Nketia’s The Music of Africa and the Foundations of African Musicology

Kofi Agawu

[Paper prepared for the CODESRIA Humanities Symposium on Canonical Works and Continuing
Innovation in African Arts and Humanities, Accra, Ghana 17-19 September, 2003]

If there is a single book that has attained canonical status in the field of African
musicology, it is probably J. H. Kwabena Nketia’s The Music of Africa. Published in
November 1974 by W. W. Norton & Company of New York, this 278-page volume has
remained continuously in print for nearly thirty years. It has been translated into other
languages, notably German (1979), Chinese (1982) and Italian (1986), but not--perhaps
surprisingly—into the one other metropolitan language with a claim to canonical status in
modern Africa, French. The Music of Africa was conceived as a textbook, to be used,
typically, as the basis for a semester-long course on African music, or as part of a survey
of so-called World Music. Its four sections cover, respectively, the social and cultural
background (four chapters), musical instruments (five chapters), structures in African
music (six chapters), and music and related arts (five chapters). The book ends with three
appendixes featuring a selected discography, a list of the ethnic groups mentioned in the
text, and African terms used. Although the demonstration of structural principles in
Section 3 inevitably involves the use of technical language, the book is generally free of
jargon and immediately accessible to the general reader. Many readers seeking an
introduction to the place of music in African society, the kinds of instruments that
Africans use, or the nature of the relationships between music, language and dance,
frequently turn to this book. Its status as a foundational work is well earned, for Nketia’s
erudition, clarity of expression, and powers of synthesis are evident throughout.
What made The Music of Africa possible? Although research into African music
had been underway for at least three quarters of a century—first, as part of comparative
musicology, then, beginning in the 1950s and 1960s, under the umbrellas of
ethnomusicology and area studies—publications fell into one of two categories. One was
a group of impressionistic, fantasy-driven accounts by non-specialists for whom Africa
remained terra incognita, a mysterious, far-away place fundamentally different from the
West. The other consisted of more narrowly focused scholarly studies aimed at advanced
students and fellow scholars. With the possible exception of Francis Bebey’s African
Music: A People’s Art (French original 1969, English version 1975), no other work
managed to fill this middle space by combining the appreciative spirit of non-specialist
accounts with a scholarly voice that incorporated research by ethnographers and theorists.
The first thing that made The Music of Africa possible, then, was a simple need: the need
for a single, modestly-priced volume in which the essentials of African musical function
and structure are set out clearly and with convincing examples.
The Music of Africa makes ample use of specialized works by other
ethnomusicologists, but it does so without losing the vision of Africa as a musical whole.
Aided by generalizations throughout, the book portrays African music as idiomatically
varied on the surface but unified at a deep level. Nketia remained undaunted by the
heterogeneity of Africa’s modes of expression. And this, in turn, was possible because,
although the sum total of African musics may be accommodated within the oft-used
tripartite scheme comprising art music, popular music and traditional music, the book

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focuses on the traditional category, the thought being that it is in this realm that the
African essence is most clearly displayed:
knowledge of traditional African music in its social context is . . . a
prerequisite both for understanding the contemporary musical scene in
Africa and for gaining some insight into the musical experience as it
relates to the African in his personal and social life (1974:20).
A second thing that made The Music of Africa possible, then, was its strategic deafness
to popular and art music.
Third, and finally, The Music of Africa attracted a significant readership because
it spoke a metropolitan language. Not only was it written in English but it relied on
concepts and ideas that were conventional in the field of Euro-American music theory.
Terms like melody, polyphony, scale and mode facilitated analysis of African pitch
structures, while divisive and additive rhythm, hemiola and cross rhythm shed light on
the temporal dimension. Although Nketia did not provide a genealogy of these
borrowings, their use made possible an immediate cross-cultural dialogue without—at
least notionally--distorting African realities.
In the years since The Music of Africa appeared, African musicology has
consolidated its resources and developed a distinctive, if somewhat complex, profile.
Major reference works have appeared (Stone 1998, Wachsmann and Cooke 1980, and
Kubik 2001) alongside a series of exciting monographs focused ethnographically (Rouget
1996, Friedson 1996, Charry 2000, Askew 2002, among others) or theoretically (Locke
1987, Arom 1991, Nzewi 1997, Scherzinger 2001, among others). The desire to name
and name accurately, instead of consigning African specifics to generic categories, is
nowhere better illustrated than in the on-going research of Gerhard Kubik (Kubik 1994).
Moreover, the kinds of questions that scholars ask nowadays are different from those that
were being asked in the 1960s and early 1970s. A new theoretical self-awareness has
swept African philosophy and literary studies, while the Euro-American critique of
anthropology has rendered its fundamental difference-producing mechanism somewhat
suspect. And a diffuse process of intellectual decentralization has found a convenient—if
opportunistic—label in “postcolonial theory” (Moore-Gilbert 1997). The fact that The
Music of Africa has not disappeared from view during these turbulent intellectual times is
partly testimony to the strength of its original conception, and partly a sign of the inherent
conservatism of (African) musicology. Nevertheless, the seismographic shifts within the
humanities suggest that conceptually as well as in its mode of execution, The Music of
Africa would be impossible today.
The most obvious question to ask about the book concerns the very idea of Africa
(Mudimbe 1994). Is Africa a place or an idea? And in whose imagination does it have
which status? Some early reviewers—Jones, Pantaleoni, Blacking--expressed
reservations about Nketia’s generalizations, thinking them premature, or not sufficiently
reflective of the diversity of Africa’s modes of artistic expression. But only a superficial
reading of the book will lead one to imagine that its generalizations are unsupported by a
broad and impressive ethnographic awareness. While it is true that the quantity of
material available for the study of African music in the late 1960s and early 1970s is
inferior to what now exists, it is nevertheless the case that Nketia distilled an idea of
Africa from a wide-ranging body of written and recorded data. (See Akrofi 2002 for an
intellectual biography).

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 Putting aside the empirical question, there is a more important strategic one to
consider. When is it appropriate to speak of “Ibo music”, “Kpelle music”, “Ewe music”
or “Shona music” as opposed to “African music”? While some Euro-American scholars
since the 1960s have moved towards geographic specificity (Blacking 1973), many
African scholars continue to use the broader designation (Nzewi 1997, Anku 1992), thus
implicitly returning to the generalizing impulse that shaped the representation of Africa
during Europe’s earliest encounter with it. The fear that what unites us will be dissipated
into so many “tribes” or “ethnic groups”, thus rendering us impotent for political action,
may well lie behind the implicit refusal by leading scholars to avoid certain forms of
specifying.
One subject that is most productively discussed in terms of specifics is that of
language and its relation to music. The Music of Africa is especially good on cultural
matters, whether these have to do with the place of music within traditional society, the
character of language, or the role of song texts. For example, on the topic of the relation
between speech tones and melody, Nketia provides some pertinent examples from Twi—
his mother tongue—to demonstrate, on one hand, language’s constraining influence on
the process of melodic construction, and, on the other, music’s resistance to this
colonizing tendency. As fascinating as the Twi examples are, it would be premature to
generalize from them, for we have as yet no way of assessing their paradigmatic status.
We need many more studies, not dozens but hundreds, in order to arrive at a more
accurate picture of the tone-tune question in Africa. Indeed, instead of aligning issues
simplistically along a correspondence versus non-correspondence axis, we might note the
different ways in which different African languages negotiate their influence on melodic
contour. In the continuum from dependence to independence of speech tone and melody,
languages occupy different positions. Without a series of careful ethnographic studies, we
will not have a good appreciation of the complexity of these relations.
The Music of Africa’s unmarked use of social-scientific, linguistic and music-
theoretical terms contributed much to its appeal. On the surface this was a wise decision,
for it countered the widespread tendency, indigenous to anthropology but evident in
ethnomusicology as well, to assume a priori differences between Africa and the West.
But an uncritical embrace of Euro-American concepts could also reinforce their
presumed universality and manifest an attendant intellectual imperialism. Every
conventional construct has a cultural origin, and it is precisely at the moment in which we
begin to question the ostensible universality of standard concepts brought to bear on
African music that we are alerted to the baggage that Nketia’s theoretical framework
carries.
Consider, for example, the five chapters on musical instruments (5-9). In
classifying indigenous African musical instruments, Nketia borrowed a scheme
developed by two German scholars, Erich von Hornbostel (1877-1935), a comparative
musicologist who wrote about African music as well (Hornbostel 1928), and Curt Sachs
(1881-1959), a musicologist with a wide reach who wrote world histories of dance and
music instruments, among numerous other publications (Sachs 1933, Sachs 1940).
Originally published in German in 1914, the Sachs-Hornbostel classification system was
available to Nketia in a 1961 English translation by Anthony Baines and Klaus
Wachsmann. Hornbostel and Sachs were in turn indebted to Belgian instrument curator
Victor-Charles Mahillon (1841-1924), who developed the essence of the scheme in 1880.

3
(Mahillon himself had borrowed from an ancient Indian classification system). Nketia
ignores all this ancestry and treats the scheme as an accepted convention.
In its broadest outlines, the scheme provides (long) names for familiar categories,
aiming to distinguish between modes of sound production. The four families are:
idiophones or self-sounding instruments (like rattles, castanets, the mbira, and
xylophones); membranophones or drums; aerophones or wind instruments (like flutes,
horns and trumpets); and chordophones or stringed instruments (like the musical bow, the
kora and the one-stringed fiddle). Nketia’s neat chapters define and exemplify each
category, and confirm that this scheme can accommodate the material structure and mode
of playing of African instruments. Indeed, these are among the most efficient chapters in
The Music of Africa.
But behind this elegance lurk a number of potentially disruptive issues. Suppose,
for example, that we look beyond the physical or material level, and consider what these
instruments mean within their communities of use: what do they symbolize, and how do
they signify? And suppose we draw our categories of classification from these ideas, not
from an externally-imposed scheme such as that of Hornbostel and Sachs. We would then
be exposed to a fascinating world in which instruments are regarded as things, forces, or
deities,, are understood in relation to the music they perform, or take on personifying
roles (Kartomi 1990). This is not to suggest that indigenous classification is always at
odds with the Hornbostel-Sachs scheme; it is only to say, rather, that the African
conceptions will be seen as plural, as based on priorities of naming within individual
cultures that are sometimes arbitrary, reflect power relations, or are systematic according
to their own logic. By decentering the hegemonic Hornbostel-Sachs scheme, we pave the
way for a fuller understanding of Africans ways of proceeding. And it is through actions
like these that we can hope to inflect metropolitan categories in ways that will enable
them account more felicitously for African realities.
None of this is to suggest that indigenous ideas about musical instruments are
missing from Nketia’s book. It is only to imagine a reversal of the scheme of priorities:
what if the Hornbostel-Sachs system was incorporated into African naming systems,
rather than the other way round? Perhaps individuals with a stronger desire to produce an
Africa-centered scheme will be tempted by this alternative approach.
The Music of Africa gives no consideration to urban popular music. You will not
find a single reference to afrobeat or Fela Anikulapo Kuti, ‘King’ Sunny Ade or jùjú.
Highlife receives a passing mention, but the king of highlife, E.T. Mensah, is nowhere to
be found. Neither Makossa nor soukous occurs in the index. (See Graham 1988, Erlmann
1991, Collins 1992, Agawu 2003:117-50). From today’s perspective, such a consistent
absence is striking, perhaps surprising. The reason for this particular bias is the belief that
the traditional music of the continent embodies most succinctly that which is typically or
essentially African. Thoroughly imbricated in the institutions of precolonial origin,
traditional music, be it dance, ritual drumming or dirge singing, announces the African
difference spontaneously and vividly. Unlike popular music it is not overtly hybrid; its
hybridity has presumably evolved to a point where it has become linguistically
unmarked. And even if closer inspection unveils residual elements of hybridity, they will
seem less jarring with the original, less distant, less exotic than those associated with
Africa’s encounter with Europe.

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 Also missing from The Music of Africa is a sustained discussion of so-called art
or élite music, a tradition to which the dedicatee of the book, Dr. Ephraim Amu (1899-
1995), contributed significantly. (See Euba 1993 and Omojola 1995). Although “modern
developments” are acknowledged, nothing is made, for example, of the vibrant choral
tradition found in Ghana, a tradition pioneered by Amu, to which Nketia himself has
contributed. Nor is reference made to Fela Sowande who was instrumental in developing
the Nigerian art music tradition. Certainly, it could be argued that taking note of such
developments at the end of the 1960s would have been premature. Moreover, from an
ideological standpoint, traditional music does not share art music’s imitative desire.
Whereas a composer of art music unapologetically sees himself as copying directly a
European practice, that of traditional music models practice from within an authentic
African experience. European music is thus banished completely from the realm of
traditional African music, and this allows the African elements to be displayed
effectively.
It is hard not to see the pragmatic sense in privileging traditional music in a
project like this, for we risk underestimating the variety and structural subtlety of
indigenous African resources. These include the structural asymmetry, historical depth
and creative potential of so-called time lines found in West and Central Africa (Pressing
1983), the polyphonic intricacy of various vocal practices, notably those of the so-called
Pygmy populations in Central Africa (Kubik 1997), the virtuosic abilities of
communities of xylophone players in Uganda and Mozambique, and the fertile rhythmic
imagination displayed by so-called master drummers in Ghana and Togo (Jones 1959,
Locke 1987, Anku 1992). If nostalgia for a pure, traditional music discourages
investigation of how this layer is itself constituted cross-ethnically, then such attachment
needs to be repudiated. If, however, it inspires students to explore, among other things,
the migration patterns within Africa and how they influenced the historical trade in
musical ideas, then it is most welcome (Wachsmann 1971, Kubik 1998).
Many people hear in African music a comforting human centredness, a sense of
communality and kinship that contrasts with the egotism and individualism of European
performing practices. The link between musical structure and social structure is thus
thought to be especially strong in Africa. By beginning with the social and cultural
background to traditional African music, The Music of Africa affirms its irreducibly
social nature. While Nketia does not dramatize this point using, for example, Alan
Lomax’s empirical and comparative methodology (Lomax 1968), he nonetheless
manages to issue an implicit challenge to those who might be tempted to think of African
music as music alone, as autonomous structure that escapes a social trace at some level.
This challenge is salutary, of course, but it also has the disadvantage of
discouraging the embrace of the contemplative dimension of functional music--the
‘purely musical’, as an older discourse had it. All African music works in and through the
ears, both real and metaphorical. Stated so baldly, this claim may seem noisy or
polemical. But it is a necessary antidote to the emphasis on the social. The most
functional African musics are still music; without aural engagement, their functionality
cannot be recognized, let alone appreciated. Aural engagement is therefore not a
dispensable condition in any analysis of African music. Those who embrace African
music in order to escape the wordless discourses of European symphonies and sonatas

5
may well end up encountering some of the very same ghosts from which they thought
they had escaped.
The gap between the social and the musical is upheld rather than problematized in
The Music of Africa. (But see Nketia 1981 for in-depth treatment.). This is a pity in a
way, for it forgoes an opportunity to dispel certain myths about African music. Nketia’s
exposition of the structures of African music (chapters 10-15) does not build in any
obvious way on the discussion of the social and cultural background in the book’s
opening chapters. Yet, one must ask whether technique is not socially based, whether it
ever transcends cultural particularities. By generalizing the theoretical exposition of
polyphonic and rhythmic structures, The Music of Africa lends credence to the
transcendental view of musical technique. Perhaps this will be one of the aspects of the
book that contemporary scholars take up in light of today’s more sophisticated
understanding of such dichotomies, thanks to the work of Derrida (1976) and Adorno
(1976).
Missing from The Music of Africa is any explicit discussion of the ideological
dimension in knowledge construction. This is not a criticism, only an acknowledgment of
self-imposed limits in 1974. The book was conceived as a textbook after all, not a
monograph for specialists. As such, efficient dissemination of basic information was a
more pressing goal than the excavation of prejudices that historically determined
authorial stances with respect to African music. In a recent article (1998), Nketia recounts
in detail the history of African music scholarship, offering some of what is missing from
his book of nearly a quarter century earlier. Although the tenor of this later account pales
besides the radical critiques of knowledge production associated with writers like
Hountondji (1983), Mudimbe (1988), Mbembe (2001) and Wiredu (1980), it manages,
nevertheless, to overcome the author’s earlier reticence. To describe this as a critical turn
in Nketia’s intellectual biography may be premature, but it rhymes with an increasingly
widespread view that disseminating knowledge without at the same time reflecting on the
props of knowledge formation is unsatisfactory. This, then, is another respect in which
The Music of Africa would be impossible today. (See Scherzinger 2001).
A forward-looking feature of the book that has, however, not featured
prominently in its reception is the material gathered in the third appendix (pp. 254-62)
under the title “African terms used in the text.” Nketia’s own training in linguistics, his
numerous writings in both Twi and English, and his sensitivity—as composer and
analyst--to matters arising from the complex interactions between words and music
provide the conditions of possibility for an authoritative statement about the limits of the
linguistic analogy as well as the language of African musical criticism. What is attempted
here, however, is far more modest: an inventory of African terms that aided the main
exposition in the book. This provides an opportunity to convey aspects of indigenous
thinking about music, performance and related phenomena enshrined in our languages. In
one respect, assembling this inventory was an atypical gesture for an African scholar; the
tendency had been to use the metropolitan metalanguage and to find equivalents to
indigenous concepts. And the motivation for this deferential gesture probably lay in an
anxiety about demonstrating competence, and in a naïve confidence in the ability of the
metropolitan language to convey African realities. Non-African scholars, on the other
hand, partly because they possess little of this sort of baggage, tend to value the ‘color’

6
and semantic reach of specific terms and concepts (Ames and King 1971, Monts 1990,
Zemp 1971).
A list of African terms together with definitions represents only the beginning of a
rigorous exploration of the language-music nexus. Equally important is to develop
categories into which the conceptual fields signaled by these terms may be distributed.
And if the context for this exercise happens to be an introductory survey of the music of
Africa, then it will be further necessary to provide some basis for comparative analysis by
directly juxtaposing terms from different languages to show invariance as well as
divergence. Again, it is unlikely that today’s author, especially one who regards the
language-music nexus in Africa as fundamental, would consign such a task to an
appendix, rather than confront it in the main text and with marked ethnographic
specificity.
One final issue raised by The Music of Africa is the very nature of the texts that
form the basis of study of African music. What exactly are we studying when we study
African music? Performances—recorded, remembered or imagined? Transcriptions—
descriptive or prescriptive on the basis of specified cultural norms? Recordings—on
cassette, compact disk, video or DVD? Thirty years ago, it was not yet standard practice
to include a corroborating sound source in a book on music, especially one that dealt with
an unfamiliar repertory. Today, however, books about non-Western or unfamiliar musics
are routinely published with CDs, CD-Roms, videos, and DVDs. In this way, something
of the immediacy of performance is conveyed to readers/listeners. This does not render
superfluous the challenge of crafting imaginative prose to convey the sense of music, for
a good writer is capable of bringing us to the threshold of meaningful musical experience
without ever presuming to be able to duplicate it. The sense of music, however foreign,
can be made real in language, not as a substitute for experiencing the real thing but as a
supplement, an approximation. Language about music reports or fosters a mediated,
perhaps intellectual engagement, even in cases where the aim is simply descriptive. This
contrasts with what is in principle an unmediated or phenomenological experience
deriving from direct exposure to the sounds, words and images themselves. So, the fact
that advances in technology have enabled recorded supplements to be magnified is not an
unequivocally positive development. Still, it seems unlikely that anyone attempting to
introduce the music of an entire continent today will be inclined to withhold
supplementary sound or visual sources designed to aid the work of words, photographs
and diagrams.
Focusing on the canonical works of various disciplines within the African
humanities can prove to be a revealing dramatization of the shaping influence of one or
two key texts. For African musicology, I believe that Nketia’s The Music of Africa of
1974 embodies the ideals of such canonical texts. By noting some of what was possible in
1974 but no longer in 2003, I have tried to suggest a context for assessing Nketia’s
achievement. As a work of synthesis, a bird’s eye view of the continent’s music, The
Music of Africa remains a valuable point of reference. As a textbook that unavoidably
skates over certain landscapes, however, it does its share of violence to the portrayal of
African musical life. Given the multiplicity and fragmentary nature of the agendas that
inform contemporary scholarship, it seems likely that a comparably-conceived project
today will retain an irreducibly plural conceptual base, focus description and
interpretation on the musical styles that animate Africa’s soundscapes, and incorporate

7
information about popular and art music. It seems likely, too, that such a project will find
it necessary to attend to ideologies of representation.
The Music of Africa is not dead; nor has it outlived its pedagogical usefulness. It
stands as an exemplary encapsulation of the dimensions of the possible in African
musicology around 1974 and, perhaps more profoundly, as a constructive network of
signals to roads that should not to be taken.

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