanism by which individuals are distinguished as to how they differ from one
another on the variables of interest to our study. (Uma Sekaran)
TYPES OF SCALES (Types of Data Measurement Scale)

Stanley smith Steven, a psychologist, proposed four types of scale in his article titled “On the theory of
scales of measurement” in 1946. In that article, Stevens claimed that all measurement was conducted using
four different types of scales that he called "nominal," "ordinal," "interval," and "ratio.
TYPES OF SCALES
Nominal Scale Ordinal Scale Interval Scale Ratio Scale
1) Nominal Scale: Nominal scale is one that allows the researcher to assign subjects to certain categories
or groups. Nominal scale is always used for obtaining personal data such as gender, age, education, income,
occupation or department in which one work.
Understand the nominal scale with the help of following examples.
1. Your gender ------ Male

------ Female
2. Your age (Years) ------ Under 20

------ 21 – 30
------ 31 – 40
------ 41 – 50
------ Over 50
3. Your education ------ Illiterate

------ Elementary school
------ High school
------ Graduate degree
------ Master degree
2) Ordinal Scale: Ordinal scale not only categories, it also rank-orders the categories in some meaningful
way. Ordinal scale is used to rank the preference or usage of various individuals, objects or events. The
preference would be ranked and numbered 1, 2, 3 and so on.
Understand the ordinal scale with the help of following examples.

Rank the following cities with respect to their suitability for opening a new branch of your college. Assign
the number 1 to the most suitable city, 2 to the next most suitable, and so on.
------ Multan ------ Lahore
------ Karachi ------ Sargodha
------ Faisalabad ------ Islamabad
Rank the following personal computer with respect to their usage in your college. Assign the number 1 to
the most used system, 2 to the next most used, and so on. If a particular system is not used in your college,
put a 0 next to it.
------ HP ------ Dell
------ IBM ------ Sony
------ Apple ------ Compaq
3) Interval Scale: Interval scale not only ranks, but also provides information on the magnitude (level) of
the difference in the variables. It measure the distance between any two points on the scale. Interval scale
is used when responses to various items can be measured on three points, five-point or seven points scale.
Understand the interval scale with the help of following example.
INTERVAL SCALE
Please indicate your response to each of the following items by circling the number that best describe your feelings.
1 = Strongly Disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Neither agree nor disagree, 4 = Agree, 5 = Strongly Agree
SR. NO. SCALE ITEM 1 2 3 4 5
1 I often buy things spontaneously. (Impulsively)
2 I often buy things without thinking.
3 Buy now, think about it later” describes me.
4 I buy things according to the way how I feel at the moment
5 I carefully plan most of my purchases. (R)

4) Ratio Scale: A ratio scale has all the properties of nominal, ordinal, and interval scale. The ratio scale
not only measures the magnitude of the differences between points on the scale but also taps the proportions
in the differences.
Understand the ratio scale with the help of following example.

1) What is your annual income without taxes? --------------
2) How many retail outlets do you operate? --------------
3) How many other organizations did you work for before joining this system? --------------
RATING SCALE
Rating scales have several response categories and are used to elicit (obtain) responses with regards to the
object, events or person studied.
TYPES OF RATING SCALES

The following rating scales are often used in organizational research:
Dichotomous
Consensus Scale Scale Category Scale
Semantic Differential
Graphic Rating Scale
Scale
RATING SCALES
Numerical Scale
Staple Scale
Constant Sum Rating
Scale Likert Scale Itemized Rating Scale
1) Dichotomous Scale: (Dichotomous scale is the part of nominal scale)

The dichotomous scale is used to elicit (obtain) a Yes or No answer of the specific statement.
Understand the dichotomous scale with the help of following examples.
Do you own a car? Yes No

Do you like work? Yes No
Are you satisfied with your job? Yes No
2) Category Scale: (Category scale is the part of nominal scale)

Category scale uses multiple items to elicit a single response.
Understand the category scale with the help of following examples.
1. Your income (Pak Rs.) ------ Under 15000

------ 15001 – 30000
------ 30001 – 45000
------ 45001 – 60000
------ 60001 – 75000
------ Over 75000
2. Your department ------ IT

------ R&D
------ HRM
------ Finance
------ Marketing
------ Production/Operation
3) Semantic Differential Scale: (Semantic differential scale is the part of interval scale)
Semantic differential is a type of a rating scale designed to measure the meaning of objects, events, and
concepts. This is a seven point scale and the end points of the scale are associated with bipolar labels.
Bipolar means two opposite streams. Note: Although a 7-point scale is common, but acceptable fewer
choices, 5 or even 3. Understand the semantic differential scale with the help of following examples.
SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL SCALE
Rate the College on the following dimensions by putting a mark on one of the 7 dimension.
Quit ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ Noisy
Dirty ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ Clean
Good ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ Bad
Cheap ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ Expensive
Beautiful ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ Ugly
4) Numerical Scale: (Numerical scale is the part of interval scale)

The numerical scale is similar to the semantic differential scale, with the difference that number on a
5-point or 7-point scale are provided with bipolar adjectives at both ends. Understand the numerical scale
with the help of following example.
NUMERICAL SCALE
Rate the job on the following dimensions by putting a mark on one of the 7 dimension
How pleased are you with your new job?

Extremely Pleased 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Extremely Displeased
How pleased are you with salary package of your job?

How pleased are you with job description of your job?

How pleased are you with working condition of your job?

How pleased are you with promotional opportunities of your job?

5) Itemized Rating Scale: (Itemized scale is the part of interval scale)

A five-point or seven point scale is used for each item and the respondent states the appropriate number on
the side of each item. The responses to the items are then summed. Understand the itemized scale with
the help of following example.
ITEMIZED SCALE
Respond to each item using the scale below, and indicate your response no. on the line by each item.
1 = Very Unlikely, 2 = Unlikely, 3 = Neither Unlikely nor Likely, 4 = Likely, 5 = Very Likely
SR. NO. SCALE ITEM (Job Involvement)
1 My work is very interesting. -----------

2 Life without my work will be dull. -----------
3 My job means a lot more to me than just money. -----------
4 The major satisfaction in my life comes from my jobs. ------------
5 I would probably keep working even if I didn’t need money. -----------
6) Likert Scale: (Likert scale is the part of interval scale)

It was developed Rensis Likert. The Likert scale is designed to examine how strongly subjects agree or
disagree with statement on a 5-point or 7-point scale. Understand the Likert scale with the help of
following example.
LIKERT SCALE
Please indicate your response to each of the following items by circling the number that best
describe your feelings.
1 = Strongly Disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Neither agree nor disagree, 4 = Agree, 5 = Strongly Agree
SR. NO. SCALE ITEM (Job Involvement) 1 2 3 4 5
1 My work is very interesting.
2 Life without my work will be dull.
3 My job means a lot more to me than just money.
4 The major satisfaction in my life comes from my jobs.
5 I would probably keep working even if I didn’t need money.
7) Fixed or Constant Sum Scale: (Fixed or constant sum scale is the part of ordinal scale) The respondents
are asked to distribute a given number of points across various items. Understand the fixed or constant
sum scale with the help of following example.
FIXED OR CONSTANT SUM SCALE

In choosing a SOFT DRINK, indicate the importance you attach to each of the following five
aspects by allotting points for each to total 100 in all.
SR. NO. Characteristics of Soft Drink Points
1 Taste
2 Price
3 Color
4 Quality
5 Packaging
TOTAL 100
8) Stapel Scale: (Stapel scale is the part of interval scale)

It was developed by Jan Staple. This scale simultaneously measures both the direction and intensity of the
attitude toward the items under study. The characteristics of interest to the study is placed at the center with
a numerical scale ranging, say, from + 3 to – 3, on either side of the item. Understand the stapel scale
with the help of following example.
STAPEL SCALE
State how you would rate your manager’s ability with respect to each of the characteristics
mentioned below, by circling the appropriate number.
+3 +3 +3
+2 +2 +2
+1 +1 +1
Communication Skill Interpersonal Skill Technical Skill
-1 -1 -1
-2 -2 -2
-3 -3 -3
RANKING SCALE (Ranking scale is ordinal in nature)

Ranking scales are used to tap preferences between two or more objects or items.
TYPES OF RANKING SCALE

The major types of ranking methods are paired comparisons, forced choice and comparative scale.
1) Paired Comparison: Suppose, rater evaluates the six employees. The names of these employees are
listed on the left side of a sheet of paper. The evaluator then compares the first employee with the second
employee on a chosen performance criterion, such as quality of work, If evaluator believes that the first
employees has produced more work than the second employee, a check mark is placed by the first employee
name. The rater then compares the first employee to the third fourth, fifth, and sixth employee on the same
performance criterion, placing a check mark by the name of the employees who produced the most work
in each paired comparison. The process is repeated until each employee has been compared to every other
employee. The employee with the most check marks is considered to be best performer.
2) Forced Choice: The forced choice enables respondents to rank objects relative to one another’s, among
the alternatives provided. This is easier for the respondents, particularly if the number of choices to be
ranked is limited in number. Understand the forced choice method with the help of following examples.
FORCED CHOICE
Rank the following newspapers that you would like to subscribe to in the order of preference. Assign
the number 1 to the most preferred choice, and 5 to the least preferred.
Daily Jang ----------
Daily Express ----------
Daily Pakistan ----------
Daily Khabrain ----------
Daily Nawa-i-Waqt ----------
3) Comparative Scale: The comparative scale provides a benchmark or a point of reference to assess
attitudes towards the current object, event, or situations under study. Understand the forced choice
method with the help of following examples.
COMPARATIVE SCALE
In a financial environment, compared to stocks, how useful is it to invest in bonds?
Please circle the appropriate response.
More Useful About the same Less useful
1 2 3 4 5
GOODNESS OF MEASURE
The use of better instruments will ensure more accuracy in results, which in turn, will enhance the
scientific quality of the research. Hence, in some way, we need to assess the “goodness” of the measures
developed. That is, we need to be reasonably sure that the instruments we use in our research do indeed
measure the variables they are supposed to, and that they measure them accurately.
Let us now examine how we can ensure that the measures developed are reasonably good. First an item
analysis of the responses to the questions tapping the variable is done, and then the reliability and validity
of the measures are established.
Goodness of Measure
Validity Reliability
Content Criterion Construct
Face Validity Predictive Concurren Convergen Discriminant

t t
Stability
Consistency
Test-retest Parallel-form Interitem Split-half
ITEM ANALYSIS
Item analysis is done to see if the items in the instrument belong there or not. Each item is examined for
its ability to discriminate between those subjects whose total scores are high, and those with low scores. In
item analysis, the means between the high-score group and the low-score group are tested to detect
significant differences through the t-values (t-test). The item with a high t-value are then included in the
instrument. Thereafter, tests for the reliability of the instrument are done and the validity of the measure is
established.
VALIDITY
Several types of validity test are used to test the goodness of measures. For the sake of clarity, we may
group validity tests under three broad headings: content, criterion-related validity and construct validity
1) Content Validity: Content validity ensures that the measure includes an adequate and representative set
of items that tap the concept.
Face Validity: Face validity refers to the subjective agreement among professionals that a scale logically
appears to reflect accurately what it purpose to measure. The contents of the scale appear to be adequate.
Clear, understandable questions such as “how many children do you have?” are generally agreed to have
face validity. (Some researcher don’t see fit to treat face validity as a valid component of content validity)
2) Criterion Validity: Criterion validity is established when the measure differentiates individuals on the
criterion it is expected to predict. This can be done by establishing concurrent or predictive validity
Concurrent Validity: Concurrent validity is established when the scale discriminates individuals who are
known to be different; that is, they should score differently on the instrument.
Predictive Validity: Predictive validity indicates the ability of a measuring instrument to differentiate
among individuals with reference to a future criterion. For instance, if an ability test administered to
employees at the time of recruitment is to differentiate individuals on the basis of their future job
performance, then those who score low on the test should be poor performers and those with high scores
good performers.
3) Construct Validity: Concurrent validity testifies to how well the results obtained from the use of the
measure fit the theories around which the test is designed. Construct validity may be classified as either
convergent validity and discriminant validity
Convergent Validity: Convergent validity is established when the scores obtained with two different
instruments measuring the same concepts are highly correlated.
Discriminant Validity: This validity is established when, based on theory, two variables are predicted to
be uncorrelated, and the scores obtained by measuring them are indeed empirically found to be so.
RELIABILITY
The reliability of a measure indicates the extent (degree, level) to which it is without bias (error free) and
ensures consistent measurement across time and across the various items in the instrument. In other word,
the reliability of a measure is an indication of the stability and consistency with which the instrument
measure the concept and helps to access the goodness of a measure. For instance, a tailor measuring fabric
with a tape measure obtains a true value of the fabric length. If the tailor takes repeated measures of the
fabric and each time comes up with the same length, it is assumed that the tape measure is reliable.
1) Stability: Stability refers to the ability of a measure to remain the same over time. Stability can be
measured through the test-retest reliability and parallel-form reliability tests.
Test-retest Reliability: Test-retest reliability obtained by repetition of the same scale or measure to the
same respondents at two separate times to test for stability. If the measure is stable over time, the test,
administrated under the same conditions each time, should obtain similar result. For instance, suppose a
researcher measure job satisfaction and finds that 65 %t of the population is satisfied with their job. If the
study is repeated a few weeks later under similar conditions and the researcher again find that 65 % of
the population is satisfied with their jobs. It means that the measure has test-retest reliability. The high
stability between the two measures at time 1 and time 2 indicate a high degree of reliability.
Parallel-form Reliability: Parallel-form reliability obtained when responses on two comparables sets of
measure tapping the same result. Both forms have similar items and the same response format, the only
changes being the wording and the order or sequences of the questions. If two such comparable forms are
highly correlated, we may be fairly certain that measure are reasonable reliable, with minimal error variance
caused by wording, ordering or sequences.
2) Consistency: Consistency can be measured through the interitem consistency reliability and split-half
reliability tests.
Interitem Consistency Reliability: The most popular test of the interitem consistency reliability is
Cronbach’s coefficient alpha (Cronbach’s alpha; Cronbach, 1946) which is used for multipoint-scaled
items and the Kuder-Richardson formulas (Kuder and Richardson, 1937) used for dichotomous items. The
higher the coefficients, the better the measuring instrument.
Split-half Reliability: Split-half reliability reflects the correlations between two halves (divide) of an
instrument. The technique of splitting halves is the most basic method for checking internal consistency
when a measure contains a large number of items. In this method, the researcher may take the result
obtained from one half of the scale items (e.g., odd-numbered items) and check them against the result
from the other half of the items (e.g., even-numbered items).
CHAPTER: 7 DATA COLLECTION METHODS
SOURCES OF DATA
A data source is simply the source of the data. The purpose of a data source is to gather all of the technical
information needed to access the data. Adequate test data are always preferred over predicted or estimated
data. The researcher can be obtained data from primary, secondary or both.
SECONDARY DATA
Secondary data were collected for another purpose and already exist somewhere. Secondary data includes
both internal and external data.
o Internal Secondary Data: Internal secondary data consists of such information as data generated in-
house for earlier studies as well as customer files, such as past customer transactions, letters from
customers, sales call reports and data collected via warranty cards.
o External Secondary Data: External secondary data consists of any data collected by an outside
organization. The quality of external secondary data depends on the selection of appropriate sources.
The major sources of external secondary data are books, academic and professional journals,
government or media reports, conferencing proceeding, unpublished manuscripts, and the like.
Company annual reports and government publication and are the most important and useful sources of
information.
Advantages of Secondary Data: Some key advantages of secondary data include the following:
- It may provide a solution to the research problems.
- It may provide ideas for the method to be used in research.
- It can be obtained more cheaply and quickly than primary data.
Limitations of Secondary Data: Some limitations of secondary data include the following:
- It may be support a limited point of view.
- It may not be fully focused on your needs.
- It won´t include the opinions of your prospects and clients
- It may not be accurate because of errors in gathering or analyzing the data.
PRIMARY DATA
When the needed data don’t exist, inaccurate, incomplete or unreliable, the researcher will have to collect
primary data. Primary data freshly gathered and collected by conducting individual’s interview, focus
groups, panels, and unobtrusive methods.
Primary data can be expensive and time consuming to collect but primary research is often the only way to
successfully answer specific research questions. Researchers usually start their investigation by examining
secondary data to see whether the problem can be partly or wholly solved without collecting costly primary
data.
Advantages of Primary Data: Some key advantages of primary data include the following:
- It is specific to your needs
- It gives you an edge over competitors due to fresh information.
- You can directly get opinions from your prospects and clients.
- It gives you accurate and reliable information than secondary data.
Limitations of Secondary Data: Some important limitations of primary data include the following:
- It can be very expensive
- It can require expertise to analyze
- It can be very time consuming to gather and analyze.
PRIMARY SOURCE OF DATA

The four main primary sources of data are individuals, focus groups, panels, and unobtrusive methods.
PRIMARY SOURCE OF DATA
Individual Focus Groups Panels Unobtrusive Method
1) Individual: The individual interview is conducted one-on-one using open-ended questions that require
the respondents to generate their answers. The focus of individual interviewing is not to have people answer
lots of yes/no questions but to get them to open up and discuss their attitude and opinions. This technique
requires a great deal of skill on the interview in term of both conducting the interview and interpreting the
results.
2) Focus Groups: A focus group is a gathering of 06 to 10 people who are invited to spend a few hours
with a skilled moderator to discuss certain topic such as new product ideas, reactions to certain consumer
problems, and so forth. The moderator /interviewer generally have a list of specific points to discussed, and
these are used to prompt discussion. Participants are normally paid a small sum of attending or may be
voluntary. The meeting is typically held in pleasant surrounding and refreshments are served.
In sum, focus groups are used for:
o Exploratory studies
o Conducting sample surveys
o Making generalization based on the information gathered by them
Video-conferencing: If regional variations in response are expected, several focus groups could be formed
including trained moderators at different locations. This process easily facilitate through video-
conferencing.
3) Panels: Focus groups meet for a one-time group session; panels (of members) meet more than once.
In cases where the effects of certain changes are to be studied over a period of time, panel studies are very
useful. Individuals are randomly chosen to serve as panel members for a research study. For
instance, if the effects of a proposed advertisement for a certain brand of soft drinks are to be assessed
quickly, the panel members can be exposed to the advertisement and their intentions of purchasing the
brand assessed.
There are two types of panels: Static Panels and Dynamic Panels
▪ Static Panels: In static panels, the same panel members serve over extended periods of time. The main
advantage of the static panel is that it offers a good and sensitive measurement of the changes that take
place between two points in time-a much better alternative than using two different groups at two
different times.
▪ Dynamic Panels: In dynamic panels, the panels members change from time to time as various phases
of the study are in progress.
4) Unobtrusive Method: Unobtrusive method or unobtrusive measures is a primary method of data

collection used frequently in the social sciences and business research. The term "unobtrusive measures"
was first coined by Webb, Campbell, Schwartz, & Sechrest in a 1966 book titled Unobtrusive Measures.
Unobtrusive measures originate from a primary source that does not involve people. For example, the
number of different brands of soft drink cans found in trash bags also provides a measure of their
consumption levels.
Another example of unobtrusive method is the availability of newspaper or magazines in a

college/university library, which offers a good indication of their popularity, frequency of use, or both.
DATA COLLECTION METHODS

Data collection methods are an integral part of research design. There are several data collection methods,
each with its own advantages and disadvantages. The use of appropriate data collection methods can greatly
enhance the value of research. The choice of data collection method depends on the facilities available, the
degree of accuracy required, the expertise of the researcher, the time span of the study and other costs and
resources associated with and available for data gathering. Data collection methods include interviews,
questionnaire, observation, and projective tests.
DATA COLLECTION METHODS
Interview Questionnaire Observation Projective Test
- Face-to-Face - Personally - Direst - TAT

- Telephone Administered Observation - Inkblot Test
- CAI - Sentence Complete
- CATI - Mail - Mechanical - Word Association
- CAPI Questionnaires Observation
01) Interviews: One method of collecting data is to interview respondents to obtain information on the
issue of interest. Interviewing is useful data collection method, especially during the exploratory stages of
research. Where a large number of interviews are conducted with a number of different interviewers, it is
important to train the interviewers with care in order to minimize interviewer bias manifested in such ways
as voice inflections, differences in wording, and interoperation. Good training decrease interviewer bias.
Interviews may be structured, unstructured or semi-structured and conducted face to face, by telephone or
online.
- Structured Interview: Structured interview also known as pattern interview. An interview conducted
according to a predetermined outline. A series of questions develop before interview and ask the same
questions from every candidate.
- Unstructured Interview: Unstructured interview also known as un-pattern interview. An interview

conducted without a predetermined outline. In this method, questions develop during interview and ask the
different questions from every candidate. Usually questions based on the candidate qualification,
experience, abilities interest, or current affairs.
- Semi-structured Interview: Semi-structured interview also known as semi-pattern interview. Semi-

structured interview is the combination of structured and unstructured interview. Some questions develop
before interview and some question develop during interview. Generally this is the most popular method
of interview.
1) Face-to-face Interviews: The face-to-face interview also called an in-person interview. Face to face
interviewing remains the most frequently used business research. Interviews can be conducted in the
respondent’s home or workplace, in halls or even simply on the street. Face-to-face interviewing can offer
advantages over telephone or online interview because respondents are more likely to give their undivided
attention when an interviewer is present. A good interviewer will help build rapport with the respondent
and explaining the questions in his own words in case of any confusion.
Advantages of Face-to-face Interviews

The major advantage of face-to-face interviews includes the following:
o Face-to-face interview can read nonverbal cues.
o Face-to-face interview can use visual aids to clarify points.
o Face-to-face interview can clarify the questions, and clear doubts.
o Face-to-face interview can establish rapport and motivate respondent.
Disadvantages of Face-to-face Interviews
The major disadvantages of face-to-face interviews include the following:

o Face-to-face interview takes personal time.
o Respondents can terminate the interview at any time.
o Interviewers need to be trained in case of face-t-face interview.
o Respondents may be concerned about confidentiality of information given.
o Face-to-face interview may be expensive when a wide geographic region is covered.
2) Telephone Interviews: Telephone interview are best suited when information from a large number of
respondent spread over a wide geographic area is to be obtained quickly. Many market surveys are
conducted through structured telephone interviews.
Advantages of Telephone Interviews

The major advantage of telephone interviews includes the following:
o Telephone interviews can be done using CATI.
o Telephone interviews can reach a wide geographic area.
o Telephone interviews is less costly and speedier than face-face-interview.
Disadvantages of Telephone Interviews

The major disadvantages of telephone interviews include the following:
o Nonverbal cues can’t be read.
o Interviews will have to be kept short.
o Obsolete telephone numbers could be contacted & unlisted ones omitted from the sample.
3) Computer-assisted Interviews (CAI): With CAI, questions are flashed onto the computer screen and
interviewers can enter the answers of the respondents directly into the computer. CAI software also
prevents interviewers from asking the wrong questions or in the wrong sequences since the questions are
automatically flashed to respondent in an ordered sequence. For instance: Kaun Banega Crorepati quiz
show by Amitabh Bachan is the example of CAI interviews.
There are two types of computer-assisted interview (CAI): Computer-assisted telephone interview (CATI)
and computer-assisted personal interviews (CAPI).
Computer-assisted Telephone Interview (CATI): With CATI, information can be obtained from people
all over the world since the personal computer (PC) is networked into the telephone system. The PC monitor
prompts the questions with the help of software and the respondent provides the answer. The computer
selects the telephone number, dials and places the responses in the file. The data are analyzed later.
Computer-assisted Personal Interviews (CAPI): CAPI involves big investment in hardware and
software. CAPI has an advantage in that it can be self-administered. Respondent can use their own
computers to run the program by themselves once they receive the software and enter their response.
However, not everyone is comfortable using a personal computer and some may not have access to one.
Advantages of CAI Interviews

The major advantage of CAI interviews includes the following:
o CAI interviews can be done using CATI & CAPI.
o CATI interviews can reach a wide geographic area.
o CATI interviews is less costly and speedier than face-face-interview.
Disadvantages of CAI Interviews

The major disadvantages of CAI interviews include the following:
o Nonverbal cues can’t be read in case of CATI interview.
o Computer –assisted telephone interviews will have to be kept short.
o Obsolete telephone numbers could be contacted & unlisted ones omitted from the sample
02) Questionnaire: A questionnaire is a pre-formulated written set of questions to which respondents
record their answer, usually within closely defined alternatives. (Uma Sekaran)
According to the Wikipedia, “A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions

and other prompts for the purpose of gathering information from respondents”. Questionnaires are an
efficient data collection mechanism when the researcher knows exactly what is required and how to
measure the variables of interest. Questionnaires can be administered personally, mailed the respondent or
electronic distributed.
TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRE
Personally Administered Mail Online

Questionnaires Questionnaires Questionnaires
1) Personally Administered Questionnaires: When the survey is confined to a local area, and the
organization is willing and able to assemble groups of employees to respond the questionnaires at the
workplace, a good way to collect data is to personally administered questionnaires. The main advantage of
this is that the researcher can collect all the completed responses within a short period of time.
Any doubts that the respondents might have on any questions can be clarified on the spot. The researcher
is also afforded the opportunity to introduce the research topic and motivate the respondents to offer their
frank answer.
Advantages of Personally Administered Questionnaires

The major advantage of personally administered questionnaires includes the following:
o Personally administered questionnaires can read nonverbal cues.
o Personally administered questionnaires can use visual aids to clarify points.
o Personally administered questionnaires can all most 100% response rate ensured.
o Personally administered questionnaires can clarify the questions, and clear doubts.
o Personally administered questionnaires can establish rapport and motivate respondent.
Disadvantages of Personally Administered Questionnaires

The major disadvantages of personally administered questionnaires include the following:
o Personally administered questionnaires take personal time.
o Respondents can terminate the questionnaires at any time.
o PAQ are expensive when a wide geographic region is covered.
o Respondents may be concerned about confidentiality of information given.
2) Mail Questionnaires: A mail questionnaire sent to respondents through the mail. Mail questionnaire
requires simple and clearly worded questions. The main advantage of mail questionnaire is that a wide
geographical area can be covered in the survey. They are mailed to respondent, who can complete them
at their convenience, in their home, and at their own pace. However, the return rates of mail questionnaire
are typically low. A 30% rate is considered acceptable.
However, some effective techniques can be employed for improving the rates of response to mail
questionnaires. Sending follow-up letters, enclosing small monetary amounts as incentives with the
questionnaire, and keeping the questionnaires brief all help. The main disadvantages of questionnaire are
that any doubts the respondents might have cannot be clarified.
Advantages of Mail Questionnaires

The major advantage of mail questionnaire includes the following:
o Mail questionnaire can reach a wide geographic area.
o Mail questionnaire is less costly and speedier than personally administered questionnaires.
Disadvantages of Mail Questionnaires

The major disadvantages of mail questionnaire include the following:
o literacy is must
o Response rate is almost always low.
o Follow-up procedures are necessary.
o Mail questionnaire can’t clarify the questions, and clear doubts.
3) Online Questionnaires: Online questionnaire also known as electronic questionnaires. An online

questionnaire provides faster information than mail and self administered questionnaire. Researcher can
include a questionnaire on organizations web site and offer an incentive to answer the questionnaire or it
can place a banner on some frequently visited site such as yahoo, hotmail. Face book and inviting people
to answer question and possible win prize.
Advantages of Online Questionnaires

The major advantage of online questionnaire includes the following:
o Online questionnaire can reach globally.
o Online questionnaire is very speedy.
o Online questionnaire is very inexpensive.
Disadvantages of Online Questionnaires

The major disadvantages of online questionnaire include the following:
o Computer literacy is must
o Response rate is almost always low.
o Respondent must be willing to complete the survey.
o Respondents must have access to the internet facility.
o Online questionnaire can’t clarify the questions, and clear doubts.
03) Observation: Much of what we know comes from observation. In our daily life’s, we notice co-
workers reactions, the smell of perfume, the taste of food and much more.
“Observation is the systematic process of recording the behavioral pattern of people events or objects”.
Business researches can observe people, objects or events by assigning the task to human observers or by
using machines designed for specific observations tasks. For example, researcher may visit different
supermarkets and observe customers buying behavior toward purchasing their products. A Bank might
evaluate possible new branch location by checking traffic pattern, neighborhood conditions and the
locations of competing branches.
The researcher can play one of two roles while gathering observational data: participant observer and non-
participants observers.
-- Participant Observer: The researcher may act as a participant’s observer by collecting the necessary
data with becoming an integral part of the organizational system. The researchers enter the organizations
and become a part of the work team. For examples, if a researcher wants to study group dynamic in work
organizations, then he may join the organizations as an employee and observe the dynamics in groups.
-- Non-participants Observers: The researcher may act as a non-participants observer by collecting the
necessary data without becoming an integral part of the organizational system.
For example, the researcher might sit in the corner of an office and watch and record how the managers
spend their time in workplace. Observation of all the activities of managers, over a period of several days
will allow the researchers to make some generalization on how managers typically spend their time. By
merely observing the activities, recording them systematically and tabulating them, the researcher is able
to come up with some findings.
Structured Observational Studies: Structured observation works according to a plan and involves
specific information of the units that are to be observed. The operations that are to be observed and the
various features that are to be noted or recorded are decided well in advance.
Unstructured Observational Studies: In unstructured observational studies, it is possible that the

observer has no definite ideas regarding the particulars aspects that need focus. In such observation,
observer has the freedom to note down what he or she feels is correct and relevant to the point of study.
This approach of observation is very suitable in the case of exploratory research.
Mechanical Observation: Mechanical observation uses a mechanical or electronic devise that provide
data by recording the events of interest as they occur without a researcher being physically present. In
mechanical observation, videotape, cameras, traffic counters and other machine record the events of
interest.
Understand the concept of mechanical observation with the help of following examples:
o Motor way police used speed-gun to determine the over speed of vehicle.
o Supermarket use barcode scanners to determine the brand sales information.
o Films & electronic recording devices such as video cameras can be used to record data.
o Org. uses the CCT Cameras to watch the activities of their employees during work place.
o A.C Nielsen’s system used for estimating national television audience. Nielson uses a sophisticated
monitoring device called a People Meter to obtain rating for television programs.
Advantages of Observational Studies

The following are among the advantages of observational studies.
o Observation studies give a more realistic picture of spontaneous behaviour.
o The data obtained through observation is more reliable and free form respondent bias.
o In observational studies, it is easier to note the effects of environmental influences on specific outcomes.
For example, the influence of weather (hot, cold, rainy) on employees productivity.
Disadvantages of Observational Studies

The following are among the disadvantages of observational studies.
o Observational studies are very slow and time consuming.
o Observational studies are sometime tedious (boring) and expensive.
o Observers have to be trained in what and how to observe the areas of interest.
o If participants don't know they are being observed there are ethical problems such as deception and
invasion of privacy.
o Observational studies are conducting with the presence of observers unless the camera or another
mechanical system can capture the events of interest.
4) Projective Techniques: Projective techniques are indirect and unstructured methods of investigation
that give respondents the opportunity to recognize their feelings by projecting them into objects or other
people. Here are some examples of the projective techniques used in business research.
PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES
Inkblots Expression Word Association

Tests Sentence Completion TAT
Technique
1) Inkblot Test: Inkblots tests use colored inkblots that are interpreted by the respondents, who explain
what they see in the various pattern and colors. During the test you will be shown a series of ink blot
images. Look at each ink blot for a moment, then select the appropriate response(s). At the end of the test
your responses will be analyzed and scored, and a summary of the test evaluation will be presented to you.
2) Expression Techniques: In this method, the respondents are asked to express the feeling or attitude
about an organization or a brand. The answer of the respondent will reflect their state of mind regarding
specific products
3) Word Association Test: An individual is given a clue or hint and asked to respond to the first thing that
comes to mind. There can be many interpretations of the same thing. For instance, (“What come to mind
when I say work”. One respondent might say work is a lot of fun,” whereas another might say “work is
boring” these response may provide some insight into individual feelings and attitude towards work.
4) Sentence Completion Test: In this test, the respondents are asked to complete an incomplete sentence
or story. For instance, (“The Coke makes people feel ---------------.”) One respondent might say amazing”
whereas another might say “just coo” these response may provide some insight into individual feelings and
attitude towards Coke.
5) Thematic Apperception Tests (TAT): The TAT was developed by the American psychologist Henry
A. Murray and Christiana D. Morgan during the 1930s.
TAT call for the respondent to weave a story around the picture that is shown. Several need patterns and
personality characteristics of respondents can be traced through these tests.
GUIDELINE FOR QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN

Sound questionnaire design principle should focus on six areas as following:
Purpose of
Questions
Personal Language of Questionnaire
Information
GUIDELINE FOR
QUESTIONNAIRE
Sequence of Types of
Questions Questions
Length of
Questions
1) Contents and Purpose of the Questions: The nature of the variable tapped, subjective feelings or
objective facts will determine what kinds of questions are asked. Contents of the questions should be match
according the areas of interest. If contents of the questions don’t reflect the areas of interest, then the entire
process of research is just time wasting.
2) Language and Wording of the Questionnaire: The language of the questionnaire should approximate
the level of understanding of the respondents. The choice of words will depends on their educational level,
the usage of terms in the culture of the respondent. It is essential to word the questions in a way that can be
understood by the respondent. If some questions are not understood by the respondent, the researcher will
obtain wrong answer to the questions. In this way the findings of the research don’t reflect the real picture.
3) Types and Forms of Questions: The type of question refers to whether the question is open-ended or
closed. The form of the question refers to whether it is positively or negatively worded.
Open-ended Question: Open-ended question allow respondent to answer them in their own choice.
An example of open-ended question is asking the responded to state five things that are interesting and
challenging in the job. Another example is asking what the respondents like about their work environment.
Close-ended Question: Close-ended question allow respondent to answer the questions among a set of
alternatives given by the researcher. All items in a questionnaire using a nominal, ordinal interval or ratio
scale are considered close-ended questions. An example of open-ended question is asking the responded
“do you like job”. Choice is YES or No. Respondent can chose yes or no options as per their choice.
Positive and Negatively Worded Questions: Instead of phrasing all questions positively, it is advisable
to include some negatively worded questions as well, so the tendency in respondents mechanically circle
the points toward one end of the scale is minimized. For example, if the respondent has circle 5 for a
positively worded question such as “I feel I have been able to complete a number of different task in my
job”. He can’t circle number 5 again to the negatively worded questions “I don’t feel I am very effective in
my job”
Double-barreled Questions: A questions covering several issues at once is referred to as double-barreled

question. Such question should be avoided and two or more separate questions asked. For
example, the question “Do you think there is a good market for the product and it will sell well?” Could
bring a “YES response to the first part (i.e., there is good market for the product) and a “NO” response to
the later part (i.e., it will sell well?”. In this case, it would be better to ask two different questions as
followings:
1) Do you think there is good market for the product?
2) Do you think the product will sell well?
The answer might be “yes” to both or “no” to both, “yes” to the first and “no” to the second, or “no to the
first and “yes” to the second. If we combined the two questions and asked double-barreled questions, we
would confuse the respondent and obtain ambiguous responses. Hence, double-barreled questions should
be eliminated.
Ambiguous Questions: Some questions might be ambiguously worded and the responded may not be sure
what exactly they mean. For example, “to what extent would you say you are happy”. Respondent might
find it difficult to decide whether the question refers to their state of feelings in the workplace, or at home.
Because it is an organizational survey, a respondent might presume that the question related to the
workplace. Yet the researcher might have intended to inquire about individual experience in personal life.
The result is mixed bag of ambiguous responses that don’t accurately provide the correct answer to the
question.
Recall-dependent Questions: Some questions might require respondents to recall experience from the
past that are hazy in their memory. Answer to such questions might have bias. For example, if an employee
who has had 30 years service in the organizations is asked to state “when he first started working in a
particular department and for how long”. He may not be able to give the correct answers and may be way
off in his response. A better source for obtaining that information would be the personnel records.
Leading Questions: Questions should not be phrased in such a way that they lead the respondents to give
the responses that the researcher would like them to give. For example, “Do you think that in these days
of increasing costs of living, employees should be given good pay rises?” By asking leading questions, we
are signaling and pressuring respondents to say “yes”. Tagging the questions to rising living costs makes it
difficult for most respondents to say “no”.
Social Responsibility Questions: Questions should not be worded such that they elicit socially desirable
responses. For instance, a question “Do you think that older people should be laid off?” would be elicit a
response of “no”. Because society would frown on a person who said that elderly people should be fired
even if they are capable of performing their job satisfactorily. This question asked in this way “To
what extent do you think companies should continue to keep the elderly on their payroll?
Funneling Question: Asking general questions before specific questions in order to obtain unbiased
response. It is advisable to ask open-ended questions to get a broad idea and form some impression about
the situations. For instance, a question that could be asked would be: “What are some of your feelings
about working for this organization?”
Unbiased Questions: It is important to ask questions in a way that ensures the least bias in the responses.
For example, “Tell me how your experience your job” is better question than,” “Boys, the work do must
be really boring; let me hear how you experience it.” The latter question is biased.
4) Length of Questions: Simple short questions are preferable than long questions. As a rule of thumb, a
question or statement in the questionnaire should not exceed 20 words. (Horst, 1968; Oppenheim, 1986)
5) Sequence of Questions: The sequence of questions in the questionnaire should be start from easy
questions to those that progressively more difficult. This approach facilitates the easy and smooth progress
of the respondent through the items in the questionnaires.
6) Personal Information: Personal information elicits such information as age, educational level, marital
status, religion, profession and income. Unless absolutely necessary, it is best not to ask for the name of
respondent. Questions seeking personal information should appear at the beginning or at the end of the
questionnaires a matter of choice for a researcher. Some researchers ask for personal data at the end rather
than the beginning of the questionnaire, their reasons may be that by the time respondent reaches the end
of the questionnaire he or she have been convinced of the genuineness of the questions framed by the
researcher.
CHAPTER: 8 SAMPLING
SAMPLING
Sampling is a method of studying from a few selected items, instead of the entire big number of units. The
small selection is called sample. The large number of items of units of particular characteristic is called
population. Example: We check a sample of rice to see whether the rice well boiled or not. We check a
small sample of solution to decide how much a given solution is concentrated. Thus with the sample we
infer about a population.
KEY CONCEPT OF SAMPLING

1) Population or Universe: Population refers to the entire group of peoples, organizations, events or things
of interests that researcher whishes to investigate.
Understand the concept of population with the help of following examples.
▪ If the Principal of a private college wants to know the kinds of advertising strategies adopted by private
college in Faisalabad, then all private colleges in Faisalabad will be the population.
▪ If an organizational consultant is interested in studying the causes of job satisfaction on the middle level
manager in Pakistan banking sector in Pakistan. Then all middle managers in the banking sector in
Pakistan will make up the population.
▪ Suppose, ministry of health want to know how patients are cared in government hospitals in Pakistan.
Then all the patents in government hospitals in Pakistan will form the population.
2) Elements: An element is a single member of the population.

▪ If 500 middle managers in a particular organization happen to be the population of interest to a
researcher. Then each middle manager will be an element.
▪ If 500 pieces of machinery are to be approved after inspecting a few, there would be 500 elements in
this population.
3) Sampling Frame: Sampling frame also known as working population. The sampling frame is the list of
elements from which the sample may be drawn. For example, the payroll of an organization would serve
as the sampling frame if its members are to be studied. Likewise, the university database containing a listing
of all students, facility, administrators and supporting staff serve as sampling frame. A roster of class
students could be sampling frame for the study of student in a class. The telephone directory is also
frequently used as a sampling frame for some types of study.
4) Sample: A sample is a subset or some part of the large population. Acceptable precise results can usually
be obtained by questioning only a part of population.
5) Sampling: Sampling is the process of selecting sufficient number of elements from the population to
make conclusions about the whole population. Researches measure the thoughts and attitudes of thousands
or even millions of people by asking only a few hundred and provide accurate results.
6) Subject: A subject is single member of the sample, just as an element is a single member of the
population. The people who participate as part of sample are usually referred to as subject or respondent.
▪ If 100 employees from the total population of 1000 employees form the sample for the study, then each
employee in the sample is a subject.
▪ If a sample of 50 machines from a total of 500 machines is to be inspected, then every one of the 50
machine is a subject.
▪ If a sample of 50 hospitals from a total of 500 hospitals is to be studied, then each hospital in the sample
is a subject.
7) Census: An investigation of all the individual elements making up a population. If you were to ask
questions of every person in the research population, you would be conducting a census. Some examples
of census are agriculture census, live stock census, population study. However, researches rarely use the
entire population due to quite expensive and time consuming.
Parameters: The characters of the population such as μ (Population Mean) σ (Population Standard
Deviation), and σ2 (Population Variance) are referred to as its parameters.
REASONS FOR SAMPLING

The reasons for using a sample, rather than collecting data from the entire population are following:
In research investigations involving several hundreds and even thousands of elements, it would be
practically impossible to collect data from, or test, or examine every element. Even if it were possible, it
would be prohibitive in terms of time, cost, and other human resources. Study of a sample rather than the
entire population is also sometimes likely to produce more reliable results. This is mostly because fatigue
(weakness) is reduced and fewer errors will therefore result in collecting data, especially when a large
number of elements are involved.
NORMALITY OF DISTRIBUTIONS
Attributes or characteristics of the population are generally normally distributed. When the properties of
the population are not over-represented or under-represented in the sample, we will have a representative
sample. When a sample consists of elements in the population that have extremely high values on the
variable we are studying, the sample mean will be far higher than the population mean and vice versa.
SAMPLING PROCESS
The major steps in sampling process include the following:
Define the Population
Select the Sampling Frame
Select the Sampling Design
Determine Sample Size
Execute the Sampling Process
SAMPLING DESIGN
There are two major types of sampling design: Probability and Non-probability Sampling.
SAMPLING DESIGN
Probability Sampling Non-probability Sampling
-- Simple Random Sampling -- Convenience Sampling

-- Complex Probability Sampling -- Snowball Sampling
- Systematic Sampling
- Stratified Random Sampling -- Purposive Sampling
- Cluster Sampling - Judgment Sampling
- Area Sampling - Quota Sampling
- Double Sampling
Probability Sample: A sampling techniques in which every member of the population has equal chances
of being selection. The important types of probability sampling are simple random sampling, systematic
sampling, stratified random sampling, cluster sampling, area sampling and double sampling.
Non-probability Sample: A sampling techniques in which members of the population don’t have equal
chances of being selection because sample are selected on the bases of convenient or judgment.
The important types of non-probability sampling are convenient sampling, judgment sampling, quota
sampling and snowball sampling.
1) Unrestricted or Simple Random Sampling: In the simple random sampling, every element in the
population has a known and equal chance of being selected as a subject. For instance, Let us say there are
1000 elements in the population, and we need a sample of 100. Suppose we were to drop pieces of paper
in a basket, each bearing the name of one of the element, and draw 100 of those from the basket with our
eyes closed. We know that the first piece drawn will have a 1/1000 chance of being drawn, the next 1/999
chance of being drawn, and so on. In this case, each single element in the basket has a known and equal
chance of being selected as a subject.
Restricted or Complex probability Sampling: The five most common complex probability sampling
designs are systematic sampling, stratified random sampling, cluster sampling, area sampling, and double
sampling
2) Systematic Sampling: The systematic sampling design involves drawing every nth element in the
population staring with a randomly chosen element between 1 and n. For instance: Suppose a researcher
wants to take a sample of 35 households from a total population of 260 houses in a particular locality.
First, nth is calculated as the population size (260) divided by the sample size (35). (260/35=7.4 If n is not
whole number, then round down) With systematic sampling, every 7 th house from the list would be selected.
Let us say that the random number was 7, then houses numbered 07, 14, 21, 28 and so on, would be sampled
until the 35 houses were selected.
3) Stratified Random Sampling: Stratified random sampling as its name implies, involve a process of
stratification or segregation followed by random selection of subjects from each stratum. The population is
first divided into mutually exclusive groups that are relevant, appropriate and meaningful in the context of
the study. For example, if the CEO of a company is concerned about low motivational level among the
employees, it makes sense to stratify the population of organizational members according to their job level.
Proportionate and Disproportionate Stratified Random Sampling: Once the population has been
stratified in some meaningful way, a sample of members from each stratum can be drawn either a simple
random sampling or a systematic sampling procedure. The subject drawn from each stratum can be either
proportionate or disproportionate to the number of elements in the stratum. For instance, if an organization
employs 10 top managers, 30 middle managers, 50 first line managers, 100 supervisors, 50 clerks and 20
secretaries and stratified sample of about 140 people is needed for some specific survey. The researcher
might decide to include the sample 20% of members from each stratum. This would means that 2 from the
top, six from the middle, and 10 from the first line management. In addition, 20 supervisor, 100 clerks and
4 secretaries would be represented in the sample. This type of sampling is called a proportionate stratified
random sampling.
If researcher concerned that information from only 2 members at the top and 6 from the middle levels
would not truly reflect the sample size, then a researcher might decide to use a disproportionate stratified
random sampling. The number of subjects from each stratum would now be altered, while keeping the
sample size unchanged. Disproportionate stratified random sampling are made either when some stratum
are too small or too large
PROPORTIONATE AND DISPROPORTIONATE STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING
Proportionate Disproportionate
Job Level Number of Elements
Sampling (20%) Sampling
Top Mangers 10 2 7
Middle Managers 30 6 15
First-line Managers 50 10 20
Supervisors 100 20 30
Clerks 500 100 60
Secretaries 20 4 10
Total 710 142 142
4) Cluster Sampling: A population is divided into cluster using naturally occurring geographic or other
boundaries. Then, clusters are randomly selected and a sample is collected by randomly selecting from
each cluster.
For example: Suppose you divided the state into 12 primary regions. Then selected at random four regions
2, 7, 4 and 12 and concentrated your efforts in these primary units. You could take a random sample of the
residents in each of these regions and interview them. (Note that this is a combination of cluster sampling
and simple random sampling). A specific type of cluster sampling is area sampling
Area Sampling: Area sampling is less expensive than most other probability sampling design. It is not
dependent on a sampling frame. For instance: A city map showing the blocks of the city is adequate
information to allow a researcher to take a sample of the blocks and obtain information from the residents
therein.
5) Double Sampling: A sampling design where initially a sample is used in a study to collect some
preliminary information of interest and later a subsample of this primary sample is used to examine the
matter in more details. For instance, a structure interview might indicate that a subgroup of the respondents
has more insight into the problems of the organization. Theses respondents might be interviewed again and
asked additional questions. This research adopts a double sampling procedure.
Non-probability Sample: A sampling techniques in which members of the population don’t have equal
chances of being selection because sample are selected on the bases of convenient or judgment. The
important types of non-probability sampling are convenient sampling, judgment sampling, quota sampling
and snowball sampling.
1) Convenience Sampling: Convenience sampling also called haphazard or accidental sampling.
Convenience sampling refers to the collection of information from members of the population who are
conveniently available to provide it. For example, it may be convenient and economical to sample
employees in companies in a nearby area.
2) Snowball Sampling: Snowball sampling also known as chain referral sampling. Snowball sampling
refers to a variety of procedures in which initial respondent are selected by probability methods and
additional respondents are then obtained from information provided by initial respondents. This technique
is used to locate members of rare population by referrals. For example, a researcher is studying
environmental engineers but can find only two. He asks these engineers if they know any more. They give
him several further referrals, which in turn provide additional contacts. In this way, he manages to contact
sufficient engineers.
3) Purposive Sampling: The sampling here is confined to specific types of people who can provide the
desired information, either because they are the only ones who have it, or conform to some criteria set by
the researcher. This type of sampling called purposive sampling and this have two major types of Judgment
and quota sampling.
Judgment Sampling: Judgment sampling involves the choice of subjects who are most prominent placed
or in the best position to provide the information required. For instance, if a researcher wants to find out
what it takes for women managers to make it to top, the only people who can give sufficient information
are the women who have risen to the top positions of president, vice president and important top level
executives in work organization. They could reasonably be expected to have expert knowledge by virtue
and might be able to provide good information to the researcher.
Quota Sampling: Quota sampling ensures that certain groups are adequately represented in the study
through the assignment of quota. Generally, the quota fixed for each subgroup is based on the total numbers
of each group in the population. For example, a researcher might ask for a sample of 100 females, or 100
individuals between the ages of 20-30.
Quota sampling is useful when time is limited, a sampling frame is not available, the research budget is
very tight or when detailed accuracy is not important
QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW AND CRITICAL THINKING

1) You want to draw a stratified sample of 50 children from a school containing 70% girls and 30% boys.
How many girls should be in your sample?
How many boys should be in your sample?
(n=35 70% of 50) (n=15 30 % of 50)
CHAPTER: 9 DATA ANALYSIS
Descriptive Statistics: Descriptive statistics are used by researchers to summarize and "describe" data
found during research. Typically researchers deal with lots of data and descriptive statistics provide a way
for the researchers to summarize the main properties of a large group of data into just a few numbers.
Some examples of descriptive statistics are frequency distributions, measures of center tendency (i.e.,
mean, median, and mode), measures of variability (standard deviation, variance) range, the minimum and
maximum values of the variables, kurtosis, skewness and graphs like pie charts and bar charts.
Inferential Statistics: Inferential statistics also known as inductive statistics. Examples of inferential
statistics include linear regression analyses, logistic regression analyses, ANOVA, correlation analyses,
structural equation modeling, and survival analysis.
Structural Equation Modeling (SEM): SEM is a statistical technique for testing and estimating causal
relations using a combination of statistical data and qualitative causal assumptions.
ANNOVA: Statistical technique for determining the degree of difference or similarity between two or more
groups of data. It is based on the comparison of the average value of a common component. There are
several varieties of ANOVA, such as one-factor (or one-way) ANOVA, two-factor (or two-way) ANOVA,
and so on, and also repeated measures ANOVA.
One-way between groups ANOVA. A one-way between groups ANOVA is used when you want to test
the difference between two or more groups.
One-way repeated measures ANOVA. A one-way repeated measures ANOVA is used when you have
a single group on which you have measured something more than one time. For example, if you wanted
to test students’ understanding of a subject, you could administer the same test at the beginning of the
course, in the middle of the course, and at the end of the course. You would then use one-way repeated
measures ANOVA to see if students’ performance on the test changed over time.
MANOVA: Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) is an extension of analysis of variance

(ANOVA) that allows the examination of more than one dependent variable. For example, if a drug trial
compares depression levels in a group taking a drug to those levels in a control group without the drug,
ANOVA would be sufficient. However, to compare the drug in combination with psychotherapy, the
research would have to include four groups: with drug and therapy, with drug and no therapy, no drug with
therapy, and no drug and no therapy. MANOVA would allow for comparison across all the variance
among these groups, identifying the effects of combinations of dependent variables.
Multicollinearity: Multicollinearity is an often encountered statistical phenomenon in which two or more

independent variables in a multiple regression model are highly correlated. In it most severe case (if the
correlation between two independent variables is equal to 1 or -1) multicollinearity makes the estimation
of the regression coefficients impossible.
SOME SOFTWARE PACKAGES USEFUL FOR DATA ANALYSIS
SPSS: Statistical Package for the Social Science is data management and analysis program designed to do
statistical data analysis, including descriptive statistics as well as inferential and multivariate statistical
procedures like analysis of variance (ANOVA), factor analysis, cluster analysis and category data analysis.
LISREL: LISREL is a statistical software package and an acronym for linear structural relations. It was
developed in 1970s by Karl Jöreskog. It is designed to estimate and test structural equation models. SEM
are complex, statistical models of linear relationship among laten (unobserved) variables and manifest
(observed) variables. You can use LISERL to carry out exploratory factor analysis and confirmatory factor
analysis.
IMPORTANT BRM TOPICS
Introduction to Business Research Method

Q.1) Defining BRM - Internal VS External Consultants/Researchers with Advantages & Disadvantages
Scientific Investigation
Q.2) The Hallmark of Scientific Investigation
Q.3) The Hypothetico-deductive Methods
The Broad Problem Area and Problem Statement

Q.4) Elements of Research Proposal
Theoretical Framework and Hypothesis Development

Q.5) Types of Variables: Dependent, Independent, Moderating & intervening or Mediating Variables
Q.6) Formats of Hypothesis Statements: If-then, Directional, Non-directional, Null and Alternates
Elements of Research Design

Q.7) Elements of Research Design (Completer Chapter)
Measurement: Scaling, Reliability and Validity

Q.8) Types of Scales: Nominal Scale, Ordinal Scale, Interval Scale and Ratio Scale
Q.9) Types of Rating Scales
Q.10) Types of Reliability and Validity
Data Collection Method

Q.11) Sources of Primary and Secondary Data with Advantages and Disadvantages
Q.12) Data Collection Methods: Interviewing, Questionnaire, Observation and Projective Tests
Q.13) Guideline for Questionnaire Design
Sampling
Q.14) Sampling Process - Reason for Sampling
Q.15) Types of Sampling: Probability Sampling and Non-probability Sampling

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NOTES FOR BRM

CHAPTER: 1 OVERVIEW OF BUSINESS RESEARCH

Business Research is an organized, systematic, data-based, critical, objective, scientific inquiry or

TYPES OF BUSINESS RESEARCH

TYPES OF BUSINESS RESEARCH

Applied Research Basic Research

Understand the applied research with the help of various examples.

o What to pay employees

THE MANAGER AND THE CONSULTANT–RESEARCHER

Advantages of Internal Consultants/Researchers

Disadvantages of Internal Consultants/Researchers

Advantages of External Consultants/Researchers: The major advantages of external

Disadvantages of External Consultants/Researchers: The major disadvantages of external

CHAPTER: 2 SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

THE HALLMARKS OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

The hallmarks or main distinguishing characteristics of scientific research may be as follow:

Objectivity Precision and Replicability

THE HYPOTHETICO-DEDUCTIVE METHOD

The seven-step process in the hypothetico-deductive method is given below:

Identify a Broad Problem

4) Determine Measures: Measurement is the assignment of numbers or other symbols to characteristics

CHAPTER: 3 THE BROAD PROBLEM AREA & PROBLEM STATEMENT

In sum, a good literature review ensures the following:

o The research effort is relative to existing knowledge

HOW TO APPROACH THE LITERATURE REVIEW

Literature reviews include the following sources:

Conference Proceedings DATA Reports

EVALUATING THE LITERATURE

DOCUMENTING THE LITERATURE REVIEW

Format FOR Text Citations (APA)

Format FOR Text Citations (SMS)

FORMAT FOR REFERENCING ARTICLES

APA Style Chicago Style Turabian’s Style MLA Style

APA Specimen format for referencing: (Journal Article)

Chicago Style format for referencing: (Journal Article)

7) Page Number: 31 - 40 (Page: start and page: end)

Examples of well-defined problem statements

1) What network system is best suited for UBL?

ELEMENTS OF RESEARCH PROPOSAL

GUIDELINE FOR RESEARCH PROPOSAL WRITING

Variable: A variable is something that can be changed, such as a characteristic or value.

Dependent Independent Moderating Mediating

Working Hour Productivity

Moderating Variable (MV)

Promotion Campaign Motivation to Save Saving Activity

DEFINITIONS RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS

What is a Strong Hypothesis? A strong hypothesis should fulfill five conditions.

FORMATS OF HYPOTHESES STATEMENTS

The three formats can be seen in the following examples.

The Steps to be followed in hypothesis testing are:

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE (Questions for Review and Critical Thinking)

Classify each of the following business examples as dependent, independent, mediating or

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE (Questions for Review and Critical Thinking)

WHAT IS RESEARCH DESIGN?

The research design of a study defines the following:

o Purpose of the Study (Exploratory, Descriptive or Casual)

CHAPTER: 5 ELEMENTS OF RESEARCH DESIGN