44 Introduction to Conic Sections

In this lesson, you used the Pythagorean theorem to find the distance between two points. Using
the distance formula, you developed the equation of a circle in standard form. You learned to
identify and graph circles, work with circles in both standard and general form, and use the
equations for circles to describe data from problem situations.
• The distance formula is derived from the Pythagorean theorem.
(x2, y2)

(x1, y1) (x2, y1)

• The distance between two points can be determined by constructing a right triangle. The
coordinates of the vertex of the right angle will be (x2, y1) because of its position relative to (x1,
y1) and (x2, y2). The length of one leg will be x2 – x1; the length of the other will be y2 – y1. The
third side will be , which is the distance formula.
• The equation of a circle is based on the distance formula because all points on a circle are equidistant
from a point called the center with coordinates (h, k). That distance is the length of the radius.
d = (x − h ) + ( y − k )
2 2
If
then d2 = (x – h)2 + (y – k)2
since d = r r2 = (x – h)2 + (y – k)2
• The equation of a circle in general form can be converted to standard form by completing the
square.

Example 1 and B. |(–4 – 2)| = 6

Use the Pythagorean theorem to find the length of Step 3
AB given A = (–4, –2) and B = (2, 5). Determine the length of OA by finding the
difference between the y-coordinates of points O
Solution and A. |(–2 – 5)| = 7
Step 1 Step 4
Locate A and B on a coordinate graph and construct Apply the Pythagorean theorem.
a right triangle with AB as the hypotenuse, one leg A2 + B 2 = C 2
parallel to the x-axis, and the other leg parallel to the
62 + 72 = C 2
y-axis. Label the right angle O.
y
85 = C
O(–4, 5)
B(2, 5)
The length of AB is 85 units.
4

2 Example 2
Calculate the length of line segment DE if
–4 –2 0 2 4 x D = (–5, 4) and E = (–2, –8).
–2
A(–4, –2) Solution
Let D = (x1, y1) and E = (x2, y2). Use the distance
Step 2 formula or the Pythagorean theorem.
Determine the length of OB by finding the
difference between the x-coordinates of points O

2 Student Workbook
d= (x 2 − x1 )2 + ( y2 − y1 )2
= (−2 − (−5))2 + (−8 − 4)2
= (3)2 + (−12)2
= 153
= 3 17

The length of DE is 3 17 units.

Example 3
Write the equation in standard form for the given circle. C = (–4, 3) and P = (–7, 2).
y
(x + 4)2 + (y – 3)2 = 10
6

4
C
2
P

–8 –6 –4 –2 0 x

Solution
Step 1
Identify the center C. C = (–4, 3)
Step 2
Determine the radius using the distance formula.

CP = (x 2 − x1 )2 + ( y2 − y1 )2
= (−7 − (−4))2 + (2 − 3)2
= ( −3) + ( −1)
2 2

= 9 +1
= 10

Step 3
Substitute these values into the standard form of the equation.
(x – h)2 + (y – k)2 = r2
(x + 4)2 + (y – 3)2 = 10

Example 4
Change the general form of the equation of a circle to standard form. Then find the
center and radius of the circle.
2x2 + 2y2 – 8x + 6y + 2 = 0

Introduction to Conic Sections 3

Solution
2x 2 − 8x + 2 y 2 + 6 y = −2
2(x 2 − 4x + 4) + 2 y 2 + 3 y + 9  = −2 + 8 + 18
4 4
2
2(x − 2) + 2 y + 3 = 21
2
 2 2
2
(x − 2) + y + 3 = 21
2 
 2 4

The center is  2,− 3 and the radius is 21 .

2 2

Exercises
1. Apply the Pythagorean theorem to determine the length of each line segment.
(a) A = (3, 8), B = (5, 2)

(b) C = (–4, –10), D = (8, 7)

(c) E = (6, –2), F = (–5, 8)

(d) G = (–2, –8), H = (–9, –1)

2. Apply the distance formula to determine the length of each line segment in
Problem 1.

3. For each of the following circles, write the equation in standard form.
(a) center = (0, 0), radius = 11

(b) center = (4, 3), a point on the circle is (8, 5)

(c) radius endpoints are (–2, –5) and (1, –1), a point on the circle is (6, –1)

(d) diameter endpoints are (–4, 8) and (2, 8)

4. For each of the following circles, write the equation in standard form.
(a) center = (4, 3), radius = 10

(b) center = (–2, –5), a point on the circle is (0, 1)

(c) radius endpoints are (2, –2) and (14, 3), a point on the circle is (7, 10)

(d) diameter endpoints are (–5, 4) and (5, 2)

4 Student Workbook
5. Sketch the circles with the following equations using graph paper.
(a) x2 + y2 = 112

(b) x2 + y2 = 25

(c) (x – 4)2 + (y – 3)2 = 20

(d) (x – 1)2 + (y + 1)2 = 52

(e) x 2 + y 2 + 3x − 4 y + 1 = 0
4
(f) 3x2 + 3y2 – 6x – 12y + 3 = 0

6. Sketch the circles with the following equations using graph paper.
(a) x2 + y2 = 36

(b) x2 + y2 = 12

(c) (x + 2)2 + (y + 5)2 = 40

(d) (x – 2)2 + (y + 2)2 = 132

(e) x2 + y2 + 3x – 4y + = 0

(f) 4x2 + 4y2 – 4x + 8y – 11 = 0

7. An airport has a radar system with a screen that tracks planes a distance of 80 mi
from the terminal. If the terminal is located at coordinates (–75, 40), write the
equation for the circle that is the outer perimeter of the area tracked by the
airport radar.

8. If a plane flying at 450 mph reports its location as (10, –10) on the same
coordinate system used by the airport in Problem 7, will it be detected by the
airport’s radar?

9. If the plane in Problem 8 flies in a straight line and later reports its location as
(–50, 110) on the same coordinate system, will it now be detected by the airport’s
radar that was described in Problem 7?

10. Using the information in Problems 7 through 9, determine the coordinates at

which the airport radar would first detect the airplane and how long, to the
nearest minute, it would be within the radar’s screen.

Introduction to Conic Sections 5

 45 Parabolas

You have learned that parabolas can be defined as the set of all points equidistant from a fixed
point and a fixed line. The fixed point is called the focus and the fixed line is called the directrix.
Different models can be used for the equation of a parabola. Which model to use depends upon
the direction in which the parabola opens and the location of its vertex. The vertex can be either
at the origin, (0, 0), or some other point, (h, k).
Parabola with vertex at (0, 0)
• For a parabola whose vertex is at the origin, (0, 0), and opens upward or downward, use x2 = 4py.
The focus is at (0, p) and the directrix is y = –p. If the parabola opens upward, then p > 0. If it
opens downward, then p < 0.
• For a parabola whose vertex is at the origin, (0, 0), and opens to the right or to the left, use
y2 = 4px. The focus is at (p, 0) and the directrix is x = –p. If the parabola opens to the right, then
p > 0. If it opens to the left, then p < 0.
Parabola with vertex at (h, k)
• For a parabola whose vertex is (h, k) and opens upward or downward, use (x – h)2 = 4p(y – k).
The focus is at (h, k + p), and the directrix is y = k – p. If the parabola opens upward, then p > 0.
If it opens downward, then p < 0.
• For a parabola whose vertex is (h, k) and opens to the right or to the left, use (y – k)2 = 4p(x – h).
The focus is at (h + p, k), and the directrix is x = h – p. If the parabola opens to the right, then
p > 0. If it opens to the left, then p < 0.
You have determined algebraic models for parabolas from their graphs. Using these algebraic
models, you determined the location of the focus and the equation of the directrix.

Example 1 Example 2
Find an equation for an upward opening parabola Determine the equation of the parabola shown.
with a vertex at (0, 0) and a focus at (0, 2). y
2
(–2, 3)
Solution (0, 0)
Step 1 –4 –2 0 x

Determine which model to use. Since the parabola –2

has a vertex at the origin and opens upward, use
the model x2 = 4py.
Solution
Step 2
Step 1
Use the location of the focus to determine the
Determine which model to use. Since the parabola
value of p. For the model x2 = 4py, the focus is at
has a vertex at the origin and opens to the left, use
the point (0, p). Therefore, p = 2.
the model y2 = 4px.
Step 3 Step 2
Substitute the value of p into the model and Determine the value of p. Point (–2, 3) is on the
simplify. parabola, so it is possible to substitute these values
for x and y into the model and then solve for p.
x2 = 4py
x2 = 4(2)y y 2 = 4 px
= 8y 32 = 4( p )( −2)
The parabola with a vertex at the origin and focus 9 = −8 p
at (0, 2) has the equation x2 = 8y. 9
− =p
8
6 Student Workbook
Substitute p = − 9 into the model.
8
y 2 = 4 − 9 x
8
=− x 9
2
Therefore, the equation of the parabola is y 2 = − 9 x
2
Example 3
Determine the equation of a parabola with a vertex at (3, –3) and a focus at (3, –4.5).

Solution
Step 1
Determine which model to use. The vertex and focus have the same x-coordinate,
and the focus lies below the vertex, so the parabola must open downward. Also, the
vertex is not at the origin. Therefore, use the model (x – h)2 = 4p(y – k).

Step 2
Now determine the values of h and k. Recall that the vertex of a parabola is (h, k).
The vertex of this parabola is (3, –3), so it must be that h = 3 and k = –3. Substitute
these values into the model, and simplify.
(x – h)2 = 4p(y – k)
(x – 3)2 = 4p(y – (–3))
= 4p(y + 3)

Step 3
Determine the value of p. A parabola with the model (x – h)2 = 4p(y – k) has a focus at
(h, p + k). The focus of this parabola is at (3, –4.5), therefore p + k = –4.5. Substitute
the value of k and solve for p.
p + k = –4.5
p + (–3) = –4.5
p = –1.5
Note that p = –1.5 < 0, so the parabola opens downward.

Step 4
Substitute p = –1.5.
(x – 3)2 = 4(–1.5)(y + 3)
(x – 3)2 = –6(y + 3)
Therefore, the equation of the parabola is (x – 3)2 = –6(y + 3)

Example 4
Determine the location of the focus and the equation of the directrix for the
parabola with equation 3(x + 1) = (y – 2)2.

Solution
Step 1
The given equation is similar to the model (y – k)2 = 4p(x – h). Rewrite the equation
in this form.

Parabolas 7
3(x + 1) = ( y − 2)
2

( y − 2)2 = 3(x + 1)
= 4 3  (x − ( −1))
4
Step 2
Now the equation is in the form of the model, ( y − 2) = 4 3  (x − ( −1)) . Observe that
2
 4
k = 2, p = 3 , and h = –1.
4
Step 3
For a parabola with this model, the focus is at (h + p, k) and the equation of the
directrix is x = h – p. Substitute the values of h, k, and p as required, and then simplify.
For the focus, For the directrix,
x =h−p
(h + p , k ) =  −1 + 34 , 2
= −1 − 3
=  − 1 , 2
4
4 = −7
4

Exercises
1. Determine the equation of the parabola with the given vertex and focus.
(a) vertex (0, 0), focus (0, 2.5)
(b) vertex (0, 0), focus (–3, 0)
(c) vertex (0, –3), focus (–1.5, –3)
(d) vertex (4, 0), focus (4, –0.5)
(e) vertex (2, 3), focus (2, 4.8)
(f) vertex (–1, –5), focus (3, –5)

2. Determine the equation of the parabola with the given vertex and directrix.
(a) vertex (0, 0), directrix y = –2
(b) vertex (0, 0), directrix x = 2
(c) vertex (0, –4), directrix x = –2
(d) vertex (2, –3), directrix y = 0
(e) vertex (–1, 6), directrix y = 3
(f) vertex (–3, –5), directrix x = –5

3. Determine the equation of each parabola.

(a) opens upward, passes through (1, 2), and has vertex (0, 0)
(b) opens downward, passes through (–3, –1.5), and has vertex (–2, 0)
(c) opens to the left, passes through (2, 1), and has vertex (3, 4)
(d) opens to the right, passes through (–2, 4), and has vertex (–4, 1)

4. For each parabola, determine the location of the focus and the equation of the
directrix.
(a) x2 = 6y
(b) (y – 1)2 = –2x
(c) (x + 2)2 = 5(y – 1)

5. For each parabola, determine the location of the vertex and the focus.
(a) y2 = 7x
(b) (x – 3)2 = –9y
(c) (y – 4.5)2 = –5(x + 5)

8 Student Workbook
6. Use the graph to determine the equation of each parabola.
(a) y 1 (b) y
y= –
2
2
–4 –2 0 2 4 x
(0, 0) (1, –1)
–2
0 2 4 x
(0, –1)
–2

–4

(c) y (d) y
8 4

6 (– 6, 2.4) 2
(– 4, 2)
(––1, 3) 4
4 –8 –6 –4 –2 0 x

(1, 3) 2

–4 –2 0 x

–2

7. A flashlight with a parabolic reflector has the light bulb placed at the focus. The
distance from the light bulb to the side of the flashlight, called the focal
diameter, is 3 cm.
y
100

80

60
100 cm
40

20

3 cm 3 cm
–20 –10 0 10 20 x

(a) Determine the equation for the parabola.

(b) Determine the distance the light bulb is placed from the vertex.
(c) Using your equation for the parabola, how wide is the beam of light, to the
nearest tenth of a centimeter, one meter from the light bulb?

8. Suppose a bike ramp over a highway is parabolic in shape. To assure that trucks
can pass beneath the ramp, the highest part of the ramp is 30 ft over the road. If
the distance from the point where the ramp touches the ground on one side to
the other is 80 ft, determine a parabolic equation for the ramp.

Parabolas 9
 46 Ellipses

In this lesson, you learned what an ellipse is and the role of focal points. You learned to find the
focal points, centers, and lengths of the major and minor axes given a description of the ellipse and
to describe the ellipse given any of the above information. To do this you learned about the
relationships between the length of the major and minor axes and the distance from the center to
the focal points. You also learned to determine the equations of ellipses from a graph and to graph
ellipses from equations. You were encouraged to find the similarities and differences between
ellipses with a vertical major axis and those with a horizontal major axis as well as those centered at
the origin and those not centered at the origin. As in the lesson on circles, you converted equations
in general form to equations in standard form by completing the square. Finally, you applied what
you have learned to describe data in problem situations.
• An ellipse is the set of all points in a plane such that the sum of the distances from two fixed
points, called foci, to any point on the ellipse is constant.

minor axis

major axis

• The standard form of an equation for an ellipse with center (h, k) is

Horizontal Major Axis Vertical Major Axis

(x − h )2
+
( y − k )2 = 1 (x − h )2
+
( y − k )2 = 1
a2 b2 b2 a2
• For any ellipse,
a represents the length of the hypotenuse of the right triangle that connects point P(x, y), the
center, and a focus if and only if P lies on the minor axis of the ellipse.
a also represents the distance from the center of the ellipse to the vertex of the major axis.
c represents the distance from the center of the ellipse to a focus.
b represents half the length of the minor axis.
• The equation of an ellipse in general form can be converted to standard form by completing
the square.

Example 1
The following equation is the general form for an ellipse. Find the center, foci,
and the length of the major and minor axis. Then on graph paper, draw the
ellipse for this equation.
9x2 + 3y2 – 36x – 18y – 45 = 0

Solution
Step 1
Complete the square to put the equation into standard form.
9x2 + 3y2 – 36x – 18y – 45 = 0
9(x – 4x + 4) + 3(y2 – 6y + 9) = 45 + 36 + 27
2

9(x – 2)2 + 3(y – 3)2 = 108

(x − 2)2
+
( y − 3)2 =1
12 36
10 Student Workbook
Step 2
The center is (2, 3).
a = 36 b = 12
=6 =2 3
The distance from the center to each focus is

a 2 − b 2 = 36 − 12
= ±2 6
The major axis is vertical because 36 is larger than 12. The foci are located at
(2, 3 + 2 6 ) and (2, 3 − 2 6 )
The major axis is 2a = 12. The minor axis is 2b = 4 6 .

Step 3
Plot the center and the y
10
endpoints of the major and
minor axis on the graph. 8

2 (2,3)

–2 0 2 4 x

–2

Example 2
Write the equation of the following y
2
ellipse.
Endpoints of major axis are
(–12, –3) and (4, –3). –12 –10 –8 –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 x

Endpoints of minor axis are –2

(–4, 2) and (–4, –8).
–4

–6

–8

Solution
The center is located at the midpoint of both the major and minor axes. The
midpoint is (–4, –3).
Half of the length of the major axis is 8 and half of the length of the minor axis is 5.

The equation is (x + 4) +
2
( y + 3)2 = 1 .
82 52

Ellipses 11
Exercises
1. On graph paper, draw the ellipse for each equation.
2 y2
(a) x 2 + 2 = 1
8 5

)2 ( y + 3)
2
(
(b) x −22 + 2
=1
5 4

(c) 4x2 + 3y2 – 24x – 18y + 15 = 0

(d) 4x2 + 9y2 + 8x – 36y + 4 = 0

2. On graph paper, draw the ellipse for each equation.

2 y2
(a) x 2 + 2 = 1
6 9

) ( y − 4)
2
(
(b) x +22 +
2
=1
6 32

(c) 4x2 + y2 + 24x + 18y + 17 = 0

(d) 6x2 + y2 – 36x + 8y + 34 = 0

3. Write the equation for each ellipse.

(a) center = (0, 0), endpoint of major axis is (8, 0), endpoint of minor axis is
(0, –3)

(b) foci are (2, 1) and (2, 7), endpoint of minor axis is (4, 4)

(c) endpoints of major axis are (–7, –2) and (3, –2), endpoints of minor axis are
(–2, 1) and (–2, –5)

4. Write the equation for each ellipse.

(a) center = (0, 0), endpoint of major axis is (0, 10), endpoint of minor axis is
(–4, 0)

(b) foci are (3, 8) and (9, 8), endpoint of minor axis is (6, 3)

12 Student Workbook
 (c) endpoints of major axis are (–5, –3) and (–5, 15), endpoints of minor axis are
(–9, 6) and (–1, 6)

5. Find the foci for each ellipse in Problem 1.

6. Find the foci for each ellipse in Problem 2.

7. An elliptical shaped room is built in a science museum to demonstrate how a

whispering room works. If the room is 100 ft long and 80 ft wide, where should
the visitors stand so they can whisper to each other from opposite sides of the
room without others hearing?

8. A semi-elliptical shaped arch is used to run a four-lane highway over a two-lane

highway. The distance between the bases of the arch is 40 ft and the maximum
height is 24 ft. How far to the right of the centerline can a semi tractor-trailer with
a height of 14 ft and a width of 10 ft be and still go under the bridge without
touching it?

9. A pool sharp shooter was doing demonstrations of his ability to make bank shots
of his very unique pool table, an elliptical table. He seemed to be able to make
any kind of haphazard shot. After examining the table you decide that the only
pocket appears to be located at the ellipse’s focal point. He offers a hundred
dollar reward to anyone who can make 10 bank shots in a row. Since you can put
the ball anywhere you want on the opposite side of the table as the pocket, where
would you put it to be sure you would win? Why?

10. The same pool sharp shooter as in Problem 9 decides to try to use a round pool
table with the pocket in the center. Can he make any bank shots? If yes, what
conditions must be true? If no, why not?

Ellipses 13
 47 Hyperbolas

In this lesson, you learned what a hyperbola is and the role of the focal points. You used the
definition of a hyperbola to derive the standard form of the equation and understand the
relationships that exist. You learned to find the focal points, centers, and vertices given a
description of the hyperbola and describe the hyperbola given combinations of foci, center,
vertices, transverse axis, and asymptotes. You also determined the equations of hyperbolas and saw
the similarities and differences between those with a vertical transverse axis and those with a
horizontal transverse axis as well as those centered at the origin and those not centered at the
origin. As in the other lessons on conics, you changed equations in general form to equations in
standard form by completing the square. You were given the opportunity to understand the role of
hyperbolas in the use of telescopes and LORAN, a Long Range Navigation system used by ships.
Finally, you compared and contrasted circles, parabolas, ellipses, and hyperbolas.
• A hyperbola is the set of all points in a plane such that the difference of the distances from two
fixed points, called foci, to any point on the hyperbola is constant.
• d1 – d2 = 2a = the difference in the string lengths.
• The equation in standard form for a hyperbola centered at (h, k) with a horizontal
(x − h )2 ( y − k )
2
transverse axis is − =1.
a2 b2
• The equation in standard form for a hyperbola centered at the origin with a

vertical transverse axis is

( y − k ) (x − h )2
2
− =1.
a2 b2
• The distance from the center to a vertex is represented by a. A vertex is an endpoint of the
transverse axis.
• The distance from a focus to the center is represented by c.
• Lines that do not intersect with the hyperbola but can be used to help sketch a hyperbola are
called asymptotes.
• Equations of circles have two squared terms with equal coefficients.
Equations of parabolas have one squared term.
Equations of ellipses have two squared terms with unequal same-signed coefficients.
Equations of hyperbolas have two squared terms with opposite signs.

Example 1
Write the equation for a hyperbola with center (–2, 5), vertices (–2, –3) and
(–2, 13), and foci (–2, –5) and (–2, 15).

Solution
The distance from the center to a vertex is represented by a.
a=8
The distance from a focus to the center is represented by c.
c = 10
The transverse axis is vertical.
a2 + b2 = c2 so b = 6.

Therefore, the equation is

( y − 5)2 − (x + 2)2 = 1 .
82 62

14 Student Workbook
Example 2
The following equation is the general form for a hyperbola. Find the center, foci, and
the length of the transverse axis. Then on graph paper, draw the hyperbola.
4x2 – 9y2 + 8x – 54y – 113 = 0

Solution
Step 1
Complete the square to put the equation into standard form.
4x2 – 9y2 + 8x – 54y – 113 = 0
4(x + 2x + 1) – 9(y2 + 6y + 9) = 113 + 4 – 81
2

4(x + 1)2 – 9(y + 3)2 = 36

(x + 1)2
−
( y + 3)
2
=1
32 22
Step 2
The center = (–1, –3), a = 3, b = 2, and c = 13 .
The length of the transverse axis = 2 × 3 = 6.
The transverse axis is horizontal so the foci are ( −1 + 13, −3) and ( −1 − 13, −3) .
The vertices are (2, –3) and (–4, –3).

Step 3
Find the rectangle to draw the asymptotes. The coordinates of the rectangle’s vertices
are combinations of (h + a, k + b) and (h – a, k + b).
(–1 + 3, –3 + 2) = (2, –1)
(–1 + 3, –3 – 2) = (2, –5)
(–1 – 3, –3 + 2) = (–4, –1)
(–1 – 3, –3 – 2) = (–4, –5)
y
2

–6 –4 –2 0 2 4 x
(–4, –1) (2, –1)
–2

–4
(–4, –5) (2, –5)
–6

–8

Therefore, the following is the graph of the hyperbola.

y
10

–15 –10 –5 0 5 10 x

–5

Hyperbolas 15
Exercises
1. Write the equation for each hyperbola.
(a) center = (0, 0), vertices are (–3, 0) and (3, 0), foci are (–5, 0) and (5, 0)
(b) center = (6, 2), vertices are (4, 2) and (8, 2), foci are (2, 2) and (10, 2)
(c) center = (0, 0), vertices are (–3, 0) and (3, 0), passes through the point (5, 4)
(d) foci are (0, − 5) and (0, 5) , asymptotes are y = ± 1 –x
2
(e) foci are ( − 13, 2) and ( 13, 2) , asymptotes are y = ± 2 –x + 2
3

2. Find the equation for each graph.

(a) y
15

10

(-10, 0)
–15 –10 –5 (0, 0) 5 10 15 x
(8, 0)
–5

–10

(b) y

15

(5,10)
10

5
(5,1)

–5 0 5 10 15 x
(5,0)
–5

(c) y
15

(5, 6)
10
(–3, 2) (3, 2)

–10 –5 0 5 10 x

–5

(d)
y = – –8 x + 4 y = –8 x + 4
9 y 9
10

5
(–9, 4) (9, 4)

–15 –10 –5 5 10 15 x

–5

16 Student Workbook
3. Find the center, vertices, and asymptotes for each hyperbola. Then sketch the
graph using graph paper.
2 y2
(a) x 2 − 2 = 1
6 9

(b)
( y + 4)2 − (x − 3)2 = 1
122 62

(c)
( y + 2)2 − (x − 3)2 = 1
82 52
4. Find the center, vertices, and asymptotes for each hyperbola. Then sketch the
graph using graph paper.
(a) 4x2 – y2 + 24x + 18y – 61 = 0

(b) 16x2 – y2 – 32x + 8y – 16 = 0

5. Determine the type of conic each equation describes.

(a) (x + 4)2 + (y – 3)2 = 16

(b) (x + 5) −
2
( y − 1) = 1
2

62 52

(c) (x + 5) +
2
( y − 1) = 1
2

62 52
(d) 5x2 + 4y + 10 = 0

6. Determine the type of conic each equation describes.

(a) y2 – 4x2 + 8x – 4y – 4 = 0

(b) 4x2 + 4y2 + 24x + 16y – 61 = 0

(c) 4x2 + y2 + 24x + 18y – 61 = 0

(d) 4x2 + 24y – 64 = 0

7. Hyperbolic mirrors are often used in telescopes to direct light to an eyepiece so

the light can be magnified. If the mirror is placed so that the light coming from a
great distance is aimed toward one focus, the mirror will reflect the light to the
other focus. A point on the mirror curve is P(12, 8) and the foci are (–12, 4) and
(12, 4). If the path of a light ray moving toward the mirror can be described by
y = –x + 16, where will the light hit the mirror and will the light be reflected
toward an eyepiece located at the focus (–12, 4)?

8. Two LORAN stations are positioned 200 mi apart along a straight shore. A ship
records a time difference of 3.2 x 10–4 s between the LORAN radio signals. The
signals travel at 186,000 mps. Assume the midpoint of the line connecting the
stations is (0, 0). If the ship is traveling along the hyperbolic path that
corresponds to this time difference, where will the ship reach the shore?

Hyperbolas 17
 48 Introduction to Sequences

In this lesson, you learned about special functions called sequences, described numerical patterns
using sequence notation, and explored recursive processes. You have made or examined data tables
to solve practical problems using sequences. You evaluated factorial notation and used this notation
to form the functional expression for certain sequences.
• A sequence is a function whose domain is the set of natural numbers, N = {1, 2, 3, …, n, …}. For
example, when the domain of f(x) = 2x – 1 is restricted to the natural numbers, f(x) becomes the
sequence of odd natural numbers, {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, …, 2n – 1, …}. As a sequence, f(x) = 2x – 1
becomes an = 2n – 1. The subscript n is a reminder that the domain values are natural numbers.
Where f(1) = 1 and f(5) = 9, for this sequence, a1 = 1 and a5 = 9. In the case of both f(5) and a5,
the value is calculated as 2(5) – 1 = 9.

• A sequence of numbers, such as 1, 1 , 1 , 1 ,K, can be presented

2 4 8
n −1
as a function: an = 1 =  1
n −1
 = (0.5)
2n −1 2

 as a list: 1, 1 , 1 , 1 ,K, n1−1 ,K

2 4 8 2
 1 1 1 1 
 as an infinite set: 1, 2 , 4 , 8 ,K, n −1 ,K
 2 
 
as a combination of set and function notation:  n1−1 

2 
The expression an = n1−1 is also called the nth term expression for the sequence.
2
In a recursive definition, the values of a1 and an – 1 are used to obtain the value of an.
The sequence above can be defined recursively as a1 = 1 and an = 1 an −1 .
2
• The symbol n!, which is read “n factorial,” is defined as
n! = n(n – 1)(n – 2)(n – 3)…(3)(2)(1). For instance,
7! = (7)(6)(5)(4)(3)(2)(1)
= 5040

( )
Example 1 n
Determine the first five terms for the sequence an = 3 210 , rounded to three
decimal places.

Solution
n 1 2 3 4 5

an
( ) 3(2 ) 3(2 ) 3(2 ) 3(2 )
1
3 210
2
10
3
10
4
10
5
10

rounded 3.215 3.446 3.693 3.959 4.243

18 Student Workbook
Example 2
The approximate average change in the world population over the years 1991 to 2001
was about 0.079 billion per year. In 2001, the world population was estimated to be
about 6.157 billion people. Use this information to estimate what the world
population will be in 2050.

Solution
Step 1
Use the yearly average change in population to write a recursively defined sequence
estimating the yearly population. Use the population estimate for 2001 as the first
term of the sequence.
a1 = 6.157 and an = an – 1 + 0.079 (Note: n = 1 for 2001 and n = 50 for 2050.)

Step 2
Write out several terms to see the patterns that express the nth term for the annual
population estimates.
Year Term

2001 a1 = 6.157
2002 a2 = a1 + 0.079 = 6.157 + 0.079
2003 a3 = a2 + 0.079 = (6.157 + 0.079) + 0.079 = 6.157 + (2)(0.079)
2004 a4 = a3 + 0.079 = (6.157 + (2)(0.079)) + 0.079 = 6.157 + (3)(0.079)
… …
n an = 6.157 + (n – 1)(0.079)
… …

Step 3
Use the nth term expression found in step 3, with n = 50. For 2050, n = 50, so
a50 = 6.157 + (50 – 1)(0.079) = 10.028 billion or 10,028,000,000 people.

Example 3

{
Find the nth term expression for the sequence 2 , 5 , 10 , 17 , 26 ,K, an = ?,K .
3 9 27 81 243 }
Solution
Step 1
The numerators form the sequence {2, 5, 10, 17, 26, …, ? , …}. Each term listed is 1
more than the square of its order in the sequence.
order 1 2 3 4 5 … n …
square 1 4 9 16 25 … n2 …
sequence 2 5 10 17 26 … n2 +1 …

Step 2
The denominators form the sequence of powers of 3, 3n.
order 1 2 3 4 5 … n …
powers 31 32 33 34 35 … 3n …
sequence 2 9 27 81 243 … 3n …

Introduction to Sequences 19
Step 3
Combine the nth term expressions for the numerator and the denominator to
produce an = n n+ 1 .
2

Example 4
Find the first five terms and the 100th term for the sequence given by a1 = 5 and
an = 1 an −1 .
2

Solution
Step 1
a1 = 5
a 2 = 1 a1 = 1 (5) = 5 = 51 = 25−1
2 2 2 2 2
1
a3 = a2 = 1  5  = =5 5 = 5
2 2  2 4 22 23 −1
a 4 = 1 a 3 = 1  52  = 5 = 53 = 45−1
2 22  8 2 2
1
a5 = a4 = 1  5  = 5 = 5 = 5
2 2  23  16 24 25−1

Step 2
The first five terms can all be expressed in the form n5−1 . It is reasonable to
5 = 5 . 2
conclude that a100 = 100 −1 99
2 2

Exercises
1. Consider the sequence an = ( −1) − 1
n −1  2n
 2n  .
(a) Write the first five terms.

(b) Calculate a27.

(c) Is the 2,345,237th term positive or negative?

2. Consider the sequence an = (–1)n – 1 + 2.

(a) Write the first five terms.

(b) Calculate a27.

(c) What is the 2,345,238th term?

20 Student Workbook
 n −1
n −1  1
3. Select all the values that are terms of an = ( −1) .
 3
(a) –1 1
(b) – –– 1
(c) –– 1
(d) –– 1
(e) – ––
27 27 81 81

4. Find the nth term for each sequence.

{
(a) 2, 1, 4 , 5 , 6 ,K, an = ?,K
5 7 9 }
(b) {–2, 4, –6, 8, –10, …, an = ?, …}

(c) {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, …, an = ?, …}

{
(d) 1 , − 1 , 1 , − 1 , 1 K, an = ?,K
2 4 8 16 32 }
(e) {1 , − 3 , 5 , − 7 , 9 K, a n = ?,K}
2 4 8 16 32

5. Consider the sequence given by a1 = 6.157 and an = an – 1 + 0.079.

(a) Write the first five terms.

(b) Calculate a8.

(c) What is the 25th term?

6. Find the fifth term for the sequence given by a1 = 2, a2 = 5, and an = an – 1 + an – 2.

7. Complete the expression.

(2n + 3)! = (2n + 3)(_____)(_____)(2n) … (3)(2)(1)

8. Evaluate.
(a) 5! (b) 8! (c) 11! (d) 13!
4! 5! 3! 2! 9! 8! 5!

9. Arnold increases the amount of money he saves each year. He saves $800 the first
year. The next year he saves $800 plus half the amount he saved last year. This
pattern continues. How much does he save just in the fifth year?

10. The population of a bacterial culture doubles every hour. If the initial population
of bacteria culture is 1000, what is the population in the 15th hour?

Introduction to Sequences 21
 49 Arithmetic Sequences and Series

In this lesson, you found the terms and the sum of specific numbers of terms of arithmetic
sequences. You solved various problems using arithmetic sequences and series and organized data
to solve finance problems by using an arithmetic sequence model.
• In an arithmetic sequence, or progression, each term, except for the first term, is obtained by
adding a nonzero constant, d, called the common difference, to the preceding term. The
recursive representation is a1 = a and an = an – 1 + d, where a is the value of the first term and d is
the common difference.
• For the general arithmetic sequence, the recursive representation, a1 = a and an = an – 1 + d,
can be used to algebraically generate the nth term function, an = a1 + (n – 1)d.
• For any arithmetic sequence, the associated finite series, Sn, also called the nth partial sum, is
defined as
S n = a1 + a 2 + a 3 + K + an
n
= ∑ ak
k =1
n
= ∑ (a1 + (k − 1)d )
k =1
= [a1 + (1 − 1)d ] + [a1 + (2 − 1)d ] + [a1 + (3 − 1)d ] + K + [a1 + (n − 1)d ]
= n [2a1 + (n − 1)d ]
2

Example 1
Find the common difference and the next three terms for the sequence
1, 5, 9, …. What is a100 for this sequence?

Solution
The common difference is 4 because 5 – 1 = 4 and 9 – 5 = 4. The next three
terms in the sequence are
a4 = 9 + 4 a5 = 13 + 4 a6 = 17 + 4
= 13 = 17 = 21
The nth term function for this sequence is an = 1 + (n – 1)4. Substitute n = 100.
a100 = 1 + (100 – 1)4
= 1 + (99)4
= 397
Therefore, a100 = 397 for this sequence.

Example 2
In a certain arithmetic sequence the first term is a1 = 65 and the common
difference is d = –3. The sum of the first n terms of this sequence is 295. How
many terms does the sequence have?

22 Student Workbook
Solution
Step 1
Use the sum formula for the first n terms of an arithmetic sequence with a1 = 65,
d = –3, and Sn = 295.
Sn = n [2a1 + (n − 1)d ]
2
295 = [2(65) + (n − 1)( −3)]
n
2

Step 2
Solve the resulting equation for n.
295 = n (130 − 3n + 3)
2
590 = 133n − 3n 2
3n 2 − 133n + 590 = 0
(n − 5)(3n − 118) = 0
n = 5 or n = 118
3
= 39 1
3
Since n must be a natural number, this sequence has five terms.

Example 3
A farmer is harvesting a rectangular cornfield. She runs her harvester once
around the outer edge of the field and from the weight of the harvested
corn she calculates that she harvested 500 bushels with this run. Experience
tells her that she will harvest 45 less bushels on each successive circular pass
as she harvests toward the center of the field. If it takes her 12 circular
passes to harvest the field, what would be a good estimate of the number of
bushels she will harvest from this field?

Solution
Step 1
Model the number of bushels harvested with each trip around the field as an
arithmetic sequence. The first term is a1 = 500 and the common difference is d = –45.

Step 2
Calculate the sum of the first 12 terms for this sequence.
Sn = n [2a1 + (n − 1)d ]
2
S12 = [2(500) + (12 − 1)( −45)]
12
2
= 6[1000 + (11)( −45)]
= 3030
A good estimate is 3030 bushels.

Example 4
A riding mower is on sale for $1350. It can be bought for $150 down and monthly
payments of $100, plus a monthly finance charge of 4% on the balance due at the
end of the previous month. Calculate the total finance charges for this offer.

Arithmatic Sequences and Series 23

Solution
Step 1
Represent the monthly finance charges with an arithmetic sequence. For the first
month the finance charge will be $1200(0.04) = $48. For the second month, the
finance charge will be $1100(0.04) = $44. For the third month, the finance charge
will be $1000(0.04) = $40, and so on. This pattern continues for 12 months
 1200 = 12 . For the sequence representing the monthly finance charges, the first
 100 
term is a1 = 48 and the common difference is d = –4.

Step 2
Calculate S12 for the finance charges sequence.
Sn = n [2a1 + (n − 1)d ]
2
S12 = [2(48) + (12 − 1)( −4)]
12
2
= 6[96 − 44]
= 312
The total finance charge is $312.

Example 5
5
∑ (2k )
2k −1
Expand .
k =1

Solution
5
2(1)−1 2(2)−1 2(3 )−1 2( 4 )−1 2( 5)−1
∑ (2k ) + 2(5)
2k −1
= 2(1) + 2(2) + 2(3) + 2(4)
k =1

Exercises
1. Consider the sequence 98, 93, 88, 83, ….
(a) Is this sequence arithmetic? If it is, what is the common difference?

(b) Write the next three terms.

(c) What is the 237th term?

2. Consider the sequence 4 , 21 , 13 ,K .

5 20 10
(a) Is this sequence arithmetic? If it is, what is the common difference?

(b) Write the next three terms.

(c) What is the 23rd term?

3. Is the sequence {2, 4, 8, 16, … } arithmetic?

24 Student Workbook
4. The ninth term of an arithmetic sequence is a9 = 37 and the common difference
is 5. What is the first term?

5. A series is formed from an arithmetic sequence with first term a1 = 5. The last
addend in the series is 15.5 and the sum of the series is 225.5. How many terms of
the sequence make up this series?

6. Find the sum of the first ten terms of an arithmetic sequence with first term
a1 = 1500 and common difference d = 300.
7
7. Expand ∑ (1 + (k − 1)2) .
k =1

8. Find the sum of the series that is expressed in Problem 7.

9. Which salary schedule, A or B, would produce the greater gross income over a 30-
year period?
A: a starting salary of $26,000 with a raise of $980 each year
B: a starting salary of $30,000 with a raise of $700 each year

10. Denise gets a credit card bill for $1700. She can pay $300 with the billing and
then pay $200 at the end of each month, plus a finance charge of 4% on the
balance due at the end of each month.
(a) Complete the first three rows of the table.
Month (n) Amount Financed ($) Finance Calculation Finance Calculation

1 1400 0.04(1400)
2 1200
3 80
… … … …

(b) Write the nth term for the sequence that represents the monthly finance
charges.
(c) What are the total finances charges for this payment plan?

11. The seating area in the end zone of a stadium is shown. The first row has 55 seats
and each row going up has 11 more seats than the previous row. How many seats
does the end zone have if there are 16 rows in all?

12. A grocery store manager has 11 cases of canned peaches, each containing 6 one-
gallon cans. He decides to display the cans by stacking them in a pyramid, in
which each successive row above the bottom row contains one less can. He uses all
the cans and puts just one can on the top row.
(a) How many stacked rows did he make?
(b) How many cans are in the first or bottom row?

Arithmatic Sequences and Series 25

 50 Geometric Sequences and Series

In this lesson, you found the terms and the sum of specific numbers of terms of geometric
sequences. You organized data to solve many financial problems involving annuities and loan
payments using geometric sequences and series.
• In a geometric sequence, or progression, each term, except for the first term, is obtained by
multiplying the preceding term by a nonzero constant, r, called the common ratio. The recursive
representation is a1 = a and an = an – 1(r), where a is the value of the first term and r is the
common ratio.
• For the general geometric sequence, the recursive representation a1 = a and
an = an – 1 (r) can be used to algebraically generate the nth term function, an = arn – 1. In this
form, the sequence is a, ar, ar2, ar3, …, arn – 1, …. Notice that in this form
ar = ar 2 = L = ar n L = r . The ratio of two consecutive terms is always r, which
r ar ar n −1
is why r is called the common ratio.
• For any geometric sequence, the associated finite series, Sn, also called the nth partial sum, is
defined as
Sn = a + ar + ar 2 + ar 3 + … + ar n −1
n
= ∑ ar (k −1)
k =1
( n)
= a 1− r
1− r
• For any geometric sequence, the associated infinite series, S, is defined as
Sn = a + ar + ar 2 + ar 3 + … + ar n −1 + …
∞
= ∑ ar (k −1)
k =1

For |r| < 1 the value of S is

∞
S= ∑ ar (k −1)
k =1
= a
1− r
For |r| ≥ 1, S has no value.

Example 1
Determine whether each sequence is geometric, arithmetic, or neither. If it is
geometric, state the common ratio. If it is arithmetic, state the common
difference.
(a) 2
–, 1
–, 1
–, … (b) 1, 5, 9, … (c) 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, …
3 3 6

26 Student Workbook
Solution
a2 a3
If = = r , then a sequence is geometric. If a2 – a1 = a3 – a2 = d, then it is
a1 a 2
arithmetic. Otherwise, it is neither.
1 1
3 6 1
(a) 2 = 1 = 2 The sequence is geometric, with a common ratio of r = 1–.
2
3 3
1−2 ≠ 1−1 The sequence is not arithmetic.
3 3 6 3

(b) 5 ≠ 9 The sequence is not geometric.

1 5
5–1=9–5=4 The sequence is arithmetic, with a common difference of d = 4.
1 2
(c) 1 ≠ 1 and 1 – 1 ≠ 2 – 1, so the sequence is neither geometric nor arithmetic.

Example 2
A certain geometric sequence has a3 = 75 for its third term and a5 = 1875 for its fifth
term. Determine a and r for the nth term, an = arn – 1.

Solution
Step 1
Use a3 = ar3 – 1 = ar2 = 75 and a5 = ar5 – 1 = ar4 = 1875 to form an equation and solve
for r.
ar 5 = 1875
ar 3 75
r = 25
2

r = 5 or r = −5

Step 2
Consider both values of r. Use the equation for a3 to solve for a.
For r = 5, For r = –5,
a 3 = 75 a 3 = 75
3 −1 3 −1
= a (r ) = a (r )
= a (5) = a ( −5)
2 2

= 25a = 25a
a = 75 a = 75
25 25
=3 =3
Check for the fifth term. Check for the fifth term.
a5 = 3(5)5 – 1 a5 = 3(–5)5 – 1
= 3(5)4 = 3(–5)4
= 1875 = 1875
In this case, two answers are possible, a = 3 and r = 5, and a = 3 and r = –5.

Geometric Sequences and Series 27

Example 3
The largest square shown has a side of length 1 m. If the pattern of
shading continues indefinitely, what is the area of the unshaded
portion?

Solution
Step 1
Describe the pattern in the figure.
The large square is partitioned into 4 squares that are each 1– the area of the large
4
square. Two of these 4 squares are totally unshaded, with an area of 2 1  m2 = 1 m2 .
 4 2
1
The partially shaded fourth quarter is exactly – the area of the largest square so the
4
area of the two totally unshaded subdivisions within it are 1 (2) 1  m2 = 1 m2 .
4 4 8
Step 2
Model the area data with a geometric sequence.
As the pattern continues, the areas of the totally unshaded subdivisions form the
geometric progression
an = a(r)n – 1. Here, a = 1
– and r = 1
–.
2 4
Step 3
Calculate the unshaded area by calculating the sum of the series formed by the
geometric sequence.
∞ k −1
S= ∑ 21  41
k =1
1
= 2
1− 1
4
2
= m2
3
The area of the unshaded portion is 2
– m2.
3
Example 4
The winner of a “$5,000,000” state lottery can choose to take the winnings (a) in 20
annual equal payments of $250,000 each or (b) immediately, in one lump sum
payment. The state pays the present value, V, of the $5 million. You can compare this
situation to an annuity, where the interest rate is 6% per year and there are 20 equal
payments. What is the present value, V, to the nearest dollar?

Solution
Step 1
The present value, V, is the amount of money that would need to be invested at 6%
annually to equal an annuity with 20 equal payments of p = $250,000, the hypothetical
annual annuity deposit. Equating the interest form investing the present value, V,
with the earnings from the hypothetical annuity forms an equation that may be
solved for V.

28 Student Workbook
Step 2
Organize the interest that would be realized from the annuity into the table shown.
The 20th payment is not invested for any length of time. The sum of the amounts in
the 20th period column form a geometric series whose value represents the annuity’s
value (a = p = 250,000 and r = 1.06).
20 Time in Yrs. 1 2 17 18 19
∑ p (1.06)
k −1
Annuity value = Deposit 1 2 3 18 19 20
k =1
p (1 − 1.0620 )
P
P (1.06)1
=
1 − 1.06 P (1.06)2
p = $250, 000

P (1.06)17
P (1.06)18
P (1.06)19

Step 3
Set the value of investing the present value amount, V(1.06)19, to the annuity value
and solve for V.
250, 000(1 − 1.0620 )
V (1.06)
19
=
1 − 1.06
250, 000(1 − 1.0620 )
V =
(−0.06)(1.06)19
= $3, 039, 529
The present value is approximately $3,039,529.

Example 5
A super ball is dropped from a height of 5 ft. The ball hits the ground and
bounces indefinitely. The maximum height of the ball after each bounce is 80%
of the balls maximum height of the previous bounce. What is the total vertical
distance that the ball travels?

Solution
The ball travels down 5 ft. Then it bounces up and then falls a 5 2(5·0.8)
10(0.8)(0.8)
distance of 2(5)(0.8) ft. The next “up-down” distance is 0.8 of the =10(0.8) 10(0.8)2(0.8)
=10(0.8)2
previous distance, or 2(5)(0.8)2. Multiplying each up-down =10(0.8)2
distance by 0.8 always produces the next up-down distance and all
these products produces a geometric sequence with a = 10(0.8)
and r = 0.8. The total of all the vertical distances equals
( )
5 + 10 0.8 = 5 + 40
1 − 0.8
= 45
The total vertical distance the ball travels is 45 ft.

Geometric Sequences and Series 29

Exercises
1. Determine whether each sequence is geometric, arithmetic, or neither.
(a) 1, − 1 , 1 , − 1 ,K
2 4 8

(b) 256, 192, 128, …

(c) 2, 2 2, 4, K

2. Find the nth term function for each sequence in Problem 1.

3. A certain geometric sequence has a 5 = 1 for its fifth term and a 8 = − 1 for
16 128

its eighth term. Determine a and r in the nth term function, an = arn – 1.

4. Find the common ratio, r, for the geometric sequence whose first term is a = 2
and sixth term is a 6 = 8 2 .

5. Find S25 for the geometric sequence 1, − 1 , 1 , − 1 ,K .

6 36 216

6. Andrea invests $1000 at the end of each year for 15 years. The interest rate is
8.5% per year, compounded annually. She does not invest any more after the 15
years. The interest rate changes to 9% per year, compounded annually, for the
next 20 years. At the end of the 20th year, Andrea retires at age 55. What is the
value of her investment, to the nearest penny, when Andrea turns 55?

30 Student Workbook
  x
2 1 −  1 
7. Find the least upper bound for f (x ) = 
3 
.
1− 1
3

8. Calculate to the nearest hundredth.

∞ k −1
(a) ∑ 5 45
k =1

∞ k −1
(b) ∑ 5 45
k =10

∞ k −1
(c) ∑ 5 − 21
k =5

9. You begin a saving plan by depositing $100 at the beginning of each month for
ten years. The interest rate is 6% per year, compounded monthly. How much will
you have in your account by the end of the tenth year to the nearest penny?

10. Line segment AB is 5 units long. Point C is placed 0.6 of the way from A to B.
Point D is 0.6 of the way from C to B. Point E is 0.6 of the way from D to B. If this
process continues indefinitely, what is the total distance between the points? What
geometric series models this situation?
A C D E B

Geometric Sequences and Series 31

 51 Mathematical Induction

In this lesson, you learned about mathematical induction, an important basic tool that is used for
proving hypotheses arising from all sorts of patterns. You formulated hypotheses from a handful of
facts and proved they were true using induction. You continued your study of arithmetic and
geometric series and extended your work to many other series by applying the induction principle.
Mathematical induction is a powerful mathematical tool, but it also is a source of enjoyable
mathematical recreation.
The principle of mathematical induction states that a proposition is true for all natural numbers n
if
• the proposition is true for n = 1, and
• it can be shown to be true for n = k + 1, assuming that it is true for n = k
To understand this principle, think of an infinite ladder with two qualities. One quality is that you
can step onto the first rung of the ladder and the second quality is that if you are on any rung, you
can always step up to the next rung. With these two qualities you can climb to any rung on the
ladder. With the two induction principle steps you can conclude that a proposition is true for any
natural number, just like you can climb to any rung of the ladder.
Mathematical induction is a tool for proving that a mathematical proposition is true for all natural
numbers, n. You establish that the proposition is true when n = 1. Then you assume that it is true
for n = k and show, based on this assumption, that it is true for n = k + 1. The logic of having these
two facts established allows you to conclude that since it is true for n = 1, it is true for n = 1 + 1 = 2.
Similarly, if it is true for n = 2, then it is also true for n = 2 + 1 = 3, and so on. The conclusion must
be that it is true for every natural number.

Example 1
For the sequence in which a1 = 5 and an + 1 = an(0.3), use mathematical induction
to show that an = 5(0.3)n – 1 for all natural numbers.

Solution
Step 1
Show the proposition is true for n = 1.
For n = 1,
an = a1
= 5(0.3)1 – 1
= 5(0.3)0
= 5(1)
=5
Thus, an = 5(0.3)n – 1 is true for n = 1.

Step 2
Assume the proposition is true for n = k; that is, assume that ak = 5(0.3)k – 1.
Now show the proposition is true for n = k + 1; that is, show that ak + 1 = 5(0.3)(k + 1) – 1.
ak + 1 = ak(0.3)
= 5(0.3)k – 1 (0.3)
= 5(0.3)k – 1 + 1
= 5(0.3)(k + 1) – 1
This is the desired result.
The two requirements for proving a proposition by mathematical induction are satisfied.
Therefore, the proposition that an = 5(0.3)n – 1 is true for all natural numbers, n.

32 Student Workbook
Example 2
P :12 + 32 + 52 + K + (2n − 1) =  1 (4n 3 − n ) for all natural numbers n.
2
3
Interpret P for n = k and for n = k + 1.

Solution
For n = k, the proposition P is 12 + 32 + 52 + K + (2k − 1)2 =  1 (4k 3 − k )
 3
2
3
( 3
)
For n = k + 1, the proposition P is 12 + 32 + 52 + K + (2(k + 1) − 1) =  1 4(k + 1) − (k + 1)

Example 3
Prove proposition P by induction.
P: If n points, n > 1, are placed on a circle and each point is connected to every
( )
other point by a line segment, then there are n n − 1 line segments connecting
2
the n points.

Solution
Step 1
Show that P is true for the least possible value of n, which in this case is 2.
P is true for n = 2, because there are just two points connected by one line
( )
segment and 2 2 − 1 = 1.
2

Step 2
Show that P is true for n = k + 1, assuming it is true for n = k. That is, show that on
(k + 1)((k + 1) − 1)
a circle with k + 1 points line segments are required to connect
2
each point with every other point.
( )
Consider the circle with k points on it. Assume that exactly k k − 1 line segments
2
are required to connect each point to every other point. Place one more point on this
circle so that now there are k points connected by line segments, and k + 1 points all
together. To connect the (k + 1)st point to each of the other k points requires k line
segments.
The total line segments connecting all k + 1 points is now:
k (k − 1) + k = k (k − 1) + 2k
2 2
= k 2
− k + 2k
2
= k +k
2

2
(k + 1)k
=
2
(k + 1)((k + 1) − 1)
=
2
This is the required result. By mathematical induction, P is true for all natural numbers n.

Mathematical Induction 33
Example 4
Consider the following proposition and its proof by induction.
P: 5n – 2n is evenly divisible by 3 for all natural numbers n.
Proof
For n = 1, 51 – 21 = 5 – 2
=3
Assume P is true for n = k; that is, 5k – 2k = 3M for some natural number M. Show,
based on this assumption, that P is true for n = k + 1, that is, show that 5k + 1 – 2k + 1 is
evenly divisible by 3. This is equivalent to showing that 5k + 1 – 2k + 1 = 3Q for some
natural number Q.
5k = 3M + 2k
5k + 1 – 2k + 1 = 5k(5) – 2k(2)
= (3M + 2k)5 – 2k(2)
= 3M(5) + 2k(5) – 2k(2)
= 3M(5) + 2k(5 – 2)
= 3M(5) + 2k(3)
= 3(5M + 2k)
k
Let Q = 5M + 2 . Then,
5k + 1 – 2k + 1 = 3Q
This the desired result.

Order the steps in the proof of P from 1 to 5.

[ ] Add 2k to both sides of the induction assumption equation.
[ ] Use the power rule for exponents
[ ] Use the distributive law.
[ ] Show that P is true for n = 1.
[ ] Use substitution.

Solution
[2] Add 2k to both sides of the induction assumption equation.
5k = 3M + 2k
[3] Use the power rule for exponents
5k + 1 – 2k + 1 = 5k(5) – 2k(2)
[5] Use the distributive law.
3M(5) + 2k(5) – 2k(2)
[1] Show that P is true for n = 1.
For n = 1, 51 – 21 = 5 – 2 = 3.
[4] Use substitution.
(3M + 2k)(5) – 2k(2)
{5k = 3M + 2k}

Exercises
1. Given P: 2 + 6 + 10 + … + (4n – 2) = 2n2, interpret P for n = k + 1.

34 Student Workbook
 n (n + 1)(n + 2)
2. Given P :1(2) + 2(3) + 3(4) + K + n (n + 1) = , interpret P for n = k + 1.
3

2( ) 2
3. Anne is proving P :13 + 23 + 33 + K + n 3 = n n + 1 .
4
Proof
12 (1 + 1)
2
P is true for n = 1, since 13 = .
4
What is the next step in this proof?

4. After you establish the next step in the proof in Problem 3, what is your goal from
that point on?

5. For the sequence a1 = 5 and an + 1 = an + 3, use mathematical induction to show

that an = 5 + (n – 1)3 for all n.

6. For the sequence a1 = 2 and an + 1 = an(0.5), use mathematical induction to show

that an = 2(0.5)n – 1 for all n.

Mathematical Induction 35
7. Consider the following proposition and proof.
n
P :  a  = an for all natural numbers n.
n
b b
Proof
1
P is true for n = 1, since  a  = a = a1 .
1
b b b
k
Assume P is true for n = k, that is,  a  = a k . Show that P is true for n = k + 1;
k
b b
k +1 k +1
that is, that  a  = a k +1 .
b b
k
a  a  = ak ⋅a (1)
 b   b  bk b
k +1
a  = ak ⋅a (2)
b bk b
k +1
a  = a k ⋅a
k
(3)
b b ⋅b
k +1 k +1
a  = a k +1 (4)
b b
Which numbered lines in the proof use the product rule for exponents?

8. The recursion definition for a sequence is a1 = 3 and an + 1 = an + 0.5. Consider

the following proposition and proof.
P: an = 3 + (n – 1)(0.5) for all natural numbers.
Proof
For n = 1, a1 = 3 + (1 – 1)(0.5) = 3. Thus, P is true for n = 1.
Assume that P is true for n = k; that is, ak = 3 + (k – 1)(0.5).
ak + 1 = ak + 0.5 (1)
= 3 + (k – 1)(0.5) + (0.5) (2)
= a + k(0.5) (3)
= a + ((k + 1) – 1)(0.5) (4)
Describe the numbered steps in the proof.

36 Student Workbook
9. The recursion definition for a sequence is a1 = a and an + 1 = an + d. Consider the
following proposition and proof.
P: an = a + (n – 1)d for all natural numbers n.
Proof
For n = 1, a1 = a + (1 – 1)d = a.
Assume that P is true for n = k; that is, that ak = a + (k – 1)d.
ak + 1 = ak + d (1)
= a + (k – 1)d + d (2)
= a + (k)d (3)
= a + ((k + 1) – 1)d (4)
Describe the numbered steps in the proof.

n
( ) , the line
∑ ar k −1 = a 11 −− rr
n
10. For the induction proof of the proposition P : Sn =
k =1
that uses the induction assumption that P is true for n = k and the next line are
presented below.
( k)
a + ar + ar 2 + ar 3 + K + ar k −1 = a 1 − r
1− r
(
a + ar + ar 2 + ar 3 + Kar k −1 + ar [ ] = a 1 − r
[ ])
1− r
Complete the last line by filling the blanks with the correct expressions.

Mathematical Induction 37
 52 Permutations and Combinations

In this lesson, you learned basic counting techniques. You started with the multiplication principle
for counting events in an experiment and extended this concept to combinatoric situations called
permutations and combinations. You analyzed and organized these combinatorial experiences to
solve many practical and classical problems.

Combinatorics is the area of mathematics where counting techniques determine the number of
objects in a set without actually enumerating the objects as 1, 2, 3, … . For example, you could
count the number of squares on a chessboard, but you can, without counting, arrive at the total
count by multiplying, 8 × 8 = 64 squares.
The Fundamental Counting Principle (FCP) states that if a task consists of k separate parts, if the
first part can be done in n1 ways, the second part in n2 ways, and so on through to the kth part,
which can be done in nk ways, then the total possible number of ways of completing the task is given
by the product
n1 · n2 · n3 · … · nk.
Permutations are arrangements of part or all the elements of a set in which the order of the
arrangement determines a given permutation. If a set contains n elements, then the number of
permutations of n elements taken r at a time is calculated as
n! .
n Pr =
(n − r )!
Combinations are arrangements of part or all the elements of a set in which the order of selection
of the elements is not considered in forming a given combination. If a set contains n elements then
the number of combinations of n elements taken r at a time is calculated as
n!
nCr =
(n − r )!r !
To find the number of distinguishable permutations of n elements with r1 identical elements of one
kind, r2 identical elements of a second kind, r3 identical elements of a third kind, …, and rm of an
mth kind use the formula
n!
r1 ⋅ r2 ⋅ r3 ⋅ L ⋅ rm

Example 1
The ASCII code is an alphanumeric code used by computers. The sequence 01000001 is the
code for the letter B. Using a sequence of eight 1’s and 0’s, how many codes are possible if
the first three digits had to be 100, 101, 110 or 111?

Solution
Step 1
View the situation as six separate events. There is the event of choosing what the first three
digits will be. This can occur in four distinct ways. The other five events consist of deciding
the fourth through the eighth digit. Each of these five events can occur in two distinct ways.

Step 2
Use the Fundamental Counting Principle to calculate the number of codes that can be
formed.
4 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 128
Therefore, 128 codes are possible.

38 Student Workbook
Example 2
Three test pilots are to be chosen from a pool of 12 pilots to train for a special space
mission. How many different training groups of four can be chosen?

Solution
Step 1
The formation of a team of three pilots does not depend on the order of their
selection. So, this situation calls for counting/calculating the number of
combinations that may be formed from taking 3 members from a set of 12 people.

Step 2
The count may be calculated as = 12!
12C 3
(12 − 3)! 3!
= 12 ⋅ 11 ⋅ 10 ⋅ 9!
9!⋅3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1
= ⋅ 11 ⋅ 10
12
6
= 220
Therefore, 220 different training groups can be chosen.

Example 3
Three test pilots are to be chosen from a pool of 12 pilots to train for commander of
a special space mission. One of the three will be the primary mission candidate for
flight commander with the other two making up a 1st and 2nd backup mission flight
commander. How many different training groups of three can be chosen?

Solution
Step 1
The formation of a team of three pilots depends on the order of their selection; a
primary candidate and a 1st and 2nd backup. So, this situation calls for
counting/calculating the number of permutations that may be formed from taking 3
members from a set of 12 people.

Step 2
The count may be calculated as = 12!
12 P3
(12 − 3)!
= 12 ⋅ 11 ⋅ 10 ⋅ 9!
9!
= 1320
Therefore, 1320 different training groups can be chosen.

Example 4
12 P3
Complete the following relationship: = .
12C 3
[ ]
Solution
Take set Ω as the first 12 letters of the alphabet. Then the set {A, D, E} would be one
of the combinations of the 12 letters taken 3 at a time. This same set of 3 letters are
found in six permutations, ADE, AED, DAE, DEA, EAD, and EDA, that make up the
any of the 12P3 permutations on the set Ω. Thus every combination matches with six
(3! = 3 × 2 × 1 = 6) permutations.
12 P3 12!
12C 3 = =
3! (12 − 3)! 3!
Permutations and Combinations 39
Exercises
1. Complete each calculation.
=
[ ]
15C 2
[ ]2!
(a)

= 13!
(b) 13 P5
[ ]

= 10!
10C 4
[ ]
(c)

(d) [ ] 5C 2 = 5P2

2. Eleven distinct points are selected on the circumference of a circle. How many
cords can be drawn by joining the points in all possible ways?

3. A hexagon has six sides and six vertices. A geometric design is formed by
connecting every pair of vertices with a line segment. How many triangles within
the pattern have their vertices on the hexagon?

4. Andrea remembers that her lock’s combination uses the numbers 5, 22 and 31,
but cannot remember the order that must be selected to open the lock. What is
the largest number of trials necessary to be sure she gets the lock open?

5. A state makes license plates with two letters followed by three digits and two more
letters. How many different plates are possible?

6. From a standard deck of 52 cards, how many 5-card hands are there with all five
cards of the same suit?

40 Student Workbook
7. The population of a country is approximately 286,776,000. If you had to issue a
unique ID to every individual consisting of three letters followed by n digits, what
value of n would be required?

8. Each of three countries assigns a diplomatic team to negotiate an environmental

protection treaty. Each team consists of a chief negotiator, an assistant negotiator,
a language translator, and an environmental scientist. The chief negotiators are
assigned to one side of the rectangular discussion table, the assistant negotiators
to another side, the translators to another, and so on. How many different seating
arrangements are possible?

9. A cab is located at a city corner in Manhattan. The cab must travel to a second
corner located 4 city blocks east and 7 city blocks north of its present location.
How many different shortest routes can the cab take?
Destination

Cab

10. In how many ways may four red and two white balls be arranged in a row? Write
your answer in factorial form and evaluate your expression.

11. In a group of six volunteers for a fundraiser, 2 will be assigned to mailings and 4
will be assigned to door-to-door solicitations. In how many distinguishable ways
can the assignments be made? Write your answer in factorial form and evaluate
your expression.

Permutations and Combinations 41

 53 The Binomial Theorem

In this lesson, you learned how to expand binomials such as (a + b)5.

• When expanding a binomial in the form (a + b)n, the terms follow this pattern.
(a + b)n = c0anb0 + c1an – 1b1 + c2an – 2b2 + … + cn – 1a1bn – 1 + cna0bn
To determine the coefficients of the terms c0, c1, c2, …, cn, use either Pascal’s

triangle or the formula n C r = n! .

r ! (n − r )!
• When using Pascal’s triangle, use the row in the triangle that corresponds to the exponent of the
binomial. The first row of Pascal’s triangle is considered the zero row. For example, if the
exponent of the binomial is 4, use the numbers in the fifth row of Pascal’s triangle. Notice that
the second number in the row of Pascal’s triangle will correspond to the exponent of the
binomial.
• When using the formula for combinations, nCr, the first coefficient is c0 = nC0, the second
coefficient is c1 = nC1, and so on, for all the coefficients. The general
formula for combinations is n C r = n! . Therefore, if you wanted the
r ! (n − r )!
coefficient of the fourth term, c3, in the expansion of (a + b)4, you would
4!
calculate 4C 3 = ( = 4 . Recall that by definition, 0! = 1.
3! 4 − 3)!

Example 1
Expand (x + y)5.

Solution
Step 1
Write all the terms without determining the coefficients of each term. Follow the
pattern in which the exponents of x start at 5 and decrease, term by term, to 0, and the
exponents of y work in reverse order (that is, they increase from 0 to 5).
(x + y)5 = c0x5y0 + c1x4y1 + c2x3y2 + c3x2y3 + c4x1y4 + c5x0y5

Step 2
Determine the coefficients of the terms. Since the exponent of 1
the binomial is 5, a relatively small number, it is possible to use 1 1
Pascal’s triangle for this step. The first six rows of Pascal’s triangle 1 2 1
are shown to the right.
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
The first row corresponds to an exponent of 0. Therefore, the 1 5 10 10 5 1
coefficients to use with an exponent of 5 are in row six of the
triangle. Notice the second element in this row is a 5. The second element will always
be equal to the exponent of the binomial.
So in this expansion, c0 = 1, c1 = 5, c2 = 10, c3 = 10, c4 = 5, and c5 = 1. The binomial
expansion is
(x + y)5 = 1x5y0 + 5x4y1 + 10x3y2 + 10x2y3 + 5x1y4 + 1x0y5
= x5 + 5x4y1 + 10x3y2 + 10x2y3 + 5x1y4 + y5

42 Student Workbook
Example 2
Expand (x – 2y)8.

Solution
Step 1
Rewrite the binomial in the form (a + b)n, to be able to use the pattern.
Write the terms with their proper exponents. Do not fill in the coefficients.
(x – 2y)8 = (x + (–2y))8
(x + (–2y))8 = c0x8(–2y)0 + c1x7(–2y)1 + c2x6(–2y)2 + c3x5(–2y)3 + c4x4(–2y)4 + c5x3(–2y)5
+ c6x2(–2y)6 + c7x1(–2y)7 + c8x0(–2y)8

Step 2
Determine the coefficients of the terms. Since the exponent of the binomial
is relatively large, use the nCr formula or a calculator.
For c0, the formula is 8C 0 = 8! = 1 . Therefore, c0 = 1.
0! (8 − 0)!

For c1, the formula is 8C 1 = 8! = 8 . Therefore, c1 = 8.

1! (8 − 1)!
You may want to locate the nCr feature on your calculator and determine the remaining values
with it. The remaining values are c2 = 28, c3 = 56, c4 = 70, c5 = 56, c6 = 28, c7 = 8, and c8 = 1.

Step 3
Substitute the values for the coefficients.
(x + (–2y))8 = 1x8(–2y)0 + 8x7(–2y)1 + 28x6(–2y)2 + 56x5(–2y)3 + 70x4(–2y)4 + 56x3(–2y)5
+ 28x2(–2y)6 + 8x1(–2y)7 + 1x0(–2y)8

Step 4
Combine all the numbers in each term.
For example, the fourth term is combined as shown.
56x5(–2y)3 = 56(–2)3x5y3
= –448x5y3
This is the final expansion.
(x + (–2y))8 = x8 – 16x7y1 + 112x6y2 – 448x5y3 + 1120x4y4 – 1792x3y5 + 1792x2y6 – 1024x1y7 + 256y8

Example 3
Find the fifth term in the binomial expansion of (x + 3y)13.
Assume the expansion is written in descending powers of x.

Solution
Step 1
Determine the exponents of x and y in the fifth term of the expansion. Since the
exponents of x begin with 13, the exponent of x in the fifth term must be 9. In any
term of an expansion, the sum of the exponents of x and y must equal the exponent
of the binomial. Therefore, in the fifth term, the exponent of y must be 13 – 9 = 4.

Step 2
Calculate the coefficient in the fifth term. Use a calculator or the nCr formula in this
case, because the numbers are too large to list.
13!
13C 4 =
4! (13 − 4)!
= 715

The Binomial Theorem 43

Step 3
Determine the fifth term. Combine the information from steps 1 and 2.
715x9(3y)4 = 715x934y4
= 57,915x9y4
Therefore, the fifth term is 57,915x9y4.

Example 4
Find the coefficient of the third term of the binomial expansion of (5x – 2y)10.

Solution
Step 1
Decide which numbers to use to determine the coefficient of the third term. Using
the reasoning in example 3, the expressions for these numbers are 10C2, 58, and
(–2)2. The product of these numbers will give the coefficient.

Step 2
Evaluate the expressions.
8 2
10C2 = 45, 5 = 390, 625, and (–2) = 4

Step 3
Multiply the numbers together.
(45)(390,625)(4) = 70,312,500
The coefficient of the third term is 70,312,500.

Exercises
Note: Assume all expansions are written in descending powers of the first variable in
the binomial.
1. Write the first eight rows of Pascal’s triangle.

2. Use the nCr formula or a calculator to evaluate each expression.

(a) 5C4

(b) 8C3

(c) 11C9

44 Student Workbook
 (d) 13C5

3. Determine the fourth term in the expansion of (2x – 3y)5.

4. Determine the seventh term in the expansion of (–x + y)11.

5. Find the coefficient of the third term in the expansion of (x – y)8.

6. Find the coefficient of the fourth term in the expansion of (–x + 2y)7.

7. Expand each binomial.

(a) (a – 2b)4

(b) (x – 4y)5

(c) (2x + 2y)8

(d) (–x + 3y)7

The Binomial Theorem 45

 54 Probability

In this lesson, you learned that the probability that a certain event will occur is the number of ways
the event can occur divided by the total number of possible outcomes. For example, the probability
of rolling an even number on a single 6-sided die is 3  or 1 , since there are 3 even numbers
6  2
(2, 4, 6) out of 6 possible outcomes (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6). When a probability is being calculated, the
numbers used can be very large, so counting methods developed in earlier lessons are often used,
to make the calculations easier. Also, you learned about the connection between odds and
probability. For example, if the odds in favor of event A are a to b, then there are a ways that A can
occur and b ways that A cannot occur. Therefore, if the odds in favor of A are a to b, the probability
that A will occur is the ratio a .
a +b

Example 1
Let S = {A, B, C, D} be the sample space for an experiment, and let P(A) = P(B), P(C) = 0.3,
and P(D) = 2P(A). Find the probability of each outcome in the sample space.

Solution
Step 1
To be a valid probability model the sum of all the probabilities must equal 1.
Therefore, P(A) + P(B) + P(C) + P(D) = 1

Step 2
Express every probability in terms of P(A).
P(A) + P(A) + 0.3 + 2P(A) = 1

Step 3
Simplify the result and solve for P(A).
P (A) + P (A) + 0.3 + 2P (A) = 1
4 P (A) + 0.3 = 1
4 P (A) = 0.7
P (A) = 0.7
4
= 0.175
Therefore, P(A) = 0.175, P(B) = 0.175, P(C) = 0. 3, and P(D) = 0.35.

Example 2
A five-card hand is dealt from an ordinary deck of playing cards. Find the probability of
being dealt “4-of-a-kind.”

Solution
Step 1
Use combinations to determine the total number of possible outcomes. To determine the
total number of possible 5-card hands, use the combination 52C5, since 5 cards are being
chosen from a deck of 52 cards. The order in which the cards are dealt makes no
difference, so use a combination, not a permutation.

46 Student Workbook
Step 2
Determine the total number of favorable outcomes, that is, the number of ways in
which 4 cards of one kind can be dealt. Since there are 13 denominations to choose
from, there are 13C1 ways to pick the denomination for the 4-of-a-kind. Then we must
choose all four cards in that denomination 4C4. There is still one more card to choose
out of the remaining 48. There are 48C1 ways to do this. The product of these three
calculations is the total number of favorable outcomes.

Step 3
Determine the probability of a favorable outcome occurring by dividing the total
number of favorable outcomes by the total number of possible outcomes.

P (4-of -a-kind) =
( 13C1 )( 4C 4 )( 48C1 )
52C 5
 13  4  48
 1   4  1 
   
=
 52
5 
 
=˙ 0.00024
The possibility of being dealt 4-of-a-kind is about 0.00024.

Example 3
A shipment of 20 stereos is known to have 3 defective stereos. Mackenzie’s Stereo
Store has ordered 6 stereos from this shipment. What is the probability that
Mackenzie’s receives exactly 1 bad stereo?

Solution
Step 1
Determine the total number of possible outcomes. Since the sample space is very
large, use combinations to do this, rather than list them all. In this case, there are 20
stereos and Mackenzie’s has ordered 6, so use the combination 20 choose 6, or 20C6.

Step 2
Determine the total number of favorable outcomes, that is, the number of ways in
which Mackenzie’s can receive exactly 1 bad stereo. Three stereos are bad and we
need to select 1 of them, so use 3C1. For the rest of the shipment choose 5 good
stereos from the remaining 17 good ones, or 17C5. The product of these three
calculations is the total number of favorable outcomes.

Step 3
Determine the probability of a favorable outcome occurring by dividing the total
number of favorable outcomes by the total number of possible outcomes.

P (1 bad stereo)=
( 3C1 )( 17C 5 )
( 20C 6 )
 3  17
 1  5 
  
=
 20
6 
 
=˙ 0.48
Therefore, there is a 48% chance that Mackenzie’s will receive exactly one bad stereo.

Probability 47
Example 4
A shipment of 20 stereos is known to have 3 defective units. Mackenzie’s Stereo Store
has ordered 6 stereos from this shipment. What is the probability that Mackenzie’s
receives at least 1 bad stereo?

Solution
Step 1
Determine the total number of possible outcomes. Since the sample space is very large,
use combinations to do this, rather than list them all. In this case, there are 20 stereos
and Mackenzie’s has ordered 6, so use the combination 20 choose 6, or 20C6.

Step 2
Determine the total number of favorable outcomes, that is, the number of ways in which
Mackenzie’s can receive exactly 1 bad stereo. This example is similar to example 3, but
in this case the question asks for the probability of receiving at least 1 defective stereo,
so the favorable outcome includes receiving 1, 2, or 3 defective stereos.
It is possible to calculate the probability of each one of these events and then add them
together. However, it is easier to calculate the probability of receiving 0 defective stereos
and subtract this probability from 1. That is, use the complement of “at least one bad
stereo.” This works because
P(0 bad stereos) + P(at least 1 bad stereo) = 1

Step 3
There are 3 bad stereos and we do not want to choose any of them, so we have 3C0 ways
of selecting zero bad stereos. Then we need to choose 6 stereos from the 17 good
stereos, or 17C6.

Step 4
Putting this all together, we get
P (at least 1 bad stereo)= 1 − P (0 bad stereos )
( C )( C )
= 1 − 3 0 17 6
( 20C 6 )
 3  17
 0  6 
  
= 1−
 20
6 
 
=˙ 0.68
Therefore, there is a 68% chance that Mackenzie’s will receive at least one bad stereo.

Example 5
The odds in favor of Victoria picking the lucky duck are 4 to 1. What is the probability
that Victoria will pick the lucky duck?

Solution
Step 1
Recall that odds are given in a ratio of favorable outcomes to unfavorable outcomes.
Therefore, there are 4 ways Victoria can pick the lucky duck and 1 way that she will not.

Step 2
Since there are 4 favorable outcomes and 1 unfavorable outcome, there are 5 total
outcomes. Therefore, the probability that Victoria selects the lucky duck is 4
–.
5
48 Student Workbook
Exercises
1. Let S represent the sample space S = {A, B, C, D}. Determine which of the
following probability models are valid.
(a) P(A) = 0.4, P(B) = 0.1, P(C) = 0.2, P(D) = 0.3

(b) P(A) = 0.3, P(B) = 0.2, P(C) = 0.1, P(D) = 0.2

(c) P(A) = 0.61, P(B) = 0.0, P(C) = 0.11, P(D) = 0.28

(d) P(A) = 0.3, P(B) = 0.4, P(C) = –0.1, P(D) = 0.4

2. Let S represent a sample space S = {A, B, C, D} with P(A) = 0.1, P(B) = 0.1,
P(C) = 0.5, and P(C ∪ D) = 0.6. what is P(C ∩ D)?

3. (a) If the odds in favor of E are 3 to 2, what is P(E)?

(b) If the odds in favor of E are 6 to 11, what is P(E)?

(c) If the odds against E are 3 to 5, what is P(E)?

(d) If the odds against E are 5 to 1, what is P(E)?

4. (a) If P (E ) = 3 , what are the odds in favor of E?

20

(b) If P (E ) = 3 , what are the odds in favor of E?

4

(c) If P (E ) = 1 , what are the odds against E?

100

(d) If P(E) = 50%, what are the odds in favor of E?

Probability 49
5. A bag of candy contains 5 red, 8 blue, 12 green, and 15 yellow pieces of candy.
Sam closes his eyes and selects 10 pieces of candy. What is the probability that
Sam has
(a) exactly 4 green pieces?

(b) exactly 7 red pieces?

(c) exactly 2 red, 2 blue, 3 green, and 3 yellow pieces?

(d) at least 1 yellow piece?

(e) all yellow pieces?

(f) all the same color?

(g) at least 1 red piece?

(h) no more than 3 green pieces?

6. A bridge hand consists of 13 cards dealt from a standard deck of 52 playing cards.
Find the probability that a bridge hand consists of:
(a) 10 red cards

(b) 5 clubs

(c) at least 1 ace

(d) 3 diamonds, 1 heart, 8 clubs, and 1 spade

7. The following Venn diagram represents the equally likely outcomes for a
particular experiment. For example,
P (a ) = P ( f )
= 1
14
(a) Are X and Y mutually exclusive events?

50 Student Workbook
 (b) What is P(X ∩ Y)?

(c) What is P(X ∪ Y)?

(d) If Y ′ is the complement of Y, what is P(Y ′ ) ?

np
cd e f
ab
i j k m
g h
X Y

8. The following probability tree depicts the experiment of drawing two marbles
without replacing the first marble from a bag containing 5 red, 8 blue, and
12 green marbles. Use the tree to determine the probability of obtaining:

red blue green

5 8 12
first draw P(R)= — P(B)= — P(G)= —
25 25 25

red blue green red blue green red blue green

4 8 12 5 7 12 5 8 11
second draw P(R)= — P(B)= — P(G)= — P(R)= — P(B)= — P(G)= — P(R)= — P(B)= — P(G)= —
24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24

(a) a green marble on the first draw

(b) a green marble on the second draw

(c) no green marbles

(d) at least one green marble

(e) two marbles that are different color

(f) two marbles that are the same color

(g) at least one blue marble

(h) no red marbles

Probability 51