A Seminar Report on

HOVERCRAFT
This Report is submitted for the partial fulfillment of B.Tech, Seminar (ME 4097)
in
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Submitted by
Student of B.Tech, 4TH year, 8th Semester,
Mechanical Engineering
National Institute of Technology, Sikkim

Under the guidance of

Department of Mechanical Engineering
National Institute of Technology, Sikkim
 ABSTRACT
An Air cushion vehicle is a vehicle that flies like a plane but can float like a boat, can
drive like a car but will traverse ditches and gullies as it is a flat terrain. An air cushion
vehicle also sometimes called an air cushion vehicle because it can hover over or move
across land or water surfaces while being held off from the surfaces by a cushion of air.
A Hovercraft can travel over all types of surfaces including grass, mud, muskeg, sand,
quicksand, water and ice .Hovercraft prefer gentle terrain although they are capable of
climbing slopes up to 20%, depending upon surface characteristics. Modern Hovercrafts
are used for many applications where people and equipment need to travel at speed over
water but be able load and unload on land. For example they are used as passenger or
freight carriers, as recreational machines and even use as warships. Hovercrafts are very
exciting to fly and feeling of effortlessly traveling from land to water and back again is
unique.
 CONTENT

1. Chapter-1: INTRODUCTION 1

2. Chapter-2: LITERATURE RIVIEW 2-3

2.1. History of air cushion vehicle 2-3

3. Chapter-3: WORKING PRINCIPLE OF AIR CUSHION VECHILE 4- 6
3.1. Law’s that acts in air cushion vehicle/ hovercraft 4
3.2. Hovercraft Principle 4
3.3. Air cushion 4
3.4. Movement of Hovercraft 5
3.5. Control Hovercraft 5
3.6. Momentum curtain 5-6
4. Chapter-4: PARTS OF HOVERCRAFT 7-11
4.1. Hull 7
4.2. Skirt 7-8
4.3. Rudders 8-9
4.4. Propellers 9-10
4.5. Lifting fan 10-11
4.6. Air-box 11
4.7. Engine 11
5. Chapter-5: APPLICATIONS 12-13

6. Chapter-6: CONCLUSION 14

7. Chapter-7: FUTURE DEVELOPMENT 15

8. Chapter-8: REFERENCES 16
 INTRODUCTION

A hovercraft, also known as an air-cushion vehicle or ACV, is a craft capable of

traveling over land, water, mud or ice and other surfaces both at speed and when
stationary. Hovercrafts are hybrid vessels operated by a pilot as an aircraft rather than a
captain as a marine vessel. Hovercraft use blowers to produce a large volume of air
below the hull that is slightly above atmospheric pressure. The pressure difference
between the higher pressure air below the hull and lower pressure ambient air above it
produces lift, which causes the hull to float above the running surface. For stability
reasons, the air is typically blown through slots or holes around the outside of a disk or
oval shaped platform, giving most hovercraft a characteristic rounded rectangle shape.
Typically this cushion is contained within a flexible "skirt", which allows the vehicle to
travel over small obstructions without damage. Vehicles designed to travel close to but
above ground or water. These vehicles are supported in various ways. Some of them
have a specially designed wing that will lift them just off the surface over which they
travel when they have reached a sufficient horizontal speed (the ground effect).
Hovercrafts are usually supported by fans that force air down under the vehicle to create
lift, Air propellers, water propellers, or water jets usually provide forward propulsion.
Air-cushion vehicles can attain higher speeds than can either ships or most land vehicles
and use much less power than helicopters of the same weight. Air-cushion suspension
has also been applied to other forms of transportation, in particular trains, such as the
French Aero train and the British hover train. Hovercraft is a transportation vehicle that
rides slightly above the earth’s surface. The air is continuously forced under the vehicle
by a fan, generating the cushion that greatly reduces friction between the moving
vehicle and surface. The air is delivered through ducts and injected at the periphery of
the vehicle in a downward and inward direction. This type of vehicle can equally ride
over ice, water, marsh, or relatively level land.

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 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. History of air cushion vehicle
There have been many attempts to understand the principles of high air pressure below
hulls and wings. To a great extent, the majority of these can be termed "ground effect"
or "water effect" vehicles rather than hovercraft. The principal difference is that a
hovercraft can lift itself while still, whereas the majority of other designs require
forward motion to create lift. These activemotion "surface effect vehicles" are known in
specific cases as ekranoplan and hydrofoils. The first mention in the historical record of
the concepts behind surface-effect vehicles that used the term hovering was by Swedish
scientist Emanuel Swedenborg in 1716.[1] In 1915 Austrian Dagobert Müller (1880–
1956) built the world's first "water effect" vehicle. Shaped like a section of a large
aerofoil (this creates a low pressure area above the wing much like an aircraft), the craft
was propelled by four aero engines driving two submerged marine propellers, with a
fifth engine that blew air under the front of the craft to increase the air pressure under it.
Only when in motion could the craft trap air under the front, increasing lift. The vessel
also required a depth of water to operate and could not transition to land or other
surfaces. Designed as a fast torpedo boat, the Versuchsgleitboot had a top speed over 32
knots (59 km/h). It was thoroughly tested and even armed with torpedoes and machine
guns for operation in the Adriatic. It never saw actual combat, however, and as the war
progressed it was eventually scrapped due to lack of interest and perceived need, and its
engines returned to the Air Force.[2] The theoretical grounds for motion over an air
layer were constructed by Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovskii in 1926 and 1927.[3] In
1929, Andrew Kucher of Ford began experimenting with the "Levapad" concept, metal
disks with pressurized air blown through a hole in the center. Levapads do not offer
stability on their own, several must be used together to support a load above them.
Lacking a skirt, the pads had to remain very close to the running surface. He initially
imagined these being used in place of casters and wheels in factories and warehouses
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where the concrete floors offered the smoothness required for operation. By the 1950s,
Ford showed a number of toy models of cars using the system, but mainly proposed its
use as a replacement for wheels on trains, with the Levapads running close to the
surface of existing rails. In 1931, Finnish aero engineer Toivo J. Kaario began designing
a developed version of a vessel using an air cushion and built a prototype Pintaliitäjä
(Surface Soarer), in 1937.[4] Kaario's design included the modern features of a lift
engine blowing air into a flexible envelope for lift. Kaario never received funding to
build his design, however. Kaario's efforts were followed closely in the Soviet Union by
Vladimir Levkov, who returned to the solid-sided design of the Versuchsgleitboot.
Levkov designed and built a number of similar craft during the 1930s, and his L-5 fast-
attack boat reached 70 knots (130 km/h) in testing. However, the start of World War II
put an end to Levkov's development work.[4] During World War II, an engineer in the
United States of America, Charles Fletcher, invented a walled air cushion vehicle.
Because the project was classified by the U.S. government, Fletcher could not file a
patent.

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WORKING PRINCIPLE OF AIR CUSHION VEHICLE
3.1. Law’s that acts in air cushion vehicle/ hovercraft:
 Archimedes’ principle or the law of buoyancy
 Newton's third law of motion
 Aerodynamics
3.2. Hovercraft Principle:
Hovercraft is one of the most unusual vehicles that you can see. Moves on an air
cushion of slightly pressurized air that makes it easily overcomes any slight unevenness
and obstacles. Because the hovercraft moves only after air and earth will affect virtually,
no matter what the surface flies. It can run on sand, asphalt and the water are no
problem for him or swamps and snow. They belong to a group of amphibians. Since the
air under the hovercraft is not changed in transit between different surfaces (eg between
sandy beaches and water) cannot tell any difference. Hovercraft dynamics is more
aircraft than ships and automobiles.
3.3. Air cushion:
Hovercraft floats on a cushion of air that is chased by a propeller craft. After starting to
lift the hovercraft and is ready to ride. The size of stroke ranges from 15 cm in the
smallest personal hovercraft to 2.8 meters for large transport machines. The air pocket
under the hovercraft is surrounded by plastic to air from leaking out from under the
hovercraft. Implementation of the mantle differ may be either in the form of a compact
bag or can be divided into individual cells - so-called segments. Most professional
hovercraft using segmented casing, because each piece is in transit through the
inequality diverges separately. It is very convenient, because the lifter loses only a very
small amount of air.

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3.4. Movement of Hovercraft:
After the hoist lifter can move forward. It must provide a separate air operator, which
takes a hovercraft. Many of the vessels used to move a separate engine, but some have
only one engine for both functions - that is, for blowing air under the hovercraft and also
to move forward. In this case, the airflow split propeller, which in part drives the flyer
for floatability, while majority of the air is used to move the hovercraft.
3.5. Control Hovercraft:
Control hovercraft is done through a system of rudders, which are located behind the
propeller. The rudders are controlled by the pilot using the handlebars. Another way to
significantly modify the movement of hovercraft is carrying weight.
3.6. Momentum curtain:
Discovered by British engineer Christopher Cockerell, the momentum curtain is a
unique and efficient way to reduce friction between a vehicle and its surface of travel,
be it water or land, by levitating the vehicle above this surface via a cushion of air. It is
this principle of levitation upon which a hovercraft is based, and Christopher Cockerell
set about applying his momentum curtain theory to hovercraft to increase their abilities
in overcoming friction in travel.
Levitating a vehicle above the ground/water to reduce its drag was not a new concept.
John Thornycroft, in 1877, discovered that trapping air beneath a ship's hull, or pumping
air beneath it with bellows, decreased the effects of friction upon the hull thereby
increasing the ship's top attainable speeds. However, technology at the time was
insufficient for Thornycroft's ideas to be developed further.
Cockerell used the idea of pumped air under a hull (this then becoming a plenum, i.e.
the opposite of a vacuum) and improved upon it further. Simply pumping air between a
hull and the ground wasted a lot of energy in terms of leakage of air around the edges of
the hull. Cockerell discovered that by means of generating a wall (curtain) of high-speed
downward-directed air around the edges of a hull, that less air leaked out from the sides
(due to the momentum of the high-speed air molecules), and thus a greater pressure
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could be attained beneath the hull. So, with the same input power, a greater amount of
lift could be developed, and the hull could be lifted higher above the surface, reducing
friction and increasing clearance. This theory was tried, tested and developed
throughout the 1950s and 1960s until it was finally realised in full-scale in the SR-N1
hovercraft.

Figure: Momentum curtain Theory

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 PARTS OF HOVERCRAFT
4.1. Hull:
The hovercraft hull is a solid structure which forms the base of the hovercraft which
supports the lift and thrust systems and also the driver. The lower hull of the craft
includes the craft floor, side panels, forward and aft panels till the top skirt attachment
line. Most commercially build craft in polyester resin will use this section to transfer to
the top hull. The lower hull
 Needs to have adequate size for the total weight of the craft and payload
 Must be strong enough to support craft off cushion (on landing pads)
 Have enough freeboard to support craft in displacement mode on water
 Must be watertight and as smooth as possible.
4.2. Skirt:
The skirt is one the most important parts of a hovercraft as it is the part that allows the
hovercraft to clear obstacles. Generally, speaking the higher the skirt, the larger the
obstacle that the craft will clear. However, if the skirt is too tall, the craft will ‘slides off
the cushion and the cushion will deflate or the craft will become extremely unstable.
The invention of the flexible skirt was a big step forward in the hovercraft history.
Before the flexible skirt had thought necessary, powerful lift engines were needed to
create only a few millimeters lift under the hull hard structure. The main idea behind the
air cushion introduction was to create air lubrication between the ground surface and the
hovercraft, in a way that leads to a significant of the lift power. The use of an inflated
bag around the hovercraft resulted in an efficient air distribution and a reduction of the
lift power. Other advantages of the flexible skirt development are a better stability and a
better obstacle clearance. The function of skirts for a hovercraft has proved to be as
important to the air cushion vehicles as that of the rubber tyres for an automobile. The
material type and the structure of the skirt are playing an important role in the skirt
design step. The material for a skirt bag should have high tearing and tension strength,

7
but with as few as possible abrasion. The skirt bag is normally divided in several parts
to improve the absorption of obstacles.
There are three types of skirts

i. Bag skirt
ii. Finger skirt
iii. Bag and finger skirt

Recently the most widely used skirt was the bag skirt, which is like a giant inner
tube fitted around the crafts perimeter. Additional pressure is needed to inflate. The bag
against air pressure under the craft in the cushion.

A hovercraft skirt is required to fulfill the following functions:

 Contain the cushion of air beneath the craft at required Hover height
 Have the ability to confirm or contour effectively over obstacles so as to keep
minimum, the loss of cushion air
 Return to its original shape after having been deformed
 Give adequate stability
 Offer little resistance to passage of obstacles beneath it
 Have the ability to absorb a large portion of the energy which is produced on
impacts or collision with obstacles greater than hover height or cushion depth.
4.3. Rudders:
When the hovercraft is finally able to move it will most definitely require steering
capabilities. This is achieved through the use of rudders. These rudders can be
controlled by a variety of devices (Such as motors with low rpm and high torque)
including computers. The rudders must be well weighed out in order to avoid weighing
down your hovercraft and also well shaped in order to move air as efficiently as
possible.

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Rudders cannot be too heavy otherwise they will weigh down the craft because they are
located very close to the motor. The shape of the rudder dictates how well it will be able
to move air.
4.4. Propellers:
The propeller used to drive the Hovercraft along is usually an aircraft type with variable
pitch blades. Its speed of rotation must remain fixed to that the engine and the lift fan.
This is because the amount of lift air requires dictates the engine speed to drive the lift
fan. In turn the amount of propulsion which the propellers provide must be obtained by
varying the propeller pitch and not its rate of rotation. This system is termed integrated
lift. Hovercraft having more than one lift fan and propeller generally has a separate
engine for each fan and propeller unit.
The propellers used on hovercraft can vary from four bladed versions and about nine
feet in diameter on the smaller craft to the four propellers on the SRN4 cross-channel
Hovercraft. These are four bladed and nineteen feet in diameter.
The propeller used to drive the hovercraft along is usually an aircraft type with variable
pitch blades. Its speed of rotation must remain fixed to that of the engine and the lift fan.
This is because the amount of lift air required dictates the engine speed to drives the lift
fan. In turn the amount of propulsion, which the propellers provide, must be obtained by
varying the propeller pitch and not its rate of rotation. This system is termed 'integrated
lift/propulsion'. A Hovercraft having more than one lift fan and propeller generally has a
separate engine for each fan-and propeller unit.
The propellers used on hovercraft can vary from four-bladed versions and about nine
feet in diameter on the smaller craft to the four propellers on the SRN4 cross-Channel
hovercraft. These are four-bladed and nineteen feet in diameter! On the SRN 4 the
pylons on which they are mounted can be rotated to change the direction of thrust. On
smaller craft, rudders like on aircraft, are used for direction control.

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4.5. Lifting fan:
In the enclosed space fan operates in a propeller would not be suitable. Firstly the
volume of air needed is very large and a propeller is designed to be most efficient in
open air like on an aircraft. Propellers again are not efficient in applications when an air
backpressure will be applied to the propeller blades as they rotate.
Because of this the lifting on most Hovercraft uses what is known as a centrifugal fan.
This is a fan in which two discs are fitted together and looks rather like a doughnut with
angled slat at their edges.
When the assembly is rotated at high speed air is sucked in to the center hole in the fan
and the slats force it out at the edges. The advantages of the fan are twofold. They
operate efficiently in an environment when back pressure is high and they will move
larger volumes of air for a given rotation speed than a propeller with the same speed and
power input.
The lifting fan is coupled via a gearbox to the engine. The engine also drives the
propeller on the craft, which provides thrust for forward motion of the Hovercraft.
Firstly the volume of air needed is very large and a propeller is designed to be most
efficient in open air like on an aircraft. Also the fan needs to force air into the chamber
below the craft so creating a specific pressure under the craft. Propellers again are not
efficient in applications when an air backpressure will be applied to the propeller blades
as they rotate. Because of this the lifting fan on most Hovercraft uses what is known as
a centrifugal fan. This is a fan in which two discs and fitted together and looks rather
like a doughnut with angled slats at their edges.
When the assembly is rotated at high-speed air is sucked into the center hole in the fan
and the slats force it out at the edges. The advantages of the fan are twofold. They
operate efficiently in an environment when backpressure is high and they will move
larger volumes of air for a given rotation speed than a propeller with the same speed and
power input. The lifting fan is coupled via a gearbox to the engine. The engine also

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drives the propeller on the craft, which provides thrust for forward motion of the
Hovercraft.
4.6. Air-box:
The box-like structure at the rear of the hovercraft, right behind the propeller, the box-
like structure is called an air box. The air box takes about 10% of the air being pushed
backward by the propeller and forces it downward, underneath the hovercraft. There are
three small ducts cut into the base of the hovercraft, underneath the air box. Two of
these ducts lead into the skirt, which is basically a bag that goes all the way around the
perimeter of the craft, while the third duct leads directly underneath the hovercraft.
4.7. Engine:
Hovercraft can be powered by one or more engines. Small craft, such as the SR.N6,
usually have one engine with the drive split through a gearbox. On vehicles with several
engines, one usually drives the fan (or impeller), which is responsible for lifting the
vehicle by forcing high pressure air under the craft. The air inflates the "skirt" under the
vehicle, causing it to rise above the surface. Additional engines provide thrust in order
to propel the craft. Some hovercraft use ducting to allow one engine to perform both
tasks by directing some of the air to the skirt, the rest of the air passing out of the back
to push the craft forward. The engine has a main shaft on which is mounted a
compressor and turbine. A starter motor is connected to one end and the other end is
connected to the lift fan. Both the compressor and turbine look like fans with large
number of blades.
When the engine is started the compressor compresses air from the engine intakes and
pushes into the combustion chambers mounted around the engine. Fuel is squirted into
the combustion chamber and is ignited. The compressed air then rapidly expands as it is
heated and forces its way out through the turbine to the exhaust. As the gas pressure
raises the turbine speeds up, there by driving the compressor faster. The engine speed
increases until it reaches engines normal operating speed. However the use of these
engines results in very high level of engine noise outside the craft.
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 APPLICATIONS
Hovercrafts can be used in many instances. This includes; as the hovercrafts can be built
of any required sizes they can be used for transporting any equipment, machinery, wars,
even passengers. As it can hover on both land and water it can be used as a transporting
vehicle in regions like beaches, islands, etc. In many countries it is used as marine
rescue vehicle. Since no parts of machinery are to be immersed in the water for
Hovercraft propulsion and lift there are no chances for machinery failure due to water or
under water obstacles, which is a major drawback in case of other water transporting
vehicles like ships, sub-marines etc.
As it is much more efficient when compared to other transporting vehicles, it has got
many applications in both commercial and non-commercial fields E.g.: Hoverbarge,
Hover trains, Hover-landing crafts etc.
Due to their characteristics hovercrafts have a big variety of applications, some of which
are listed below.
 A hovercraft travel over the surface of water without concern for depth or hidden
obstacles.
 It is safe around swimmer as there is no propeller in water.
 It can load and unload peoples and equipment on land.
 It can travel against a current of river with no reduction of speed.
 Wildlife conservation and research
 Transportation or "island-hopping"
 Fishing anywhere ... including ice fishing
 Travelling from land to water where there is no boat dock
 Military services: Assault vehicles and transporting troops
 Dive recovery teams
 Retrieving birds from tailings ponds at mining sites
 Water management
 Border Patrol and Homeland Security
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 Port authorities/drug enforcement
 TV and film companies (James Bond movies often use hovercraft)
 Entertainment at Disney World water shows

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 CONCLUSION
The conclusion if our project is that we lift the weight above our expectation the blow of
air from the narrow hole with high pressure and high RPM inside the skirt create the lift.
When the air is blow inside the skirt with pressure, then the air is circulated in the skirt
when the air is circulated the air is get the small hole outlet which create the pressurize
the earth surface the which impact the earth surface and create the lift and also reduce
the friction between the earth surface and the unit. The unit is run on the surface due
less friction. Hovercrafts are generally simple mechanisms in theory. Yet the process
from theory to manifestation is not as easy as it may seem. A plethora of problems exist
and must be faced in order to attain a well-functioning hovercraft. The plans and designs
must be flawless. One must take under consideration the weight and the shape of each
component in order to avoid problems such as instability and dysfunction. This is a
marvelous machine which greatly cuts down the friction which in turn helps it to attain
greater speed and more stability. Varieties of problems and factors have to be taken into
account in designing and constructing a hovercraft. The difficulties involved in
maintaining stability and functional competency has limited the application to only
transportation or for military purpose. The cost involved in the developing of a
hovercraft is also another impediment to the widespread use of this machine.

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 FUTURE DEVELOPMENT
By using the hover principle many designs have arisen. One is the hover concept by
replacing the cushion of low pressure air as inform the modern Hovercraft by high
pressure pad it was thought that the pads of high pressure could replace the wheels of
the car. But there are two difficulties.
i. Sharp turns
ii. New method of propulsion is required
iii. Reduction of very high level of engine noise outside the craft
Then moved towards Hover train. Here rails provide smooth surface for high pressure
air and guidance from the track overcomes the problem of steering. The future of
hovercraft seems uncertain, but there is a good chance there will be huge hover ports all
over the world, like the one in the picture. Thinner hovercraft might be built so civilians
can drive safely on roads. It also seems likely that the larger hover vehicles will become
larger than ever! Hovercraft are likely to be capable of high flight.

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 REFERENCES
[1]. Carpenter, P. W., and P. N. Green. "The aeroacoustics and aerodynamics of high-
speed Coanda devices, Part 1: Conventional arrangement of exit nozzle and
surface." Journal of Sound and Vibration 208, no. 5 (1997): 777-801.
[2]. McCarson Jr, Tillman D. STUDY OF THE THRUST PRODUCED BY A
COANDA NOZZLE. No. GAM/ME/68-6. AIR FORCE INST OF TECH WRIGHT-
PATTERSON AFB OH SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, 1968.
[3]. Kelleher, Edward A. A Study of a Skirtless Hovercraft Design. No.
AFIT/GAE/ENY/04-J05. AIR FORCE INST OF TECH WRIGHT
PATTERSONAFB OH DEPT OF AERONAUTICS AND ASTRONAUTICS, 2004.
[4]. Chung, Joon, and Tae-Cheol Jung. "Optimization of an air cushion vehicle bag
and finger skirt using genetic algorithms." Aerospace Science and Technology 8, no.
3 (2004): 219-229.

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