1/19/2020 Google Scholar - Wikipedia

Google Scholar
Google Scholar is a freely accessible web search engine that
Google Scholar
indexes the full text or metadata of scholarly literature across
an array of publishing formats and disciplines. Released in
beta in November 2004, the Google Scholar index includes
most peer-reviewed online academic journals and books,
conference papers, theses and dissertations, preprints,
abstracts, technical reports, and other scholarly literature,
Type of site Bibliographic database
including court opinions and patents.[1] While Google does not
publish the size of Google Scholar's database, scientometric Owner Google
researchers estimated it to contain roughly 389 million Website scholar.google.com (ht
documents including articles, citations and patents making it tp://scholar.google.co
the world's largest academic search engine in January 2018. [2]
m)
Previously, the size was estimated at 160 million documents as Registration Optional
of May 2014.[3] An earlier statistical estimate published in
Launched November 20, 2004
PLOS ONE using a Mark and recapture method estimated
approximately 80–90% coverage of all articles published in Current status Active
English with an estimate of 100 million.[4] This estimate also
determined how many documents were freely available on the web.

Google Scholar has been criticized for not vetting journals and for including predatory journals in its
index.[5]

Contents
History
Features and specifications
Ranking algorithm
Limitations and criticism
Search engine optimization for Google Scholar
See also
References
Further reading
External links

History
Google Scholar arose out of a discussion between Alex Verstak and Anurag Acharya,[6] both of whom
were then working on building Google's main web index.[7][8] Their goal was to "make the world's
problem solvers 10% more efficient"[9] by allowing easier and more accurate access to scientific
knowledge. This goal is reflected in the Google Scholar's advertising slogan – "Stand on the shoulders
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of giants" – taken from a quote by holy Bernard of Chartres and is a nod to the scholars who have
contributed to their fields over the centuries, providing the foundation for new intellectual
achievements.

Scholar has gained a range of features over time. In 2006, a citation importing feature was
implemented supporting bibliography managers (such as RefWorks, RefMan, EndNote, and BibTeX).
In 2007, Acharya announced that Google Scholar had started a program to digitize and host journal
articles in agreement with their publishers, an effort separate from Google Books, whose scans of
older journals do not include the metadata required for identifying specific articles in specific
issues.[10] In 2011, Google removed Scholar from the toolbars on its search pages,[11] making it both
less easily accessible and less discoverable for users not already aware of its existence. Around this
period, sites with similar features such as CiteSeer, Scirus, and Microsoft Windows Live Academic
search were developed. Some of these are now defunct; although in 2016, Microsoft launched a new
competitor, Microsoft Academic.

A major enhancement was rolled out in 2012, with the possibility for individual scholars to create
personal "Scholar Citations profiles", public author profiles that are editable by authors
themselves.[12] Individuals, logging on through a Google account with a bona fide address usually
linked to an academic institution, can now create their own page giving their fields of interest and
citations. Google Scholar automatically calculates and displays the individual's total citation count, h-
index, and i10-index. According to Google, "three quarters of Scholar search results pages [...] show
links to the authors' public profiles" as of August 2014.[12]

A feature introduced in November 2013 allows logged-in users to save search results into the "Google
Scholar library", a personal collection which the user can search separately and organize by tags.[13] A
metrics feature now supports viewing the impact of academic journals,[14] and whole fields of science,
via the "metrics" button. This reveals the top journals in a field of interest, and the articles generating
these journal's impact can also be accessed.

Features and specifications

Google Scholar allows users to search for digital or physical copies of articles, whether online or in
libraries.[15] It indexes "full-text journal articles, technical reports, preprints, theses, books, and other
documents, including selected Web pages that are deemed to be 'scholarly.'"[16] Because many of
Google Scholar's search results link to commercial journal articles, most people will be able to access
only an abstract and the citation details of an article, and have to pay a fee to access the entire
article.[16] The most relevant results for the searched keywords will be listed first, in order of the
author's ranking, the number of references that are linked to it and their relevance to other scholarly
literature, and the ranking of the publication that the journal appears in.[17]

Using its "group of" feature, it shows the available links to journal articles. In the 2005 version, this
feature provided a link to both subscription-access versions of an article and to free full-text versions
of articles; for most of 2006, it provided links to only the publishers' versions. Since December 2006,
it has provided links to both published versions and major open access repositories, but still does not
cover those posted on individual faculty web pages; access to such self-archived non-subscription
versions is now provided by a link to Google, where one can find such open access articles.

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Through its "cited by" feature, Google Scholar provides access to abstracts of articles that have cited
the article being viewed.[18] It is this feature in particular that provides the citation indexing
previously only found in CiteSeer, Scopus, and Web of Science. Through its "Related articles" feature,
Google Scholar presents a list of closely related articles, ranked primarily by how similar these articles
are to the original result, but also taking into account the relevance of each paper.[19]

Google Scholar's legal database of US cases is extensive. Users can search and read published
opinions of US state appellate and supreme court cases since 1950, US federal district, appellate, tax,
and bankruptcy courts since 1923 and US Supreme Court cases since 1791.[18] Google Scholar embeds
clickable citation links within the case and the How Cited tab allows lawyers to research prior case law
and the subsequent citations to the court decision.[20] The Google Scholar Legal Content Star
Paginator extension inserts Westlaw and LexisNexis style page numbers in line with the text of the
case.[21]

Ranking algorithm
While most academic databases and search engines allow users to select one factor (e.g. relevance,
citation counts, or publication date) to rank results, Google Scholar ranks results with a combined
ranking algorithm in a "way researchers do, weighing the full text of each article, the author, the
publication in which the article appears, and how often the piece has been cited in other scholarly
literature".[17] Research has shown that Google Scholar puts high weight especially on citation
counts[22] and words included in a document's title.[23] As a consequence, the first search results are
often highly cited articles.

Limitations and criticism

Some searchers found Google Scholar to be of comparable quality and utility to subscription-based
databases when looking at citations of articles in some specific journals.[24][25] The reviews recognize
that its "cited by" feature in particular poses serious competition to Scopus and Web of Science. A
study looking at the biomedical field found citation information in Google Scholar to be "sometimes
inadequate, and less often updated".[26] The coverage of Google Scholar may vary by discipline
compared to other general databases.[27] Google Scholar strives to include as many journals as
possible, including predatory journals, which "have polluted the global scientific record with pseudo-
science, a record that Google Scholar dutifully and perhaps blindly includes in its central index."[28]
Google Scholar does not publish a list of journals crawled or publishers included, and the frequency of
its updates is uncertain. Bibliometric evidence suggests Google Scholar's coverage of the sciences and
social sciences is competitive with other academic databases; however as of 2017, Scholar's coverage
of the arts and humanities has not been investigated empirically and Scholar's utility for disciplines in
these fields remains ambiguous.[29] Especially early on, some publishers did not allow Scholar to
crawl their journals. Elsevier journals have been included since mid-2007, when Elsevier began to
make most of its ScienceDirect content available to Google Scholar and Google's web search.[30]
However, a 2014 study[4] estimates that Google Scholar can find almost 90% (approximately 100
million) of all scholarly documents on the Web written in English. Large-scale longitudinal studies
have found between 40–60% of scientific articles are available in full text via Google Scholar links.[31]

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Google Scholar puts high weight on citation counts in its ranking algorithm and therefore is being
criticized for strengthening the Matthew effect;[22] as highly cited papers appear in top positions they
gain more citations while new papers hardly appear in top positions and therefore get less attention
by the users of Google Scholar and hence fewer citations. Google Scholar effect is a phenomenon
when some researchers pick and cite works appearing in the top results on Google Scholar regardless
of their contribution to the citing publication because they automatically assume these works’
credibility and believe that editors, reviewers, and readers expect to see these citations.[32] Google
Scholar has problems identifying publications on the arXiv preprint server correctly. Interpunctuation
characters in titles produce wrong search results, and authors are assigned to wrong papers, which
leads to erroneous additional search results. Some search results are even given without any
comprehensible reason.[33][34] Google Scholar is vulnerable to spam.[35][36] Researchers from the
University of California, Berkeley and Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg demonstrated that
citation counts on Google Scholar can be manipulated and complete non-sense articles created with
SCIgen were indexed from Google Scholar.[37] They concluded that citation counts from Google
Scholar should only be used with care especially when used to calculate performance metrics such as
the h-index or impact factor. Google Scholar started computing an h-index in 2012 with the advent of
individual Scholar pages. Several downstream packages like Harzing's Publish or Perish also use its
data.[38] The practicality of manipulating h-index calculators by spoofing Google Scholar was
demonstrated in 2010 by Cyril Labbe from Joseph Fourier University, who managed to rank "Ike
Antkare" ahead of Albert Einstein by means of a large set of SCIgen-produced documents citing each
other (effectively an academic link farm).[39] As of 2010, Google Scholar was not able to shepardize
case law, as Lexis can.[40] Unlike other indexes of academic work such as Scopus and Web of Science,
Google Scholar does not maintain an Application Programming Interface that may be used to
automate data retrieval. Use of web scrapers to obtain the contents of search results is also severely
restricted by the implementation of rate limiters and CAPTCHAs. Google Scholar does not display or
export Digital Object Identifiers (DOIs), a de facto standard implemented by all major academic
publishers to uniquely identify and refer to individual pieces of academic work.

Search engine optimization for Google Scholar

Search engine optimization (SEO) for traditional web search engines such as Google has been popular
for many years. For several years, SEO has also been applied to academic search engines such as
Google Scholar.[41] SEO for academic articles is also called "academic search engine optimization"
(ASEO) and defined as "the creation, publication, and modification of scholarly literature in a way
that makes it easier for academic search engines to both crawl it and index it".[41] ASEO has been
adopted by organizations such as Elsevier,[42] OpenScience,[43] Mendeley,[44] and SAGE
Publishing[45] to optimize their articles' rankings in Google Scholar. ASEO has negatives.[37]

See also
List of academic databases and search engines
Microsoft Academic Search
Paperpile
ResearchGate
Science Citation Index

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Further reading
Jensenius, F., Htun, M., Samuels, D., Singer, D., Lawrence, A., & Chwe, M. (2018). "The Benefits
and Pitfalls of Google Scholar (https://malahtun.files.wordpress.com/2018/06/googlescholar2018_
post_print.pdf)" PS: Political Science & Politics, 51(4), 820-824.
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External links
Google Scholar (https://scholar.google.com)
Google Scholar Blog (https://scholar.googleblog.com/)

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Google_Scholar&oldid=935746881"

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